2008 PROCEEDINGS - Public Relations Society of America

2008
PROCEEDINGS
DETROIT, MICHIGAN
OCTOBER 25, 2008
EDITED BY:
TINA MCCORKINDALE
CALIFORNIA STATE
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY,
POMONA

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Research Papers ___________________________________________________ 5
Page
How has PR Effectiveness Research Been? A Thematic Macro-analysis of PR Effectiveness
Research
Jee Young Chung, University of Alabama _____________________________________________ 6
Teaching Online Public Relations Using a Hybrid Delivery Model
Michelle Ewing, & Scott Juba, Kent State University ___________________________________ 20
Transforming Crisis into Confidence: Public Relations Professionals’ Perceptions of the
Effectiveness and Ethicality of Image Repair Strategies
* PRSA Top Faculty Paper Award
Denise Ferguson, Indiana Wesleyan University; J.D.Wallace, Lubbock Christian University; &
Robert Chandler, Pepperdine University _____________________________________________ 36
Testing Crisis Response Strategies: A Comparative Quantitative Investigation of the Impact of
Bolstering on the Perceptions of Wrongdoing and Trust During Organizational Crises
Dean Kazoleas, California State University, Fullerton ___________________________________ 49
IMC and its Integration into Programs of Journalism and Mass Communication
Andy Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania ____________________________________ 59
Much Ado About Something: Web 2.0 Acceptance and Use by Public Relations Practitioners
Kenneth Payne, Western Kentucky University _________________________________________ 76
What’s Guiding the Profession? An Examination of Public Relations Ethics
* Betsy Plank Graduate Research Competition Student Award Winner
Katie R. Place, University of Maryland, College Park ___________________________________ 93
EcoMoms’ Engagement in Environmental Activity
Renata Schloss, University of Maryland, College Park _________________________________ 106
Exploring Gender Differences in Sources Within Media Releases: Who’s Calling the Shots?
Hillary Fussell Sisco, Quinnipiac University; Lynn M. Zoch, Radford University; Erik Collins,
University of South Carolina ______________________________________________________ 107
2

Page
Pedagogy Posters ________________________________________________ 108
What’s Critical About PR and New Media Technologies? Using Professional Case Studies
and Expertise to Develop Classroom Content and Learning Objectives
Betsy D. Anderson, University of St. Thomas, & Rebecca Swenson, University of Minnesota __ 109
How the PRSA’s Certification for Public Relations Effected a Transformation of a Private
University in Argentina into a Community of Practice and Enhanced its Reputation
Marcelo Baró, Universidad Argentina de la Empresa ___________________________________ 115
Designing an Effective Online Corporate Training Program
Joseph Basso, Rowan University; Suzanne Fitzgerald, Rowan University; & Alison Theaker, Marjon
University, UK _________________________________________________________________ 118
Teaching Public Relations 2.0 with Distance Learning 3.3
James Benjamin, University of Toledo ______________________________________________ 124
Integrating Mini Campaigns and Service Learning into the Principles of Public Relations
Course
Kati Tusinski Berg, Marquette University ___________________________________________ 130
Adoption of Participatory Adult Learning Theories in an Online Graduate Public Relations
Management Course: Using Reflection Techniques to Assess Learning Outcomes
Lisa Fall, & David Taejun Lee, University of Tennessee _______________________________ 133
Improving Feedback, Interaction and Editing Skills in the Public Relations Writing Class
James M. Haney, University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point ______________________________ 139
How to Win Friends and Impact Students: Maximizing the Benefits and Minimizing the Pitfalls
of Using Campus Clients
Julie K. Henderson, University of Wisconsin—Oshkosh ________________________________ 143
Tales of a Service Learning Component in the Public Relations Foundations and Research
Course: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
Ann D. Jabro, Robert Morris University _____________________________________________ 146
Who Should Teach Investor Relations?
Alexander V. Laskin, Quinnipiac University ________________________________________ 151
From Britney Spears to Burger King: Incorporating the Public Relations RACE Process into
Current Event Discussions
Teresa Mastin, DePaul University, & Kelly B. Everling, Michigan State University _________ 155
Show Me! Portfolios as Instruments of Student Evaluation
Dan P. Millar, & Debra A. Worley, Indiana State University ____________________________ 159
3

Page
Research-based Public Relations Teaching: Student Perceptions of the Commission’s Outcome
Variables Tracked in Pre and Post Assessments as Students Progress in the Curriculum
Bonita Dostal Neff, Valparaiso University ___________________________________________ 164
A Learning Organization: The Public Relations Classroom Away from Home
Robert J. Petrausch, Iona College _________________________________________________ 172
Breaking Ground In A Public Communication Class—Working With “The Wounded Warrior
Regiment”
Gemma Puglisi, American University _______________________________________________ 175
Strategic Communication: Aligning the Practice with the Profession in Military Public Affairs
Bey-Ling Sha, San Diego State University; David Dozier, San Diego State University; & Robert
Pritchard, Ball State University ___________________________________________________ 178
Reflection as an Assessment Tool in Public Relations Service Learning
Jonathan R. Slater, SUNY Plattsburgh, & Carolyn White Bartoo, Widener University _______ 179
Creating a Multi-Layered Case Study Using Broadcast Media Examples
William J. Sykes, Central Michigan University _______________________________________ 181
Hybrid Teaching: Maximizing the Benefit of Online and Experiential Learning for
International PR Courses
Maria Elena Villar, & Rosanna M. Fiske, Florida International University _________________ 184
4

RESEARCH
PAPERS
5

A Thematic Macro-analysis of PR Effectiveness Research
Jee Young Chung
University of Alabama
jchung@bama.ua.edu
Abstract
This study analyzes how public relations effectiveness research has been studied in peerreviewed
scholarly journals during the past three decades. Based on public relations literature,
the study conceptualized PR effectiveness research as conflict, relationship, reputation, and
image management. A total of 77 articles in three public relations journals published between
1975 and 2007 were content analyzed. The findings show quantitative comparison of four
management research, various applied theories and theoretical models, contexts, and research
methodology.
Introduction
What is the effectiveness of public relations in an organization? This question is always
on both practitioners’ and researchers’ minds in public relations discipline. At the same time, the
notion of evaluation and measurement of public relations has been a focus for both academy and
practice. Exactly 30 years ago, in 1977, to find answers for the above question and for
measurement of public relations, a National Conference on Measuring the Effectiveness of
Public Relations was held at the University of Maryland, College Park, Md. It seems that
attention to public effectiveness research started early along with the appearance of the first
public relations academic journal, Public Relations Review. What has been done for PR
effectiveness research during past 30 years? Unfortunately, as the concept of PR effectiveness is
hard to define (Hon, 1997, 1998; Jo, Hon, & Bruner, 2002), many researchers have struggled
with PR effectiveness research regarding definitions and measurement. On the other hand, many
public relations theories have emerged during this same time. Sallot, Lyon, Acosta-Alzuru, and
Jones (2003) found that there has been considerable theory development research in public
relations discipline since 1990s. Then, does this abundant theory development research in public
relations contribute to conceptualize PR effectiveness or guide PR effectiveness research? This
study aims to (1) conceptualize PR effectiveness research from management philosophies
through literature review: conflict management, relationship management, reputation
management, and image management, and analyze (2) how these four types represent PR
effectiveness research; (3) how it has been developed during the past three decades: applied
theories and theoretical models, research methodology, and applied context.
Literature Review
Measuring Public Relations Effectiveness
The results of the conference in 1977 demonstrated the importance of research in public
relations so as to identify audiences, determine a corporate image, or evaluate the effect of a
specific PR program (J. Grunig, 1977). For example, AT&T’s measurement program of public
relations explained that AT&T adapted six broad public relations activities to measure public
relations effectiveness for Bell System: administration of public relations program, employee
publications, advertising, community relations, and educational relations (J. Grunig, 1977). It
seems measuring PR effectiveness was really about measuring impacts of PR campaigns or
media relations. Since then, evaluation and effectiveness of PR programs have been the focus of
6

many researchers and professionals in public relations (Hon & J. Grunig, 1999; Hon & Brunner,
2001; Pieczka, 2000; Broom & Center, 1983; Broom & Dozier, 1983; Dozier, 1984). After 20
years later, The Institute for Public Relations issued a paper regarding the state of knowledge on
the measurement and evaluation of public relations. However, the main focus of the paper was
still in measuring public relations short-term outputs (Hon & J. Grunig, 1999).
At the same time, while many researchers were agonized with measuring public relations
results or the conceptualization of PR effectiveness, Hon (1997) suggested the concept of PR
effectiveness with clear explanations. Hon (1997) conceptualized PR effectiveness from four
stages (i.e., individual, program, organizational, and societal levels) and pointed out that
organizational-level effectiveness was critical to demonstrate PR effectiveness to its
organization’s overall goal. Hon (1997) argued that the critical point is that PR effectiveness
should evaluate “the value public relations programs bring to an organization” (p. 4). PR
effectiveness synonymously represents the value of public relations that contribute
organizational effectiveness overall. In this notion, previous evaluation of public relations shortterm
output is considered as program-level PR effectiveness.
After conceptualizing PR effectiveness, Hon (1997) found many variables of PR
effectiveness through interviewing both practitioners and CEOs. In her findings, practitioners
reported many specific variables that relate to their actual tasks: goal achievement, increasing
understand/facilitating two-way communication, building relationships, disseminating the right
message, working through the PR process, communicating strategically, earning respect,
promoting and fostering good media relations, changing attitude/behavior, and affecting
legislation. However, CEOs had a little different perspective: creating the right image,
objectives, making a bottom-line contribution, supporting other function’s goals, representing the
whole organization, and disseminating the right message (Hon, 1997). These findings guided
many researchers to find factors that affect PR effectiveness. Most of them developed the notion
that quality relationship can probe PR effectiveness (Hon & Brunner, 2001; Hon & J. Grunig,
1999; Jo et al., 2004).
On the other hand, whereas a relationship is one side of the coin, conflict is the other side
of it. Huang (2001) said that public relations effectiveness has been measured by both
organization-public relationship and conflict resolution. Likewise, the notion of creating right
images or representing whole organizations mentioned by CEOs in Hon’s (1997) research can be
related to image management and reputation management. In a world of increasing competition,
a good image and strong reputation are a competitive advantage, public relations focuses not
only on building quality relationships, but also on communicating an organizations’ image and
reputation. The paradigm to evaluate public relations is shifted from “how PR program such as
media relations, or community relations affect publics’ beliefs, attitudes, or behavioral
intention?” to “how public relations build long-term relationship or communicate corporate
image and reputation, or handle conflicts with publics to reach organizations’ overall
effectiveness.” Therefore, four management philosophies (i.e., conflict management, relationship
management, image management, and reputation management) have substantially emerged for
PR effectiveness in organizational-level. In this study, organizational level of PR effectiveness is
considered.
Management Philosophies for PR Effectiveness
Conflict Management. The use of conflict as a theoretical base to communicate for public
relations is common for researchers. Conflict is “the notion of perceived incompatibilities”
7

(Plowman, 2005, p. 133). Many researchers see public relations as an unstable and unpredictable
process where an organization and its public negotiate meanings (Vasquez, 1996; Botan & Soto,
1998; Murphy, 2000). Furthermore, Berger (1999) asserted that a society might be in conflict
and struggle rather than organized as maintaining consensus. Plowman (2005) argued that
strategic public relations contribute not only to an organization’s goals but also to its bottomline.
Therefore, managing conflicts is a critical responsibility for PR effectiveness.
Relationship management. Many researchers have argued that good relationships result in
gaining revenue, prevent activist pressures or consumer boycotts, or save costs of litigation,
regulation, or legislation (Ledingham & Bruning, 2000; Huang, 2001; J. Grunig, 2001). J.
Grunig, L. Gruning & Ehling (1992) argued that the concept of relationships between
organization and its stakeholders is central for both the theory and organizational effectiveness.
In the same vein, Ledingham, Bruning and Wilson (1999) defined the organization-public
relationship as the economic and humanistic interchange between an organization and its public.
At the same time, Ni (2006) argued that relationships can be the critical resource for
organizations. Therefore, the premise of relationship management is that good relationships
contribute to organizational overall effectiveness. Previous research has shown that qualified
relationships result in publics’ satisfaction with an organization or publics’ attitude or behavioral
intention such as buying goods (Bruning & Ledingham, 2000; Ki & Hon, 2007).
Reputation management. In 1998, Strenski (1998) forecasted the role, assignment, and
status of public relations for the twentieth century in which corporate reputations will play a
dominant role in the responses consumers will give to a variety of competitive offerings.
Fombrun and van Riel (1997) suggested a normative definition for corporate reputation as “a
collective representation of a firm’s past actions and results that describes the firm’s ability to
deliver valued outcomes to multiple stake holders” (p. 10). Van Rebel (1995) defined that the
right message can implant the corporate “identity” into the public’s “image” and, by implication,
that one can manage reputation by managing the production and distribution of messages. This
definition encompasses the notion that reputation can be manipulated by managing the message
that affects the publics’ image and perception. This fact illustrates the inherent difference
between public relations perspectives and management perspectives. Public relations
perspectives focus on communication with publics, while management perspectives focus on
managing the publics. In this regard, researchers in public relations discipline seem to worry
about involving the concept of image or reputation management. As a result, Mahon and Wartick
(2003) reported that most reputation management research has been conducted in a market-based
context. However, corporate reputation is obviously one of the responsibilities of public
relations. In public relations, the concepts of reputation and image are defined as it owned by the
public, and image is given symbols from organization. Therefore, reputation should be well
communicated to publics from organizations. David (2004) argued “because the utility of
reputation is hard to measure, it is easy to overlook its importance during times of prosperity or
status quo, although during a crisis, the importance of reputation is accentuated” (p. 198).
Image Management. One expectation from CEOs for public relations is “communicating
the image of the organization” (Hon, 1998, p. 103). It is hard to define the concept of image, but
there has been an agreement that the image is the project (L. Grunig, 1993). Werder (2005)
asserted, “symbols must be shared, or at least understood” (p. 221). Therefore, an organization
should communicate its wanted images to its publics. Heath (2002) asserted that corporate image
is crucial for an organization to differentiate itself as well as its products and services so as to
influence how customers make choices, investors sell or buy stocks, legislators grant or withhold
8

evenue, or activists provide support. Overall, the goal of communicating corporate image is to
communicate their mission and values (Van Riel, 2002). However, J. Grunig and L. Grunig
(1991) argued that the assumption of image in public relations is asymmetrical because of
persuasion and manipulation. As a result, J. Grunig (1993) asserted that communicating a
superficial image does not make an organization effective. However, he also pointed out the
importance of using symbols to communicate impressions of an organization is important for
public relations. In this regard, managing image is important in public relations, if an
organization needs it. In recent research, Wan and Schell (2007) showed that well-constructed
image affect publics’ beliefs, attitudes, and behavioral disposition toward an organization.
Therefore, not only from CEOs’ hunches for importance of corporate image, but also from the
empirically supported research, managing corporate image should be a critical role of public
relations showing its effectiveness in an organization.
Research of PR Research Trend
Researchers “need to assess the quality and stature of their field,” (Pasadeos & Renfro,
1993, p. 167) so as to better foresee the body of knowledge and the way to develop it. Public
relations research is relatively new (Morton & Lin, 1995). Therefore, few research has been
systematic research about public relations research. In 1984, Ferguson investigated the status of
theory building in public relations discipline. She content analyzed nearly 10 years’ worth of
abstracts of articles in Public Relations Review, and concluded that there has not been much
productive theory development research. Pasadeos and Renfro (1992) reported that “public
relations developed a literature that is not only voluminous but also relevant” from 1975 to 1985
by citation research (p. 167). Also, Morton and Lin (1995) did similar citation research and
concluded that quantitative research was prevalent in public relations discipline and quantitative
research that used inferential statistical methods were cited more than qualitative research. Later,
Pasadeos, Renfro, and Hanily (1999) how scholars were cited in public relations journals. Sallot
et al. (2004) content analyzed 748 abstracts or articles published in peer-reviewed journal
articles, and reported how theory development research has been done in public relations
discipline throughout the past three years. Recent investigations were relatively narrow but with
in-dept focus. Ki and Shin (2006) investigated how organization-public relations research has
been done regarding its theory development, theoretical models, and research methods through
six academic journals. This study first attempted to conceptualize PR effectiveness research and
to investigate how the research has developed in public relations discipline.
After reviewing four management philosophies of PR effectiveness, the following seven
research questions guide this research.
RQ1. Do four management philosophies represent PR effectiveness research?
RQ2. How frequently have the four management philosophies have been researched
in academic journals?
RQ3. What kinds of content have been researched in PR effectiveness research?
RQ4. What theories have been adapted to develop PR effectiveness research?
RQ5. What kinds of context have been implemented in PR effectiveness research?
RQ6. Which research methodology has been used in PR effectiveness research?
RQ7. How has PR effectiveness research been researched over time?
9

Method
Journal Inclusion Criteria
Sallot et al. (2003) conducted theory development research to find how public relations
theories and public relations research have developed from 1975 to 2000 in public relations
academic journals: Public Relations Review, Public Relations Research Annual, and Journal of
Public Relations Research suggesting that these journals have served significant roles to present
public relations research. Along with this notion, these same three journals were chosen for this
study to review PR effectiveness research.
Article Inclusion Criteria
A total of 948 articles were reviewed by title, all 697 articles through volume 33, issue 4
(2007) in Public Relations Review; all 30 articles in Public Relations Research Annual; and 221
articles through volume 19, number 4 (2007) in Journal of Public Relations Research. First,
articles chosen included “image” “reputation” “relationship” “OPR” “conflict” “contingency
theory,” and “collaboration” in their titles. A total of 95 articles were selected. Second, among
selected articles, 22 articles were excluded through reading their abstract and literature review.
Finally, 77 articles were content analyzed. As a pilot test, I was the only coder. In further studies,
more coders will participate and coder reliability will be checked.
Coding Schema
Type of management philosophy. Articles were reviewed to determine whether they fell
into one of four mutually exclusive categories: conflict, relationship, reputation, and image
management.
Descriptive characteristics. Each article was coded for its descriptive characteristics: year
of publication and journal title.
PR effectiveness. Each article was reviewed to determine whether it mentioned that its
type of management demonstrates one of four mutually exclusive statements: PR effectiveness,
importance, strategic management, and none of three.
Content of article. Articles were reviewed to determine whether they fell into one of four
mutually exclusive categories: theory development studies, implementation of theory or
campaigns, exploratory research, and retrospective research.
Type of theory. Articles were reviewed to determine what kinds of theory or theoretical
model drove their research. After the first review of articles, all theories and theoretical models
were written and coded.
Type of context. Each article was reviewed to determine in what kind of context it was
studied. All contexts were written and coded. Articles using multiple contexts were coded
multiple times.
Type of research design. Articles were reviewed to determine whether they fell into one
of nine mutually exclusive categories: content analysis, experiment, survey, secondary data
analysis, interview, focus group interview, case study, mixed method, and other.
Type of statistics. Articles were reviewed to determine what kinds of statistical method
were used to analyze their data. After the first review of articles, all statistical methods were
written and coded.
10

Results
PR Effectiveness
In responding RQ 1, a total of 21 articles mentioned ‘PR effectiveness’ in their content
(27.3%). half of articles (n = 56) did not mention ‘PR effectiveness’ in their articles (72.7%).
Table 1 shows the numbers of articles, which mention ‘PR effectiveness’ by types of
management.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of statements of ‘PR effectiveness’
Statement of
‘PR effectiveness’
Conflict
management
Relationship
management
Reputation
management
Image
management
Total
1 14 4 2 21 (27.3%)
No statement 18 23 4 11 56 (54.2%)
Total 19 37 8 13 77 (100%)
Frequency of Each Management Articles
In answering RQ 2, the most frequent category was relationship management (n = 37,
48.1%). Table 2 shows the number of articles by journals and types of management. The total
number of articles in Public Relations Review was 697, and the portion of four managements
research (i.e., PR effectiveness research) in this journal was 6.7%. Total number of articles in
Journal of Public Relations Research was 221, and the portion of PR effectiveness research was
12.7%. The portion of PR effectiveness research in Public Relations Annual was 10%.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of PR effectiveness research by journals
JPRR PRR PRA Total
n % n % n % n %
Conflict
management
5 13 1 19 24.7
Relationship
management
12 25 37 48
Reputation
management
3 5 8 10.4
Image
management
8 4 1 13 16.9
Total 28 36.4 47 61 2 2.6 77 100
Content of Research
In answering RQ 3, a total of 32 articles delved into theory building (41.6%), 35 articles
were focusing on implementation (45.5%) such as utilizing OPR models. Eight articles were
under exploratory research category (10.4%), and two articles were about retrospective research
(2.6%). Figure 1 is representing the research content for each management philosophy. Within
the Journal of Public Relations Research, 14 out of 28 articles were focusing on theory building
(50%) and nine journals were focusing on implementation (32%). Within the Public Relations
11

Review, a half of the articles were focusing on implementation (n = 25, 53.2%) and 17 articles
were focusing on theory building (36%). Both journals had each retrospective article.
Figure 1. Research content in PR effectiveness research
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
conflict management
relationship
management
reputation
management
image management
theory/model
development
implementation
exploratory research
retrospective research
Theories and Theoretical Models
In conflict management research, a total of seven articles had theoretical frameworks
from the Contingency theory, and three were adapted from conflict resolution strategies and three
from the Excellence theory. The game theory was applied twice, and psychological perspective
and complexity theory were adapted once for each. In relationships management, a total of 19
articles were theoretically based on either Hon & Grunig’s OPR model (n = 10) or Bruning &
Ledingham’s OPR model (n = 9). Figure 2 shows frequency and types of theories in relationship
management research. In reputation management, relational approach was twice adapted to
implement reputation management. Other than that, agenda setting theory was once adapted for
reputation management. Figure 3 shows frequency and types of theories in image management
research.
Figure 2. Theories and theoretical models in relationship management research
relationship management
20
19
15
10
5
0
OPR
4
dialogic
communication
2 2
interpersonal system theory social exchange organizational
comm
3
1
Figure 3. Theories and theoretical models in image management research
image management
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
3
1
2 2 2
gap perspective schema rhetorical impression Articulation
model of meaning
psychology
12

Applied Context
In answering RQ 5, the most frequently applied context was relationship building (n =
16, 28.1%). A total of seven articles were adapted in crisis management (12.3%). Conflict
resolution, media relations and internet usage were adapted five times each (8.8%). Table 3
shows the context in which four management types were applied.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of context of PR effectiveness
Conflict
management
Relationship
management
Reputation
management
Image
management
Total
Issues management 2 1 1 4 (7%)
Crisis management 3 2 2 7 (12.3%)
Media relation 2 1 2 5 (8.8%)
Reputation
management
2 2 4 (7%)
Marketing 2 1 3 (5.3%)
PR routine-internet 4 1 5 (5.3%)
Relationship building 1 15 16 (28.1%)
CSR 1 1 2 (3.5%)
Conflict resolution 3 2 5 (8.8%)
International PR 2 2 (3.5%)
Other 3 3 (5.3%)
Total 10 32 8 7 57 (100%)
Research Methodology
In answering RQ 6, the most frequently used research design was survey (n = 27, 35.1%).
Content analysis followed next (n = 9, 11.7%), and experiment (n = 6) was 7.5%. Figure 4 shows
the distribution of research design, and Figure 5 is representing the research design for each
management philosophy. Figure 6 shows the distribution of statistics, and Figure 7 is
representing the distribution of statistics for each management philosophy.
Figure 4. Research method in PR effectiveness research
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
6
8
27
9
experiment interview survey content analysis secondary mixed focus group
interview
2
5
1
13

Figure 5. Research method in each research area
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
conflict image reputation relationships
content analysis
experiment
survey
2nd
interview
FGI
mixed
Figure 6. Statistical methods
10
8
6
4
2
0
5
9
5
4
1
7
4
8
1
2
SEM
Factor analysis
regression
t-test
chi-square
ANOVA
Correlation
Discriminant
Descriptive
other
Figure 7. Statistical methods in each research area
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
conflict image reputation relationships
CORRELATION
chi-squre
regression
ANOVA or MAVOVA
factor analysis
SEM
t-test
discriminant analysis
descriptive
other
Research Trend
In answering RQ 7, after the first research during 1985 to 1989, the number of PR
effectiveness research has grown since 1990s. Figure 8 shows graphic representation of research
trend. Although the number of both conflict and relationship management research has grown by
years from mid 1990s, the number of image management research has decreased. Reputation
management research started in 2000. Figure 9 is representing research trends of four
management types. Regarding the content, both theory building and implementation research has
been growing steadily. Figure 10 is representing the distribution of research contents of PR
effectiveness research. For research methodology in PR effectiveness research, since a time
period between 1995 and 2000, a variety of research design has been used along with various
statistical methods. Figure 11 is representing the distribution of research design of PR
effectiveness research.
14

Figure 8. Distribution of PR effectiveness research: 1975-2007
25
20
21
15
10
5
0
13
9
8 8
6
5
4
1 1
0 0
0 0 0
1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-2000 2001-2004 2005-2007
JPRR
PRR
PRA
Figure 9. Distribution of PR effectiveness research: 1975-2007
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-2000 2001-2004 2005-2007
conflict
image
reputation
relationships
Figure 10. Distribution of research content of PR effectiveness research: 1975-2007
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-2000 2001-2004 2005-2007
theory building
implementation
exploratory
retrospective
Figure 11. Distribution of research design of PR effectiveness research: 1975-2007
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-2000 2001-2004 2005-2007
content analysis
experiment
survey
2nd
interview
FGI
mixed
other
Discussion
This study shows that four management philosophies: conflict management, relationship
management, reputation management, and image management. PR effectiveness research of four
15

management types has flourished since 1990 in presumably due to the early initial demand from
both practitioners and researchers. Since then, the research has been rapidly growing both in
numbers and contents.
Mostly, with the greatest number of research, relationship management recognizes itself
as PR effectiveness research stating that relationship management improves PR effectiveness in
an organization. The number of conflict management was relatively considerable, but it rarely
stated PR effectiveness in its research. However, Shin, Cameron, and Cropp (2006) asserted that
‘one of the propositions in the contingency theory … is that organizational effectiveness and
ethical consideration of its public result from’ the utilization of the Contingency theory”(p. 282).
In spite of importance of reputation and image, the findings of the portion in research revealed
that neither theoretical nor empirical research has done much in reputation and image
management. Hutton et al. (2001) asserted that reputation management had emerged in both
academic and practice. However, the results in this study show little research has been done in
neither reputation nor image management literature in public relations academic journals
compared to conflict management or relationship management.
Regarding the applied theories, various theories and theoretical models were applied.
Interestingly, for relationship management, seven articles out of nine that used Bruning and
Ledingham’s OPR model were published in Public Relations Review, and eight articles (out of
ten) which used Hon and J. Grunig’ OPR model were published in Journal of Public Relations
Research. It seems like each journal prefers one over the other. It might be necessary to
incorporate two models into one refined one. Compared to relationship management, there is no
model or construct to measure images, as is the case in reputation management. The reason
might be the lack of consensus of conceptualization and definition of image. Regarding the
contexts in which PR effectiveness research has been applied, despite of increasing attention for
international public relations, the four management types have not been researched in a global
context.
Overall, this study shows that PR effectiveness research has just started and is growing
rapidly and widely. This implies that there is more uncovered knowledge in this area. Second,
among three management philosophies for PR effectiveness in this study, relationship
management stands out in the public relations discipline. However, no single theory shapes the
body of knowledge. PR effective research needs to be developed by incorporating those four
concepts. Finally, the present study shows the organizational level of PR effectiveness. Further
study should focus on societal level of PR effectiveness. Recent research suggested the need to
develop and measure inter-organizational linkages in civil society (Taylor & Doerfel, 2005).
Since this study examines academic journals, it lacks practical implementations.
Conclusion
The value of public relations is obvious, but it is hard to probe its results in an
organization. This causes devaluing in public relations as supporting parts for other functions
such as marketing or human resources. PR effectiveness is critical to survive in an organization.
Regardless of its importance, few researchers have tried to offer clear pictures of PR
effectiveness research. The logic explored for PR effectiveness in this study is based on
organizational-level of effectiveness and features of four management philosophies (i.e., conflict,
relationship, reputation, and image management) as public relations’ roles for PR effectiveness.
They are all equally important for public relations. The results of content analysis of 77 articles
from four perspectives show that PR effectiveness research started and has flourished in the past
16

fifteen years, and it is now a growing subject of research in public relations. Also, the results
show that there are some dominant theories in each management research. However, PR
effectiveness research needs to be balanced among four managements. This initial attempt to
review PR effectiveness research and its findings might open a variety of research agenda in
public relations discipline.
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Teaching Online Public Relations Using a Hybrid Delivery Model
Michele E. Ewing
Kent State University
meewing@kent.edu
Scott Juba
Kent State University/
Cleveland Botanical Garden
sjuba@cbgarden.org
Introduction
At its core, public relations focuses on developing and maintaining relationships with an
organization’s internal and external publics through two-way communication. Online media have
changed public relations and the public relations professional’s job. Employees, shareholders,
customers, news media and other audiences are online seeking information, and interacting with
the organization. Blogs, wikis, digital press rooms, podcasts, e-newsletters and a range of other
tools offer innovative ways to reach stakeholders.
This paper focuses on the development of a new course designed to teach public relations
undergraduate and graduate students about the use of online tools in the practice of public
relations from both strategic and tactical perspectives. Since the course focused on the use of
online media and resources, it seemed appropriate to create a “hybrid” course, featuring both
traditional and online instruction, offering greater opportunities for the students to interact with
online media and resources.
Primary and secondary research was conducted to develop a new course, Public
Relations Online Tactics, and to explore best practices in online teaching and incorporating
interactive technologies in new pedagogical approaches.
Literature Review
Public relations and the Internet seem to go hand in hand. Wright (2001) reported that
nearly all public relations professionals (98%) believe their work has been impacted by online
technologies. The Commission on Public Relations Education (2006) reaffirmed this and noted
that people in the PR profession are some of the heaviest users of communication technologies.
As Internet usage continues to soar, consumers are becoming more comfortable with
accessing, creating and sharing information. According to an October-December 2007 Pew
Internet & American Life Project survey, 72 percent of American adult Internet users (18+ years)
access the internet on an average day. A February 2007 survey indicated nearly half (47 percent)
of all adult Americans have high-speed Internet access (broadband), increasing from 42 percent
in early 2006 and 30 percent in early 2005.
Public relations practitioners realize that on the Web, “dialog is occurring daily, even hourly,
with constituencies, customers and prospects, as well as enemies” (Paine, 2002). Taking an
active role in these dialogues is key, because the “goals of these dialogues are the most basic
of public relations objectives” (Paine, 2002, pg. 2).
Communication technology continues to change the way public relations is practiced. It
is important that students learn how to strategically incorporate the use of technology in the
practice of public relations. (Commission on Public Relations Education, 2006).
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Based on a review of public relations programs in 2006, it was determined that many
public relations programs across the country lack courses that educate students about how to
strategically incorporate online tools into a public relations plan.
Given the strong influence of the Internet on the practice of public relations, if colleges
and universities are to offer such courses, it seems sensible that these courses may be delivered,
at least in part, online.
Yet, a 2006 study by Lattimore indicated that few public relations courses were taught
online and no public relations undergraduate or graduate programs were completely offered
online at American universities.
Nonetheless, using online delivery to facilitate student learning about the practice of
online public relations seems to be in line with the Commission on Public Relations Education
(2006) recommendation that “the latest communication technology used in the practice of public
relations be integrated into all public relations coursework to the extent that institutional
resources allow.”
Therefore, it is essential to examine existing literature about online course delivery. Then,
the development of a course designed to teach students about online public relations will be
explored.
A New Online Learning Environment
An online course is a form of distance learning. Although defined differently by different
people throughout the years, the main tenet of distance learning is that the learner is separated
from the teacher in some manner or form. The Internet has made distance learning a much more
interactive and convenient form of learning, which is causing educators to reevaluate their
teaching methods.
An online classroom is a much different setting than a traditional classroom setting. As
Demetrious (2004) noted, “online learning environments are less known and less understood” by
faculty and students than traditional learning environments. Online learning environments
involve hypertext, which is “the system of coding that is used to create or navigate hypermedia
in a nonsequential order” (T1 Glossary 2000, 2001). Therefore, hypertext “redefines the role of
instructors by transferring some of their power and authority to students” (Landow, 1992).
Many online courses use WebCT. Originally developed at the University of British
Columbia, WebCT is “an integrated set of tools for developing and delivering courses or course
components over the World Wide Web” (Grant MacEwan College WebCT Learner Guide). The
WebCT tools aid online learning through: communication; assessment and evaluation; content
delivery; and student tools (Grant MacEwan College WebCT Learner Guide).
Because of this new system of learning, institutional administrators must take special
considerations into account when preparing online courses. McAlister, Rivera, and Hallahan
(2001) proposed twelve key questions that should be considered before offering a Web-based
curriculum. Those twelve questions are:
1. Will the Web curriculum be congruent with the institution’s mission and strategy?
2. Do you have administrative support?
3. Are there obstacles to adopting a Web curriculum?
4. How will you handle intellectual property issues?
5. How will you compensate instructors for offering or administering Web courses?
6. Do you have clear, well-defined criteria for selecting the classes to be offered through the
Web?
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7. What facilities or capabilities are available to assist in the preparation and delivery of
course materials?
8. What methods will be used to deliver class content?
9. How will student progress be assessed?
10. Do your students have the skills necessary to use the Web and participate in the class?
11. What course delivery platform will you use?
12. Where will the class materials be maintained?
Benefits of Online Course Delivery
A review of literature has documented that online delivery offers students the flexibility
of integrating education with the demands of work and family. Students also have greater access
to courses and learning resources. As more schools offer online courses, more people are
choosing to expand their education while they work (Romano, 2006). Plus, Royal (2005)
acknowledged that while challenges result from online teaching, online course delivery provides
“vast opportunities for both students and educators.”
McAlister, Rivera, and Hallahan (2001) concluded that online courses are a “wonderful
opportunity to extend the reach of an institution’s programs by better serving current students or
by exploring new markets.” They also pointed out that online courses allow an institution to
connect with people who might not otherwise have an opportunity to further their education.
Clay (1999) found that, at The State University of West Georgia, faculty respondents who
previously taught distance courses ranked the “ability to reach new audiences that cannot attend
class on campus” as the top motivating factor that drives their participation in facilitating
distance learning.
The online environment can be a useful place for students to communicate with their
instructor. For example, professors can use WebCT to hold online office hours through a realtime
chat (Grant MacEwan College WebCT Learner Guide).
An Online Discussion of Learners
Online learning can sometimes do a better job of fostering class discussion than a
traditional learning environment. Online discussions allow students to “reflect before they
speak” and give an opportunity to those who would not speak in a traditional classroom setting to
have their voices heard (Mims, 1999).
It is essential for the discussion to be linked to course goals and students should receive
“explicit orientation” to the discussion before it begins (Chism). Furthermore, the instructor
should be committed to being a “good facilitator.” It can be useful for instructors to limit the
number of messages posted, so that students don’t feel overwhelmed by the number of messages.
That may mean breaking large classes into separate discussion lists (Chism).
Unfortunately, e-mail, newsgroups, Web conferences and other online communication
technologies are “extremely impoverished forms of communication when compared to face-toface
communication” (Hughes and Hewson, 2001). Thankfully, other elements can be used to
structure communication in online education. Such elements include stylistic elements such as
page layout and character styling; color; graphics; identity and anonymity; time frames and
sequencing; access privileges; and “conditional concealment and revelation of information”
(Hughes and Hewson, 2001). In this way, traditional classroom micro-genres such as informal
debates and brainstorming sessions can be better translated to the Web.
22

Barriers to Online Course Delivery
In the past few years, the number of students enrolled in e-learning programs has more
than doubled. Currently, 65 percent of universities offering face-to-face graduate courses also
offer graduate courses online (Romano, 2006). But, given benefits of online course delivery, why
aren’t even more schools offering online courses?
For one, creating good online courses can be costly and take a lot of time (Romano,
2006). The added workload seems to be a particularly important barrier to the development of
online courses. A study that polled division chairs and faculty at a community college in the
Southeastern part of the United States reported, “The factor which posed the greatest concern to
all faculty and division chairs regarding their participation in distance education was the
workload that faculty incur as a result of participating in distance education” (O’Quinn & Corry,
2002). Therefore, O’Quinn and Corry (2002) recommended that institutions should offer
incentives for faculty who are willing to teach a distance course for the first time and that those
faculty members should receive time off to receive the appropriate training.
Beyond that, a lack of first-hand experience teaching online courses may make professors
less likely to want to instruct them. A survey administered to faculty members at The State
University of West Georgia, in Carrollton, Georgia, revealed that the respondents who had taught
online courses had much different attitudes about distance courses than those who had not. It
proved to be true that “experience breeds acceptance” (Clay, 1999).
Also, another possible barrier to online instruction is related to the tendency of some
instructors to assign collaborative work. An online learning environment may not be the best
forum for such collaboration. Collier and Morse (2002) reported “serious problems” with a
collaborative writing assignment for an online course at Lesley University. When the
assignment was restructured to allow for more individual work, things improved. To maintain
some sort of collaborative element in the assignment, students had to engage in a peer review of
another student’s work (Collier and Morse, 2002). Student satisfaction, instructor satisfaction,
and the quality of the students’ papers all showed improvement after the restructuring.
This research sheds light on the fact that some “online students strongly prefer to work
independently” (Collier and Morse, 2002). Yet, according to Collier and Morse, discarding
online collaborative assignments is not the solution. Instead, it means instructors need to
separate the components of an assignment that must be done collaboratively to ensure
achievement of the assignment’s goals from those parts that can be done independently without
sacrificing the achievement of those goals (Collier and Morse, 2002).
Challenges in motivating students can serve as an additional deterrent to online learning,
because as Dereshiwsky (2002) noted, “Anything new and different is bound to be scary.”
Because the stress from such a new experience could deter students, it is essential for instructors
to motivate those students to persevere. Also, it should be noted that the findings of Cronje et al.
(2006) indicated at least a possible link between academic stress and sense of achievement.
Motivating Students in Online Learning Environments
The decisions online instructors make play a key role in whether or not their students will
succeed in an online classroom. The Commission of Public Relations Education (2006)
advocated that the student plays a more central role in the learning process than the online
instructor. Specifically, the report noted:
The instructor is much more a course manager, rather than the center of the learning
process. The more the student can be involved with the course material through
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assignments, online discussions and group exercises, the more likely the learning
objectives are to be obtained.
For example, assigning tasks that require students to apply theories to real-life situations
rather than recalling facts or concepts is essential. (Simone C.O. Conceicao, Understanding the
Environment of Online Teaching. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2007, pg.
10).
The E.N.G.A.G.E acronym, can be used as a guide to motivating online students
(Dereshiwsky, 2002). This model involves the use of e-mail, newsletters, group interaction,
applause or recognition, cumulative learning and extra credit assignments to effectively engage
online learners.
Another way to engage students is to make the course material attractive. According to
Madden (1999), researchers at the University of British Columbia “found that how a course
looks can be just as important as the lessons themselves.” This comes into play during the
construction of a course site. As O’Malley (2000) wrote, “To be effective, a website has to be
designed as a whole.” That means there must be consistency to the site. Instructors make things
much easier on students when each page of the site has a similar “look and feel.” It can be wise
to “use the same font, the same colors, and the same margins on every page.” There should be an
“ideological and visual coherence” to the site (O’Malley, 2000).
In the design and maintenance of a course site, the use of multimedia can go a long way
towards adding an attractive edge to course content. “Research shows that students’ learning
outcomes are increased when they are engaged through dynamic multimedia components” (Fink,
You, and Mold, 2003).
For example, instead of simply posting lecture notes on the course site for students to
read, the use of multimedia allows instructors to convey that information while at the same time
forcing students to interact with the course material (Fink, You, and Mold, 2003).
Nonetheless, this does not mean that course sites should use such advanced technology
that the average Web user becomes lost in the maze of technology. Also, using too many
graphics or multimedia can make a site run slow. As O’Malley noted, “Simple is nearly always
better.” (O’Malley, 2000).
As in the traditional instruction setting, it is important to clearly convey expectations for
the course. Students should recognize that online learning offers flexibility, but it actually may
take more time than a traditional course. Rossett recommended using a Web-based syllabus,
routine e-mail reminders, discussion forums and other tools to create a guidance system will help
online learners to manage time and deadlines (Rossett 2005).
Evaluating Students in Online Class
Because online course work is inherently different than traditional class work, how to
effectively evaluate the progress of students enrolled in an online course is another important
aspect of Web-based courses. Wright presented guidelines for evaluating the quality of online
courses based on the national and international experiences of staff in the Instructional Media
and Design department at Grant MacEwan College. In terms of what professors do in evaluating
student performance, some of the guidelines don’t differ much from the evaluation criteria of
traditional courses (i.e. “The number of assignments and their due dates are reasonable.”).
Others, while not entirely different from evaluation criteria of traditional courses, seem to hold
more relevance in the realm of online learning. Such criteria of what professors should do
includes ensuring that “Learners are told when they can receive feedback from their instructors”
24

and “Learners are able to track and evaluate their own progress” (Wright). Courses using
WebCT may take advantage of a variety of evaluation opportunities, including online quizzes.
Plus, students’ grades can be maintained and securely disseminated using WebCT (Grant
MacEwan College WebCT Learner Guide).
Yet, regardless of how students are assessed online, the evaluation should be “tied to the
learning outcomes and course curriculum” (Grant MacEwan College WebCT Learner Guide).
Also, feedback (whether it be on an assignment or just a general student question) should be
prompt. Sciuto (2002) recommended a 24- to 48-hour turnaround time.
Best Practices for Online Course Delivery
Not all schools have the resources or the need to initially offer full programs online. That
should not deter them from moving forward with individual online courses. For example,
Syracuse University started with two online courses in 1997 and then expanded to 26 online
courses by 2003, according to Colley and Blowers (2005).
A survey by Colley and Blowers (2005) that examined critical issues in online course
delivery found distinct differences in online teaching approaches among institutions. Yet,
despite these institutional differences, there is a “commonality of problems” (pg. 2). The
respondents reported running “viable programs,” but many mused in “frustration over lack of
institutional paradigms and cultural frameworks that afforded broad support for online
initiatives” (Colley and Blowers, 2005, pg. 5).
Such findings can be interpreted to indicate that while the best practices of others can
serve as a useful guide, it is the responsibility of each individual institution to forge its own best
path in this new world of online education. Nonetheless, research indicates that some guidelines
can help almost any institution deliver successful online courses. Yang and Cornelious (2005)
advised that instructors who have experience teaching online courses should mentor and provide
support to those who have limited experience with online instruction. Yang and Cornelious also
advised that enrollment in online courses should be limited to make it easier for instructors to
communicate with students.
Some institutions are finding that courses delivered only partially online best suit their
needs. Faculty may find it easier to transition to teaching an online class that still has a traditional
classroom element to it (O’Quinn and Corry, 2002). They advocated faculty who use an
integrate delivery approach would provide a better opportunity to determine how to most
effectively use face-to-face and online instruction. Using both traditional classroom and online
instruction is often referred to as a “hybrid or blended” teaching model.
Research has documented that learning effectiveness in hybrid course is comparable to or
even better than traditional classroom instruction (Neuhauser, 2002). In the end, regardless of
how courses are structured and delivered, “The most important role for instructors is to impart
their expertise in a way that contributes to the success of each learner, individually, as well as to
the class, as a whole” (Sciuto, 2002).
Online Public Relations
For more than 10 years, the Internet has been mainly used in public relations as a tool to
distribute information. The emergence of “Web 2.0,” a collection of technologies that enable the
average user to create and edit Web content, has changed how the Web is used. The term “social
media” is often used to describe Web 2.0 technologies, which emphasize online collaborating
25

and sharing among users. Schipul advocated that Web 2.0 helps public relations counselors to
more effectively develop communications strategies. He noted:
Web 2.0 can help reveal what target publics really care about, in close to real time. This
can be invaluable in helping ensure that messages and tactics are aligned with the
interests and concerns of their publics.
Literature shows that Web 2.0 technologies also facilitates greater transparency of a
company, as well as individuals. Holtz & Demopoulus noted “Customers, fed up with companies
that have grown so detached from them, are likely to favor companies that make an effort to
close that gap. Companies with blogs...will find themselves attracting customers who are fleeing
from the competitors that make no effort to engage them.” (Holtz & Demopoulus. Blogging for
Business, p. 28) The authors also advocate how a corporate blog might create a dialog with
customers by providing an opportunity for company executives to share personal perspectives
about company issues and developments and inviting audiences to join the discussion. (Holtz &
Demopoulus. Blogging for Business, p. 30)
Since there is limited scholarly literature focused on online public relations, a review of
trade publications and online resources was conducted to obtain insight about content needs for
the new course. The following highlights key findings about the online toolbox and pinpointed
some tactics or tools that should be covered in the new course:
‣ Blogs
A blog, or weblog, is a user-generated web page composed of short, frequently updated posts
that are arranged in reverse chronological order. Posts, links and comments are key elements
of a blog. As shared by Holtz and Demopoulos (2006), blogs can help companies reach a
range of business and communication goals including communicating with or "engage in
conversations" with audiences; reinforcing the company/product brand; producing
organizational transparency; and soliciting feedback.
‣ Electronic newsletters
Using a personal, highly targeted approach, e-newsletters can assist companies with building
and maintaining relationships with audiences, introducing new products and services,
providing value-added service, driving traffic to Web sites and supporting communication
programs. Permission-based communications, an integral component of a successful e-
newsletter, is based on the idea that the audience has opted into a distribution or mailing list.
‣ RSS feeds
Real Simple Syndication (RSS), a pathway for information flow on the Web, gives users
more control over what Web content reaches them. An aggregator (also called a news
reader) is a tool that retrieves Web content supplied in the form of a Web feed, which is
published by blogs, podcasts and Web sites. When anything new is published, it
automatically is sent in the RSS feed to an aggregator. People who have subscribed to the
feed are alerted and may be motivated to read the new content.
‣ Social Bookmarking
Social bookmarking or tagging is becoming a popular way to access and share favorite Web
content from anywhere. Social bookmarking sites like del.icio.us (http://del.icio.us) allow
people to upload and tag URLs to a server where they can be accessed and shared.
Bookmarking helps to build communities of common interests.
‣ Wikis
A wiki (based on the Hawaiian word for quick) is a collection of Web pages that can be
edited by a group of people. A famous wiki is Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia. A wiki is
26

an excellent tool for collaboration, brainstorming and knowledge management. Some
companies are using wikis as repositories for project information.
‣ Podcasts
Podcasts, downloadable digital audio (MP3) or video (MP4) recordings. By subscribing to
podcasts via an RSS feed, audiences can easily download the podcasts to their desktop or
MP3 players and listen to the podcasts at their convenience. Podcasts are ideal for niche
audiences and can be used cost effectively for a global audience.
‣ Social networks
The tremendous growth of online social networks has provided a range of opportunities for
public relations professionals to communicate with key publics. Popular social networks
include: FaceBook (www.facebook.com), MySpace (www.myspace.com), LinkedIn
(www.linkedin.com) and YouTube (www.youtube.com).
Methods
Interviews with Public Relations Professionals
Because online tools are evolving so quickly, textbooks on the topic are often outdated
long before they are published. To help develop the content for the new course, Public Relations
Online Tactics, ten phone interviews and five face-to-face interviews were conducted with
senior-level public relations professionals to gain insight about how online strategies and tactics
were being used in public relations programs. The average length of the interviews was about 30
minutes.
In-depth, qualitative interviews are a method often used in planning and evaluating
programs or, in this case, curriculum development. An in-depth interview is an “open-ended,
discovery-oriented method that is well suited for describing both program processes and
outcomes from the perspective of the target audience or key stakeholder” (Guion). ”In-depth
interviews are best used when answering questions of definition, value, and policy” (Stacks,
2002). A purposive sample of public relations professionals who could shed significant light onto
the topic of online tactics was identified, making the in-depth interview ideally suited for
discovery. Like other qualitative research methods, this one provides rich data and allows the
interviewer the opportunity to understand what individuals really think about a particular topic.
The high cost and heavy time commitment of this method were possible because of a course
workload release and grant awarded for the development of this course.
The interviews involved three steps: identifying professionals with expertise in online
public relations, creating the interview schedule and analyzing the data. The interviews used
open-ended questions, employed a semi-structured format, sought understanding and
interpretation, and were conversational in nature. Rather than using a questionnaire, in-depth
interviews use an interview schedule that steers the interview (Stacks, 2002). Primarily openended
questions were used to drive the interviews; probing questions were used throughout to
delve into areas of interest.
The interviews, which were conducted in 2006, included senior public relations and
marketing communications executives who worked at agencies, corporations and non-profit
agencies in the Ohio, Georgia, Michigan, Oregon and Texas. These people were chosen because
they had experience with developing and implementing Web-based public relations strategies.
The key interview questions were:
1. Explain how your company (or clients) has successfully used online or Web-based
strategies in a public relations program?
27

2. What online tools are frequently being used? What online tools are emerging?
3. Explain your role and the role of the public relations staff in developing and
implementing the following:
- blogs
- e-newsletters
- online media room
- podcasts
- Search Engine Optimization
- Webcasts
- wikis
- Web site design and content development
4. What topics do you think should be included in an online PR course?
5. For college interns, ideally, in what type of online work would they be involved?
6. For public relations students, what type of Web-based skills would be ideal?
Detailed notes were taken. A systematic analysis of the notes was then conducted to
determine KEY themes and how the interview findings compared to literature.
Findings
The interview participants were extremely positive about development of a course about
online public relations. In fact, many of the executives expressed interest in the course for
themselves or staff members. Many of the interview participants noted that they were training
staff about online tools. Companies are investing resources in hosting in-house educational
programs and supporting staff to attend professional development programs focused on online
tools and resources. Andrew Nibley, chairman and CEO of Marsteller, noted:
Companies are struggling with how they can keep up with the new-media technologies.
All facets of a company need to be involved rather than just counting on the interactive
part of the company to house this knowledge.
The interviews revealed the following key findings that were used to shape the new course.
‣ Stay rooted in core competencies. Public relations professionals should use core
skills (such as writing, research and strategic-thinking skills) to guide online tools in a proven
and intelligent way. It is important that public relations professionals understand how to
strategically implement these tools in communications programs.
‣ Be familiar with the online toolbox. An understanding of online tools and resources will
make college graduates more attractive to employers. Some of the key tools mentioned:
Intranets, RSS feeds, search engine optimization, blogs, podcasts, online media rooms,
Webcasts, e-newsletters and Web sites. For example, the internal marketing and
communications manager at Intel Digital Enterprise Group, Donna Loveland, shared how the
company routinely communicates with its 13,000 employees via an Intranet, Webcasts, e-
newsletters and blogs to “give people the information they need so they’ll be happy and
productive.”
‣ Develop technology skills. Public relations professionals don’t have to learn how to write
HTML code, but they need to understand how to write for the Web and how to develop
manage and post content for the Web.
‣ Understand how to write for the Web and re-purpose a client’s or company’s investment. All
of the interview participants emphasized the need for public relations professionals to know
how to effectively develop and manage Web content and address the diverse needs of online
28

audiences. Further, it is critical to be knowledgeable about how to integrate traditional
communications tools with online tools.
‣ Recognize that online communications management is critical. Companies need to have a
clear, common online voice – and it must be consistent with the offline voice.
‣ Capitalize on how online resources can efficiently and automatically gather intelligence. An
understanding of the tracking and measurement tools is highly beneficial. Public relations
professionals must be the eyes and ears of the organization’s presence online and use the
information for business and communications decisions. Rick Murray, president of the
Me2revolution, Edelman Public Relations, noted:
Anybody, anywhere can say anything that can impact your brand. It’s a 24 and 360 brand
experience.
Realize that public relations is still all about relationships. The Web has provided a range of
new communications tools to help build and enhance relationships with key publics. Julie
Keyser-Squires, vice president, Softscribe, Inc. said:
Our business (public relations) is about relationships and trust. The Web provides tools.
These are just tools. We still need to build relationships.
The interviews also helped to identify real-world public relations programs that
successfully implemented online strategies and tactics in public relations programs. Permission
was obtained to conduct follow-up interviews and produce video segments focused on the case
studies. Overall, the data collected from the interviews was used to support secondary research
findings and shape the content of the new course.
Discussion and Ramifications
Development of course content and learning objects
Ideally, it was determined that the course should use best practices in online
communications to convey course content and engage students in the technologies. Educational
resources to teach the course were limited because only a few undergraduate programs featured a
course focused on online public relations. The only information referenced from an existing
course was a syllabus, which was developed by J. Horton for an online public relations course at
Seton Hall University. This syllabus was compared to findings of the review of trade
publications and interviews with public relations professionals. The instructor then outlined the
course content and shared it with colleagues in the public relations sequence as well as some
public relations professionals.
To effectively convey both the technical and strategic components of the course,
supplemental audio, video and Web-based instructional materials were needed. A summer
project grant was obtained to develop learning objects such as supplemental audio, video and
Web-based instructional resources. Class exercises, project assignments and e-templates were
developed to help students learn about writing and designing Web sites, an online media room,
e-newsletters, blogs and other online tools. The exercises and assignments were designed to
facilitate collaboration in both the classroom and online.
For the audio and video segments, the process involved researching, interviewing, audiovideo
recording, writing scripts, audio and video editing and posting the segments to the course
Web site. The multimedia components for the course focused on best practices in online public
relations based on primary and secondary research findings.
The interviews with professionals identified several public relations campaigns that
successfully implement online public relations strategies. For example, one case study used in
the class focused on attracting a young audience to the Cleveland CMJ Rock Hall Music Fest,
29

one of the largest concerts ever staged by a city. The event was sponsored by the Convention &
Visitors Bureau of Greater Cleveland and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. These organizations
partnered with Marcus Thomas LLC, a Cleveland agency, to develop a marketing
communications program to attract people to the event. Communication executives from each
company participated in on-camera interviews about the CMJ campaign. Also, video was shot of
two CMJ concerts, the Rock Hall and Cleveland sites to tell the CMJ story.
As students study podcasts, blogs and other online tools, they watch or listen to segments
highlighting the case studies and learn how these tools were effectively used in actual public
relations programs. For example, the students watched a video interview about the
communications challenges of the CMJ event and how online public relations strategies were
planned to address the challenges. The students then participated in an online discussion forum
focused on the planning of the CMJ campaign and conducted a brainstorming session to develop
additional online strategies and tactics for the campaign. The case studies help to establish
relevance for the course content. Hofmann noted that relevancy is key in motivating online
learners. The instructor must convey the benefits of understanding the content in a way that
addresses the learner’s needs (Hofmann 2003).
Another component of the course requires students to monitor blogs and podcasts focused
on the public relations field. The students also participate in online discussion forums (part of the
course Web site) to share observations about their experiences in the course and opinions about
issues and trends in online public relations.
Creation of the course site
It was determined that the online course content would be accessed via WebCT Vista to
provide a secured environment for the materials and to capitalize on WebCT tools such as
discussion forums and the grade book. The course content was divided into a series of learning
modules and posted on the site home page. In light of the design limitations of WebCT, HTML
pages were created for each learning module. These pages conveyed best practices in Web
design featuring visuals, multimedia and links. Each learning module incorporated a “to do” list
format to help students understand the content and complete activities and assignments by the
designated deadlines.
Collaboration and Resources
As discussed in the literature review, one of the barriers in creating a course for online
delivery is the increased workload for faculty. Since this project involved a new course, it
required significant time and resources. The instructor collaborated with a graduate assistant,
colleagues in the Educational Technology & Distance Learning department and the university
Web team Also, the instructor received a course load lift during the spring semester and
obtained a summer university grant in 2006 to conduct research and develop the new course.
Engaging online learners
Based on the primary and secondary research, the following guidelines were employed to help
motivate the online learners:
‣ Clearly convey expectations for the course. Be upfront about the responsibility needed to be
successful in the class. Students should recognize that online learning offers flexibility, but it
may actually require more time than a traditional class. Consider a “to do list” format for the
30

course site. Develop projects so that the students complete the projects in phases. The student
can then obtain timely feedback from the instructor and minimize frustrations.
‣ Use interactivity to motivate students to learn. Require students to participate in discussions
and complete exercises and other tasks that require reading, studying and exploration of other
online resources. Convey the need to “DO something” with the reading material and
resources.
‣ Bring the curriculum to life by using multimedia. Invest time in creating multimedia learning
objects to help convey course concepts. For example, produce video segments to show how
what students are learning is applied in the real world. Use podcasting to deliver brief
lectures and feature interviews with experts. Explore existing multimedia posted online that
can be accessed via links.
‣ Build a sense of community. Group learning can actually empower “students to take
responsibility for their own learning and facilitates their motivation for interaction with their
fellow classmates” (Dereshiwsky, 2002). Create opportunities for the students to help each
other learn. E-mail, online discussions, peer reviews and other collaborative projects are
some ways to facilitate interaction among the students. Consistent student-to-student and
student-to-professor interactions are vital to learning in the classroom and online.
Student and faculty feedback
The new course was launched in the fall 2006 as a pilot class comprised of eight students
majoring in public relations. The instructor elicited verbal and written feedback from the class
and the students evaluated the course via the university’s normal student evaluation. The course
materials also have been reviewed by some faculty members. Overall, the students and faculty
shared highly positive feedback. The students appreciated the hands-on learning opportunities
and found the multimedia learning objects very engaging. One of the students \launched an e-
newsletter created in the class for university’s Public Relations Student Society Chapter. Another
student who is now employed shared that he has applied in the real world many of the concepts
learned including planning a Web site and using search engine optimization techniques. Students
in the pilot course conveyed that they experienced some technical challenges with the software
used for the e-newsletter project. They recommended additional time be allocated to learn the
software.
The course content was shared with several public relations professionals to obtain
feedback about the relevance of the curriculum to the practice of public relations. The
professionals’ feedback was highly favorable and several professionals expressed interest in the
course for themselves and/or staff.
Each semester, the course is refined. The blogging module was expanded and now
requires each student to create a blog focused on public relations topics. The results have been
impressive with some of the students attracting comments from prominent bloggers in the public
relations field. The blogs also serve as valuable work examples to share during internship and job
interviews.
As new media continues to emerge, it is recognized that ongoing primary and secondary
research must be conducted to keep the course content current.
31

Figure 1: Course Home page
Figure 2: Course Module for Blogs
32

Examples of student blogs can be found at:
Desiree Bartoe: http://greenerpractices.wordpress.com/
Heather Bing: http://experiencepr.wordpress.com
Abby Laner: http://abster.wordpress.com/
Alexia Harris: http://progressivehealth.wordpress.com/
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35

Transforming Crisis into Confidence: Public Relations Professionals’ Perceptions of the
Effectiveness and Ethicality of Image Repair Strategies
* PRSA Top Faculty Paper Award
Denise P. Ferguson
Indiana Wesleyan University
Denise.Ferguson@indwes.edu
J. D. Wallace
Lubbock Christian University
jd.wallace@lcu.edu
Robert C. Chandler
Pepperdine University
Robert.Chandler@pepperdine.edu
Abstract
When crisis hits an organization, public relations professionals are called upon as
communication experts to play a key role in mitigating damage to and maintaining stakeholder
confidence in the organization. The relevance of crisis and post-crisis communication research to
public relations practitioners lies in its utility in identifying factors that influence stakeholders’
perceptions before, during, and after organizational crises, and in identifying processes and
strategies that are effective in maintaining or restoring the organizational reputation and image,
and which rely on effective use of language, persuasive message strategies, and symbolic
actions. While research in crisis communication and the use of image repair strategies is
dominated by case study analysis, this study offers evidence-based decision making from
empirical research based on practicing public relations professionals’ reported perceptions and
use of specific strategies in different types of crisis situations. This study examines the use of
crisis communication strategies among public relations professionals, focusing on judgments
about which strategies are ethical, which strategies professionals are likely to use and
recommend, and which strategies are most effective. These are contextualized within three
common reputation crisis scenarios (accidents, product safety, and illegal activity).
Literature Review
Crisis management, issues management, corporate reputation management, and image
and brand management are increasingly important in the wake of billions of dollars lost to
organizations (e.g., corporate, nonprofit, government and education) due to reputation and brand
erosion, as well as declining stakeholder (e.g., investor, customer, and donor) confidence due to
such scandals. On a societal level, the events of 9/11 and recent devastating and far-reaching
consequences of natural disasters demonstrate the increasingly frequent and catastrophic failures
to public and private infrastructure that result when crises occur. Although organizations, their
leaders and spokespeople will attempt a wide range of actions and messages as symbolic appeals
to that organization’s constituent publics, there is little certainty about what types of actions and
messages are persuasive (Benoit, 1997; Coombs & Holladay, 2002; Kim, Ferrin, Cooper &
Dirks, 2004; Seeger, Sellnow, & Ulmer, 1998).
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Characteristics of Organizational or Corporate Crises
When organizations and leaders find themselves under scrutiny and targets of criticism
that challenge their legitimacy or social responsibility (Hearit, 1995), their public response is an
important factor in recovery from such a crisis, which arises suddenly and demands quick
reaction (Coombs & Holliday, 2002; Fearn-Banks, 2001; Seeger & Ulmer, 2003).
Communication activities involved in responding to a crisis, including determining the optimal
timing, response priorities, specific messages conveyed to the media and/or to individuals,
source(s) of messages, and priorities of crisis management, have implications for the
organization and for crisis managers.
Crisis and Post-Crisis Corporate Communication
Crisis management encompasses the overall strategic planning to prevent, mitigate,
respond, and recover routine operations during a crisis or negative occurrence. This is a process
that removes some of the risk and uncertainty, promotes long-term viability, and allows the
organization to be in greater control of its destiny (Fearn-Banks, 2001; Seeger & Ulmer, 2003).
Crisis communication is a broad area of research and application that includes pre-crisis decision
making, training, planning, teamwork, goal setting, and crisis communication plans. Public crisis
communication focuses on the verbal, visual, and/or written interaction between the organization
and its publics (sometimes directly and sometime mediated through the news media) before,
during, and after the negative event, and “is designed to minimize damage to the reputation of
the organization” (Fearn-Banks, 2001, p. 480; Fearn-Banks, 1996) and to maintain stakeholder
confidence. While public crisis communication must include conveying the facts surrounding the
event (e.g., the presence of an explosion, or the occurrence of a crash), it also focuses on
questions of context, cause, responsibility, blame, relative harm and remedial action, which
usually are disputed during and following a crisis (Coombs & Holladay, 2002; Kim, Ferrin,
Cooper & Dirks, 2004; Seeger, Sellnow, & Ulmer, 1998).
Coombs’ Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) begins with the assessment
of reputational threat presented by a crisis. Threat is described as “the amount of damage a crisis
could inflict on the organization’s reputation if no action is taken” (Coombs, 2007, p. 165).
According to SCCT, the level of threat to reputation is determined by whether or not
stakeholders believe the organization caused the crisis, the organization’s crisis history, and the
organization’s prior relational reputation, or how well stakeholders believe the organization has
treated them in the past (Coombs, 2007). SCCT research has shown that the threat to an
organization’s increases as stakeholders’ belief that the organization was responsible for the
crisis intensifies (Coombs, 1998; Coombs and Holladay, 1996, 2002, 2004).
The relevance of crisis and post-crisis communication research to public relations
practitioners, then, lies in its utility in identifying factors that influence stakeholders’ perceptions
before, during, and after organizational crises, and in identifying processes and strategies that are
effective in maintaining or restoring the organizational reputation and image, and which rely on
effective use of language, persuasive message strategies, and symbolic actions.
Image Repair Strategies
Research of message strategies has helped develop the response strategy approach “from
a prescriptive set of procedures to the recognition that crisis communication can be initiated from
a variety of rhetorical perspectives” (Olaniran & Williams, 2001, p. 488; see also Benoit, 1997;
37

Heath & Abel, 1996; Heath & Gray, 1997; Seeger & Ulmer, 2003; Sellnow & Ulmer, 1995).
One rhetorical perspective on organizational responses to crises or accusations of wrongdoing
focuses on the organization’s image restoration strategies, much of which is grounded in the
study of apologia (Hearit, 2001; see also Seeger, Sellnow, & Ulmer, 2001). Corporate apologia
focuses on “how corporations in the midst of public relations crises respond to criticism in the
defense of their carefully crafted images in order to deal with the problem of guilt” (Hearit and
Brown, 2004, p. 460).
Benoit (1995) has developed the widely cited Image Restoration Theory that offers a
descriptive system of examining image restoration or repair strategies employed in crisis
communication. Benoit assumes that corporate communication is a goal-directed activity, and
that maintaining a positive reputation for the organization is one of the central goals of this
communication. In crisis situations, Benoit claims that an organization’s central, although not
only, goal of communication is “restoring or protecting one’s reputation” (p. 71). The importance
of an organization’s reputation leads the accused party to respond under potentially threatening
circumstances.
Fundamentally, an attack on one’s image, face, or reputation is comprised of two
components that rely on the relevant audience’s (or audiences’) perceptions. Only when a
salient audience believes that both the action is offensive and that the individual or
organization is responsible for the offense is the accused’s reputation at risk, and is the
actor/organization likely to employ image restoration strategies.
Benoit’s Image Restoration Theory posits five primary macro strategies employed
by organizations in their crisis communication: denial, evading of responsibility, reducing
the offensiveness, corrective action, and mortification.(from ABC proceedings) Fourteen
specific message strategies fall within these five broad categories. Silence, or no
comment, was dropped as a possible rhetorical response in early explorations of this
typology (Benoit, 1995; Len-Rios & Benoit, 2004). However, in the case of Enron and
elsewhere silence impacts negative perception and is connected with social morals
(Rogers, Dillard, & Yuthas, 2005; Trinkaus & Giacolone, 2005).
Discussion of the use of silence in image repair and crisis communication
literature has been limited to the recognition that this strategy should be an area
examination (Kim et al., 2004). Benoit intentionally omitted an organization’s silence,
ignoring accusations, or publicly stating “No comment” from his typology of image
restoration strategies (Benoit, 1995; Len-Rios & Benoit, 2004), but acknowledges that
silence is a strategy that can be used. Trinkaus and Giacolone (2005) saw the silence of
Enron’s leaders and watchdogs as a problem or, at the least, a “communication glitch or a
temporary lapse in social morality” (p. 237). Likewise, an analysis of public statements
the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants issued during the Enron debacle
argued that the AICPA’s initial silence, followed by denial then false and inadequate
support for counterclaims, increased the negative perception of the accounting profession
(Rogers, Dillard, & Yuthas, 2005). Discussion of the use of silence in image repair and
crisis communication literature has been sparse, to date, beyond the recognition that this
strategy should be an area for future research (Kim et al., 2004). Table 1 provides
summary definitions for the 14 strategies and also for silence.
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Table 1. Summary Definitions of Crisis Communication Rhetorical Strategies
Categories Strategies Working Definition
1 Corrective Action Restore situation or prevent reoccurrence
Denial
2 Simple Denial Contradiction of accusation
3 Shifting Blame Pass the guilt to another party
Evading of Responsibility
4 Accident Unintentional action or effect
5 Defeasibility Didn't know about or not in control
6 Good Intentions Motives were good
7 Provocation Responding to an offensive act
8 Mortification Admission and acceptance of responsibility
Reducing the Offensiveness
9 Bolstering Relate positive features of the offender
10 Minimization Reduce importance of the offense
11 Differentiation Less offensive than other actions
12 Transcendence Viewed favorably in larger/different context
13 Attack Counterattack accuser
14 Compensation Reimburse victims
15 Silence No comment or ignoring accusation
This study investigates the perceptions of the appropriateness and effectiveness of
Benoit’s (1997, 1995) image repair strategies in restoring damaged reputations. Benoit and Drew
(1997) investigated perceptions of appropriateness and effectiveness of the five strategies and
their variants in face work in interpersonal communication situations. They concluded that
mortification and corrective actions were perceived as more effective and more appropriate than
other strategies. Bolstering, minimization, provocation, and denial were rated as the least
effective and least appropriate strategies. However, no systematic attempt to extend these
findings to the contexts of corporate reputation management and organizational stakeholder
reconciliation has been made.
While numerous critical assessments have been offered as to the desirability and/or
effectiveness of image restoration strategies, little research examines the degree to which these
strategies are chosen by organizations and their crisis managers when confronted by crises, and
which strategies are perceived to have pragmatic utility (Coombs, 2007; Hearit, 2001; Brinson &
Benoit, 1996). Still less is known about which strategies are perceived by crisis management
professionals to be effective and ethical, and are likely to be recommended to organizational
leaders as desirable responses to crisis situations (Coombs & Holladay, 2002; Kim et. al, 2004).
Research in crisis communication and the use of image repair strategies is dominated by case
study analysis, which limits our understanding to descriptions and speculations in retrospect
about crisis situations that have occurred. Recent research reveals the interesting finding that
organizations (involved in major crises from 1989 to 2002) used different crisis message
39

strategies depending on the stakeholders that their message targeted, however, this study also is
limited in its case study analysis (Stephens, Malone, & Bailey, 2005). This study offers
evidence-based decision making from empirical research based on practicing public relations
professionals’ perceptions and use of specific strategies in different types of crisis situations.
Student Perceptions of Image Repair Strategies
This is the second phase of research conducted by these communication scholars. The
pilot study administered this survey to advanced public relations, law, and journalism students, a
first step in a research program aimed at measuring perceptions of professional practitioners who
regularly make the message strategy choices for organizations embroiled in crisis events.
Surveying pre-professionals who are preparing for careers, nearing completion of their major
area of study, and who may be expected to represent the perspectives of professionals in those
fields, was a reasonable first step and yielded significant findings. Two general findings seemed
to emerge from the data. First, while the positive or negative evaluations of strategies differed
among these groups, the hierarchal positioning (from highest to lowest) is relatively stable,
indicating more positively and negatively perceived rhetorical strategies (see Table 2). In
general, strategies maintained their ranking in terms of respondents’ preferences, and most
rhetorical strategies are viewed either good or bad regardless of context or profession.
Second, three distinct identifiable categories, or tiers, emerged (see Table 3). The
strategies perceived most positively were corrective action, compensation, mortification, and
bolstering. These categories appeared to be fairly robust regardless of profession, scenario or
saliency (effectiveness, likelihood to recommend, and ethicality.)
Table 2. Overall Image Restoration Strategy Means and Rankings
Effective Likely Ethical Effective Likely Ethical SDRank
Corrective
Action 1.21 1.51 1.17 1 1 1 0.00
Mortification 1.41 1.77 1.29 2 2 2 0.00
Compensation 2.00 2.17 1.84 3 3 3 0.00
Bolstering 3.16 2.44 2.67 4 4 4 0.00
Transcendence 3.68 3.09 3.30 5 6 6 0.58
Good intentions 3.75 2.72 3.01 6 5 5 0.58
Minimization 4.24 3.57 3.94 7 8 8 0.58
Defeasibility 4.35 3.55 3.90 8 7 7 0.58
Counterattack 4.55 3.92 3.99 9 9 9 0.00
Differentiate 4.61 4.04 4.17 10 10 10 0.00
Accident 4.71 4.19 4.48 11 11 12 0.58
Provocation 4.77 4.30 4.68 12 13 14 1.00
Blameshift 4.80 4.35 4.59 13 14 13 0.58
Silence 4.82 4.21 4.31 14 12 11 1.53
Deny 4.91 4.65 4.88 15 15 15 0.00
40

Table 3. Organizational Image Restoration Hierarchy in Pragmatism and Ethicality
Tier One Tier Two Tier Three
Corrective Action Defeasibility Accident
Compensation Minimization Provocation
Mortification Good Intentions Attack Accuser
Bolstering Differentiation Shifting Blame
Transcendence
Silence
Simple Denial
The primary purpose of the pilot study was to clarify the research questions and assess
the usefulness of this method of investigation. While the generalizability of the findings from the
pilot study sample of students is limited, the findings help establish a framework from which a
more substantial investigation of public relations professionals’ perceptions of image repair
strategies can be launched, which is this phase. Further, this study examines to what extend there
is consistency or divergence in perceptions of crisis communication strategies.
Research Questions
This study analyzes situational, pragmatic and ethical factors for their relative influence
on image repair message strategies. Pragmatic issues are considered to be are the strategies
deemed effective and are they likely to be recommended. More specifically, it investigates
perceptions of 15 strategies communication professionals may use and/or recommend to repair
their organization’s image during and after a crisis. Collected data will be analyzed in order to
answer the following research questions:
- Research Question # 1 – Do public relations professionals significantly differ in their
perceptions of the effectiveness of image restoration strategies in different types of crises?
- Research Question #2 – Do public relations professionals significantly differ in their
likelihood to recommend different image restoration strategies in different types of crises?
- Research Question #3 – Do public relations professionals significantly differ in their
perceptions of the ethicality of image restoration strategies in different types of crises?
Method
Procedures
A survey instrument was designed using a five-point Likert-type scale, asking respondents to rate
15 image repair strategies in three situationally distinct corporate crises. Respondents rated the
effectiveness, their likeliness to recommend, and ethicality of each strategy. The survey was
prepared in a matrix format so that all strategies were simultaneously rated in regard to their
respective crises. This produced an instrument encouraging relative comparisons (rankings)
between rhetorical strategies. Rankings are viewed by some as a more robust estimator of survey
values even though they may produce some analytical difficulties (Krosnick & Alwin, 1989).
The instrument was successfully pilot tested for face validity and usability (Chandler, Ferguson,
& Wallace, 2001).
Members of the Hoosier Chapter of the Public Relations Society of America were asked to
participate via an announcement in the chapter’s email newsletter. In the newsletter
announcement was a link that directed members to a survey instrument with three
41

hypothetical crisis scenarios: unintentional accident, illegal activity, and product safety. This
study has many of the typical limitations of survey research. Thirty–six surveys were
returned. The completion rate for the three surveys varied from 29 to 36, depending on which
of the strategies was examined.
The instrument used a five-point scoring system. Categories ranged from highly unethical
to highly ethical. Computational scoring ranged from five for highly unethical to one for highly
ethical. Pragmatic saliencies of “effectiveness” and “likelihood to recommend” were scored the
same way. Significant differences were calculated with analysis of variance within strategies and
between scenarios. Scheffe’s multiple comparison procedure was used because of its relative
conservative estimation of differences and ability to account for compound comparisons
(Reinard, 2007). A limited number of demographic items (e.g., type of organization, years of
experience) were added. The hypothetical nature of the company helps control for historical or
perceptual moderating factors (Coombs, 2004; Dean, 2004; Kim, et al., 2004; Pfau et al., 2004).
Perceptions of Effectiveness and Ethics
Research questions were addressed in several ways. First, it was determined if there were
any differences holistically across all scenarios and strategy. The appendix provides a breakdown
of saliencies with the mean scores of strategies between scenarios. Second, data was transformed
into hierarchical rankings to expose order preferences among the rhetorical strategies, similar to
Wallace, Ferguson, & Chandler’s (2007) hierarchical analysis (see Table 4). Standard deviation
of rankings was used as visual indicator of possible hierarchical differences. Some deviation is
to be expected but rankings help to contextualize any mean differences in terms of their
contribution of preference of one strategy over another.
Table 4. Hierarchical Rankings of Pragmatic Image Restoration Strategies
Effectiveness
Likelihood
Accident
Illegal
Activity
Product
Safety
Accident
Illegal
Activity
Product
Safety
Rank Rank rank Stdev rank rank Rank Stdev
Corrective
Action 1 2 1 0.58 1 1 1 0.00
Mortification 2 1 2 0.58 2 4 4 1.15
Compensation 3 3 3 0.00 3 5 5 1.15
Bolstering 4 4 4 0.00 4 2 2 1.15
Transcendence 5 5 6 0.58 5 7 6 1.00
Good intentions 6 6 5 0.58 6 3 3 1.73
Minimization 7 7 8 0.58 7 6 8 1.00
Defeasibility 8 7 7 0.58 8 8 7 0.58
Counterattack 9 10 11 1.00 9 14 12 2.52
Differentiate 10 9 8 1.00 10 9 9 0.58
Accident 11 12 10 1.00 11 11 14 1.73
Provocation 12 11 14 1.53 12 10 10 1.15
Blameshift 13 13 12 0.58 13 13 11 1.15
Silence 14 15 13 1.00 14 12 13 1.00
Deny 15 14 15 0.58 15 15 15 0.00
42

Table 5. Hierarchical Rankings of Ethical Image Restoration Strategies
Ethicality
Accident
Illegal
Activity
Product
Safety
Rank Rank Rank
Corrective Action 1 1 1 0.00
Mortification 2 2 2 0.00
Compensation 3 3 3 0.00
Bolstering 4 4 4 0.00
Transcendence 5 5 5 0.00
Good intentions 6 6 6 0.00
Minimization 7 10 7 1.73
Defeasibility 8 8 9 0.58
Counterattack 9 7 8 1.00
Differentiate 10 9 10 0.58
Accident 11 11 11 0.00
Provocation 12 12 12 0.00
Blameshift 13 13 13 0.00
Silence 14 14 14 0.00
Deny 15 15 15 0.00
Third, responses were examined for significant differences among strategies within each
scenario. Of the forty-five possible combinations of scenarios against strategies, ten differences
were found in six strategies (see Table 7).
Concerning effectiveness (RQ 1), significant differences were found in three of the
fifteen strategies: defeasibility (F=4.269, d.f. 2, 88, p≤.05), good intentions (F=5.015, d.f. 2, 88,
p≤.01), and mortification (F=4.465, d.f. 2,89,p≤.05). Four strategies with significant differences
emerged for likeliness to recommend (RQ 2): accident (F=4.660, d.f. 2, 86, p≤.05), good
intentions (F=6.549, d.f. 2,86 , p≤.01), compensation (F=3.187, d.f. 2,86, p≤.05), and
mortification (F=3.949, d.f. 2,86 , p≤.05). For ethicality, six strategies were significant:
provocation (F=4.923, d.f. 2, 85, p≤.01), defeasibility (F=6.524, d.f. 2,84, p≤.01), accident
(F=3.345, d.f. 2, 85, p≤.05), good intentions (F=5.228, d.f. 2,84, p≤.01), transcendence
(F=3..516, d.f. 2, 83, p≤.05), and silence (F=3.193, d.f. 2, 85, p≤.05). However, the accident,
transcendence, and silence strategies did not localize pair-wise between any particular scenarios.
Table 6. Mean Differences Between Scenarios
Effect Likely Ethical
Acc. Illegal Product Acc. Illegal Product Acc. Illegal Product
Defeasibility 4.36 4.52a 3.83b 3.45a 4.41bb 3.97
Good intentions 3.52 4.21a 3.31b 2.45a 3.48bb 3.32 2.83a 3.76b 3.32
Mortification 1.68a 1.24b 1.31 2.29a 1.79 1.24b
Accident 3.61a 4.34b 4.62
Compensation 2.58a 2.25 1.69b
Provocation 4.3a 4.72b 4.76b
Different letters indicate
significant differences
b =p≤.05
bb =p≤.01
bbb=p≤.001
43

Discussion
This study examined a range of rhetorical message strategies employed in organizational
crises, which vary in their relative transformative nature of organizational perceptions. This
examination of public relations practitioners’ perceptions of image repair strategies reveals
remarkable consistency with those of advanced public relations students. This study reveals that
higher- and lower-regarded strategies were especially consistent in ranking regardless of
contextual variables, which is consistent with these researchers previous examination of
students’ perceptions, but somewhat surprising because previous findings have indicated that
culpability and, to a lesser extent, response to an event impact corporate reputation (Dean, 2004).
But these studies did not find such distinctions – saliencies are stable regardless of crisis
scenario, an important finding for scholars and practitioners. Image repair strategies generally
were homogenously grouped at high (superior) and low (inferior) clusters. Strategies were
viewed as either good or bad.
The four strategies consistently ranked high were correction action, compensation,
mortification, and bolstering. These rankings remained consistent across all types of crisis
situations and other variables. This is a significant finding that has potential for influencing
strategic choices of persuasive message strategies. Denial strategies (simple denial and blame
shifting) and silence were consistently grouped as the least salient. Specifically, silence as a
communication strategy typically held one of the lowest rankings for effectiveness and
likelihood to recommend. The only strategy considered ranked lower was simple denial. For
scholars, these findings suggest several specific areas for future research. For practitioners, these
findings suggest that a sound and basic reputation repair message plan consistent with these
findings may be adequate for most organizational crisis challenges, rather than a cumbersome
and complex (difficult to enact) matrix of strategies matched to multiple situational and
contextual variables. These findings may prove significant for message mapping for
organizational communicators.
Consistent with our earlier study of student perceptions, three identifiable tiers emerged
within this hierarchy of strategies. Professionals and students seem to make decisions based on
hierarchy, or preferences. For the most part, the tier system seems to be stable. Positively
perceived or “good” strategies clustering in Tier 1 were corrective action, compensation,
mortification, and bolstering. All top six strategies were positively valenced. It seems clear from
the most preferred strategies that public relations professionals are focused on maintaining and
strengthening the organization’s reputation and relationships with stakeholders long term. While
there was considerable shuffling within tiers, very few strategies jumped far beyond the tier’s
border. One exception was counterattack, which moved up to Tier 2 from the previous study of
students’ ranking in Tier 3. Also, transcendence moved down to Tier 3 in the unintentional
accident scenario.
Public relations professionals’ responses indicated some interesting comparisons and
contrasts within scenarios. When the crisis involves an unintentional accident, the highest rated
strategies in effectiveness were corrective action, mortification, compensation, and bolstering,
respectively. However, the composition and ranking of strategies they were most likely to
recommend changed to corrective action, bolstering, reframing as positive, transcendence, and
mortification. The most ethical strategies when an unintentional accident occurred were
corrective action, mortification, compensation, and bolstering, respectively.
When the crisis involved illegal activity, mortification, corrective action, and
compensation were the highest rated strategies in terms of their effectiveness. However, the
44

strategies public relations professionals were most likely to recommend changed rankings
slightly. Mortification and corrective action again were the most preferred strategies, followed by
compensation and bolstering, which was not in the four most effective strategies. For illegal
activity crises, corrective action, mortification, and compensation were considered most ethical,
followed by reframing the violation in a more positive way. Finally, for product safety,
corrective action, mortification, and compensation again were rated as most effective. The top
three strategies professionals were most likely to recommend were corrective action,
mortification, compensation, and bolstering. The strategies reported to be most ethical were
corrective action, mortification, and compensation.
Limitations and Future Directions
This study, combined with the earlier results, suggest multiple future areas of research,
alleviating some of the limitations in the current study. Clearly, one of the limitations of this
study is its small sample size. The researchers are currently seeking approval to survey all PRSA
members to strengthen our results and explore whether these strategy rankings hold up at a
broader level. And, further research would allow examination of the slight changes in strategy
preferences within scenario. One thing is certain: crisis communication will continue to be a
fertile and relevant field of study with clear implications for public relations professionals, and
one which provides public relations professionals opportunities to transform crisis to confidence
if executed effectively and ethically.
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Appendix
Effective
Accident Illegal Safety Total
N M SD N M SD N M SD N M SD
Deny 34 5.00 0.00 29 4.86 0.44 29 4.86 0.35 92 4.91 0.70
Blame Shift 34 4.88 0.54 29 4.83 0.38 29 4.59 0.73 92 4.77 0.84
Provocation 34 4.85 0.44 29 4.79 0.41 29 4.76 0.51 92 4.80 1.11
Defeasibility* 33 4.36 0.82 29 4.52 0.87 29 3.83 1.14 91 4.24 1.17
Accident 34 4.79 0.48 28 4.82 0.61 29 4.52 0.74 91 4.71 1.12
Good Intentions** 33 3.52 1.15 29 4.21 0.86 29 3.31 1.34 91 3.68 1.27
Bolstering 34 2.79 0.91 29 3.55 1.24 29 3.14 1.57 92 3.16 1.16
Minimization 34 4.15 0.89 29 4.52 0.74 29 4.38 0.73 92 4.35 1.14
Differentiation 34 4.65 0.54 29 4.62 0.68 29 4.38 0.73 92 4.55 1.13
Transcendence 34 3.50 1.21 29 4.03 1.02 29 3.72 1.03 92 3.75 1.17
Counter Attack 34 4.59 0.82 29 4.66 0.77 29 4.59 0.57 92 4.61 1.12
Compensation 33 2.09 1.07 29 2.14 1.27 29 1.76 0.69 91 2.00 1.18
Corrective Action 33 1.12 0.33 29 1.34 0.55 29 1.17 0.38 91 1.21 1.17
Mortification* 34 1.68 0.81 29 1.24 0.44 29 1.31 0.54 92 1.41 0.95
Silence 34 4.88 0.33 29 4.90 0.31 29 4.69 0.54 92 4.82 0.96
47

Likely to Recommend
Accident Illegal Safety Total
N M SD N M SD N M SD N M SD
Deny 31 4.58 0.67 29 4.41 0.73 29 4.59 0.68 89 4.53 0.70
Blame Shift 31 3.94 1.12 29 4.17 0.80 29 4.34 0.97 89 4.15 0.97
Provocation 31 4.10 0.79 29 4.21 0.77 28 4.32 0.77 88 4.21 0.78
Defeasibility 30 3.17 1.05 29 3.59 1.12 29 3.62 1.32 88 3.46 1.16
Accident* 31 3.61 1.15 29 4.34 0.86 29 4.14 0.83 89 4.03 0.95
Good Intentions** 31 2.45 1.09 29 3.48 1.06 29 3.00 1.16 89 2.98 1.10
Bolstering 31 2.06 0.81 29 2.31 1.07 29 2.38 0.98 89 2.25 0.96
Minimization 31 3.16 0.93 29 3.41 0.98 29 3.69 1.11 89 3.42 1.01
Differentiation 30 3.83 0.95 29 3.72 1.03 29 4.07 0.75 88 3.88 0.91
Transcendence 31 2.10 0.83 29 2.90 1.18 29 2.83 1.00 89 2.61 1.00
Counter Attack 31 3.94 0.93 29 3.90 1.11 29 4.14 0.88 89 3.99 0.97
Compensation* 31 2.58 1.03 28 2.25 0.93 30 1.97 0.89 89 2.27 0.95
Corrective Action 31 1.68 0.87 29 1.69 0.81 29 1.45 0.57 89 1.61 0.75
Mortification* 31 2.29 0.97 29 1.79 0.86 29 1.72 0.70 89 1.94 0.85
Silence 31 3.97 1.35 29 4.21 0.90 29 4.28 0.88 89 4.15 1.05
Ethical
Accident Illegal Safety Total
N M SD N M SD N M SD N M SD
Deny 30 4.77 0.43 29 4.90 0.31 29 4.97 0.19 88 4.88 0.31
Blame Shift 30 4.53 0.78 29 4.72 0.45 29 4.79 0.49 88 4.68 0.57
Provocation** 30 4.30 0.84 29 4.72 0.53 29 4.76 0.44 88 4.59 0.60
Defeasibility** 29 3.45 1.09 29 4.41 0.82 29 3.97 1.12 87 3.94 1.01
Accident* 30 4.20 0.89 29 4.62 0.62 29 4.62 0.62 88 4.48 0.71
Good Intentions** 30 2.83 1.12 29 3.76 0.99 28 3.32 1.19 87 3.30 1.10
Bolstering 30 2.30 0.99 29 2.79 1.21 29 2.93 1.25 88 2.67 1.15
Minimization 30 3.73 0.83 29 3.90 0.72 29 4.07 0.70 88 3.90 0.75
Differentiation 30 3.70 0.99 29 4.07 0.84 29 4.21 0.77 88 3.99 0.87
Transcendence* 28 2.57 0.88 29 3.28 1.19 29 3.17 1.14 86 3.01 1.07
Counter Attack 30 3.97 0.96 29 4.28 0.75 29 4.28 0.84 88 4.17 0.85
Compensation 29 1.90 0.77 29 1.93 0.88 29 1.69 0.71 87 1.84 0.79
Corrective Action 30 1.13 0.35 29 1.21 0.41 29 1.17 0.38 88 1.17 0.38
Mortification 30 1.40 0.72 29 1.24 0.44 29 1.24 0.44 88 1.29 0.53
Silence* 30 4.03 0.76 29 4.45 0.74 29 4.45 0.69 88 4.31 0.73
*=p≤.05
**=p≤.01
***=p≤.001
48

Testing Crisis Response Strategies: A Comparative Quantitative Investigation of the
Impact of Reputational Bolstering on Perceptions of Wrongdoing and Trust During
Organizational Crises
Dean Kazoleas
California State University Fullerton
dkazoleas@fullerton.edu
Abstract
This empirical investigation seeks to build on past public relations research in the area of crisis
response by offering a comparative analysis of crisis response/image restoration strategy
effectiveness. This research presents the results of an investigation that compared the
effectiveness of “bolstering”/”diminishing” image restoration strategies against other direct and
indirect strategies. An experimental design had 269 participants read an article stimulus which
operationalized response strategies such as bolstering, transcendence, and denial in the face of
allegations of sexual harassment. The results found that use of bolstering as a strategy led to
decreased perceptions of guilt and wrongdoing, increased perceptions of trust/truthfulness, and
increased perceptions regarding a “non-hostile” work environment. Moreover, it was found to be
more effective than strategies such as transcendence and denial. These differences were
statistically significant and were not attributable to chance. These findings have significant
meaning for researchers examining crisis and image restoration strategies in that they provide
systematic empirical and comparative theoretical results, and also provide valuable insight for
practitioners seeking comparative data that will aid strategy selection in the face of an impending
crisis.
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, the purpose is to advance the body of
knowledge surrounding theoretical public relations research in the area of crisis response and
image restoration. Second, this investigation was also designed to provide public relations
practitioners with quantitatively based results that provide guidance when choosing among
competing strategies in the face an emerging crisis. This manuscript focuses on the effectiveness
of an organization’s response against litigation based charges, in this case sexual harassment.
Given the aggressive legalistic environment that today’s organizations must cope with, this
investigation examines the effectiveness of using media response strategies which focus on
organizational past positive proactive practices and the legalistic nature of the business
environment. This investigation tested the effectiveness of a strategy which attempts to minimize
perceptions of the offensiveness of an act and diminish perceptions of wrongdoing, by
commenting on positive past practices taken to address threatening issues by taking positive
action, a strategy commonly referred to as “bolstering”. Specifically, this research performs a
comparative test of crisis response/media strategies such as bolstering against other more direct
and indirect strategies that can be used to minimize damage and/or an organization’s image.
Finally, in addition to theoretical contributions this research hopes to add to a body of knowledge
that allows the public relations practitioner to minimize the damage to the organization’s
reputation in the face of crises by providing a comparative quantitative analysis of competing
strategic choices.
49

Benoit’s Image Restoration Typology
There have been few lines of research in the area of public relations that have eclipsed the
number of published manuscripts that can be found in the area of image restoration, and that can
be tied to William Benoit’s Image Restoration Typology (Benoit 1995a, 1995b; Hearit, 2001). In
his works on Apologia and image repair Benoit describes the process through which
organizations often apologize for ill events or wrong doing, and then use subsequent image
restoration strategies to repair their public image in the eyes of important publics. Specifically,
Benoit (1995a) identifies five key restoration strategy clusters which include: Mortification
(usually involving an apology), Denial, Evasion of Responsibility (e.g. Shifting Blame),
Reducing the Offensiveness of the Act, and Corrective Action. Benoit’s idea’s have been tested
and applied to organizational case examples such as the Tobacco company Brown and
Williamson ( King 2006), Dow Corning’s breast implant crisis (Brinson & Benoit, 1996),
Johnson Control’s Fetal Protection Issues (Hearit, 1997), Merrill Lynch and charges of fraud
(Hearit & Brown, 2004); Sear’s Auto repair scandal (Benoit, 1995b)Texaco’s crisis over charges
of racism (Brinson & Benoit, 1999; Coombs, 2000); Wal-Mart (Benoit & Dorries, 1999), and
The United States government’s response to the USS Greenville crisis (Drumheller and Benoit,
2004). Moreover, Benoit’s typology has also been applied to the restoration rhetoric tied to the
images of individuals in the face of controversy and/or crisis, including figures such as President
Bush (Benoit, 2006), President Bill Clinton (Blaney & Benoit, 2001), and Kenneth Star (Benoit
& Mchale, 1999). Finally, it has also been used to examine the image restoration efforts made on
behalf of independent sovereign states such as Saudi Arabia (Zhang & Benoit, 2004). While
much of the research in this area has been rhetorically and descriptively based some research has
indeed focused on comparative evaluation of image restoration strategies (Benoit & Drew,
1997), examining more aggressive strategies such as the use of counterattacks (Hearit, 1996),
and investigating the effectiveness of organizational actions (corrective) in relation to the use of
the more common image restoration strategies (Sellnow, Ulmer & Snider, 1998).
Systemizing Research Findings
While the use of rhetorical theory and analysis to examine image restoration and its
effectiveness can be fruitful, the use of Post Hoc analyses, coupled with a focus on independent
case studies make comparative analysis of competing strategies difficult. In light of these
methodological limitations scholars such as Botan (1989), Coombs (1998, 2004a: 2004b),
Coombs and Holladay (2001; 2002), Coombs and Schmidt (2000); have called for research that
creates a systematic mechanism for using and evaluating these strategies, and that also can
provide empirical data to allow for a more direct comparison of strategies. Coombs (1998) for
example sorted image restoration/crisis response strategies into seven categories and arrayed
them on a continuum which was anchored by defensive and accommodative strategies. Coombs
& Holladay (2001; 2002) also offer situational crisis communication theory as a theoretical
framework that examines past organizational behavior, attributions and current response on
perceptions. Last, Coombs (2004b) attempts to create a standard set of guidelines for crisis
response strategies, entitled “Crisis Communication Standards”. A consistent communicative
theme across these manuscripts and research is the call for more empirical research, especially
research that can provide prescriptive outcomes.
Empirical research adds power to the base of knowledge in this area in that it first, uses
experimental methods that often can control a large number of extraneous factors, and more
importantly allows for the use of controlled selective comparisons between strategies. For
50

example Coombs & Schmidt (2000) empirically analyzed subject reactions to Texaco’s response
strategies during its racism based crisis. While this study is limited in that it used an actual well
known case example which may have limited effects, it does provide some empirical data that
can aid in choosing among competing crisis strategies. In this case the results suggest that neither
mortification nor separation were more effective than other strategies. Additionally, the authors
note that the suggested rhetorical use of strategy in this situation led to lower quantitative
outcomes (mortification in the face of transgression for example), which indicates a need to
empirically test the use of differing strategies across situations before advocating their use by
actual organizations.
Lyon & Cameron (2004) examined the impact of past reputation on perceptions of
organizational response during a crisis. This experimental investigation found that subject’s
attitudes and behavioral intentions were impacted by information regarding the past practices of
an organization. This research indicated that the crisis responses by organizations linked with
positive past reputations were seen as more positive (pro-social, likeable). Moreover, participants
also indicated they would be more likely to buy products from such a company, than those with a
negative reputational past. Finally, this research also found that the choice of a defensive strategy
led to negative results, and that for organizations with bad reputations, apologetic responses were
more effective than defensive strategy selections. Lyon & Cameron (2004) also conclude by
calling for more empirically based research, especially those that examine strategy effectiveness
within the context of crises.
Given the need for research that provides systematic comparative evaluation of differing
image restoration strategies and building off of the findings of previous research on the impact of
past acts (Coombs, 2004; Lyon & Cameron, 2004) this investigation was designed to compare
the effectiveness of strategies such as bolstering against several competing image restoration
strategies in the face of a litigation based crisis. The current investigation was designed to test
the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis One: That the use of a bolstering strategy will lead to lower perceptions of guilt and
wrongdoing. This hypothesis predicted that strategies which comment on past positive efforts to
manage threatening issues and to act responsibly will lead to increased perceptions of innocence
and decreased perceptions of guilt and/or wrongdoing.
Hypothesis Two: That the use of a bolstering strategy will lead to increased perceptions of
organizational trust/ truthfulness. This hypothesis predicted that the use of a bolstering strategy
which reflects on a company’s past positive practices will lead to increased public perceptions of
trust. Steps to address pending issues, especially those that deal with potentially negative
behavior by employees are believed to be linked.
Hypothesis Three: That the bolstering strategy will lead to increased perceptions of a positive
work environment, and or the lack of a hostile work environment. This hypothesis predicted that
the use of references to past positive acts that detail attempts to prepare the organization and
avoid such a crisis will lead to perceptions supportive of the organization and a lack of belief in
the charges regarding a hostile work environment.
The following research program was designed to test these hypotheses by using an experimental
51

method that varied apparent crisis response strategies in the face of charges of alleged sexual
harassment.
Method
Design
This investigation used an experimental independent groups design to assess the impact of
response strategies on audience perceptions. To avoid sensitization a post-test only design was
employed. Subjects were randomly assigned to groups, and were given credit in coursework for
participating.
Participants
The participants in this investigation were 269 undergraduate students enrolled in introductory
public relations and mass communication courses at a large Mid-Western University.
Participation was voluntary and subjects were given extra-credit in their course work in
exchange for their participation. Participants were randomly assigned to conditions, and
responded anonymously to all measures.
Procedure
In advance of receiving the stimulus materials and dependent measures, participants were
told that they would be participating in research that examined the mass media. The participants
were given a packet of materials which included the stimulus materials and the dependent
measures. Upon reading the stimulus materials the participants completed the dependent
measures and were debriefed.
Stimulus Materials
The focus of this investigation was to assess the relative effectiveness of different crisis
response strategies. To test the research questions in a valid and generalizable manner the test
strategies were presented as statements attributed to an organizational spokesperson in the
context of a newspaper article highlighting the fact that charges had been filed. The stimulus
article was identified as being taken from the Chicago Tribune, given an Associated Press (AP)
designation, and presented in a typeset manner that is consistent with articles taken from that
newspaper. As a manipulation check several focused questions were asked about the stimulus
materials during the debriefing. The results indicated that the participants believed the stimulus
materials to be actual articles and not produced by the researchers.
Independent Variables
The independent variable in this research was the organizational response in the face of a
crisis (e.g. Bolstering, Transcendence, Denial, No Comment) which in this case was charges of
sexual harassment. The choice of this litigation crisis was based on its prevalence in the media,
and because this type of crisis allowed for past organizational action. As noted above, the
strategy was operationalized in the form of statements attributed to the organization in response
to charges being filed, which appeared in the context of a newspaper article. This investigation
tested five main strategies which ranged from a declination to comment (“no-comment”), simple
denial, to more complex strategies suggested by the image restoration literature. Table 1.0 Below
presents the categories used and sample operationalizations for each strategy.
52

Table 1.0 Tactics And Examples As Operationalized In This Research
Denial-When contacted , a company spokesperson denied the charges
No Comment-When contacted , a company spokesperson refused to comment on the charges
Bolstering-“Allied has always been proactive in taking steps to avoid such problems”. The company
spokesperson further added that “Allied was one of the first firms to institute a sexual harassment policy,
and provide training for all employees, this company has always worked hard at creating and maintaining a
positive work environment”
Transcendence-“The issue of sexual harassment in the workplace is problematic, basically because the
laws and definitions are extremely vague”. The spokesperson continued by noting that “this is an issue that
is affecting employers across the country, and does not really reflect on the workplace environment at
Allied.”
No Comment on Grounds of Legal Fairness-When contacted, a company spokesperson refused to
comment on the charges, stating that “in the interest of fairness for all the involved parties information
regarding the alleged incidents was not going to released.”
Dependent Variables
The dependent variables in this investigation were perceptions of guilt in two forms. First
as an aggregate measure of perceived guilt and truthfulness regarding objections. Second, a
simple perception of guilt or innocence. Others included a measure of organizational
trust/truthfulness, perceptions of the organization’s efforts to avoid creating a hostile work
environment, and overall affective ratings in terms of strategy use and initial acceptance.
Results
A series of analyses of variance were used to test the hypothesis which predicted that
bolstering strategies would be the most effective in attaining positive perceptions and
assumptions of innocence. The data in Table 2 present the differences found in perceptions of
guilt by media response strategy. Overall, the scores for the aggregate guilt measure can vary
from 6 to 30, with higher numbers indicating perceptions of innocence. An examination of the
Means presented in Table 2.0 indicate that there was some variance in perceptions of guilt and
that there were differences between strategies. Moreover, the differences between strategies did
attain statistical significance (F (4,250) = 4.89, p

Hypothesis 2 predicted that the use of a bolstering strategy that detailed the
organizations past efforts in the area of sex harassment would lead to increased perceptions of
organization trust/truthfulness. An examination of the Means found in Table 3.0 below were
consistent with predictions made by the hypothesis. An analysis of variance was used to test
hypothesis 3, which found statistically significant differences between the use of strategy and
the perceptions of organizational trust and truthfulness ( F(4,250)= 4.77, p

Discussion
The purpose of this research project was to determine the comparative effectiveness of
image restoration strategies such as bolstering as an organizations response in the face of sexual
harassment charges. Overall, the findings of this investigation indicated that there were
differences between strategy selection and subsequent public opinion, and these differences
attained statistical significance and as such as are not attributed to chance. These data clearly
demonstrated that commenting on past behaviors to address threatening issues, and to avoid such
a crisis were relatively more effective than strategies which seek to either deny charges, shift
blame (transcendence), or avoid comment. Clearly these data tell the practitioner to either bolster
focusing on their past efforts, or to use a no comment strategy claiming legal fairness.
In terms of the hypotheses forwarded by this investigation, the predictions made
regarding the effectiveness of the bolstering strategies were found to be substantiated, and clearly
suggest that some strategies may be more effective to use when concerned with organizational
image and perceptions of guilt.
These findings are also consistent with the results of prior research, such as the findings
reported in Lyon & Cameron (2004), which examined the effects of prior reputation on
perceptions of organizational response, and found that subjects held more positive perceptions
of organizations which had a reputational past that was positive in nature. While the
investigative efforts of Lyon & Cameron (2004) did not directly test the comparative
effectiveness of a bolstering strategy, they did examine the impact of an organizations past
practices on perceptions regarding response in the face of a current crisis. In the current
investigation, the bolstering strategy was operationalized by commenting on the organizations
past practices to build a positive workplace and to address potential problems with sexual
harassment. Given the use of an unknown organization in the stimulus materials, subjects
appear to have used the information provided by the bolstering strategy and thus believed the
organizations claims regarding its past proactive behaviors.
A surprising finding was the relative effectiveness of the “no comment” “due to legal
fairness” strategy. Hearit (2001) discusses the legal/legality based strategies, and notes that they
are often used for the purposes of evading communication. While the results were surprising,
they may explain why the results of Fitzpatrick and Rubin (1995) found that this avoidance
based strategy is frequently used by large organizations. It is used because it appears to work.
Finally, there may be a degree of irony to be found in the results of this investigation.
First, it should be noted that the transcendence strategy was consistently seen to be less
effective than other strategies. Additionally, this finding is consistent with Hearit’ s (1997)
conclusions on the attempted use of this strategy by Johnson Controls. However, to the extent
that a search of the media does yield an alarming growth in litigation based crises, the claims
of transcendence (due to vague laws for example) may ultimately be well founded. It appears
to be the case that in a litigation based crisis the transcendence strategy could be a fairly
“truthful” and “accurate” response. However, the results of this investigation found that using
such a strategy was unlikely to be effective in creating perceptions of innocence, trust, or the
belief that the organization did not promote a hostile work environment. Put differently, this
research suggests that if objective innocence was known, and that the litigation based crisis
was indeed part of a larger trend due in part to environmental factors, telling the “truth”
would have led to negative results.
55

Limitations
An examination of the data in this investigation provided an interesting dilemma. A series
of analyses found significant differences in the way that men and women perceived the
effectiveness of the media strategies. However, these differences did not exhibit a high degree of
relational strength, and more importantly may be irrelevant given the scope of this research. This
investigation focused on identifying effective media strategies in the face of litigation based
charges. To the extent that these strategies tend to be needed in response to inquiries by news
media which are not gender specific, differences in perceptions by gender added little value to
the interpretation of these data. More simply put, because news content is not segmented into
different messages for men and women, it was more pragmatic to focus on overall strategies as
opposed to those that are perceived as more effective by any given group.
A second limitation was the use of a college based sample. While college students are
often apt to be less informed on current events, and perhaps less involved with “real world”
issues such as litigation based crises, they may also tend to be more liberal in their political and
ideological beliefs, and have less life “experience” with which to interpret the impact of issues
on organizations and communities. To that extent the use of a more age “balanced” sample might
have provided different results.
A last limitation of this study actually gives direction for future research. This
investigation simply assessed whether or not certain response strategies differentially impacted
perceptions. The crucial question of why these strategies did or did not have an impact was not
dealt with in this investigation. Does the use of a transcendence strategy or any attempt imply
guilt because it seems evasive? Or could it be the case that any strategy that is more
defensive/negative (Coombs 1998) in nature implies guilt in contrast to a more neutrally or
accommodative based approach such as bolstering. While the works of scholars such as Coombs
(1998; 2004a; 2004b), Coombs and Holladay (2001:2002), and Lyons and Cameron (2004)
continue to identify historical, situational, and strategic factors that impact perceptions of
response during crises, future research should explain not only what, but also why certain
strategies are effective or ineffective at impacting public opinion across differing crisis
situations.
Conclusion
This investigation examined the comparative effectiveness of bolstering as an image
restoration strategy in the face of organizational crisis. The results indicated that bolstering was
indeed more effective in eliciting lower perceptions of guilt and/or wrongdoing, higher levels of
trust, and was better at eliciting positive perception in regard to a positive work environment.
Comparatively it was more effective than other strategies such as denial, transcendence, and
refusal to comment. Theoretically these results add information to the currently limited base of
empirical public relations research on crisis and crisis response. From a prescriptive perspective,
these results provide the practicing professional at least some ability to make comparative
choices among crisis response strategies and to do so based on objective quantitative results, as
opposed to having to rely only on Post-Hoc rhetorical analyses.
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58

IMC and its Integration into Programs of Journalism and Mass Communication
Andrew Lingwall
Clarion University of Pennsylvania
alingwall@clarion.edu
Abstract
This study explores the level and nature of curricular integration in university programs
of journalism and mass communication according to the principles of Integrated Marketing
Communication (IMC). It also explores respondents’ perceptions about the value of such an
integrated curriculum.
The key findings of the study are: (1) that regardless of institutional factors, institutions
surveyed have achieved only moderate levels of integration across degree programs, courses, and
course topics; (2) that regardless of institutional factors, institutions surveyed have achieved
significantly higher levels of integration within courses integrating advertising and public
relations; and (3) significant differences between respondents’ perceived value of an integrated
curriculum according to their number of years of professional experience.
The findings in this study create implications for educators and administrators in four
major areas of work: program and curriculum planning, faculty hiring, ties to industry, and
institutional/political issues.
Introduction
While the concept of Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) has gained significant
ground among practitioners in public relations, advertising and marketing over the past 15 years,
its success in assimilating into academic programs at universities has been less clear.
Some departments, schools, and colleges of journalism, mass communication and
business have integrated their curricula or built new programs based on IMC concepts. However,
others have retained traditional walls between the disciplines or simply added IMC units into
existing courses. Educators’ academic backgrounds, ranging from academic discipline and
educational level to years of academic or professional experience, may influence their
perceptions of the value of curricular integration.
Over the last decade, only a limited number of studies have focused on the topic of
curricular integration in journalism and mass communication programs, and on educators’
perceptions of its value. It is critical to know more about the current level and nature of
curricular integration in programs of journalism and mass communication, and how educators’
professional backgrounds might be influencing degree programs and course offerings.
In 2005, IMC researcher and educator Charles Patti threw down a pedagogical challenge
to all JMC educators. He underscored the need to find ways to integrate the social and behavioral
sciences with marketing and business in the classroom. He also called on educators to
acknowledge that IMC is an emerging discipline worldwide, and to make the effort to bring
current thinking about IMC to students everywhere.
Some educators have echoed Patti’s call. The 2006 Report of the Commission on Public
Relations Education calls upon educators to provide their students with an education that is broad
and interdisciplinary in nature. Notably, the commission’s list of necessary knowledge and skills
includes marketing and finance, uses of research and forecasting, management concepts and
theories, strategic planning, and technological and visual literacy. “More than ever, this
knowledge base must be interdisciplinary,” the report noted. “Principles of public relations and
59

management must be intertwined with and related to business, behavioral science, technology
and other disciplines. Changes in the field of public relations demand integration of the
knowledge and skills of these disciplines. Among other items, the commission recommended
more emphasis on the integration of messages and tools, and interdisciplinary problem solving.
This study builds upon the demonstrated need for a better understanding of the level and
nature of curricular integration in university programs in 2008. Because faculty backgrounds and
attitudes play a major role in how curricula are integrated, this study also attempts to gain a
clearer understanding of their influence.
Review of Literature
IMC Defined
By definition, IMC is a combination of diverse disciplines. Duncan and Mulhern (2004)
write that IMC (a) is more strategic than executional; (b) is about managing or influencing all
brand messages, not just those sent by marketing communication functions; (c) combines twoway,
interactive communication with one-way mass communication; (d) focuses on relationships
more than transactions; (e) is results-driven; (f) takes into consideration all stakeholders; and (g)
is conceptually an ongoing process.
Business consultant Anders Gronstedt (1996) defined IMC as “a strategic management
process of facilitating a desired meaning of the company and its brands by creating unity of
effort at every point of contact with key customers and stakeholders for the purpose of building
profitable relationships with them.”
IMC in the Academy
Duncan and Mulhern (2004) underscored the importance of the IMC curriculum to
students and the marketplace. They wrote that university programs which teach undergraduate
and graduate advertising, promotion and public relations within an integration context better
reflect realities in today’s media-converged market. Companies such as IBM, which have
extensively utilized IMC since the early 1990s, reward students with integrated degrees more
than those who do not.
However, Duncan and Mulhern (2004) note that mixed views of IMC among academics
may still be holding back its success in the academy. Participants in a 2004 IMC symposium at
the University of Denver reported that some professors either dismissed it as nothing new, or
viewed it as a discipline entirely outside of advertising and promotion rather than a more
strategic way to teach it. Participants said that some schools still offered a principles of
advertising course along with a more advanced course called “IMC,” using the IMC course to
teach campaign planning and execution.
At the same time, Duncan and Mulhern added that IMC has achieved some “brand
awareness” among academics and textbook publishers. For example, many advertising textbooks
use the term extensively.
Faculty attitudes toward IMC may vary according to discipline. In a survey of 600
advertising and public relations educators, Griffin and Pasadeos (1998) reported that advertising
faculty indicated a greater eagerness to embrace the IMC concept and integrate IMC into their
teaching than did their counterparts in public relations. The researchers theorized that public
relations educators may have viewed marketing as only part of pr’s larger role, and that pr
educators appeared to be interested in protecting their sequences from an IMC influence where
they felt it did not apply. Also, IMC tends to group its promotion activities under the marketing
60

umbrella. This arrangement more closely mirrors advertising than it does public relations, in
which practitioners often focus efforts on internal audiences and non-consumer publics. Yet,
respondents from both groups tended to agree that employers are now demanding IMC skills
from graduates that their sequences do not cover.
Griffin and Pasadeos also discovered that faculty attitudes toward IMC can vary
according to age. For example, fewer respondents with six to 10 years of experience, when
compared to those with one to five years of experience, tended to agree that teaching of
advertising and public relations should be combined at the graduate level. The researchers
theorized that a greater number of younger educators are coming from doctoral programs that
stress IMC, and that they may be more familiar with IMC through literature and trade
publications.
Concerns about faculty teaching qualifications may pose further challenges to integration.
Pasadeos (2000) writes that not everyone assigned to teach IMC is necessarily qualified to do so.
He observed that while many new advertising and public relations faculty show great enthusiasm
for it, the reality of restructuring entire courses often proves to be too difficult. Too often
“integration” means an occasional PR lecture in an advertising class, or vice versa.
For programs unable to make the leap to total curricular integration, Pasadeos emphasizes
the utility of a limited approach. He suggests that for tactical coursework such as writing,
students can take separate advertising and public relations courses. However, upper-level,
strategy-based courses should be structured in a more integrated manner. In cases where no
single faculty member is qualified to teach an integrated class, a team-teaching approach could
be utilized. Such an effort requires good rapport and coordination between instructors.
According to Pasadeos, making integration work ultimately requires new staffing practices,
including hiring, and better graduate training in IMC. The best way to get more qualified faculty,
he writes, is to build stronger graduate programs in IMC.
A 2006 study by Larsen and Len-Rios built upon the work of Griffin and Pasadeos by
further exploring the status of curriculum integration from the perspective of the educator. Here,
the researchers established a strong association between educators’ attitudes toward integration
and the current level of integration at their institutions. The researchers also discovered a
similarity of perception between advertising and public relations educators about what skills are
most important to teach students.
Addressing industry demands, Duncan and Mulhern (2004) underscored the urgent need
among clients, agencies and students to find academics and university programs with a solid
understanding of IMC to teach more of it at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.
However, they write that academicians have not yet provided a sufficient theoretical foundation
for IMC that will allow it to be recognized for what it can do. They conclude with the advice that
integrating courses in advertising and promotion is certainly more challenging, yet necessary if
students are to understand concepts such as relationship and brand building.
Curricular and Marketplace Issues
Several studies conducted during the 1990s advanced the importance of IMC-related
course offerings in the public relations curriculum. The 1993 Integrated Communication Task
Force (Duncan, Caywood and Newsom, 1993) recommended that advertising and public
relations students be offered an integrated communication program to include: (a) a strong
emphasis on the liberal arts; (b) training in written, oral and visual communication; (c) solid
61

understanding of business and organizational behavior; and (d) understanding and respect for
other communication disciplines and specialties.
Wightman (1999) highlighted the danger of university programs failing to connect
advertising, marketing and public relations, and keeping students in instructional “silos.” The
university major system dictates that undergraduate students are taught according to specialized
ideologies which may never connect to one another in the classroom. Although students may
become experts in public relations, advertising, or marketing, they will be unable to
conceptualize the overall communication environment within an organization. They may also be
ignorant of the basic business principles that are crucial to earning respect from management and
sustaining the bottom line.
Roush (2006) discussed the importance of teaching business and economics in journalism
and mass communication programs. He noted that industry has requested such expertise for
nearly two decades, and a number of programs were looking to modify mass communication
curricula to include courses that address business, economics, and related topics.
The disconnect between what industry demands and what academics can deliver becomes
real in the marketplace. In a survey of senior marketers (2007), Rooney discovered that IMC is
the number-one issue facing their organization, up from number four in 2006. At the same time,
Caywood (1997) asserted that students who don’t go on to earn graduate degrees in IMC are
unlikely to acquire the mindset and skills needed to succeed as IMC managers. According to
marketing executives, the biggest obstacle to implementing IMC is the lack of people with the
broad skills to make it work, wrote George and Michael Belch (1998).
Gronstedt (1996) argued for the necessity of advertising, marketing, and public relations
joining forces in the marketplace purely from a stakeholder perspective. In the 21 st century,
stakeholder groups as diverse as consumers, investors, media, employees, suppliers and
distributors interact, overlap, and depend upon one another. Discipline-specific terms for
stakeholders such as “markets” or “publics” no longer apply. Neither do the discipline-specific
communication tools of the individual fields. As the definitions of the two disciplines broaden,
the distinctions between them are blurring. Gronstedt envisions a future in which specialists from
marketing and public relations will still be in demand; however, they will be orchestrated under
the direction of an “integrated communicator.”
According to Schultz (1996), debates about the relative worth of marketing compared to
public relations or advertising are pointless, because IMC is inevitable, and it is here to stay.
Method
Research Questions
To assess the level and the nature of curricular integration in university programs
according to IMC principles, it is necessary to understand the extent to which degree programs,
courses, and course topics reflect such integration. It is also important to understand how
institutional factors and the perceptions of academic administrators may impact curricular
integration. Therefore, the following research questions were developed:
1: What is the level and nature of curricular integration in university degree programs,
courses, and course topics?
2: How do institutional factors predict the level and nature of curricular integration in
university degree programs, courses, and course topics?
3A: How do institutional factors predict advantages and barriers to integration?
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3B: How do institutional factors predict teaching techniques utilized to integrate
curricula?
3C: How do institutional factors predict educators’ perceived value of an integrated
curriculum?
4: How do educators’ professional backgrounds predict their perceived value of an
integrated curriculum?
Survey Method
Considering the varying media preferences of JMC educators and the uneven reliability
of e-mail, the researcher developed both a paper and Web-based version of the survey. The paper
version was mailed to all prospective participants. The cover sheet of the survey contained a link
to the Web-based version of the survey, and an invitation to take the survey online if they wished
to do so.
The survey was fielded between November 2006 and February 2007. Within three weeks
of mailing, a reminder postcard followed. The postcard contained the researcher’s contact
information and the survey Website. Five, $50 gift certificates to Amazon.com were offered and
awarded to individuals completing the survey.
Both the paper and Web-based survey instrument contained eight sections with a
combination of check-offs, Likert scales and fill-in-the-blank items. Sections were divided as
follows:
Section 1: Undergraduate and graduate degree programs; courses integrating advertising
and public relations.
Section 2: Courses and course topics addressed in curricula
Section 3: Communication courses required or offered as options
Section 4: Business courses required or offered as options
Section 5: Advantages and barriers to curricular integration
Section 6: Teaching techniques used to integrate curricula in the classroom
Section 7: Educators’ perceptions on the value of an integrated curriculum
Section 8: Demographic information on the respondent, including (a) job title, (b)
education, (c) years of academic experience, and (d) years of professional experience
At its conclusion, the survey contained one open-ended question inviting participants to
share observations or insights on curricular integration in JMC programs.
To extrapolate information about the respondents’ institutions, the researcher matched
respondents’ paper survey numbers with their university mailing addresses. A similar procedure
was employed using respondents’ e-mail addresses for surveys completed on the Web. In all
cases, respondents’ anonymity was protected. Once the respondents’ institutions were identified,
the institutions were researched online to determine (a) public or private status, (b) Carnegie
Basic Classification, (c) Carnegie Enrollment Profile, (d) ACEJMC accreditation status, (e)
academic unit, and (f) university enrollment.
Participants
Because the researcher was most interested in gathering information on programs from
department chairs, program directors, and deans, the survey was mailed to the 427 members of
the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) who were also
members of the Association of Schools of Journalism and Mass Communication (ASJMC). A
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total of 114 surveys were completed, yielding a 27% response rate. Of the total, 73 were
completed on paper, and 41 were completed online.
Respondents came from diverse academic and professional backgrounds. Among all
respondents, 28% (n = 28) identified themselves as deans or directors or colleges or schools.
Thirty-nine percent (n = 39) identified as program directors, 34% (n = 34) identified as
department chairs, and 2% (n = 2) identified as professors.
Eighty-two percent (n = 89) of respondents had earned Ph.D.’s or doctorates. Another 6%
(n = 6) had completed some doctoral work, and 12% (n = 13) had master’s degrees. Years of
academic experience ranged from less than five years to more than 25 years, with an average of
17 years (Mdn = 15). Years of professional experience ranged from less than five years to more
than 25 years, with an average of 10 years (Mdn = 8). Years at institution ranged from less than
five to more than 25 years, with an average of 15 years (Mdn = 12). Eighty-eight percent (n =
92) of respondents reported they were tenured, while 12% (n = 13) reported they were nontenured.
Respondents came from a wide range of academic institutions. Of the total number of
respondents (n = 99) for whom institutional affiliation could be verified, 62% (n = 61) worked
for public universities. Thirty-eight percent (n = 38) worked for private universities. According
to the Carnegie Basic Classification, 37% (n = 37) came from RU/VH (research university: very
high research activity) institutions, and 50% (n = 50) came from RU/H (research university: high
research activity) institutions. An additional 10% (n = 10) came from DRU (doctoral research
university) institution. An additional 2% (n = 2) came from Master’s/L (master’s colleges and
universities-larger programs).
According to the Carnegie Enrollment Profile, 14% (n = 14) of respondents came from
MGP (majority graduate/professional) institutions, 47% (n = 47) came from MU (majority
undergraduate) institutions, and 38% (n = 38) came from HU (high undergraduate) institutions.
Respondents’ academic programs also varied according to whether they were accredited
by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC).
Thirty-five percent (n = 34) of respondents’ academic programs were accredited, while 65% (n =
65) were not accredited.
Academic units represented in the survey included 50% (n = 51) departments offering
primarily journalism and mass communication-related programs. Another 21% (n = 21) came
from departments offering more diverse programs such as communication studies, English,
theater, graphic design and visual arts. Another 30% (n = 30) came from schools or colleges of
communication, journalism, mass communication, or communication studies.
Finally, each university’s overall student enrollment was considered. Forty-nine percent
(n = 49) of institutions enrolled fewer than 10,000 students; 29% (n = 29) enrolled between
10,000 and 20,000 students; 15% (n = 15) enrolled between 20,000 and 30,000 students; and 8%
(n = 8) enrolled more than 30,000 students annually.
Dependent Variables
Six dependent variables were identified for this study: (1) degree programs, (2) courses,
(3) course topics, (4) advantages and barriers to integration (5) teaching techniques, and (6)
perceived value of an integrated curriculum.
To measure the first three dependent variables, respondents were provided with a series
of “check-off” boxes to indicate degree programs, courses or course topics offered by their
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academic units. Responses were coded as 1 = low integration, 2 = medium integration, and 3 =
high integration.
Degree programs. To identify the level of curricular integration in undergraduate and
graduate degrees of study, this item contained check boxes in which 1 = major, 2 =
concentration, and 3 = double major or concentration.
Courses. To identify the extent to which academic units required common
communication courses or business courses, this item contained check boxes in which 1 =
optional, 2 = recommended option, and 3 = required.
Courses integrating advertising and public relations. To determine the extent of courses
integrating advertising and public relations, this item contained check boxes in which 1 = crosslisted
in catalog, 2 = lecture or unit, and 3 = full course.
Course Topics. To determine the range of topics addressed in courses offered by
academic programs, this item contained check boxes in which 1 = not applicable, 2 = lecture or
unit, and 3 = full course.
Advantages and Barriers. This variable contained six Likert scale items in which
respondents identified six institutional factors as advantages or barriers to integration, including:
faculty expertise, faculty interest, ties to industry, resources, student demand, and administrative
support. Here, 1 = strong barrier, 2 = barrier, 3 = neutral, 4 = advantage, and 5 = strong
advantage.
Teaching Techniques. This variable contained three Likert scale items in which
respondents identified teaching techniques they used to integrate curricula in their classrooms,
including: team teaching, guest lectures, and case studies. Here, 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 =
sometimes, and 4 = often.
Perceived Value of an Integrated Curriculum. This variable contained five Likert scale
items in which respondents evaluated statements related to their beliefs about the value of an
integrated curriculum. Here, 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 =
strongly agree.
Independent Variables
Professional background and institutional profile were selected as the main independent
variables.
Professional background. Data for professional background was obtained in Section 8 of
the survey. Here, respondents filled in blanks and checked boxes to indicate items related to their
professional background. Items included were: (a) job title, (b) education, (c) years of academic
experience, and (d) years of professional experience.
Institutional factors. As noted above, data for institutional profiles was obtained by
matching numbers coded on the paper surveys and respondents’ e-mail addresses to university
addresses. Once the respondents’ institutions were identified, the institutions were researched
online to determine: (a) public versus private status, (b) Carnegie Basic Classification, (c)
Carnegie Enrollment Profile, (d) ACEMJC accreditation status, (e) academic unit, and (f)
university enrollment.
Data Analysis
To address RQ1 and RQ2, check-box responses for degree programs, courses, and course
topics were compared using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation. As noted above, responses
were coded as 1 = low integration, 2 = medium integration, and 3 = high integration. Coded
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esponses were then totaled for each category, set against an ideal score (indicating the highest
possible number attainable for that category), and then assigned an “integration score” as a
percentage of the available total. Here, 0 = low integration, .5 = medium integration, and 1 =
high integration. T-tests and analysis of variance was used to test for significant differences.
Descriptive statistics, t-tests and analysis of variance were used to investigate RQ1-4. An
alpha level of .05 was used for all statistical tests.
Results
RQ1: What is the level and nature of curricular integration in university degree programs,
courses and course topics?
Taken as a whole, data indicated that institutions surveyed (n = 114) have achieved
“medium integration,” with a mean integration score of .61 across all degree programs courses
and course topics. However, data indicated that all institutions surveyed tend toward “high
integration” within courses integrating advertising and public relations, with an overall
integration score of .83.
Within the “undergraduate degrees” and “graduate degrees” sections of the survey, total
respondents scored in the “medium integration” range, with overall integration scores of .53 and
.46 respectively.
Within the “common communication courses” and “course topics” sections, overall
respondents scored above “medium integration” with scores of .70 and .64 respectively. Overall
respondents scored as “medium integration” within the “common business courses” section of
the survey, achieving an overall integration score of .50.
An ANOVA test of integration scores revealed no significant differences between any of
the categories.
RQ2: How do institutional factors predict the level and nature of curricular integration in
university degree programs, courses, and course topics?
To address RQ2, institutional factors including public versus private status, Carnegie
Basic Classification, Carnegie Enrollment Profile, ACEJMC accreditation status, academic unit,
and enrollment were examined.
Regardless of institutional factors, none of the respondents earned scores beyond the
“medium integration” level for undergraduate or graduate degrees. Mean undergraduate degree
scores ranged from .43 to .54, while mean graduate degree scores ran slightly lower, from .36 to
.53.
Regardless of institutional factors, respondents all scored somewhat higher, between the
“medium integration” and “high integration” levels, for common communication courses and
course topics. Mean scores ranged from .60 to .77. Regardless of institutional factors,
respondents all scored as “medium integration” for common business courses, where mean
scores ranged from .43 to .63.
However, scores tending toward “high integration” were evident across all institutions for
courses integrating advertising and public relations. Here, mean integration scores ran between
.78 and .97.
T-tests and ANOVA tests revealed no significant differences between any of the groups
for degrees, courses or course topics.
Mean curricular integration scores for all institutions are summarized in Table 1.
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RQ3A: How do institutional factors predict advantages and barriers to integration?
To address RQ3A, institutional factors including public versus private status, Carnegie
Basic Classification, Carnegie Enrollment Profile, ACEJMC accreditation status, academic unit,
and enrollment were again examined.
Regardless of institutional category, all respondents reported the highest mean scores for
faculty expertise as an advantage or barrier. All scores were in the “neutral to “advantage” range,
with mean scores between 3.4 and 4.0. T-tests and ANOVA tests revealed no significant
differences between any of the groups.
Faculty interest generated the second-highest mean scores. Here, all institutions reported
mean scores between 3.2 and 3.9. A t-test within groups revealed one difference that approached
significance (t = 1.86, df = 86, p < .05) related to accreditation status and faculty interest.
Accredited programs reported a mean score of 3.2, while non-accredited programs reported 3.7.
Evaluating ties to industry as an advantage or barrier, all institutions reported mean
scores between 3.4 and 3.7. T-tests and ANOVA tests revealed no significant differences
between any of the groups.
Resources as an advantage or barrier generated the lowest scores within this section of
the survey. Across all categories, institutions reported mean scores of between 2.3 and 3.4.
An ANOVA test between groups revealed a one difference that approached significance,
F(2, 90) = 2.86, p = .05, related to academic unit and resources. Departments B reported a mean
score of 3.1, while Schools and Colleges reported 2.7, and Departments A reported 2.3.
Student demand as an advantage or barrier earned mean scores between 3.3 and 4.0
across all institutional categories. ANOVA tests revealed two significant differences between
institutions in this area. The first, F(3, 85) = 2.68, p = .05, related to Carnegie Basic
Classification. RU/VH universities reported a mean score of 3.3, while RU/H universities
reported 3.7, and DRU universities reported 3.5.
The second significant difference in student demand was related to academic unit, F(2,
89) = 4.05, p = .05. Departments B reported a mean score of 4.0, while Schools and Colleges
reported 3.5, and Departments A reported 3.3.
Finally, administrative support was examined as an advantage or barrier. Here, all
institutions reported mean scores ranging from 2.9 to 3.2. An ANOVA test revealed one
significant difference related to Carnegie Basic Classification, F(3, 85) = 2.84, p = .05. RU/VH
universities reported a mean score of 3.0, while RU/H universities reported 3.2, and DRU
universities reported 2.9.
Mean scores and statistical results for perceived advantages and barriers according to
Carnegie Basic Classification are summarized in Table 2.
RQ3B: How do institutional factors predict teaching techniques utilized to integrate curricula?
To address RQ3B, institutional factors including public versus private status, Carnegie
Basic Classification, Carnegie Enrollment Profile, ACEJMC accreditation status, academic unit,
and enrollment were again examined.
Evaluating case studies, respondents as a whole reported mean scores between 3.4 and
3.8, the highest of any of the teaching techniques. T-tests and ANOVA tests revealed no
significant differences between any of the groups.
Evaluating team teaching, respondents reported mean scores between 2.3 and 3.0, the
lowest of any of the teaching techniques. T-tests and ANOVA tests revealed no significant
differences between any of the groups.
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Evaluating guest lectures, respondents reported mean scores between 3.2 and 3.6. An
ANOVA test revealed one difference that approached significance, F(2, 93) = 2.96, p = .05,
related to Carnegie Enrollment Profile. MU universities reported a mean score of 3.6, while HU
universities reported 3.4, and MGP universities reported 3.2.
Mean scores and statistical results for teaching techniques according to Carnegie
Enrollment Profile are summarized in Table 3.
RQ3C: How do institutional factors predict educators’ perceived value of an integrated
curriculum?
To address RQ3C, institutional factors including public versus private status, Carnegie
Basic Classification, Carnegie Enrollment Profile, ACEJMC accreditation status, academic unit,
and enrollment were again examined.
According to mean scores, overall perceived value of an integrated curriculum was
neutral to favorable across all institutional categories, with most mean scores at 3.5 and above.
The highest mean scores, ranging from 3.5 to 4.1, were reported in response to the statement, “I
believe an integrated curriculum will help my students to have more rewarding careers.” The
statement, “I believe an integrated curriculum is valuable to my academic program” followed
closely, with mean scores ranging from 3.5 to 3.8.
The lowest mean scores, ranging from 2.4 to 3.3, were reported in response to the
statement, “I believe an integrated curriculum belongs in a program of business.”
Examining university enrollment as an institutional factor, an ANOVA test between
groups revealed three differences that approached significance. The first difference was related
to the perceived value of an integrated curriculum in providing students with rewarding careers:
F(3, 94) = 2.35, p = .05. Small universities reported a mean score of 4.0. Small-to-medium
universities reported a mean score of 3.9, while medium and large universities reported mean
scores of 3.4 each.
The second difference was related to the perceived value of an integrated curriculum in
encouraging quantitative thinking: F(3, 93) = 2.33, p = .05. Small universities reported a mean
score of 3.7. Small-to-medium universities reported a mean score of 3.6, medium universities
reported a mean score of 3.9, and large universities reported a mean score of 3.3.
The third difference was related to the perceived value of an integrated curriculum in a
business program: F(3, 93) = 2.34, p = .05. Small universities reported a mean score of 3.2.
Small-to-medium universities reported a mean score of 3.1, medium universities reported a mean
score of 2.4, and large universities reported a mean score of 3.25.
RQ4: How do educators’ professional backgrounds predict their perceived value of an
integrated curriculum?
To address RQ4, components of professional background including job title, education,
years of academic experience, and years of professional experience were examined.
Regardless of professional background, all respondents rated the overall perceived value
of an integrated curriculum as neutral to favorable across all job titles, with most mean scores at
3.5 and above. The highest mean scores, ranging from 3.6 to 4.4, were reported in response to
the statement, “I believe an integrated curriculum will help my students to have more rewarding
careers.” Close behind, the statement, “I believe an integrated curriculum is valuable to my
academic program” received mean scores ranging from 3.4 to 3.8.
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The lowest mean scores, ranging from 3.0 to 3.5, were reported in response to the
statement, “I believe an integrated curriculum belongs in a program of business.”
Examining educational background, an ANOVA test between groups revealed one
significant difference, F(2, 103) = 3.23, p = .05, related to the statement, “I believe an integrated
curriculum encourages students to be better quantitative thinkers.” Respondents with Ph.D’s. or
doctorates reported a mean score of 3.4. Respondents with some doctoral work reported a mean
score of 4.2, and respondents with master’s degrees reported a mean score of 3.9.
Differences in years of professional experience yielded the greatest number of
statistically significant differences related to perceived value of an integrated curriculum. An
ANOVA test between groups revealed significant differences in four areas:
1. Mean scores for the statement, “I believe an integrated curriculum will help my
students to have more rewarding careers,” F(4, 100) = 3.26, p = .05. Notably, the mean score for
this statement increased with years of professional experience, from 3.9 for those with fewer than
five years, to 4.3 for those with 20-25 years.
2. Mean scores for the statement, “I believe an integrated curriculum encourages students
to be better quantitative thinkers,” F(4, 98) = 2.86, p = .05. Here, the mean score for this
statement again increased with years of professional experience, from 3.4 for those with fewer
than five years, to 4.3 for those with 20-25 years.
3. Mean scores for the statement, “I believe an integrated curriculum belongs in a
program of journalism and mass communication,” F(4, 99) = 3.28, p = .05. Here, the mean
scores for this statement ranged from 3.6 for those with fewer than five years, to 3.9 for those
with 15-20 years of professional experience.
4. Mean scores for the statement, “I believe an integrated curriculum is valuable to my
academic program,” F(4, 99) = 2.72, p = .05. Again, the mean score for this statement increased
with years of professional experience, from 3.7 for those with fewer than five years, to 4.0 for
those with 20-25 years.
Mean scores and statistical results for perceived value of the integrated curriculum
according to professional background are summarized in Table 4.
Discussion
The overall mean integration score of .61 reported by JMC programs surveyed indicates
that on the whole, they are slightly more than halfway toward curricular integration. However, in
advertising and public relations courses, where students are first exposed to IMC theories and
skills they are likely to need in professional careers, institutions are doing markedly better, with
mean integration scores between .78 and .97.
From one perspective, IMC has been described as a blending of tools and techniques used
in advertising, marketing, and public relations. If faculty intend to equip students with the wide
range of professional skills they will need for career success in upcoming decades, IMC skills
and theories must play a major role in that preparation. This second finding of this study should
serve as encouragement to educators, students and industry professionals who believe that
students need more than on-the-job career training after they earn their degrees. As the outer
world is rapidly becoming converged in terms of technology, media and business, then the
students must get a professional education that matches or at least resembles the world in which
they will work.
New trends and techniques tend to emerge first in the advertising and public relations
professions, and then trickle down into academic programs. Industry first began to recognize
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IMC as its own discipline and utilize it in the early 1990s. Some 15 years later, the level of
integration between advertising and public relations courses noted in this study indicate that
academic programs are finally catching on to a healthy extent, and that graduates can better
connect their degree work with the realities they encounter in their first job with an advertising
agency or public relations firm.
The moderate-to-high integration scores (.70 and .64 respectively) that respondents
provided in the “courses” and “course topics” sections should provide further inspiration to those
pursuing curricular integration.
Implications
The findings in this study create implications for educators and administrators in four
major areas of work: (1) program and curriculum planning, (2) faculty hiring, (3) ties to industry,
and (4) institutional issues.
Program and curriculum planning. JMC educators face critical choices related to the
kind of programs they want to develop. The findings in this study should not be taken to mean
that total curricular integration is desirable or possible for all JMC programs. Many high-quality
JMC programs are training students to be journalists, media professionals and others who pursue
career agendas that have little to do with advertising, public relations, or IMC. Curricular
integration based on IMC principles is not a realistic or desirable goal for all programs.
However, the findings do demonstrate that faculty who teach in advertising and public relations
are now exposing student to a reasonably healthy mix of disciplines, theories and skills that the
marketplace will demand of any graduate who hopes to work in advertising, public relations, or
IMC.
Because advertising and public relations are rooted in different philosophies, integrating
the two under an IMC banner can become a complicated task for curriculum planners. Efforts to
do so must account for these differences, according to Griffin and Pasadeos (1998). In this study,
the researchers concluded that while a total curricular overhaul may not be possible everywhere,
programs may be able to incrementally adjust course content and make other less drastic changes
to work toward integration.
Faculty engaged in planning for curricular integration must carefully consider the
attitudes and predispositions of their colleagues. Research by Griffin and Pasadeos (1998)
indicated a more positive attitude toward curricular integration among advertising educators than
among public relations educators. Eight years later, research by Larsen and Len-Rios (2006)
showed that these differences were becoming less pronounced, and more equal between
educators in both disciplines. In light of these previous studies, this study indicates increased
favorability among all JMC educators to integrate their curricula, regardless of discipline.
“I believe that a curriculum should be a living thing,” wrote one respondent in the openended
comments section of the survey. “We should be in a constant state of assessment to ensure
that our students are receiving the training that will best make them marketable in the ‘real
world.’”
Faculty hiring. Findings in this study also indicate that JMC educators face critical
choices related to the type of faculty they recruit and hire. Faculty members build the programs,
plan the curricula, deliver the courses, and color every aspect of it all with their attitudes,
backgrounds, and expertise. They will ultimately determine the success or failure of an
integrated curriculum. The higher mean scores that respondents gave to “faculty expertise” and
“faculty interest” (3.2 to 4.0) as advantages to curricular integration underscore this point.
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In this study, respondents’ perceived value of an integrated curriculum increased
according to their years of professional experience. The finding underscores what faculty with
field experience have always believed: that academic programs should be taking an “outside-in”
approach, teaching the skills and theories that are relevant to and required by employers. It is
natural that faculty who enter graduate programs early in life and become steeped in one
discipline may see less value in an integrated curriculum than their counterparts with significant
professional experience. However, while strict adherence to one’s academic discipline may serve
students well in other programs, this cannot be said for JMC programs.
Given that a doctorate is a minimum qualification for faculty positions in virtually all
institutions, hiring committees interested in building a more integrated curriculum face a difficult
task in finding candidates who are both scholars and seasoned professionals. Many professionals
may hold master’s degrees. Unfortunately, this degree is not likely to gain hiring approval from
department chairs and deans who are trying to build research agendas and scholarly recognition
for their academic programs. Still, innovative JMC programs can pursue innovative solutions to
bridge this divide. For example, it may be possible to retain industry professionals as lecturers
and support them as they complete doctoral studies. Once the doctorate is granted, the position
could be converted to tenure-track status. However they do it, academic administrators must
somehow bring the converged, outside world in to their students through the expertise of faculty
with relevant professional experience.
Ties to industry. This item, which netted mean scores between 3.4 and 3.7 as an
advantage to curricular integration, provides important cues to faculty who are attempting to
integrate their curricula through guest speakers, internships, faculty hires, and other industry
partnerships. Current practices in advertising, public relations, and media dictate what graduates
must know and be able to do when they enter the workforce. Industry professionals provide a
critical lifeline to faculty who are trying to bring IMC principles into their classrooms.
“Integration and convergence in industry need to make us re-examine how and why we structure
our curricula and our degree programs,” wrote one respondent.
However, another respondent voiced concerns about how well some students and
employers understand the concept of IMC. “I see two major problems with an undergraduate
IMC program — some students don’t know what it is, so it takes a while before they transfer in,
which then puts pressures on adhering to pre-requisites, etc. Also, some employers in our region
don’t necessarily know what IMC is, and they come to us looking specifically for advertising
students or PR students. But I do still think it’s important for students to understand the IMC
concept, and the range of possibilities.”
Institutional issues. Not surprisingly, mean scores reported for “resources” and
“administrative support” as advantages or barriers ran the lowest within this section of the
survey. The preponderance of mean scores that fell between 2.0 and 3.0 (“barrier” and “neutral”)
is hardly reassuring to those attempting to advance integrated curricula at their institutions.
Tight budgets, aging facilities, lack of faculty, and administrative roadblocks are nothing
new to university faculty who are trying to integrate their curricula and grow their academic
programs. In this situation, it is probably wiser to pursue simpler incremental solutions that are
easier to implement with existing resources. Ideas here could include case studies, guest
speakers, team teaching, internships, and other industry partnerships. It is notable that
respondents in this survey gave the highest mean ratings to case studies (ranging from 3.4 to 3.8)
and guest lectures (ranging from 3.2 to 3.6) as teaching techniques utilized to integrate their
curricula.
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By far, the greatest number of respondents’ open-ended comments on the survey related
to barriers between departments and political battles within institutions. These barriers could be
preventing levels of curricular integration beyond the “medium integration” level.
“There are few barriers to integrating advertising and PR at this university.
Communication is a separate degree, but crossover is easy and common,” wrote one respondent.
“Business, however, is another proposition. Both programs are crowded and neither is
positioned to accept students from the other. To do so would deny access to existing majors,
which is unacceptable.”
Another respondent wrote, “We are in process of moving toward convergence, but this
emphasis has yet to be connected externally to business and marketing. There are institutional
barriers which make this difficult since the business college receives much more money and does
not wish to connect to its poorer cousin.”
Territorial battles between disciplines may pose additional problems for JMC programs.
“Marketing and public relations have been sniping at each other for decades, each trying to gain
advantage in the organizational chart,” wrote a respondent. “Marketing tries to marginalize PR
by describing PR as one of the elements in the marketing mix……PR tries to marginalize
marketing by claiming they’re only concerned with money, whereas PR is concerned with larger
issues of corporate responsibility and citizenship. Integrating the two disciplines on campus
inherits the fallout from these entrenched combatants.”
Conclusion
This study was limited by three major factors. First, response bias may have attracted
more respondents interested in curricular integration to complete the survey and to positively
evaluate the concept. Second, the response rate of 27% was less than desired. Third, although a
number of statistically significant differences were noted between institutional factors and
professional backgrounds, the number of respondents was too small to allow many of the results
to be generalized on a larger scale.
Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that future studies explore
integrated techniques and skills that employers are requiring in the advertising and public
relations professions. If JMC educators believe that program planning, curriculum, and faculty
hiring must be informed by an “outside-in” perspective, then fresh and accurate information from
industry professionals is imperative.
Findings in this study indicate that on the whole, JMC programs represented in the survey
have achieved a medium-to-high level of curricular integration in their degree programs, courses
and course topics. Findings also underscore the importance of recruiting and hiring industry
professionals as faculty members for programs that are pursuing curricular integration.
Respondents’ attitudes toward curricular integration fell into the neutral-to-favorable range
across most categories. While this cannot be taken as a blanket endorsement of curricular
integration and IMC principles, it does indicate cautious acceptance and even some enthusiasm
for these concepts.
“Advertising depends upon business skills and supports the whole structure of democracy
because it promotes both open markets and the free flow of information,” wrote one respondent.
“These subjects are integrated in the real world, but the convenience of academicians causes
their segregation on campus.”
72

At this juncture, the challenge for JMC educators is do decide what level of integration is
right for their programs and curricula, plan accordingly, and above all, to seek the ongoing
counsel and expertise of industry professionals in all they do.
Table 1: Mean Curricular Integration Scores for All Institutions
Area of Integration
Mean Integration Score
Undergraduate .53
Degrees
Graduate .46
Degrees
Communication .70
Courses
Business .50
Courses
Advertising .83
& PR Courses
Course .64
Topics
Overall .61
n = 114
0 = low integration .5 = medium integration 1 = high integration
Table 2: Carnegie Basic Classification as a Predictor of Advantages and Barriers to Curricular
Integration
Mean Scores and ANOVA Results by Carnegie Basic Classification
Item RU/VH RU/H DRU f df Sig. n
Faculty 3.84 3.74 4.00 .55 3, 86 .650 87
Expertise
Faculty 3.31 3.62 3.9 .74 3, 85 .531 86
Interest
Ties to 3.69 3.41 3.30 .50 3, 83 .683 84
Industry
Resources 2.59 2.71 2.70 1.17 3, 86 .326 87
Student 3.28 3.71 3.50 3.91 3, 85 .011* 86
Demand
Admin. 3.06 3.20 2.90 2.84 3, 85 .043* 86
Support
*p < .05
1 = Strong Barrier 2 = Barrier 3 = Neutral 4 = Advantage 5 = Strong Advantage
73

Table 3: Carnegie Enrollment Profile as a Predictor of Teaching Techniques to Integrate Curricula
Mean Scores and ANOVA Results by Carnegie Enrollment Profile
Item MGP MU HU f df Sig. n
Team 2.30 2.56 2.38 .565 2, 90 .570 91
Teaching
Guest 3.21 3.62 3.38 2.96 2, 93 .057* 94
Lectures
Case
Studies 3.43 3.71 3.59 1.07 2, 93 .348 94
1 = Never 2 = Rarely 3 = Sometimes 4 = Often
*P < .05
Table 4: Years of Professional Experience as a Predictor of Perceived Value of Integrated Curriculum
Mean Scores and ANOVA Results by Years of Professional Experience
Item 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 f df Sig. n
Rewarding 3.85 3.86 3.41 4.41 4.33 3.26 4, 100 .015* 101
Careers
Quantitative 3.37 3.57 3.20 4.06 4.33 2.86 4,98 .027* 99
Thinking
Belongs in a 3.56 3.89 3.00 3.94 3.66 3.28 4, 99 .014* 100
JMC Program
Belongs in a 3.00 3.03 3.03 3.35 3.33 .340 4, 98 .809 99
Bus. Program
Valuable to 3.66 3.67 3.24 4.11 4.00 2.72 4, 99 .034* 100
My Program
*p < .05
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly Agree
References
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Communications Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Handbook of Strategic Public Relations and Integrated Communications. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Duncan, T., Caywood, C., and Newsom D. (1993). Preparing advertising and public relations
students for the communications industry in the 21 st century. (AEJMC publication).
Columbia, SC: AEJMC.
Duncan, T. and Mulhern, F., eds. (2004). A White Paper on the Status, Scope and Future of IMC.
From the IMC Symposium, University of Denver Daniels College of Business.
Griffin, G. & Pasadeos, Y. (1998). The impact of IMC on advertising and public relations
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education. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 53(2), 4-19.
Gronstedt, A. (1996). Integrated marketing communication and public relations: a stakeholder
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Larsen, P. & Len-Rios, M. (2006). Integration of advertising and public relations curricula: a
2005 status report of educator perceptions. Journalism & Mass Communication
Educator, 61 (1), 33-47.
Pasadeos, Y. (2000). Conflicting attitudes toward an integrated curriculum. Journalism & Mass
Communication Educator, 55 (1), 73-79.
Patti, C. (2005). IMC: a new discipline with an old learning approach. Journal of Advertising, 34
(4), 5-9.
Rooney, J. (2007). The top 10 issues facing senior marketers in 2007. Advertising Age, 78 (17),
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Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 61 (2), 196-204.
Shultz, D. (1996). Inevitability of integrated communications. Journal of Business Research, 37
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VanSlyke Turk, J. (Ed.) (2006). Public relations education for the 21 st century: the professional
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Relations Quarterly, 44 (2), 219-231.
75

Much Ado About Something:
Web 2.0 Acceptance and Use by Public Relations Practitioners
Kenneth Payne
Western Kentucky University
Ken.Payne@wku.edu
Abstract
Evidence suggests communications professionals in public relations are reluctant to accept and
use emerging Web 2.0 technologies - blogging, podcasting, web video, content syndication
(RSS), wikis, virtual worlds, and social networking - and concern is growing within the industry
that failure to assume a leadership role in the adoption and use of Web 2.0 technologies by public
relations professionals will ultimately result in a lost strategic business opportunity and possible
encroachment from other disciplines such as marketing and advertising. This research project
examined blogging as an antecedent for Web 2.0 acceptance and use by public relations
practitioners. Using survey data collected from members of the Public Relations Society of
America (n=338), this research posits a model for technology acceptance within the public
relations sector that accounts for 57% of the variance in intent to use blogs. Results suggest
intervention strategies designed to increase the intent of public relations practitioners to accept
and use Web 2.0 technologies should focus on performance expectations (increased productivity
and compensation), social influence (senor management and organizational support), and the
affective components of technology (content and creativity vs. code and computers). The
theoretical significance of this work is that it uses an empirical research model, the Unified
Theory of Acceptance and Utilization of Technology, to extend technology acceptance research
into the public relations profession.
Literature Review
As strategic communications moves into the 21st century, the practice of public relations
is undergoing a substantial transformation due to the rapid evolution of interactive
communication and social networking technologies. Web 2.0, a phrase coined by O'reilly Media
in 2003, refers to a perceived second generation of web-based communities and hosted services
— such as blogs, social media, social networking, wikis, virtual worlds, and Really Simple
Syndication (RSS) — which facilitate content collaboration and sharing between users. A
controversial phrase in the web technology sector, Web 2.0 has come to symbolize an apparent
paradigm shift in online communication and networking from a centralized and controlled, oneway
communication model - to decentralized content collaboration, message diffusion, two-way
symmetrical communication model.
Public relations is uniquely positioned to grasp the Web 2.0 opportunity because of its
comprehension of traditional media and the many changes going on within it, its ease with
targeted and local communications, and its greater ability to surrender control than paid
marketing disciplines. Public relations now has the power to communicate messages—in words,
video and audio—to hundreds of millions of people around the globe in seconds. And those
millions of people can communicate right back just as quickly. These technologies are beginning
to affect profoundly the way public relations interacts politically, socially and, of course,
commercially (Sinkinson, 2007).
76

However, many inside the public relations profession lament the lackadaisical posture
that PR practitioners take in response to Web 2.0 opportunities. One prominent PR blogger
labeled public Relations practitioners as hopelessly out of touch with today's revolution in PR
technology (in Sinkinson, 2007). Researchers have, in the past, labeled public relations
practitioners "laggards" when it comes to acceptance and use of technology (Porter et al., 2001).
Moreover, a recent study examining the effects of practitioner blog use on power in public
relations found that even though practitioners clearly see the importance of blogs, less than 10%
of respondents reported writing/maintaining a blog, and of those only 23% were blogging as a
part of their job (Porter et al. 2006).
Descriptive “state of technology” reports from the public relations sector dot the
academic journal landscape (see Pavlik & Dozier, 1996; Pavlik, 2007 Porter & Sallot, 2003;
Porter et al., 2001; Sallot & Porter, 2004; Wright, 2001). A 1992 study indicated that clearly
technology adoption and use were important issues on the professional agenda of public relations
(Anderson & Reagan). However, researchers expressed concern that practitioners have not kept
pace with other management disciplines in their uses of such technologies as word processing,
electronic mail, data bases, budgeting software and statistical software packages. Pre-dot-com
researcher Merton Fiur (1986) argued that practitioners must shorten their technology learning
curves in order to keep from being isolated from the mainstream of management decision
making.
An IMT Strategies Report (2000) surveyed 100 public relations professionals to define
the impact the Internet was having on the profession. Results indicated that although new
technologies provided the ability to communicate with more targeted audiences and more media,
public relations professionals had yet to use these new technologies to their full potential, or even
understand the impact the internet could have on the field. In a 2006 survey of corporate
executives (Goodman, 2006), only a small number of business leaders were convinced that
corporate blogging was growing as a communication medium (5%), a brand-building technique
(3%), or a sales/lead generation tool (1%). Moreover, early half of senior executives polled did
not have corporate policies pertaining to blogging, although 77% believe that their organization
should have such policies.
There is a concurrent need to examine the applicability of technology acceptance models
in the public relations sector and a need for increased knowledge and research on Web 2.0
technologies among public relations professionals. It is these two identified gaps in knowledge
that this research aimed to address.
While Web 2.0 describes a technology cluster (Rogers, 2003) of online communication
and networking tools (blogging, podcasting, web video, content syndication (RSS), wikis, virtual
worlds, and social networking), blogging is selected for this study as a baseline indicator of
acceptance and use for all Web 2.0 technologies for three reasons: (1) blogging is the "elder
statesman" of the Web 2.0 technologies and thus could have the highest awareness and interest
among public relations practitioners; (2) blogging best fits Grunig's two-way, symmetrical model
of communication for public relations professional and thus would arguably have the highest
practical value to working practitioners and ; (3) blogging perhaps represents the lowest common
denominator in terms of technological skills and training required for its deployment and use
among practitioners.
While technology acceptance and utilization research is common in mature fields such as
MIS, decision science and information systems, economics, agriculture, management, and
marketing, its application to public relations and corporate communications has never been
77

explored, representing a significant gap in knowledge. The primary outcome of this research will
be (1) validate the UTAUT model for use in the public relations sector: (2) predict blogging
acceptance and utilization by public relations practitioners and (3) explore intervention strategies
to move the public relations sector towards acceptance and utilization of blogging more quickly.
Research Model
Various theoretical models have been devised to investigate technology acceptance in the
information systems literature. The research model developed and tested in this study (Figure 1)
draws on findings from relevant prior research and is based on the UTAUT model (Venkatesh et
al. 2003).
The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) was formulated by
leading technology acceptance researchers and published in the September 2003 edition of MIS
Quarterly (Venkatesh et al. 2003). The model was formulated based on conceptual and empirical
similarities across 8 prominent competing technology acceptance models:
• Davis’ Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989)
• Roger’s Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) (Rogers, 1995)
• Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)
• Motivation Model (MM) (Davis, Bagozzi & Warshaw, 1992)
• Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991)
• Combined TAM and TPB (Taylor & Todd 1995)
• Model of PC Utilization (MPCU) (Thompson, Higgins & Howell 1991; Triandis, 1977)
• Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura 1986)
UTAUT was empirically validated among four businesses in various industries and crossvalidated
using data from another two. UTAUT proved a powerful predictor of intent to use
technology explaining 70% of technology acceptance behavior, a considerable improvement on
previous models which routinely explain roughly 40% of acceptance (Venkatesh et al., 2003).
Figure 1. Unified Theory of Acceptance and Utilization of Technology
78

Core Determinants
UTAUT contains four core determinants of intention and usage – performance
expectancy, defined as “the degree to which an individual believes that using the system will
help him or her to attain gains in job performance”; effort expectancy, defined as “the degree of
ease associated with the use of the system”; social influence, defined as “the degree to which an
individual perceives that important others believe he or she should use the new system”; and
facilitating conditions, defined as “the degree to which an individual believes that an
organizational and technical infrastructure exists to support use of the system” (Venkatesh et al.
2003).
Moderators
UTAUT identifies four key moderating variables that were found to significantly
influence intention and/or use behavior: gender, age, experience and voluntariness of use
(Venkatesh et al. 2003). While age, experience and voluntariness are likely to exert similar
moderating effects in this study, the effect of gender is more complex and may differ from
previous research on technology acceptance. The subjects of prior technology acceptance
research have been predominantly male, whereas the majority of public relations practitioners
are female and work in a female-dominated environment. Thus it is possible that gender does not
have the same influence as it has shown in male-dominated contexts.
While the original study identified seven constructs as significant direct determinants of
intention or usage, only four constructs were theorized to play a significant role as direct
determinants of user acceptance and usage behavior: performance expectancy, effort expectancy,
social influence, and facilitating condition (Venkatesh et al. 2003). Attitude toward using
technology, self-efficacy, and anxiety were theorized not to be direct determinants of intention.
Conceivably, public relations practitioners, as a group, may exhibit characteristics that
are different from other end users – such as business managers and students who have been the
traditional subjects of technology acceptance research. For this reason the current research
includes all seven constructs identified in the original research for empirical testing and
validation in the public relations sector.
Hypotheses
Performance expectancy is defined as the degree to which an individual believes using
blogs will help him or her attain gains in job performance. The performance expectancy
construct within individual models of technology acceptance is show to be the strongest
predictor of intention to use a particular technology (Compeau and Higgins 1995b; Davis et al.
1992; Taylor and Todd 1995a; Venkatesh and Davis 2000). Moreover, prior research suggests
the relationship between performance expectancy and intention to use blogs will be moderated
by gender and age. Research on gender differences indicates that men tend to be highly taskoriented
(Minton and Schneider, 1980) and therefore more assessable to the effects of
performance expectations. Further, research on job-related attitudes suggests that younger
workers may place more importance on extrinsic rewards (Porter, 1963). Gender and age
differences have been shown to exist in technology adoption contexts as well (Venkatesh et al.
2003). Finally, given the demographics of public relations is heavily skewed toward women, the
effects of gender and age could play an even greater role in moderating the effects of
performance expectation.
79

H1: The influence of performance expectancy on behavioral intention of using blogs will
be moderated by gender and age, such that the effect will be stronger for men and
particularly for younger men.
Effort expectancy is defined as the degree of ease associated with the use of blogs. Effortoriented
constructs are expected to be more salient in the early states of adaptation when process
issues are most salient, and later become overshadowed by instrumentality concerns (Davis et al.,
1989; Venkatesh, 1999). Prior research suggests that effort expectancy could be more salient for
women than men (Venkatesh and Morris, 2000). Moreover, this research supports the notion that
constructs related to effort expectancy will be stronger determinants for women and for older
workers.
H2: The influence of effort expectancy on behavioral intention of using blogs will be
moderated by gender, age, and experience, such that the effect will be stronger for
women, particularly younger women, and particularly at early stages of experience.
Social influence is defined as the degree to which an individual perceives that important
others - co-workers, bosses, clients - believe he or she should use blogs. The role of social
influence in technology acceptance is complex and subject to a wide range of contingent
influences (Venkatesh et al. 2003). Prior research suggests that individuals are more likely to
comply with others’ expectations when those referent others have the ability to reward (pay
raises, bonuses, time off) the desired behavior or punish non-behavior. Moreover, theory
suggests that women tend to be more sensitive to others’ opinions and therefore find social
influence to be more salient when forming and intention to use a new technology (Venkatesh et
al. 2000).
H3: The influence of social influence on behavioral intention of using blogs will be
moderated by gender, age, voluntaries, and experience, such that the effect will be
stronger for women, particularly older women, particularly in mandatory settings in the
early stages of experience.
Facilitating conditions are defined as the degree to which an individual believes that an
organizational and technical infrastructure exists to support use of blogs. Venkatesh (2000)
demonstrated that issues related to the facilitating conditions are largely captured within the
effort expectancy construct. Thus, when both performance expectancy and effort expectancy
constructs are present, facilitating condition becomes non-significant in predicting the use of
blogs.
H4a: Facilitating conditions will NOT have a significant influence on behavioral
intention of using blogs.
Venkatesh (2003) also found evidence to suggest that facilitating condition do have a
direct influence on usage of technology, beyond that explained by behavioral intentions. In fact,
the effect is expected to increase with experience as practitioners find multiple avenues for help
and support either within the organization, or outside the organization through online blogs help
sections. Further, organizational psychologists have noted that older workers attach more
importance to receiving help and assistance than do their younger counterparts.
H4b: The influence of facilitating conditions on usage of blogs will be moderated by age
and experience, such that the effect will be stronger for older workers, particularly with
increasing experience.
As supported by UTAUT and research reported by Venkatesh (2000), computer selfefficacy
and computer anxiety is expected to have no direct effect on behavioral intention.
80

H5a: Computer self-efficacy will NOT have a significant influence on behavioral
intention of using blogs.
H5b: Computer anxiety will NOT have a significant influence on behavioral intention of
using blogs.
Attitude is defined as an individuals overall affective reaction (evaluation) to using blogs.
Venkatesh (2003) found the attitude construct to be significant in some models of technology
acceptance, and non-significant in others – usually significant when constructs related to
performance and effort expectancies were not included in a specific model. Thus, given the
inclusion of performance expectancy and effort expectancy in the current research, attitude
toward using blogs is not expected to be a significant predictor of intent to use blogs.
H5c: Attitude toward using technology will NOT have a significant influence on
behavioral intention of using blogs.
Consistent with most underlying theories of technology acceptance, it is expected that
behavioral intention to use blogs will have a significant positive influence on actual blog use.
H6: Behavioral intention will have a significant positive influence on usage of blogs.
Table 1
Variables and Moderators
Hypothesis
Number
Dependent
Variables
Independent
Variables
Moderators
H1
Behavioral
Intention
Performance Expectancy Gender, Age
H2
Behavioral
Intention
Effort Expectancy
Gender, Age, Experience
H3
Behavioral
Intention
Social Influence
Gender, Age
Voluntariness,
Experience
H4a
Behavioral
Intention
Facilitation Conditions
None
H4b Usage Facilitating Conditions Age, Experience
H5a
Behavioral
Intention
Computer Self-efficacy
None
H5b
Behavioral
Intention
Computer Anxiety
None
H5c
Behavioral
Intention
Attitude toward using
technology
None
H6 Usage Behavioral Intention Direct Effect
Research Objective
The primary objective of this study is to investigate how well prepared public relations
practitioners’ are to adapt to the imminent changes in their workplace, and in their interaction
with clients and key publics, by examining the acceptance and use of blogging by public
81

elations practitioners. It is proposed to further test this model through its application in a
longitudinal field-study of two separate public relations organizations.
Significance
This research will provide evidence on public relations practitioners' current utilization
blogs and validate the UTAUT model for explaining technology acceptance within the
profession. The significance of this research and its associated outcomes will have implications
for four main stakeholder groups:
• Public Relations Practitioners - Knowledge created in this research will be of interest to
the public relations community, as recommendations will be created for PR professionals
to improve the acceptance and use of blogs, and thus the marketability of their services.
• The Public Relations Profession - Measures designed to extend and enhance the capacity
of public relations practitioners to utilize the potential of existing and developing
technologies is in the interest of the profession. As technology continues to advance and
permeate the modern world, it will continue to have significant impacts on the practice of
public relations. Practitioners will increasingly find themselves needing to utilize
technology both in their work tasks and in their counsel with clients and key publics. It is
thus essential to ensure technology acceptance issues do not hamper the continual growth
and advancement of the profession of public relations.
• Public Relations Educators - Recommendations developed from this research will be
aimed at higher education to ensure professors are well-prepared to adapt to the imminent
changes in their workplace, to be able to effectively utilize blogging in pedagogy and
importantly, to be able to critically apply their knowledge to maximize their student’s
ability to use and accept new technologies.
• Public Relations Researchers - This study addresses a need for technology acceptance
research in the public relations sector. Knowledge created will contribute to technology
acceptance research by advancing current knowledge and extending the theoretical
validity and empirical applicability of existing knowledge to public relations
professionals.
Method
Participants
The target population for this study was working public relations practitioners. To sample
this population, 47 small-to-medium size (less than 250 members) chapters of the Public
Relations Society of America (PRSA) were selected from the total database of more than 30,000
active members organized into more than 100 local chapters nationwide. A total of 5,644
members were solicited via e-mail for survey participation in two waves (Dec. 12 and Dec. 18,
2007). The survey instrument was constructed and responses collected utilizing an online survey
management vendor. Participation in the present research was voluntary and approved by both
the research section of the PRSA and the university’s human subjects review board. Descriptive
statistics for the target population sample include:
82

Table 2
Descriptive Statistics for the Research Sample
Gender
Male:
Female:
Age 18-24 :
25-34:
35-44:
45-54:
55-64:
Blog
Never:
Experience
< 1 Year:
1-2 Years:
3-4 Years:
Read/Monitor
Blogs
Edit/Contribute
Content
> 4 Years:
Never:
Seldom:
Once a Month:
Once a Week:
Once a Day:
Never:
Seldom:
Once a Month:
Once a Week:
Once a Day:
34.4%
66.6%
6.4%
29.4%
24.8%
24.3%
13.0%
22.6%
29.6%
29.6%
14.1%
4.1%
4.6%
21.6%
19.0%
27.5%
27.2%
36.1%
33.5%
15.1%
11.5%
3.8%
Instrument
The present research employed a survey methodology using a 34-item online
questionnaire. The survey instrument duplicates the original questionnaire (Venkatesh, 2003)
with changes to individual items reflecting the specific nature of the technology tested – namely
the acceptance and use of blogs (Appendix 1). The questionnaire was pre-tested (n=15) utilizing
students enrolled in a public relations writing course. No changes were made to the instrument as
a result of the pre-test. The 34 items in the questionnaire utilized a 7-point semantic differential
scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7).
Results
The two-wave online survey effort yielded 393 completed surveys (6.9% response rate).
After the deletion of all surveys identified as from an educational/university e-mail address (.edu,
n=34), all partial construct responses (responded to two or less of the four items measuring a
single construct, n=21), and outliners (age 65+, n=8), the analysis of data began with 338 survey
responses.
According to Venkatesh et al. (2003), the UTAUT instrument has good internal
consistency, with most Cronbach alpha coefficients greater than .70. Predictably, the current
study also finds good internal consistency with the exception of the self-efficacy construct
(Cronbach alpha = .56). However, to insure an accurate replication of the UTAUT model, no
items from the self-efficacy construct were deleted or changed in an effort to improve the
internal consistency.
83

Table 3
Scale reliability
Cronbach Alpha Mean Inter-Item
Correlation
Performance Expectancy .804 .518
Effort Expectancy .843 .586
Social Influence .835 .559
Facilitating Conditions .764 .431
Self-Efficacy .557 .239
Anxiety .836 .557
Attitude .885 .660
Behavioral Intent .963 .898
The individual hypotheses of the UTATU were then tested using hierarchical multiple
regression (HMR) in the steps indicated by the UTAUT research report and summarized in table
4 below. Specific details of each test of the hypothesis follow.
Table 4
Decision matrix
Hypothesis Dependent
Variable
Behavioral
H1
Intention
Behavioral
H2
Intention
H3
H4a
Behavioral
Intention
Behavioral
Intention
Independent Variable Moderators Decision
Performance Expectancy Gender, Age
Effort Expectancy
Social Influence
Facilitation Conditions
H4b Usage Facilitating Conditions
H5a
Behavioral
Intention
Computer Self-efficacy
Gender, Age,
Experience
Gender, Age
Voluntariness,
Experience
None
Age,
Experience
None
Reject
(r = .685, n=338, p

Although hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed a moderately strong direct
effect (r=.686, n = 338, p < .01) for performance expectancy on intent to use blog, the
moderating effects of age and gender were not supported and were non significant at each step of
the regression analysis. Therefore, H1 was rejected (Table 5).
Table 5
HMR Results for Performance Expectancy
R²
DV – Intent R R² Change
F
Change df1 df2
Sig. F
Change*
Performance
Expectancy 0.686 0.471 0.000
AGE 0.686 0.471 0.00 0.04 1 335 0.849
GEN 0.686 0.471 0.00 0.00 1 335 0.981
PExGEN 0.687 0.472 0.00 0.88 1 333 0.349
PExAGE 0.686 0.471 0.00 0.00 1 333 0.963
GENxAGE 0.686 0.471 0.00 0.12 1 333 0.731
PExGENxAGE 0.687 0.472 0.00 0.04 1 330 0.836
Note: * p < .05
Although a small moderating effect was found for experience, the direct effect for
effort expectancy on intent was significant but weak at best (r=.454, n = 338, p < .01). Therefore,
H2 was rejected (Table 6).
Table 6
HMR Results for Effort Expectancy
DV – Blog Intent R R²
R²
Change
F
Change df1 df2
Effort Expectancy 0.454 0.206 0.000
AGE 0.454 0.207 0.00 0.13 1 335 0.717
GEN 0.454 0.206 0.00 0.00 1 335 0.999
EXP 0.467 0.218 0.01 5.17 1 335 0.024
EExGEN 0.468 0.207 0.00 0.07 1 332 0.792
EExAGE 0.468 0.219 0.00 0.04 1 332 0.845
EExEXP 0.566 0.320 0.10 49.60 1 332 0.000
GENxAGE 0.472 0.223 0.00 1.85 1 332 0.175
GENxEXP 0.469 0.220 0.00 0.51 1 332 0.475
AGExEXP 0.469 0.220 0.00 0.49 1 332 0.486
EExGENxAGE 0.579 0.335 0.00 0.65 1 326 0.421
EExGENxEXP 0.578 0.334 0.00 0.35 1 326 0.557
EExAGExEXP 0.580 0.336 0.00 1.24 1 326 0.266
GENxAGExEXP 0.578 0.334 0.00 0.01 1 326 0.921
EExGDRxAGExEXP 0.583 0.309 0.00 0.47 1 322 0.495
Note: * p < .05
Sig. F
Change*
The direct effect of social influence on blogging intent was significant and relatively
strong (r = .660, n = 338, p < .01). Moreover, the moderating effects of age, experience and
voluntariness of use were found to be significant (p < .05), albeit weak moderating effects.
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However, the moderating effect of gender, as in H1, was found to be non-significant. Therefore,
H3 was rejected (Table 7).
Table 7
HMR Results for Social Influence
DV - Blog Intent R R²
R²
Change
F
Change df1 df2
Social Influence 0.660 0.430 0.000
AGE 0.663 0.440 0.01 2.83 1.00 335.00 0.094
GEN 0.660 0.436 0.00 0.21 1.00 335.00 0.650
EXP 0.673 0.452 0.02 10.39 1.00 335.00 0.001
VOL 0.662 0.438 0.00 1.58 1.00 335.00 0.210
SIxGEN 0.667 0.459 0.00 0.20 1.00 331.00 0.655
SIxAGE 0.678 0.459 0.00 0.57 1.00 331.00 0.451
SIxVOL 0.684 0.468 0.01 6.13 1.00 331.00 0.014
SIxEXP 0.680 0.463 0.01 2.78 1.00 331.00 0.097
GENxAGE 0.679 0.461 0.00 1.67 1.00 331.00 0.197
GENxVOL 0.677 0.459 0.00 0.15 1.00 331.00 0.704
GENxEXP 0.677 0.458 0.00 0.00 1.00 331.00 0.989
AGExVOL 0.677 0.459 0.00 0.24 1.00 331.00 0.623
AGExEXP 0.677 0.459 0.00 0.08 1.00 331.00 0.774
VOLxEXP 0.682 0.465 0.01 3.91 1.00 331.00 0.049
SIxGENxAGE 0.693 0.480 0.00 2.52 1.00 321.00 0.113
SIxGENxVOL 0.691 0.477 0.00 0.93 1.00 321.00 0.337
SIxGENxEXP 0.690 0.476 0.00 0.10 1.00 321.00 0.747
SIxAGExVOL 0.691 0.477 0.00 1.00 1.00 321.00 0.319
SIxAGExEXP 0.690 0.477 0.00 0.68 1.00 321.00 0.412
SixVOLxEXP 0.692 0.479 0.00 2.35 1.00 321.00 0.127
GENxAGExVOL 0.692 0.479 0.00 2.39 1.00 321.00 0.123
GENxAGExEXP 0.690 0.476 0.00 0.34 1.00 321.00 0.563
GENxVOLxEXP 0.690 0.476 0.00 0.06 1.00 321.00 0.808
AGExVOLxEXP 0.696 0.484 0.01 5.46 1.00 321.00 0.020
SIxGENxAGExVOL 0.707 0.500 0.00 1.40 1.00 311.00 0.238
GENxAGExVOLxEXP 0.706 0.498 0.00 0.26 1.00 311.00 0.612
SIxGENxAGExVOLxEXP 0.707 0.500 0.00 0.14 1.00 309.00 0.708
Note: * p < .05
Sig. F
Change
A direct effect of facilitating conditions on intent was significant (r = .513, n = 338, p < .01),
but somewhat weak in comparison to that of performance expectancy and social influence.
However, given that it was hypothesized that facilitating conditions would reveal no direct effect
on intent to use blogs, H4a was rejected.
A direct effect for facilitating conditions on actual blog use was found significant, albeit
somewhat weak (r=.501, n = 338, p < .01). Moreover, hierarchical multiple regression revealed a
moderating effect for both age and experience (p < .05). Therefore, H4b could not be rejected
(Table 8).
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Table 8
HMR Results for Facilitating Conditions
DV – Blog
Use R R²
R²
Change
F
Change df1 df2
Sig. F
Change
Facilitating
Conditions 0.501 0.251
AGE 0.501 0.251 0.00 0.22 1 335 0.640
EXP 0.615 0.378 0.13 68.79 1 335 0.000
FCxAGE 0.621 0.386 0.01 4.28 1 333 0.039
FCxEXP 0.616 0.380 0.00 0.86 1 333 0.354
AGExEXP 0.621 0.386 0.01 4.09 1 333 0.044
FCxAGExEXP 0.624 0.389 0.00 0.01 1 330 0.925
Note: * p < .05
As predicted, computer self-efficacy demonstrated no direct effect on intent to use blogs
(r = .262, n = 338, p < .01). Therefore, H5a could not be rejected.
As predicted, computer anxiety demonstrated no direct effect on intent to use blogs (r =
.212, n = 338, p < .01). Therefore, H5b could not be rejected.
Surprisingly, attitude demonstrated a significant and moderately strong direct effect on
public relations practitioners’ intent to use blogs (r = .629, n = 338, p < .01). Therefore, H5c was
rejected.
As predicted, and consistent with the underlying theory for most behavioral intention
models in social psychology, behavioral intention did indeed demonstrate a positive influence on
blog use (r = .532, n = 338, p < .01). H6 could not be rejected.
Discussion
Results of the current research are mixed. While the extension of UTAUT into the public
relations sector revealed a model that explained 55% of the variance in intention – a relatively
high number by any statistical measure - the UTAUT as proposed by Venkatesh (2003)
explained as much as 70% of the same variance. While multiple regression certainly revealed the
strength and direction of influence between the major constructs of UTAUT and intent to use
blogs, moderating or interaction effects were weak, or in some cases non-existent. Moreover,
while many of the major constructs of UTAUT were found to exert similar influences to the
Venkatesh research population (business organizations), one significant construct in the original
research was found to be a weak predictor of intent within the public relations sector (effort
expectancy), while a second construct found to be a weak predictor in the Venkatesh study
(attitude), exerted a strong influence on intent for practitioners. Thus, while this research
replication certainly provides ample fodder for general discussion and possible intervention
strategies, more detailed analysis is needed to make firm predictions about the moderating effects
of age, gender, experience.
Partial Least Squares (PLS)
Data gathered for the estimation of the UTAUT model in the public relations sector was
analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression (HMR) – as apposed to the partial least squares
(PLS) analysis techniques employed by Venkatesh et al. (2003). The HMR approach arguably
87

contributed to the small or no measured interaction effects for the moderating variables of
gender, age, experience and voluntariness of use. As reported in the literature (Chin, Marcolin
and Newsted, 1996), the ability to detect and accurately estimate interaction effects can be
difficult.
“In particular, under conditions of measurement error, traditional techniques such
as analysis of variance (ANOVA) or moderated multiple regression (MMR) may
not be able to detect such interaction effects. When detected, again due to
measurement error, the estimate of the true effect may be biased downwards.”
The obvious solution to this dilemma is to re-estimate the UTAUT model using partial least
squares latent variable modeling – a technique this researcher is currently testing using the
survey data. Results from this effort will form the basis for a second research report.
Intervention Strategies
While specific intervention strategies for the acceptance and use of Web 2.0 technologies
would be difficult at this point to prescribe, especially in light of the data analysis challenges
indicated above, several general statements seem nonetheless relevant and possibly useful to
public relations managers as they consider the implications of, and the potential revenue
opportunities associated with, Web 2.0 business strategies.
Performance expectancy, the belief that use of blogs would lead to increases in
productivity or compensation, was shown to exert strong influence in public relations
practitioners’ intent to use blogs. However, fewer than 15% of respondents believed the use of
blogs would lead to a raise in pay. It stands to reason that technology training programs tied to
demonstrations of increased productivity – or incentive programs tied to the application of Web
2.0 technology in client proposals and practitioner work - would foster an increase in the intent
to use these emerging technologies.
Much like performance expectancy, social influence was shown to exert a strong
influence on practitioner intent to use blogs. However, practitioner’s also noted the apparent lack
of interest and/or support from senior management for Web 2.0 initiatives – more than 50% cited
senior management as not being particularly helpful in promoting the use of new technologies,
while 64% did not believe management held any expectations for blog use in the workplace.
Obviously, support and leadership from senior management in any new business endeavor is
important – adoption and use of Web 2.0 technologies, it seems, is no exception.
Attitude toward using blogs demonstrated the highest influence in practitioners’ intent to
use blogs – a finding not supported by the original UTAUT research. It seems public relation
practitioners are indeed motivated by the affective components of new technology – it should be
exciting and fun! As in performance expectancy, training programs might focus on the content
and creativity of blog use – not the specific coding, management systems, and server
technologies required to launch and maintain a blogging website.
Facilitating conditions – having the necessary resources to use blogs – was a puzzling
construct. While it was found to be significant as a predictor of both intent and actual use of
blogs, the influence of both constructs on intent was weak at best. Moreover, nearly 72% of
respondents felt they had the necessary resources to use blogs. However, as reported in previous
research and the current study, actual use of blogs – defined as editing or contributing content to
blogs – remained distressfully low (less than 15%).
As anticipated, computer anxiety and self-efficacy were poor predictors of intent to use
blogs. What was not expected was the apparent weakness of effort expectancy to predict intent to
88

use blogs. In fact, nearly 86% of respondents felt that it would be easy for them to become
proficient in using blogs – again, as above, a puzzling response given that so many respondents
had never actually participated in blog activity (edit/contribute content).
Based on the relative strengths and weaknesses of the major constructs of the UTAUT to
predict intent to use blogs in the public relations sector – and the challenges in analyzing the
moderating variables of age, gender, experience and voluntariness – a revised model for blog
acceptance and use is posited - defined by the core constructs of performance expectancy, social
influence and attitude toward blogs. This revised model explains 57% of the variance in intent to
use blogs, is arguably more parsimonious than the UTAUT, and provides a good fit (based on
structural equation modeling) to the population of public relations practitioners (Figure 2).
-.58
Performance
Expectancy
.20
e1
e2
.75
.67 Attitude
.37
Behavioral
Intent
.88
Use
.51
.30
Social
Influence
Figure 2. Revised model for acceptance and use of Web 2.0 technologies (GFI = .979, TLI =
.915, RMSEA = .156)
The primary objective of this study was to investigate how well prepared public relations
practitioners are to adapt to the imminent technology changes in their workplace by examining
the acceptance and use of blogging by public relations practitioners, provide evidence on public
relations practitioners' current utilization blogs, and validate the UTAUT model for explaining
technology acceptance within the profession. While this research provides a potential model for
practitioner acceptance and use, much analysis remains to fully understand the moderating
dynamics involved in the decision to use Web 2.0 technologies in the public relations sector.
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Appendix
Survey Instrument
Performance expectancy (PE)
PE1: I would find blogging useful in my job.
PE2: Using blogs enables me to accomplish tasks more quickly.
PE3: Using blogs increases my productivity.
PE4: If I use bogs, I will increase my chances of getting a raise.
Effort expectancy (EE)
EE1: My interaction with blogs would be clear and understandable.
EE2: It would be easy for me to become skillful at using blogs.
EE3: I would find blogs easy to use.
EE4: Learning to operate blogs is easy for me.
Attitude toward using technology (AT)
A1: Using blogs is a good idea.
A2: Blogs make work more interesting.
A3: Working with blogs is fun.
A4: I like working with blogs.
Social influence (SI)
SI1: People who influence my behavior think that I should use blogs.
SI2: People who are important to me think that I should use blogs.
SI3: The senior management of this business has been helpful in the use of blogs.
SI4: In general, my organization has supported the use of blogs.
Facilitating conditions (FC)
FC1: I have the resources necessary to use blogs.
FC2: I have the knowledge necessary to use blogs.
FC3: Blogging is not compatible with other technologies I use.
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FC4: A specific person (or group) is available for assistance with blogging difficulties.
Self-Efficacy (SE)
I could complete a job or task using blogs...
SE1: if there was no one around to tell me what to do as I go.
SE2: If I could call someone for help if I got stuck.
SE3: if I had a lot of time to complete the job.
SE4: if I had just online help for assistance.
Anxiety (ANX)
ANX1: I feel apprehensive about using blogs.
ANX2: It scares me to think that I could lose a lot of information using blogs by hitting the
wrong key.
ANX3: I hesitate to use blogs for fear of making mistakes I cannot correct.
ANX4: Blogs are somewhat intimidating to me.
Behavioral intention to use the IP phone (BI)
BI1: I intend to use blogs in the next six months.
BI2: I predict I would use blogs in the next six months.
BI3: I plan to use blogs in the next six months.
Voluntariness of use
V1: Although it might be helpful, using blogs is certainly not compulsory in my job.
V2: My boss does not require me to use blogs.
V3: My superiors expect me to use blogs.
92

What’s Guiding the Profession? An Examination of Public Relations Ethics
* Betsy Plank Graduate Research Competition Student Award Winner
Katie R. Place
University of Maryland, College Park
kplace@umd.edu
Introduction
Public relations practitioners are uniquely positioned to promote ethical communication
and practice. As Kruckeberg (2000) explains, “public relations practitioners – if they prove
worthy of the task – will be called upon to be corporate – that is organizational – interpreters and
ethicists and social policy-makers, charged with guiding organizational behavior as well as
influencing and reconciling public perceptions within a global context (p. 37).”
Public relations practitioners, however, may never take an ethics course as a student,
receive on-the-job ethical training or use the many professional codes of ethics available to them.
This lack begs the question: how are they tackling the various ethical decisions they face?
This paper examines how public relations professionals engage in ethical decision
making and make meaning of deontological ethical models. First, the paper reviews literature
regarding deontological ethics and public relations. Next, the paper presents the research
questions and method. Then, the paper details results of the study and concludes with discussion
and implications for future practice and scholarship.
Literature Review
Deontological Theory of Ethical Issues Management
Deontology builds upon the philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) who proposed a
set of moral, philosophical and ethical tenets to guide society. These moral tenets focus on
duties and intentions, rather than consequences. Kant placed the ability to act morally in the
hands of individual, rational citizens. According to Bowen (2004), deontology is the first school
of philosophy to situate the individual at the core of ethical decision-making. Because it provides
a strong rational decision-making component, Bowen and Heath (2005) recommend a
deontological paradigm for tackling ethical issues in public relations.
A deontological theory of ethical issues management (Bowen 2004, 2005) provides a
rational and duty-based philosophy of public relations. It builds upon Kantian philosophy and
the two-way symmetrical model of public relations (J.E. Grunig, 1992). According to Bowen
(2004), the foundations of Kantian philosophy include rationality, autonomy, the categorical
imperative, dignity and respect, duty, and intention – a morally good will (p. 70).
Rationality – Kantian philosophy holds that all humans have the capacity to think
rationally. As rational beings, individuals think for themselves, consider the standpoints of
others, and think consistently with themselves (Wood, 2008). Rationality benefits public
relations practice by promoting objective thinking and compensating for many of the biases and
subjective concerns that enter the ethical decision making process (Bowen, 2007). Additionally,
rational thinking applies to and benefits individuals of all levels of an organization, although
their decisions will differ in scope. Both technicians and managers have equal responsibility
under deontological philosophy to analyze the ethics of their decisions (Bowen, 2007, p. 283).
Ultimately, public relations decisions explained rationally stand stronger against dispute. Bowen
and Heath (2005) recommend that practitioners conduct a rational analysis that considers
decision making intent and autonomy.
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Autonomy - Bowen (2006) states that “autonomy is essential to ethical decision making
because a decision cannot be ethical if it is biased by self-interest, profit, greed, arrogance, or the
like reasons that would promote personal advantage. The only decisions that can be thought of as
truly moral are those made from freedom rather than compulsion, and rational analysis rather
than subjective desire” (p. 335).
The Categorical Imperative – The categorical imperative serves as the ultimate moral
norm that society must follow – much like the “Golden Rule.” It states, in a sense, that
individuals should only act in ways that could be accepted as universal law. Kant phrased the
categorical imperative three separate ways, testing three ethical concepts, in order to promote its
understanding and accordance (Sullivan, 1994). According to Bowen (2006) the categorical
imperative “transcends cultural bias, religion, socioeconomic status, and paucity of philosophical
training in that it allows all rational decision makers the freedom to make universally acceptable
decisions or moral worth and validity” (p. 82). Furthermore, autonomy enables public relations
practitioners to make decisions based on ethics rather than subjectivity, fear of job loss, or client
and employer relationships (Bowen, 2004, p. 72).
Dignity, Respect and Duty – Public relations practitioners must maintain the dignity and
respect of clients, colleagues and themselves as human beings (Bowen, 2006). Bowen explained
that the duty and respect components of the categorical imperative give an issues manager a
“tool through which to consider the views of publics and groups involved in the decision,
possibly expanding an organization’s decision making alternatives (p. 82). Duty, according to
Wood (2008) is “the act of freely making yourself desire something and do it because you
appreciate the objective moral reasons there are for doing it. It relies on pure motives, selfconstraint,
and respect for humanity" (p. 159).
Intention – a morally good will – Kant considered intention to be the “highest ultimate
value” (Bowen, 2004, p. 75). A good will, according to Wood (2008), “adopts good principles
and sets about acting on them. It may do so when it needs to constrain itself in order to do so,
but also when it need not, because its good principles are in contingent harmony with
inclinations (empirical and non moral desires)” (p. 32). In her practical Kantian model of ethical
issues management, Bowen (2005), suggested that practitioners ask themselves “Am I
proceeding with a morally good will?” in order to examine intentions of decisions made with or
on behalf of the self, publics, society, stakeholders and organization (p. 193).
Two-Way Symmetrical Communication - Two-way symmetrical communication
prioritizes reciprocal dialogue between individuals involved in an issue. Starck and Kruckeberg
(2003) and Bowen (2005) noted that symmetrical public relations is particularly moral, ethical,
and important in furthering public relations practice and theory. According to Bowen (2005;
2006) symmetrical public relations is a key component in models of ethical decision making.
“Dialogue between the organization and the groups in the ethical consideration triangle can
construct more enduring solutions to ethical issues than the organization might be able to
construct alone” (Bowen, 2005, p. 212).
Several studies have found support for ethics based on dialogue and two-way
symmetrical public relations (i.e. Arnett, Arneson, & Bell, 2006; Bowen, 2004; Bowen & Jiang,
2007). Bowen (2004) proposed two-way symmetrical communication as a core foundation of
ethical decision making and public relations excellence. She stated that dialogue can “help avert
problems for the organization by allowing it to communicate considerations to and from publics
in a symmetrical manner.” (p. 84). In a study of an activist coalition and its ethical meaningmaking,
Bowen and Jiang (2007) found that transparency was necessary in the decision making
94

process. Arnett, Arneson, and Bell (2006) also found support for dialogical and symmetrical
ethical standards. They stated that, “when codes and standards are formed through repeated
conversation, they provide public communication guidance and assurance for the participants. In
addition, they can enhance a communicative terrain of trust, a set of ‘best professional practices’
responsive to persons and a given organization” (p. 76).
Models of Public Relations Ethics
Several models of ethical public relations and communication exist. The Institute of
Communication Ethics provides a model that enables individuals to identify ethical issues in
relationships and diverse communication situations (Beckett, 2003). Entitled the PMOGI
(Political, Media, Organization, Group, Interpersonal) model of communicative relations, it
considers the unique standpoints of an organization’s publics. Specifically, the PMOGI model
provides practitioners with “knowledge to assist examination and dissemination of complex
ethical debates, including the impact of media on the interpersonal, group, organizational and
political spheres” (Beckett, 2003, p. 47). This model can serve as an ethical “checklist” for
organizations with numerous publics with whom they maintain relationships.
Tilley (2005) recommended the use of a pyramid model of ethical decision making.
According to Tilley, the pyramid model provides “an organizing strategy that enables
practitioners to choose ethics approaches that work for them from the many on offer, and
integrate those chosen approaches into the actual daily business of designing, implementing, and
evaluating a PR campaign” (p. 313). Multiple implementation strategies for use during
numerous phases of a public relations campaign may prove useful for practitioners who make
complex decisions, manage long-term campaigns or communicate with highly diverse publics.
Meisenbach (2006) recommends a five-step model of ethical discourse in which
individuals discursively debate an issue. Although this model provides an inclusive and
exhaustive method for ethical discourse, Meisenbach notes that the process is often arduous and
time-consuming (p. 57).
Normative Model of Ethical Decision Making
Bowen (2004) proposed a normative model of ethical issues management and
communication that enables an organization to incorporate deontological values into the decision
making hierarchy. The model guides issues managers and public relations practitioners through
a series of six ethical considerations. First, issues managers must identify the issue at hand. This
“identification” phase “relies heavily on the judgment of the practitioner as to the importance of
the issue” (Bowen, 2004, p. 80). Second, issues managers must discuss the issue and conduct
research as a group. Third, managers must engage in autonomous decision making free from
competing interests, obligations, and persuasion. Fourth, managers must consider alternatives
and test prescribed solutions to the issue. Fifth, managers must weigh their personal moral duties
with that of society and individuals impacted by the decision, asking, “Are my intentions of a
morally good will?” Finally, practitioners should strive for symmetrical communication which
fosters understanding between all parties involved. When applying this model to decision
making, Bowen (2004) suggests that issue management practices will be ethically sound.
Ethical Decision Making
Numerous studies have examined ethical decision making in issues management and
public relations (Bowen, 2002a; Bowen, 2002b; Bowen, 2005; Bowen, 2006; Bowen and Heath,
95

2005; Bowen and Jiang, 2007). Scholarship by Bowen (2002) and Bowen and Heath (2005)
examining Enron Corporation found that Enron did not consider ethics in the decision making
process. Bowen and Heath (2005) recommend an “outside-in” view of corporate practice which
considers the interests of the public. This notion is described by the phrase: ‘What is good for
America is good for General Motors.’ It demonstrates the difference between thinking from the
‘inside-out’ perspective versus the ‘outside-in’ view (p. 88). Ultimately, Bowen and Heath
(2005) suggest that practitioners can improve ethical decision making by simplifying the
available considerations and not deciding based on “the minutiae, consequences or personal
ramifications of a decision” (p. 92).
Bowen and Jiang (2007) found that individuals in an activist coalition argued that
decision making process should be consensus – oriented and based on equal participation and
discussion. Participants communicated the value of having a voice in decisions, autonomy,
equality, duty, and the dignity and respect (p. 18). Interestingly, participants described ethics as
an “assessment process” in which coalition members should ask questions such as, “Does the
decision further our goal of combating gender oppression and class oppression?” (p. 19).
Purpose and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to better understand how public relations practitioners
make ethical decisions in the workplace and interpret deontological models of public relations
ethics. Two research questions guided this exploration:
RQ1: How do public relations practitioners make ethical decisions in the workplace?
RQ2: How do public relations practitioners make meaning of deontological models of
public relations ethics?
Method
A qualitative research method was chosen for this study. This method best examines
“how social experience is created and given meaning” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003, p. 13).
Qualitative research promotes the capture of “thick” description and examines complex
questions of “how” and “why” a phenomenon exists.
Eight in-depth, semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with public
relations practitioners working in large metropolitan areas on the East Coast and Midwest.
Sample
Participants were selected using the snowball sampling method, as it was expected that an
initial respondent could recommend names of other public relations practitioners. Interview
participants were men and women who ranged from 23 to 60 years of age and performed a
diverse range of technical and management-based communication practices at the manager,
practitioner or executive levels. The majority of participants identified themselves as public
relations technicians or managers.
Procedure
Practitioner interviews were face-to-face at local coffee shops close to practitioners’
workplace or home and via telephone. Interviews were audio taped and ranged in length from 40
to 60 minutes. The researcher conducted member checks and follow-up emails to review
interview data or request elaboration regarding a particular response.
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The interview process was guided by an interview protocol that contained a series of
broad, open-ended questions. The selected questions provided a brief introduction to the issue.
Questions were asked in a pre-determined order based on specificity. Primary questions, such as
“Describe your role within the organization” acquainted participants to the interview process and
served as a broad way for the researcher to delve into how public relations practitioners make
meaning of public relations ethics. Later questions, such as “Can you describe a time when you
had to make an ethical decision?” encouraged respondents to articulate specific experiences
related to ethical decision making. In order to get further description and encourage continuing
dialogue, the researcher asked follow-up questions or probes such as “Why?” “Can you please
give me an example?” or “How did that make you feel?”
Data Analysis
Each interview was transcribed, coded and analyzed for themes relating to the research
questions of the study using the constant comparative method. During the coding process, the
author created lists of themes and patterns related to interviewee responses. These themes were
then assigned to the two research questions and matched to specific passages within the
interview transcripts. Researcher memos, observer comments (OCs), and scholar-to-scholar
feedback enhanced data analysis and reflexivity.
Results
Public relations practitioners drew upon a variety of personal philosophies, workplace
experiences, and protocol during the decision making process. They made meaning of public
relations decisions through relationships with individuals and the assistance of decision making
rubrics and role models. Practitioners interpreted deontological models of public relations as
useful, but difficult to follow. Evidence that helped answer the two research questions is offered
below.
RQ1: How do public relations practitioners make ethical decisions in the workplace?
Public relations practitioners made ethical decisions by promoting respectful working
relationships with media contacts, coworkers and clients; by communicating information in an
honest manner; and by using the assistance of mentors and decision making protocols.
Respect
Public relations practitioners placed high priority on building relationships with and
maintaining the respect of journalists. One professional explained, "We don’t just treat
journalists like contact cards. My goal is to know a journalist’s face. To know where she is
from, their background, not only what she is covering, but what she’s going to cover and the
ideas in her head. On a personal level, it makes all the difference." Similarly, another practitioner
said,
I value those relationships and am careful to continually nurture them. I send
thank you notes if they write a nice article – not even my article! Reporters are
people. I want to get to know them… There’s a level of trust in that too… If they
trust you, they know you’re not trying to sell them something. They know that if
I’m calling, I have something legitimate to tell them.
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Participants stated that their decisions often considered the timelines and needs of journalists.
They maintained daily or weekly communication with them in order to promote healthy
relationships and mutual understanding.
Practitioners explained how their decisions maintain the dignity and respect of
individuals. They mentioned the need to "really connect with your client" and to "be nice to
people." One individual expressed the desire to build positive coworker and client relationships.
She described her teamwork approach to decision making as,
Relationships…we empower them to reach out and take ownership of stuff and
reach goals that we have mutually agreed upon regardless of where they are on
the team. It’s important to know each one of them and make myself available to
them when they have questions… because we work towards a common goal.
Some practitioners also show respect for other public relations professionals by not
scheduling events at the same time as competitors or agencies in a local area. One respondent
explained how executives from local firms communicate regularly about upcoming events and
initiatives. One company even maintains a calendar of events they manage on the agency Web
site.
Interestingly, participants described experiences in which others treated them with a lack
of dignity and respect. One professional described the shock and hurt she felt when a client
dissolved a long-lasting business partnership. Similarly, another practitioner described how
clients and professionals fail to communicate in a sincere, respectful manner. She recognized
when individuals used her as an unethical means to an end. She stated,
People are strategic about who they are talking to and how long they’ll talk to them
before they move on to the next person. I pick up on it - the negative stuff. I may
have had a conversation with someone for 20 minutes helping them with a story the
day before and then we’re at the event, it’s like “Hi" Bye” because they have 10
people on their list that they need to talk to that night.
Ultimately, practitioners felt as if they learned from situations where they were
not treated with respect and called upon them when making decisions.
Honesty
Public relations professionals stated that practitioners must communicate honestly and
incorporate honest business practices during the decision making process. Several participants
described a personal philosophy that promoted honest communication. One individual explained,
"My motto is 'I’m the same no matter what.' So, I’m the same person at an event, at dinner, and
consistency is for me. I think that consistency is what keeps me morally in tune." Practitioners
also argued for honest communication with journalists. For example, one respondent stated,
I present [journalists] the facts and give them the tools they need in order to create
a balanced story. I would never expect them to go in search of other sources to
produce a balanced story. I would want them to have those sources and not just
my client’s. They have a job to be a reporter and investigate and a do a balanced
story.
Participants expressed the need to counsel clients in an honest manner. One participant
described her duty to provide honest, constructive feedback. She stated,
I think that’s a really good way to put my job title as “consultant” because I’m
sought after for advice. So there are times when I go to a restaurant and
something is terrible. That is my job. Regardless of whether I’m going to hurt the
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chef’s feelings or the server’s feelings, I’m honest. I will tell them what needs to
be done or fixed.
When honesty and respect were not enough, public relations practitioners relied on
assistance to examine the ethics of their decisions.
Decision Making Assistance
Public relations professionals communicated their reliance upon the guidance of
coworkers, supervisors, or decision making protocols. Participants who identified as entry-level
public relations practitioners relied most on others for ethical guidance, whereas individuals from
all levels of public relations experience reported using decision making guides.
Coworkers and Supervisors - Practitioners described various experiences where they
sought decision making assistance of coworkers. One individual explained,
I’d always make sure to ask questions of my coworker even though she had
totally different clients than me. I’d get advice from her because she knew [our
boss] more than I did. If I wasn’t really sure at all, I’d just wait. It would be better
to ask than to turn in something and he’d be like, ‘This is not what I asked for.’
When practitioners faced decision making anxiety, coworkers and supervisors often
encouraged them to make new decisions, reassured them of their professional abilities, and
assisted them during questions of ethics. For example, one practitioner said,
My boss is very good at telling me, “you need to work on this, you need to work
on that.” It’s hard at first because it’s a lot of pressure. I’m like, “I just started!
You can’t really throw me in there and be good!” Constantly getting feedback is
good because that’s the only way that I’ll learn.
Another entry-level practitioner described how industry partners assisted him to make
decisions. He stated, “[The press release] got passed to me and I didn’t know the process at all.
At that point, I had to rely on the people at the PR agency we knew. I had to rely on people who
had done it before…It was a good learning experience, because I got my feet wet quickly…”
Protocol – Practitioners mentioned using mandatory or voluntary organizational decision
making protocols including check lists, client guides, organizational policy, or industry codes of
ethics. While some protocols featured a series of ordered steps to complete, others dictated an
overarching company philosophy. One professional described a series of corporate training
sessions and videos that taught the ethical decision making processes. She explained,
Our company overall has a video that talks about making decisions that are in line
with the corporate values… There are videos that deal with all sorts of
confidential information. What you can and can’t do... Only people who have
attended the media training course and are prepared and are comfortable are then
put in front of reporters.
Results of the first research question reveal the variety of ethical experiences and
decision making issues that public relations professionals face. Ultimately, practitioners felt that
they engaged in ethical conduct by communicating honestly, respecting individuals, and asking
for superiors' or coworkers' help.
RQ2: How do public relations practitioners make meaning of deontological models of public
relations ethics?
Interview respondents were asked to comment on key attributes of two ethical public
relations decision making models (Bowen, 2004; Bowen, 2005). Numerous individuals felt as if
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the public relations profession was too diverse, client-focused, and time-sensitive to implement a
deontological decision making model. In particular, they argued that the deontological concept of
universality was difficult to maintain and felt that they had little or no decision making
autonomy. Additionally, interview transcripts revealed a strong rift between practitioners'
examples of ethical practice and the motives or ethical intents behind them.
Deontology’s Universality is Difficult to Maintain
Overwhelmingly, public relations practitioners described difficulty making decisions that
maintained universal standards of deontological ethics. Study participants argued that
universality was difficult to maintain due to the situational nature of public relations and the
varying degree of clients' ethical standpoints. One respondent explained,
As a profession overall, it is based on different situations…different companies…
it depends on the product and type of organization and what a PR practitioner is
asked to do or has signed up to promote and support. It’s more challenging in
other places, like for the tobacco industry or any other areas like that… You
would tow that line a bit or stop and ask yourself, "Am I being as ethical as I
possibly could be?"
Practitioners argued that the type of industry dictated the degree of public relations ethics.
One practitioner stated, "everyone brings their own morals and backgrounds. You have to
acclimate yourself to the ethics of that organization and revamp to follow suit. Implementing it
would be difficult. There are so many definitions about what is right and what is bad." Similarly,
another practitioner explained, "ethics is specific to industries. When you look at PR there’s a lot
of communication that goes out for image building. It’s not completely honest and there are not
always those [ethical] channels in place. You have an ultimate end goal and are going to do it."
Lack of Autonomy
Respondents communicated that a lack of experience kept them from exercising complete
autonomy. Often, practitioners described a lack of autonomy when working with superiors and
clients who use unethical public relations practices. For example, one practitioner felt that a
client's request to launch a negative public relations campaign against a local charitable
recreation center was unethical. When her ethical guidance was not well received, she quit. This
individual said, "[my client] was furious. He wanted me to go after the YMCA! I said, 'That’s
like going after mom and apple pie!' I said no. So I quit. I said, 'I’m not going there. I’m not
doing it.'” By quitting, she was then able to utilize ethical decision making autonomy.
Similarly, another individual recognized her lack of autonomy when making ethical public
relations decisions. She explained, "even if I feel like I’m stuck at work and not being able to
make a decision, I try to find other outlets where I can use my PR skills… That’s always fun,
because I get to make a decision and do it!"
Rift Between Action and Intent
Several conversations exposed a rift between a practitioner's actions and ethical intent.
When practitioners considered the ethics of their actions, they often did so in a manner that failed
to reflect deontological standards of ethics. In particular, participants described actions that
lacked Kant's notion of a pure intent - a morally good will. One individual exposed this rift by
describing her strategy to encourage clients to donate money to local initiatives in order to
increase their public standing and image – rather than to benefit the community or charity.
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If you’re going to work with [company], you’re going to get involved in the
community, so that means you’re going to spend some money on a local charity.
And then we can put them up for awards. If they are looking for the kind of face
that they want to put out in the community, they are going to know what we
expect. We can’t obviously force them, but we say, “If you want a good
opportunity, you’ve got [local event], you’ve got 30,000 people and you should
put $10,000 toward that.” Or, “This is a good place to spend money at this local
school. It’s only $500, but you’re going to get a lot of good will from it.”
Another practitioner exposed a rift in ethical intent and action when she decided to fully
report on her actions not because of her duty to remain honest, but due to a fear of being caught
by the client. She stated,
We have to document all of our outreach. It's repetitive work because you have to
do the pitch, then you have to email it to your boss, and we also have an online
database where we keep all our outreach and logged calls. There are days where I
don’t want to do it, but we have to because I know our client could ask for a list of
what we did.
Results of the second research question reveal a lack of experience with and thorough
understanding of deontological public relations decision making models.
Discussion
Findings suggest that public relations practitioners make ethical decisions by respecting
others, communicating honestly, and relying on the assistance of industry professionals. Results
also reveal that professionals evaluate deontological decision making models as difficult to
uphold due to the often situational, rushed and constrained nature of their work. In some cases,
due to lack of experience or client demands, practitioners not only failed to utilize a
deontological decision making procedure, but also failed to rely upon any form of ethical
thinking.
The first research question addressed how public relations professionals make ethical
decisions. All participants mentioned that their decisions consider coworkers and journalists, as
well as utilize honest communication and business practices. Interestingly, themes reflected two
tenets of the deontological theory of ethical issues management and public relations:
maintenance of others’ dignity and respect and moral duty. These two concepts serve as core
steps within the deontological models explored in the second research question. A third theme,
practitioners’ use of decision making protocol and personal guidance, reflects a preference for
making decisions based on an organizational philosophy, troubleshooting framework, or the
wisdom of more experienced professionals. This suggests that practitioners, especially those with
less experience or technical roles, may benefit from a deontological model of public relations
ethics to further assist them during the decision making process.
The second research question addressed how public relations practitioners make meaning
of deontological models of public relations. Although respondents identified with several
deontological concepts and used them to counsel clients, some practitioners in agency
environments argued that step-by-step deontological models do not accurately reflect their
current method of ethical decision making. Perhaps a circular model or non-ordered checklist of
deontological ethical decision making could better apply to these current professionals’ needs.
Furthermore, differences in practitioner actions and the motivations behind those actions reveal a
discord between the public relations profession and pure, duty-based ethical decision making.
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Practitioners often did not notice this rift when discussing public relations decisions and offering
critique of deontological models. This, too, supports the need for ethical decision making models
that enable public relations to assess their personal values and motives and better align them with
moral, ethical ideals.
Contributions to Scholarship
This study lends support for and offers evaluation of the deontological theory of ethical
issues management. Practitioner responses reveal that individuals do rely on selected
deontological ethical values when making decisions. Results complement Bowen’s 2005 study
of corporate ethical decisions making, in which she found that individuals often make ethical
decisions based on group collaboration, moral duty, and decision making protocols. Interview
respondents’ heavy discussion of collaborative decision making suggests that the inherent nature
of public relations calls for practitioners to make ethical decisions as members of teams,
executive counsels, or superior-subordinate pairs with the guidance of protocols – rather than as
isolated decision makers.
Respondents’ lack of adherence to certain deontological ethical values and lack of
familiarity with deontological decision making models contributes to scholarship highlighting
the need for increased ethics training, education and research. In order to increase students’
understanding of deontological and professional ethics, public relations courses should include
research projects centered on ethics, feature exemplary public relations case studies, encourage
student-professional mentor interaction, and utilize professors’ modeling of communication
ethics in the classroom. Ethics scholarship in the classroom was found to carry with practitioners
into the profession. For example, Gale and Bunton (2005) found that students who take ethics
courses at the university level practice ethical behaviors at the corporate level.
Contributions to Practice
Results suggest that public relations practitioners consider selected deontological tenets
during the decision making process; however, they lack the knowledge, experience or personal
autonomy to implement these concepts consistently. All public relations professionals, but
especially entry-level practitioners and decision makers who face situational, time-sensitive, or
crisis communication contexts, could benefit from a deontological model of public relations
ethics. Models based on duty, respect, and honesty would help professionals to address basic
ethical components of public relations decisions and approach various situations and crises with
a more consistent framework. It would also help to eliminate the rift in public relations
practitioners’ actions and intent. These rifts most likely occur due to lack of adequate ethical
training, education, or experience (Bowen, 2002a)
The necessity for a professional deontological model of public relations ethics
complements the previous work of Bowen (2004, 2005). Bowen (2004) suggests that a
deontological theory of ethical issues management and matching decision making models would
enhance practitioners’ rational decision making. She writes that the deontological model “allows
issues managers to conduct a thorough, systematic analysis of the ethical aspects of a decision
and to understand the decision, and its ramifications, from a multiplicity of perspectives” (p. 85).
Thus, models of this kind would help practitioners to resist making decisions based solely on
emotion, unethical client approaches, or lack of experience in the field. Practitioners could apply
ethics consistently to each situation they face.
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Professionals, however, offered several constructive criticisms of the deontological
models of public relations, which may serve to enhance the applicability of ethics models to the
profession. For example, some individuals said that the deontological models lacked a final
evaluation component for practitioners to use when assessing the ethics of a complete public
relations campaign or initiative. Furthermore, individuals described the difficulty of applying
universal, consistent or duty-based ethics to such a wide spectrum of clients, business realms, or
crises. Interview respondents did, however, champion the maintenance of individuals’ dignity
and respect, adherence to professional duties such as honesty, and the promotion of decision
making autonomy.
The professional criticism of deontological models, matched with the positive evaluation
and implementation of some deontological philosophies can serve to advance the deontological
theory of ethical issues management and its models. Future professional models could include a
final ethical evaluation component and better assist practitioners to apply more consistent,
deontological tenets to the often difficult, situational decisions they make in the field.
Limitations and Future Considerations
There were some limitations to this study pertaining to sample and time in the field.
Although a snowball sampling method helped recruit participants, future studies necessitate a
larger sample in order to gain an even greater sense of data saturation. The majority of study
participants identified as independent or agency public relations practitioners. Perhaps maximum
variation of representation from corporate or not-for-profit realms and additional geographic
locations would flesh out any additional perspectives that exist, but were not voiced by the eight
participants. Maximum variation would also work to prevent discussion of interview questions
between snowballed participants who may know each other. Time in the field was also limited to
one academic semester. More time to conduct the study would have assisted the researcher to
interview additional participants.
This study exposes several paths for future research regarding public relations ethics.
Results suggest the need to further research how practitioners make ethical decisions and what
tools, models, individuals, and philosophies can empower, guide and educate them throughout
their careers. Practitioner responses expose individuals’ diverse deontological, utilitarian and
self-interest approaches to public relations. Future research must understand why practitioners
abide by alternative ethical decision making models or choose to make decisions based only on
personal values or needs.
Scholarship must also examine why practitioners fail to discuss or utilize other
components of deontological decision making, such as forms of the Categorical Imperative,
intention or morally good will, individual autonomy and two-way symmetrical communication.
Public relations practitioners work in unique situations where they often lack autonomy or twoway
communication capabilities, but must make critical or ethical decisions. Future research
must continue to evaluate practitioners’ multiple levels of autonomy and prescribe methods of
gaining autonomy, maintaining ethics within the scope of their work roles, or practicing
autonomy outside of the workforce. Then, we may better understand how individuals can learn
to apply more consistent, rational, and duty-based ethical philosophies to public relations
decisions through use of a deontological model.
Practitioner’s responses highlight the need for public relations professionals to
understand and integrate practical and deontological duty-based ethics models. We must expose
the profession to deontological approaches of public relations ethics through increased education,
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mentorship, industry values, and decision making models. We must also assess and build the
current models to better assist professionals as they negotiate the diverse decisions, crises, and
situations they face each day. The profession sits at a crossroads in which practitioners and
scholars must work together to build decision making models and educational initiatives. These,
in turn, will advance ethics and guide public relations professionals to fulfill their unique role as
organizational issues manager, communicator, and role model.
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EcoMoms’ Engagement in Environmental Activity
Much Ado About Something:
Web 2.0 Acceptance and Use by Public Relations Practitioners
Renata Faye Schloss
University of Maryland, College Park
rschloss@umd.edu
Abstract
Twelve in-depth, semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted to study how
environmentally conscious mothers make meaning of their environmental engagement and
communication and perceive their levels of problem recognition, involvement, and constraint
recognition regarding environmental issues. This research also explores how features unique to
communication over the Internet affect levels of involvement and information processing and
seeking. Prior relevant research falls into several categories: publics, situational theory of
publics, environmental communication and Internet-mediated communication. Results suggest
that there is a cultural dictate that influences environmentally conscious mothers to see the
environment as more of a situation or problem than baseline publics, and constraints vary for
individual members of a public. Also, the Internet has added a new dimension in the way publics
can develop. These findings suggest that more research is needed on the situational theory of
publics to explore if the variables of the theory are useful qualitatively.
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Causing Our Own Problems? Women as Sources in News Releases
Hilary Fussell Sisco
Quinnipiac University
Hilary.FussellSisco@quinnipiac.edu
Lynn M. Zoch
Radford University
lzoch@radford.edu
Erik Collins
University of South Carolina
ecollins@mailbox.sc.edu
Abstract
The impetus for this study came from research indicating that reporters, even today,
seem more likely to quote male sources than female sources. The question for the
researchers then became whether we, as public relations practitioners, are causing some of our
own problems by providing reporters with a disproportionate number of male sources. The
purpose of the research presented in this article was to turn the tables on the previously published
research by looking at the sources provided to reporters through the subsidy of corporate news
releases. In addition, the researchers investigated how releases from the top corporations
compared to those from top corporations headed by female chief executive officers to determine
if releases from these female-headed companies would be more likely to quote female sources.
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PEDAGOGY
POSTERS
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What’s Critical About PR and New Media Technologies?
Using Professional Case Studies and Expertise to
Develop Classroom Content and Learning Objectives
Betsy D. Anderson
University of St. Thomas
Bdanderson1@stthomas.edu
Rebecca Swenson
University of Minnesota
Boli0028@umn.edu
Overview
New media strategies are reshaping the public relations field. This project, for example, was
prompted by a call from a PR professional, asking if students would be prepared to write a
“social media news release” during a job interview.
This research begins to address a broader question that goes beyond whether or not a course has
covered a specific tactic. Instead, we ask, “what should we be preparing students for, in light of
new media’s influence on the field?” The purpose of this research is to form specific learning
objectives for new media-related assignments, developed systematically and with the insight of
practitioners.
We spoke with experts from ten top U.S. public relations agencies and asked them to describe
recent projects that illustrate how new media technologies are changing public relations
programs. Experts discussed aspects of the case study that demonstrate a change in PR practice
and elements that remain unchanged from traditional PR practice. Interviewees also addressed
skills students need and challenges they should be prepared for as new technologies are
incorporated into overall PR strategy.
We used the case studies and expert analysis to develop learning objectives and example
assignments for three types of courses: an introductory PR principles course, a PR writing
course, and an advanced PR course, respectively.
These assignments and learning objectives push students to think critically about social media,
using Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives as a guide. We also frame the assignment
discussion in terms of strategy, ethics and opportunities for two-way symmetrical practice.
Overall Interview Themes
Ability to Build Relationships with Consumers Directly. It is no longer necessary to rely on
traditional media channels to communicate with audiences. Conversation is now direct and twoway.
The Audience as Participants, Rather than Information Receivers. Users are creating their own
content online, and one implication is that now you have brand reputations that are being
managed by consumers, rather than by the corporate communication dept. It used to be that you
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sent out a press release, and then did some follow-up research to determine people’s sentiment.
Now, you have communities that are actively contributing content around your brand, and what
you’re saying about your brand, which is a fundamental shift in public relations. Social media
and access to easy-to-use publishing tools have empowered publics to share their own points of
view. Effective campaigns today involve audiences in the process, as opinion leaders, idea and
story contributors, and early trial testers.
Adding Value to the Community. Communication online is less about delivering your message,
and more about two-way communication. For example, instead of thinking “how can I get this
blogger to say what I want them to say,” think, “how can I make this blog better?”
Blending Online and Offline Strategies. Public relations employers are looking for students who
not only know how to generate an idea for a particular channel (e.g., a YouTube video), but how
to extend that idea to reach all of the digital and traditional touch points that affect a particular
audience.
Measuring Results. On one hand, Internet communication offers an increased ability to track
analytics. For example, you can easily monitor visits to blogs, discover the most popular online
media Web sites, and determine whether people click on particular articles or messages. On the
other hand, it continues to be difficult to measure relationships online.
Ways Public Relations is Changing as a Result of Digital Media Technologies
Transparency. While important in the past as well, transparency is non-negotiable in online
communication settings. Audiences expect authentic dialogue and timely responses.
Decreasing Importance of the News Release. Several of the experts we interviewed expressed
that teaching students to write primarily in a news release style was problematic. In online
contexts, students need to learn to dialogue in a conversational style, with an authentic voice. As
one interviewee stated, “you cannot press release a blogger.” For bloggers, it’s not about simply
repeating your carefully constructed message; it’s about making an authentic, valuable
contribution.
Informational Delivery. The Internet opens up the opportunity to create an on-going message.
Rather than a one-day hit, a message can come up every time someone does a search on that
issue. An effective online message is one that gets syndicated (e.g., others subscribe to the
content of your podcast, news release, blog, etc.).
Storytelling. Telling an effective story about a brand or organization should not be static. PR
students need to think in terms of three dimensions, rather than two. Visuals can encourage
publics to click to learn more, and can add value to journalists by providing images that attract
readers to their stories.
Things that Haven’t Changed
• Writing continues to be vital. It is still necessary to capture attention within one or two
sentences. Beyond mechanics, entry level professionals need to understand how sentences
hang together, how to make a compelling argument, and how to tell a story.
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• PR strategy is still developed by asking the same basic questions: who is the audience, how
am I going to reach the audience, what would I like the audience to do, how do I achieve
that?
• The focus on the bottom line does not go away. PR practitioners need to consider the
business problem, and how to “move the bar.”
• The idea of reaching opinion leaders is not new. Today’s influentials are just new experts in
new types of communities.
Skills Students Need for a Changing PR Landscape
Writing. Students need to continue to master traditional styles of PR writing, while further
adding new styles to their repertoire. When writing online, students need to think in terms links,
and how they tie to the overall structure. Successful content online takes into consideration not
only creating a message, but how a message gets syndicated throughout the digital space.
Design & Technical Programming. Our experts differed on whether or not it is necessary for
students to learn technical programming skills. One point of view was that it is not absolutely
necessary, but it certainly helps practitioners know what is, and isn’t, possible when making
recommendations to organizations. Knowing how to use visuals effectively also is important.
Interpersonal Communication Skills. Being comfortable engaging in dialogue, networking,
building relationships online and listening are needed skills. Additionally, open, direct
conversations online sometimes involves issues or debate, so problem-solving skills are
necessary as well.
Challenges to Prepare Students for in Digital and Social Media Contexts
Blending Personal and Professional Personas. It is imperative to build credibility and add value
online. One way to achieve this is to already be a regular participant in a particular community.
Therefore, it is important that students begin to think about the types of online forums where
they could become involved and add expertise.
Dealing with the Old Guard. Many seasoned public relations practitioners and corporate
executives have spent their entire careers under the broadcast model. To them, online peer-topeer
communication among publics represents a loss of control. One message to convey is that
the conversations are going to happen; you have a choice about whether you are going to monitor
them and participate.
No Checks and Balances. When information is shared with reporters, they have a professional
obligation to be honest, fair and accurate. Non-journalist content creators are often in the role of
expressing their own opinions, and information can sometimes be inaccurate or wrong. The
gatekeepers are gone in this context. It is important to know when to respond, and when not to
respond, as well as how to respond. Sometimes it makes sense to suggest that a conversation
continue on an organization’s Web site forums, rather than continuing it on an outside blog, for
example.
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News and Messages Spread Instantaneously. In today’s 24/7 news cycle, it is difficult to protect
the news value of information - especially if the value of your news is its timeliness. The news
often hits the Internet before the newspaper or television station you’ve pitched it to has the
opportunity to cover it. Additionally, it is easy for PR practitioners to communicate instantly
online because they can; however, it important for young practitioners to think strategically
about what information is appropriate to communicate, and where it should be communicated.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The new media assignments we developed from interviews with PR agency experts include
learning objectives that are based on a revised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) of
educational objectives (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). These learning objectives are organized
in terms of increasing cognitive complexity, with the most complex task at the top of the
pyramid. Problem-solving and critical thinking are not found in the taxonomy, but are skills
which utilize multiple elements of the learning taxonomy. For example, critical thinking may
involve applying knowledge to analyze an issue, evaluate possible solutions, and create a
defensible position on the issue (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 269-270).
Creating Putting elements together to form a
coherent whole.
Evaluating Making judgments based on criteria
and standards.
Analyzing Breaking material into parts and
relating parts to one another, and to
the whole.
Applying Using procedures to perform
exercises or solve problems in a given
situation.
Understanding Constructing meaning from
instructional messages; Building
connections between new knowledge
(Forehand, 2005) (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
Assignments In Brief
Introduction to Public Relations Principles Course
Assignment Summary: After completing units on digital media and traditional PR tactics,
students participate in a case scenario where they are in charge of launching an extension of a
well-known consumer product. First, they list all of the traditional media channels. Next, they
list of all the digital “touchpoints” for reaching the consumer. They should describe their
message format, duration, tone, manner and how it will be produced.
Learning Objectives:
• To extend a PR strategy to be applicable to both offline and online channels.
(UNDERSTANDING)
• To protect the news value of your announcement. (APPLYING)
• To tell stories in a 3-D manner. (CREATING)
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Discussion in Terms of Strategy, Ethics and Opportunities for Two-Way Symmetrical Practice:
• Basic strategy - ask students why they choose to reach the audience in the ways described.
• Ethics - Discuss transparency and the Word of Mouth Marketing Assn. (WOMMA) code of
ethics.
• Two-way symmetrical practice - what is the win-win? Describe evidence showing that the
organization listened to its publics. Describe any changes the organization made as a result
of two-way communication with its publics.
PR Writing Course
Assignment Summary: Assign students to write a blog entry during a class session. Describe the
purpose and audience for the blog. Ten minutes into the activity introduce a crisis scenario that
requires the student “blogger” to respond. Ask students to consider their own blog post
response, how they will handle likely blog comments written by audience members, and where
else in the blogosphere they would engage bloggers and/or publics. (The same scenario can be
used to respond to a branding opportunity, rather than a crisis.)
Learning Objectives:
• Determine how to respond to a dynamic situation. (EVALUATING)
• Practice conversational writing style. (CREATING)
Discussion in Terms of Strategy, Ethics and Opportunities for Two-Way Symmetrical Practice:
• Strategy - Discuss why the students chose the strategy they did; to what extent did the
decision match the organization’s mission and objectives?
• Ethics - what potential ethical challenges could arise in this situation? Which values and
provisions from the PRSA code of ethics are applicable to these challenges?
• Two-way symmetrical practice - what aspects of the blog-writing activity demonstrated twoway
symmetrical communication? How could this be enhanced?
Advanced PR Course: Research
Assignment Summary: Using observational and interviewing techniques associated with
ethnographic research, ask students to study the culture of an online community on behalf of a
non-profit organization. By monitoring conversations occurring within the online community
and talking to bloggers, students should record the major themes that illustrate the values,
beliefs, and issues important to the group of bloggers and describe the rituals or customs that
give the community cohesion. Students then prepare a research brief that describes the
community in detail, considers how community might be influential, and analyzes if and why the
community might care about the non-profit organization’s cause. Finally, students should detail a
plan for outreach that engages the community in ways that add value to the conversation.
Learning Objectives:
• To examine audience beliefs and principles prior to outreach (ANALYZING)
• To shape PR strategy in a way that adds value and pays tribute to community
(CREATING)
• To practice building relationships with important publics ((EVALUATING)
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Discussion in Terms of Strategy, Ethics and Opportunities for Two-Way Symmetrical Practice:
• Basic Strategy – ask students how public relations strategy and tactics could help further
the mission of the non-profit organization while contributing in a meaningful way to the
blogger’s community.
• Ethics – According to the WOMMA and PRSA codes of ethics, discuss why PR
professionals must be transparent when engaging in the community conversation,
describing their own beliefs and revealing their relationship with the nonprofit
organization.
• Two-way symmetrical practice – Why is the non-profit organization’s information
important to the community? How must PR strategy consider the needs and interests of
the audience?
References
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and
assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives: Abridged edition,
New York : Longman.
Bloom, Benjamin S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of
educational goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. Handbook 1:
Cognitive domain. New York: Longman.
Forehand, M. (2005). Bloom's taxonomy: Original and revised.. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging
perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved August 26, 2008, from
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/
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How the PRSA’s Certification in Education for Public Relations Effected a Transformation
of a Private University in Argentina into a Community of Practice and
Enhanced Its Reputation
Marcelo Baró
Universidad Argentina de la Empresa
mbaro@uade.edu.ar
Background
It can be argued that Public Relations arrived in Argentina with the Spanish colonization.
The profession, however, did not really begin until the arrival of the first multinational
companies in 1910. Public Relations practitioners were mainly press agents while publicity was
used for decades to address strong national feelings and interests against foreign corporations,
especially during Peron’s ruling. It was not until the mid-50s, during a short economic boom,
that corporations started recognizing the need of better prepared professionals in Public
Relations.
At that time, several companies transferred their communications specialists to
Argentina. Others sent their brightest employees to American universities. But many, grouped in
the Cámara de Sociedades Anónimas, decided to found a university that would offer different
programs in business. With this clear mission, the Universidad Argentina de la Empresa
(UADE) was established in 1963, and a year later, it offered the first Public Relations degree in
the country. Soon, other universities followed. These Public Relations programs, though, were
not very popular for several reasons. First, privately-run universities at that time were considered
to offer a second-class education. Second, the profession was still associated with social
promoters rather that with communication specialists. And last, but more important, few were
willing to participate in public issues because of the military governments of the time.
For almost forty years, UADE has been a leader in Public Relations Education in the
country and has had about 30% of all PR students. With the consolidation of democracy and the
steep influence of globalization during the late ‘90s, the university enrollment started to rocket
and there was a real need for, on the one hand, the improvement of its structure and culture and,
on the other, for excellence in education. Foreign solutions, which were frequently promoted by
international cooperative organizations, such as UNESCO and the IMF, have already
transformed Argentina’s educational system at all levels. Some universities quickly adopted
international education standards to further improve their performance, but only a few had
realized the importance of undergoing certification processes, which are widely accepted in the
United States of America and Europe. This is indeed paradoxical as globalization began to affect
educational systems already in the 1990s, and researchers in Comparative Education and
Education Authorities have analyzed international certification processes and recommended their
implementation ever since. In Public Relations, this is particularly striking. Only UADE, out of
fifteen Argentine universities offering undergraduate studies in Public Relations, decided to
undertake the PRSA’s certification process in 2005. UADE is in fact one of two other
universities outside of the United States of America to have certified programs.
Critics argue that certification does not constitute a real transfer of creative solutions, but
merely a way to legitimize educational policies. At UADE, nonetheless, the certification has
changed the school’s culture, more specifically its Department of Public Relations, into a
community of practice. This concept is currently prevalent in several educational venues and
research contexts. Lave and Wenger (1991) defined a community of practice as
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A set of relations among persons, activity, and world, over time and in relation with other
tangential and overlapping communities of practice. [It] is an intrinsic condition for the
existence of knowledge, not least because it provides the interpretive support necessary for
making sense of its heritage. Thus, participation in the cultural practice in which any
knowledge exists is an epistemological principle of learning 1 (p. 98).
Wenger (2000) further explained that:
In organizations that value knowledge, they can help drive strategy, solve problems
quickly, transfer best practices, develop professional skills, and help recruit and retain
talented employees 2 (p. 39).
Along the same lines, Barab and Duffy (2000) proposed three features of communities of
practice:
1) A community has a “common cultural and historical heritage,”
2) A community is composed of individuals who are interdependent and interconnected
within the community context, which is also a part of a larger community, and
3) A community has an ongoing “reproduction cycle,” in which new members come in,
work with other members, and become core members 3 (p. 37).
A community of practice emerges then when conditions are nurtured naturally, rather than
by design or making it happen intentionally. UADE’s Department of Public Relations already
had a “common cultural and historical heritage” and, certainly, it was composed of individuals
who were interdependent and interconnected within the department, the school, and the
university before certification, but had no ongoing reproduction cycle. Faculty and staff did not
share the same objective, but just enabled the common educational goals. The certification
process led to the creation of a Public Relations’ research center, an extensive extracurricular
program, and a tutoring and mentoring program available for all 1,800 students pursuing the
major, in which new faculty and staff, and even students, come in, work with other members,
and become core members.
The PRSA’s certification effected these organizational transformations and enhanced the
reputation of the institution, which now features a market share of 67%, and the largest Public
Relations’ program in the world.
Research Questions
I approached my qualitative study with the following questions:
1 Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation, New
York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
2
Wenger , E. C. & Snyder, W. M. (2000). Communities of Practice: The Organizational
Frontier. In Harvard Business Review, v78 n1, 39-45 Jan-Feb 2000.
3 Barab, S. A., & Duffy, T. M. (2000). From practice fields to communities of practice. In D.
Jonassen & S. M. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments, Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 26-56.
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1) How did the PRSA certification effect organizational transformations at UADE’s
Department of Public Relations so that new members come in, work with other members,
and become core members?
2) Did these organizational changes affect UADE’s reputation with regards to its Public
Relation Education?
Research Design and Data collection
This qualitative study on how the PRSA certification process changed UADE´s culture to
become a community of practice draws on a focus group, institutional document analysis, and
interviews with key players. The focus group was composed of eight university members (i.e.,
the Dean, the Department Chair, Faculty, etc.). The study also used an appraisal analysis of
prospects, community, employees, and students towards the school in order to qualitatively
evaluate how the school’s reputation was enhanced. This, however, does not constitute a formal
audit.
Results
From the collected data and its subsequent analysis, I have drawn three important conclusions,
which have implications for other schools willing to undertake the PRSA’s certification process.
First, although the certification sought endorsement of a Public Relations education program, it
mobilized faculty expertise and built collective responsibility, all for the sake of student learning.
This is the biggest effect of the certification at the organizational level at this time. Second, while
the school has made considerable headway institutionalizing the structural dimensions of the
initiative, efforts to improve teacher efficacy appeared to be constrained by high-stakes
accountability policies requiring compliance. And finally, if an initiative like this is to endure,
schools must invest great time and support. With regards to reputation, the study showed that the
organizational changes did affect reputation positively, as prospects, community, employees, and
students strongly associated quality Public Relations education with UADE, increasing market
share from 30% before certification to 67% afterward.
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Designing an Effective Online Corporate Training Program
Joseph Basso and Suzanne FitzGerald
Rowan University
basso@rowan.edu
sparks@rowan.edu
Alison Theaker
Marjon University, UK
atheaker@marjon.ac.uk
Introduction
The authors explored the efficacy of online versus traditional training programs by
conducting a DELPHI study of US human resource professionals to ascertain how they currently
train as well as design online training programs. In addition, the authors conducted face-to-face
interviews with human resource executives in the UK.
This research investigates both compliance courses (mandated by law) as well as training
programs designed to improve organizational effectiveness. By study corporate human resource
professionals, the authors created a model for designing and implementing effective online
programs.
The use of the DELPHI technique provided the authors with consensus among human
resource professionals as to the techniques and tools necessary to reach employees in this
information age. The face-to-face interviews supplemented the quantitative research and offered
the opportunity to explore training from a cross-cultural perspective.
Because human resources professionals face increased numbers of displaced employees
but retain the need to provide comprehensive training programs, effective online and traditional
training becomes mandatory.
This research explores compliance and non-compliance training in an online versus a
traditional format as well as the benefits of blended training (i.e. some format of both online and
traditional training). The following literature review is taken primarily from the Society of
Human Resource Managers (SHRM) publications.
Relevant Literature
Literature concerning traditional training versus online training indicates that each serves
an important purpose. Traditional training works well for soft skills using role play, group
activities, and interactivity. Online training works particularly well for content that doesn’t
change but needs to be viewed every year by a large number of employees. Many companies use
online learning for required compliance training. Blended learning is seen by many human
resources managers/trainers as an excellent means of reinforcing classroom training with online
follow up.
According to Carol Auerbach in a SHRM white paper, content is the most important
factor. Auerbach notes that once you determine the purpose of the content, you can choose
among the following delivery methods: print materials such as manuals; multimedia materials
such as CDs; formal presentations at a conference; informal discussion groups; classroom
training; computer-based training; web-based training or distance learning. Auerbach suggests
that a combination of training methods often produces the best results (Tyler, 2005).
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Frances Lilly in a similar white paper distributed by SHRM refers to classroom learning
as synchronous learning with the following advantages: less expensive than asynchronous
learning, appropriate for time-critical materials, familiar to most learners, provides real-time
interaction and application, and promotes coaching and mentoring. Further, Lilly indicates that
the advantages of asynchronous learning include: flexibility, privacy, allows the learner to
proceed at own pace and with a selected learning path. Her recommendation is to use blended
learning where possible using web-based training or computer-based training to introduce facts,
concepts and ideas and then bringing these individuals together for classroom learning (Lilly,
2002).
If web-based learning is selected, Lilly offers the following tips: focus on the business
advantage, provide introductory training for learners, provide online support, provide a group of
coaches, and foster e-learning communities.
Lin Grensing-Pohal in an article on the benefits and pitfalls of e-learning notes that the
benefits include: saving money, reducing travel costs, reducing employee time away from the
office, as well as providing convenient access to training and information. It also offers
consistency in content/delivery because of no instructor variation; faster delivery of timesensitive
information; broader access to recognized experts; and greater productivity and cost
savings. The primary barrier to instituting internet-based training is the sufficiency of computer
systems and the system support necessary to maintain the training programs. According to
Grensing-Pohal, e-learning should not substitute for face-to-face learning. E-learning is an
alternative delivery mechanism that can provide tremendous benefits in terms of accessibility
and reach (Lilly, 2002).
Compliance Training
Government regulations have mandated a flood of compliance training across the
country. According to an article in HR Magazine, much of this training concerns corporate ethics
(Grossman, 2008).
Other compliance training concerns AB1825 or a California law prompting companies to
offer preventive sexual harassment training. According to anti-harassment training vendors,
online harassment training is favored by employees because they can take it on their own time in
a private setting. Training vendors also suggest that online courses are easier to manage and
more convenient for all.
And, according to the EEOC, the best practice is to provide training that addresses all
forms of unlawful workplace harassment, not just sexual harassment.
Spurred, at least in part, by laws in several states requiring employee sexual harassment
training, many companies are taking the mandate further and educating all their employees about
sexual harassment, regardless of where they work. (A state-by-state listing of sexual harassment
training laws is included in the Society for Human Resource Management’s (SHRM) Sexual
Harassment Toolkit.) Some employers are turning to the Internet to deliver, at a fraction of the
cost, the same content once taught in a classroom setting. However, legal experts advise that
providing the training is not necessarily enough to shield a company from hostile workplace
claims. Effective online training programs must insure that content, as well as the effectiveness
of the material, must be present in order to present a worthwhile program.
According to Joe Beachboard, a shareholder with Atlanta-based labor and employment
law firm Ogletree Deakins, the stakes for employers to ensure a harassment-free workplace are
especially high in California, where damages in hostile workplace lawsuits have no caps.
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Beachboard reports that large California-based employers have been fined up to $25 million.
Even in other states where fines are capped at $300,000, costs can still cascade when multiple
plantiffs and attorney fees are added to the cost of litigation. (Johnson, 2007)
One HR manager with a large California-based oil company who asked not to be
identified used Anderson-davis online training in 2001 to educate more than 25,000 U.S.-based
employees and is now rolling out refresher training that 3,000 supervisors must take every two
years. In addition, the company is translating the training into several languages and soon will
require managers around the world to take it.
The streaming video vignettes and the interactivity features make the program particularly
engaging, she said. She added, “You don’t suffer like you do with reading long text in an online
course.”
Training a global workforce may be easier with the advent of technology, but many
social and cultural issues are not resolved by language translation and electronic delivery of
learning. For example, cultural differences may make the use of metaphors, colors and symbols
offensive for certain users. Many cultures have important meanings associated with certain
colors. In Korea, for example, the color yellow is associated with funerals. Therefore, designing
a training program for a global company takes careful planning and adherence to cultural norms
and values at every facet of the design and development process.
Making Training Work
Suzy goes to her manager, upset:
“I’ve got a real problem. I’m not sure I know what to call it, but I think I can explain it easily
enough. My colleague Jackie is, well, let’s just say she’s quite the party girl…
The thing is, I just don’t want to hear about it every Monday morning ad nauseam. I
mean she really gets around, and she feels compelled to tell me all about the past weekend’s
marathon activities in excruciating detail, and when I say excruciating, trust me, that’s really
putting it mildly! So first, it’s really gross. Second, it’s inappropriate. Third, I’ve got work to do,
and fourth, I just have no interest.”
This audio-photo vignette is from “Workplace Harassment II,” an online sexual
harassment prevention course offered by San Francisco-based Employment Law Training Inc.
(ELT). (It also is offered through SHRM’s e-learning program.)
The course uses an evolving story that presents students with workplace scenarios. After
watching the vignette—created with photos, audio and text—users must answer interactive
questions dealing with, among other things, appropriate content for discussion in the office and
who should be contacted when problems arise.
The course has manager and supervisor versions; the supervisor version includes
simulations of workers going to supervisors with problems and explains how to react and
recognize potential harassment and retaliation issues.
Paul Mohnkern, HR manager for McLean, Va.-based MorganFranklin, a professional
services firm, said he purchased ELT’s program partly because of built-in mechanisms that
prevent employees from breezing through the course or setting the program to play and then
heading out to lunch. In other words, employees have to allow for the material to sink in to get
credit for taking it (Grossman, 2008).
Such safeguards are important, since courts are demanding that employers do more than
simply go through the motions of providing training, according to Shanti Atkins, president and
CEO of ELT.
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Concerned that its sexual harassment training approach couldn’t pass legal muster, the
state of Illinois in 2006 forced thousands of employees to retake the course because records
showed they had completed the training in as little as 10 minutes.
Effectiveness of courses can be difficult to measure, however, especially since most
vendors don’t track test or quiz results. That’s by customer design; at least some employers fear
that poor employee test scores could be used against them by a plaintiff building a hostile
workplace case.
“There are published cases where training is scrutinized by a judge and a jury,” says
Atkins. “Ten years ago they asked, ‘Did you do the training?’ Today they are asking ‘How did
you do it, and what did you use?’ ”
Atkins said that to pass muster in court, training programs should be at least 30 minutes
long, contain enough content and interactivity to make the estimated times real, and use realistic
scenarios and hypothetical situations.
“If employees can blast through the training quickly, they will,” Atkins said. “It’s human
nature.”
Methodology
The authors first conducted a DELPHI study with twelve human resource managers to
arrive at a consensus on three issues with respect to e-learning. Respondents participated in three
rounds of questions for purposes of this study. In round one, respondents were asked to provide
their answer to the question in list form. In the second round, the authors gave respondents a
complete list of all answers for each question. Respondents then rank ordered the answers
beginning with their highest ranked answer to their lowest ranked answer. In the third round, the
authors sent respondents the tabulated results from the second round. They were asked to re-rank
the responses to see if any changes occurred.
The questions respondents replied to are as follows:
1) What are the primary reasons that companies now use e-learning as part of their human
resources training program?
2) With respect to learning effectiveness, what benefits do participants receive from e-
learning?
3) What, if any, problems do organizations encounter with e-learning?
After completing the DELPHI study, the authors conducted a series of personal interviews
with human resources professionals in both the United States and England. Respondents
were asked a series of questions to determine their feelings toward e-learning and to see how
it fits into their organization’s business model.
Results
As an answer to the question regarding primary reasons for using e-learning as part of their
human resource training program, respondents listed the following in rank order:
1) E-learning saves time because participants do not have to be pulled from their job to
participate. E-learning participants can receive training in short blocks of time during lunch
breaks or at times before and after work.
2) E-learning is a cost-effective way to deliver training, especially for exempt employees
because they are not separated from daily activities and may elect to receive training
outside of the workplace.
3) Training works well in intervals thereby improving retention and satisfaction.
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4) Compliance courses can be outsourced and thus the organization does not have to shoulder
the financial burden of bringing in live experts such as attorneys to facilitate learning. The
cost of live experts is prohibitive for many companies.
5) E-learning saves the cost of hiring additional staff such as program designers and
facilitators.
With respect to learning effectiveness, human resource professionals listed the following
participant benefits of e-learning.
1) Younger employees (those who fall into the classification of Generation X or Generation Y)
feel comfortable with e-learning because it mirrors a learning style that they constantly use.
2) E-learning allows learners to choose their learning path.
3) E-learning offers privacy where participants can experiment.
4) Participants enjoy the scheduling flexibility of e-learning.
5) E-learning provides standard, consistent information.
The third question concerning problems with e-learning elicited the following responses.
These responses are ranked in order of most problematic to least problematic.
1) E-learning is not appropriate for dynamic content. These programs have a short shelf life
and require frequent updates.
2) E-learning does not work well for complex material. This type of training works most
effectively with an expert facilitator present to address questions.
3) E-training is time consuming to develop.
In summary, the literature review predicted that e-learning is effective for some types of
training, particularly compliance training. These respondents verified that prediction. The
literature review also cited examples of blended learning to convey more complex topics and
allow for question and answer sessions. This study confirms that finding.
Personal interviews
In general, respondents from both the United States and the United Kingdom agreed that e-
learning has become a vital part of organizational training programs. The human resource
professionals who participated in the study felt that e-learning was particularly important for
younger workers who weren’t daunted by spending long blocks of time online. However,
respondents indicated that the mature generation (workers 55 and older) were less comfortable
with e-learning.
According to HR managers, the BBC has adopted a considered approach to e-learning. As
an early adopter of e-learning, the BBC has developed a “learner centered” design. Rachel
Simmons of the BBC notes that training 16,000 employees (mostly compliance training) in a
tight timeframe with a small budget necessitates e-learning.
According to Charles Jennings, Head of Global Learning and Development at Reuters, e-
learning has been successful, but only accounts for 5-10% of all training there. He also notes the
problems of e-learning include user access and technology. Reuters uses virtual classroom
online seminars to update worldwide staff on changing applications.
And according to Marten Staps of Hilton International, Hilton has discovered a good
mechanism for delivering e-learning worldwide through its university—www.hiltonuniversity.com.
Most Hilton Hotels now have an e-learning champion or learning manager. Staps
feels that e-learning will continue to play an important role in training and development for
Hilton International.
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All respondents agreed that e-learning works well for certain compliance programs, but
more complex topics require a trained facilitator. Blended learning, combining live facilitation
with e-learning was deemed as the best method for organizational training within and across
cultures.
Respondents from the United Kingdom appeared most ready to implement blended
learning into their current e-learning design. However, respondents from both the United States
and United Kingdom universally agree that blended learning provides the best option for
successful e-learning programs. According to one respondent from the United States,
“Corporate culture is a difficult thing to change, and the age diversity that still exists in today’s
workforce prevents organizations from making radical changes too quickly.” She added, though,
that the shift to blended learning or complete online learning will eventually become the
dominant force in corporate training programs. Respondents seemed to universally agree that the
younger workers are more responsive and comfortable with e-learning, and that the potential
savings for companies will make traditional facilitator centered training more of a specialty
rather than the norm.
References
Grossman, R. (January 2008). Hard facts about soft skills e-learning, HR Magazine, vol. 53,
No. 1.
Johnson, M. (March/åpril 2007). A “Bifocal Approach” to anti-harassment training. SHRM
White Paper.
Lilly, F. (May 2002). Web-based taining: Moving from C-learning to E-learning, SHRM
White Paper.
Tyler, K. (February 2005). Do the right thing, HR Magazine, vol. 50, No. 2).
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Teaching Public Relations 2.0 with Distance Learning 3.3
James Benjamin
University of Toledo
jbenjam@utnet.utoledo.edu
According to Deirdre Breakenridge (2008) in PR 2.0: New Media, New Tools, New
Audiences, PR 2.0 “gives you the ability to use new social media applications -- including blogs,
wikis, social networking, Really Simple Syndication (RSS) technology, streaming video and
podcasts--to reach consumers in ways PR pros have not experienced before” (p. 14). In addition
to new content, PR educators are facing challenges in new modes of teaching and learning,
specifically in the form of distance learning. Petersen’s Guide to Online Learning lists more than
48 colleges and universities offering online courses in public relations. This plethora of online
education in public relations is consistent with the burgeoning growth of distance learning in
higher education (National Center for Higher Education Statistics, 2000, ii-iii).
Public relations educators face significant challenges in the third wave of distance
learning technology. Distance Learning 1.0 consisted of correspondence courses that relied on
print media and interaction between teacher and learner through the physical delivery of written
documents. Correspondence courses flourished because there was a need for instruction to be
delivered to remote audiences who could not meet regularly with an instructor in the same place
and at the same time. (Nasseh, 1997). Today, print persists as an integral part of distance
learning, but it has been supplemented by newer technologies.
DL 2.0 consisted of teleconference media that used electronic media for synchronous
communication through audio conferences and interactive video conferencing. With new
communication technologies such as radio and television came new opportunities to reach
remote students. In recent years the role of television in distance education has evolved from
broadcast to interactive videoconferencing by compressed video signals. The traditional
classroom served as the basis for distance learning instruction. Courses have sought to replicate,
insofar as possible, the educational experience available in the traditional, face-to-face
classroom. Television, in its myriad of forms from broadcast to cable to videocassette, became
the most popular media because it “so closely approximates the appearance of face-to-face
instruction, which many teachers and students prefer. . . ” (Verduin & Clark, 1994, p. 74).
Today, teleconference and broadcast media have been incorporated into distance learning in the
form of streaming video, podcasts, and net meetings.
DL 3.0 is the use of web based platforms for distance learning. The computer became a
new educational media just as it became an indispensable tool in business and entertainment. The
earliest forms of computer instruction involved stand alone programs that provided drill and
tutorials but failed to reach wide adoption. There have been tremendous strides in this form of
instruction sometimes known as computer based training or programmed instruction largely
because corporations were willing to invest in equipment and design teams that were able to
focus on specific training projects (Horton, 2000, pp. 8-9). Distance learning sought to employ
the computer as a tool as well. Course material delivered on CD-ROM permitted students to
experience a high technology form of correspondence course that went beyond the drill and
tutorials of early computerized instruction. The Department of Education’s National Center for
Education Statistics (2000) reported that the meteoric growth in distance learning is largely
attributed to the popularity of the Internet as a distance learning technology (p. 54).
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DL 3.0 were simple text and graphics presentations combined with asynchronous bulletin
boards. DL 3.1 utilized more sophisticated communication tools including text “chat” and
hypertext and still graphics presented through HTML. DL 3.2 incorporated multimedia with
motion graphics, video burned onto CD-ROMs and low bandwidth audio/video materials. DL
3.3 represents the third wave of distance learning technology with wide band, high speed
interactive media, the blogosphere, podcasting and virtual worlds like Second Life.
Learners have also changed. Generation X, Generation Y and the new millennial
generation have developed both greater familiarization with communication technology and
greater demand for multimedia instruction. The succeeding generations of college students have
developed higher expectations about the sophistication of distance learning environments.
According to Jones (2002), “One-fifth (20%) of today’s college students began using computers
between the ages of 5 and 8. By the time they were 16 to 18 years old all of today’s current
college students had begun using computers – and the Internet was a commonplace in the world
in which they lived” (p. 2). Robert Kvavik and Judith Caruso’s survey of 18,039 students found
that millenials demand greater use of technology in teaching and learning, that they prefer the
technology integrated within their courses to a moderate degree, and that they consider
technology in the classroom to be supplemental rather than a radical replacement. Millennial
students spend a great deal of time online and “technology permeates all aspects of student life,
but its use as a tool has become paramount” (Kvavik & Caruso, 2005, 6).
The improvements in distance learning technology have created new challenges to
teaching new forms of public relations through new forms of distance learning to the millennial
generation of students. The following “lessons from the front lines” of teaching pr through
distance learning are described in more detail in the session.
● Teaching PR online requires recognition of the opportunities and barriers of computer
mediated communication as a pedagogical tool for teaching public relations.
DL 1.0: Print Media. Print has many advantages as an instructional media. Both
students and faculty are familiar with the technology used; it is relatively inexpensive; it is easily
indexed and the information can be retrieved readily. As an informational media print is
effective at presenting factual communication and is graphically rich. Disadvantages of the
print media in distance education are that it is relatively static, that it requires more involvement
on the part of the reader, and that print is not particularly effective at communicating action and
emotion. Print is also less spontaneous and less effective at expressing social relationships
(Crystal, 1995; Biber, 1991). Furthermore, there is significantly delayed feedback in the
interaction between participants in the communication process. Delayed feedback, the extreme
of asynchronicity, seriously affects the “flow” of the communication and may lead to perceptions
of information flowing too slowly compared to the communication flow in a more familiar faceto-face
instructional setting.
DL 2.0: Broadcast Media. The nature and effect of communication in broadcast media
such as radio and television has been extensively studied (Lowery & DeFleur 1995; Perry, 2002).
As distance learning instructional technologies, these broadcast media have the advantage of
being dynamic, immediate, and familiar to contemporary learners. They more closely
approximate the traditional classroom because they employ extensive use of oral communication
and, in the case of television, also offer visual information and stimulation. The disadvantages of
broadcast media include the one-way nature of the communication, the special equipment needed
for developing the media, the difficulty of making changes in adapting to the specific needs and
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interests of the individual learners, and the lack of leaner-learner interaction. (Moore & Kearsley,
1996, p. 96; Belanger & Jordan, 2000, pp. 78-81). Newer generations of radio and television
distance learning technology, in the form of audio conferencing and videoconferencing,
overcome the some of the problems of broadcast radio and television as instructional media by
allowing interactive dialogue and the establishment of a more personal relationship among the
participants. These media allow more communicative interaction which, in turn, improves
attitudes, performance on tests, and can be linked to retention in courses (Baath, 1982; Kwiatek,
1982-83). There remain, however, disadvantages to audio and video conferencing as distance
learning communication systems. The technology involved in these formats is expensive since
line charges apply in addition to the high cost of equipment that must be at each
sending/receiving point in the communication network. The technology is limited primarily to
point-to-point communication because the costs for bridging significantly raise the per minute
line charge rate. Furthermore, there are inherent technical problems that limit to the number of
points possible in the network and the utility of the mechanism for the comparatively higher
student-teacher ratios of a traditional classroom (Kouki & Wright, 1999, pp. 34-64). Finally,
considerable time and effort must be expended to train faculty to make effective use of these
technologies (Gehlauf, Shatz, & Frye, 1991) and additional development must be put into careful
instructional design (Price & Repman, 1994).
DL 3.0: Web Based Media. The addition of Internet connectivity has transformed
computer based instruction because it has added a communication system that not only provides
a media rich system for delivering information but also adds communication conferencing
components. The importance of adding both synchronous and asynchronous communication
capabilities should not be ignored.
The advantage of using the Internet as a distance learning technology is that it can
employ a wide variety of media formats including print, graphics, animation, voice and video.
Another advantage is that there are tools available that allow synchronous as well as
asynchronous communication between students and instructors, between students, and among
groups of individuals involved in the course. Websites can be designed to run simulations, to run
surveys, to offer and even score quizzes, and to provide a dynamic database so that the grade
entries for a given student are always available to that student. Students can access databases of
information. Papers and other assignments can be posted to the Internet for review by the
professor alone or for review by other students for peer comments and suggestions. Information
and links can be updated easily and immediately, making the classroom infinitely adaptable.
Work can be repeated and drills can be conducted without disrupting the learning of other class
members.
There are disadvantages to Internet based distance learning instruction, of course.
Technical barriers include Internet network demands creating denial of service or slow service at
peak traffic times, platform incompatibilities among the participants in the class, lack of
familiarity with how the technology works and how to overcome problems when they are
encountered, necessary bandwidth may not be available for digitally dense educational materials
such as video, high density graphics, and simulations. Additional disadvantages include the need
to devote time and resources to instructional design and development that take advantage of the
educational possibilities of the Internet and the need to devote training and support to both
instructors and students in using the new technologies (Simonson, et al., 2000, pp. 186-187).
There is also a danger that the fascination with the technology will obscure the educational
objective. Unfortunately we sometimes get so fascinated by the bells and whistles of the
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technology that we lose sight of the fact that we must have to have solid content of offer wrapped
in that lively packaging (Benjamin, 1997).
● PR professors should be prepared to deal with the eternal and infernal problem of grading
distance learning assignments and examinations.
Testing has always been a problem for web based distance learning. Since the
examinations and writing assignments are not conducted under proctored conditions as is the
norm in traditional classrooms, there is a concern that the work may not be done by the student
enrolled in the course and a larger concern that it is all too easy to look up the answers on
quizzes and tests.
To address these problems we should distinguish between summative testing -- testing to
provide a grade -- and formative testing -- testing to assess mastery of a subject in order to
identify areas of accomplishment or the need to pursue further study (Wiggins, 1998). Since
formative testing is only aimed at identifying how to help a student learn, there is no advantage
to the student in cheating in the assessment and therefore we can put the concern aside. For
evaluative testing, on the other hand, we must be concerned with the possibility of cheating. In
these situations, the most effective solution is to proctor the assessments.
In grading written assignments we need to consider both markup and comments
(Brookfield, 1995). Markups are more difficult in distance learning courses. The lowest
technology solution is to markup papers in the traditional pen and paper manner and to use the
postal system to mail the documents. A high tech method is to scan the marked up documents
and e-mail the scan as an attachment. For this a sheet feeder is vital and the scanned file must be
optimized for a small file size. The highest tech method is to use screen writing programs like
Microsoft’s One Note on a tablet computer.
Providing comments is considerably easier than markups. The teacher can use the
“tracking function” in Microsoft Word to provide the same types of marginal comments that
would be written in the margins of papers. An alternative is to use a Comment Form that refers
to specific pages in the paper as a cover sheet. A third method is to use a frame that shows the
student’s paper in one frame and the teacher’s comments in a frame beside it.
Distance learning 3.3 uses the latest forms of communication technologies like blogs.
Blogs can be set up internally in platforms like Blackboard as a “bulletin board” that allows
running commentaries. Blogs can also be set up through external sites like Blogger
(https://www.blogger.com/start) or WordPress (http://wordpress.com/).
It is best to explain in advance how blogs will be evaluated. Blogs can be evaluated both
quantitatively (the number of entries posted by a given student) and qualitatively (entries must be
evaluated as relevant to the topic, clearly written, sufficiently detailed, well reasoned, etc.).
● Teaching PR through distance learning must use multimedia online and explore the third
generation of distance learning platforms.
Using podcasts, streaming video and other communication technologies requires attention
to both the content and the production values necessary to make multimedia effective. Simply
placing a digital tape recorder on a desk while one lectures will produce less than effective audio.
Professors creating content must use quality equipment, must work from a well written script
designed to take advantage of the specific media being employed, and must be prepared to edit
the material for the most effective presentation.
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Using emerging technologies of virtual worlds like Second Life for distance learning
environments is just getting underway. In addition to the learning curve of setting up a virtual
classroom and teaching avatar, training students to set up their avatars, and to interact real time
with students, there are barriers to using this as an effective teaching environment. Lester & King
(2008) taught a course to different groups, one in SecondLife and Blackboard and another in a
traditional classroom. They found that students had no significant differences in learning or in
attitude toward the course in the two environments. This finding is similar to most of the findings
of the past that compared face-to-face with distance learning instruction. They also identified
some of the problems in dealing with a virtual world classroom environment. For example, they
had to supplement SecondLife with Blackboard because the virtual world did not have a way of
recording grades, of turning in papers, nor of providing a discussion board (p. 10). In addition,
students in the class were given four weeks to master the skills necessary to operate in
SecondLife such as creating an avatar, getting oriented to SecondLife, teleporting to the
classroom, and communicating in the virtual world. In short, virtual world teaching and learning
shows remarkable similarity to the problems and promises of the early days of web based
distance learning.
References
Baath, J. (1982). Experimental research on computer assisted distance education. In
Distance Education: A World Perspective. Athabasca University/International
Council for Correspondence Education.
Belanger, F., & Jordan, D. H. (2000). Evaluation and implementation of distance
learning: Technologies, tools and techniques. London: Idea Group.
Benjamin, J. (1997). The use and abuse of human information technology in distance
education. A paper presented at the Eastern Communication Association
Conference. Baltimore, MD.
Breakenridge, D. (2008). PR 2.0: New media, new tools, new audiences. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: FT Press.
Biber, D. (1991). Variation across speech and writing. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Crystal, D. (1995) The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Gehlauf, D. N., Shatz, M. A., & Frye, T. W. (1991). Faculty perceptions of interactive
television instructional strategies: Implications for training. The American Journal
of Distance Education, 5 (3), 20-28.
Jones, S. & Madden, M. (September 15, 2002). The Internet goes to college: How
students are living in the future with today’s technology. Pew Internet and
American Life Project. Retrieved August 20 from
http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/71/report_display.asp
Kvavik, R. B., & Caruso, J. B. (October, 2005). ECAR study of students and information
technology, 2005: Convenience, connection, control, and learning. Boulder, CO:
EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research. Retrieved August 15, 2008, from
http://www.educause.edu/LibraryDetailPage/666?ID=ERS0506.
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Lowery, S. A., & DeFleur, M. L. (1995). Milestones in mass communication research:
media effects. 3 rd edition. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.
Kouki, R., & Wright, D. (1999). Telelearning via the Internet. London: Idea Group
Publishing.
Kwiatek, K. K. (1982-83). New ideas in the workplace: Learning from interactive
television. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 11 (2), 117-129.
Lester, P & King, C.. (2008). Analog vs. digital instruction and learning: Teaching within
first and second life environments. A paper presented at the Association for
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. Chicago, IL.
Lowery, S. A., & DeFleur, M. L. (1995). Milestones in mass communication research:
media effects. 3 rd edition. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.
Moore, M. G. & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Nasseh, B. (1997). A Brief History of Distance Education. Online. Available:
http://www.bsu.edu/classes/nasseh/study/research.html.
Perry, D. K. (2002). Theory and research in mass communication: contexts and
consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Price, R., & Repman, J. (1994). Instructional design for college-level courses using
interactive television. DEOSNEWS, 4 (5) [On-line] Available:
htttp://www.ed.psu.edu/acsde/deos/deosnews/deosnews4_5.asp
Petersons Online Guide to Distance Learning (2008). Retrieved June 23, 2008 from
http://www.petersons.com/distancelearning/code/nameresults.asp?sponsor=1&Fro
mPage=DetailSearch
Simonson, M., Smaldino, S. Albright, M.,& Zvacek, S. (2000). Teaching and learning at
a distance. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
U. S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, (December,
1999). Distance education at post secondary education institution: 1997-1998.
NCES 2000-13, by Laurie Lewis, Kyle Snow, Elizabeth Farris, Douglas Levin.
Bernie Greene, project officer. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education.
Verduin, J. R.,& Clark, T. A. (1991). Distance education: The foundations of effective
practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative Assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
129

Integrating Mini Campaigns and Service Learning into
the Principles of Public Relations Course
Kati Tusinski Berg
kati.berg@marquette.edu
Introduction
In public relations programs across the country, undergraduate public relations majors
conclude their degree requirements with a senior capstone experience in public relations
campaigns. Students are expected to apply the knowledge that they have obtained from earlier
courses to develop and present a communication plan proposal for an actual client. Yet, very few
students have experience planning and executing an entire campaign for a client. Moreover, this
is also the first time many students encounter service learning, where they work on a project with
an actual client outside of the classroom.
Since students are introduced to the process of planning a public relations campaign
(research, action, communication, and evaluation) in the introductory public relations course, I
require them to create a mini campaign plan so they begin to understand, identify and connect
the elements of the campaign process. I also utilize service learning in the Principles of Public
Relations course because such interaction is essential to developing client-service relationship
skills. Thus, students have an idea of what is expected of them in the capstone campaigns course.
Furthermore, service learning is at the heart of the mission of Marquette University. Each
year Marquette students perform over 100,000 hours of service to the Milwaukee
community. As an academic program, service learning enables students to perform
meaningful community service related to their courses. The combination of community
service with classroom theory enriches students' learning, personal growth and sense of civic
responsibility. Likewise, service learning contributes to the development of sociallyresponsible
public relations practitioners because it makes them aware of community issues
and the lack of resources available to some organizations. Thus service learning is an ideal
teaching strategy for public relations because its focus on social responsibility aligns well
with values of the profession (Daugherty, 2003).
This précis examines relevant literature as it relates to service learning and public
relations pedagogy, describes the implementation of the service-learning mini campaign, and
concludes with a brief discussion of implications and limitations.
Service Learning and PR Pedagogy
Service learning has been defined and researched within a variety of academic
disciplines. Thus, the value of service learning where students work on projects for actual clients
outside of the classroom is well documented (Beckman, 1997; Bringle & Hatcher, 1996; Hartley,
Harkavy, & Bunson, 2005). Service learning is a teaching method that blends community service
and academic instruction through reflective, critical thinking (Daugherty, 2003). Silverman
(2007) notes, “Public relations courses present an excellent opportunity for incorporating many
service learning techniques, since they frequently engage students in class discussion, class
presentations, and other active learning techniques” (p. 412).
Thus, many public relations scholars have examined service learning in regards to the
public relations campaigns course (Aldoory & Wrigley, 2000; Daugherty, 2003; Hunt, 1988;
Silverman, 2007; Slater, 1998). Yet, service learning is also an effective teaching strategy in
other areas of the public relations curriculum. For example, students in public relations writing
could work with an actual client to develop media relations plans that are strategically focused
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and student groups in research classes could conduct primary and secondary research for a local
organization that does not have the resources to gather such data. On a smaller scale, service
learning can also be integrated into the principles course so that students realize that public
relations has “the power to influence and contribute to society” from the outset of their program
of study (Daugherty, 2003). Therefore, I started implementing a service-learning mini campaign
project into the Principles of Public Relations course.
Implementation
I have always had student groups create mini campaign plans for organizations of their
choice as a final project for the principles class. This past spring was the first time I implemented
a service-learning component to the project. Since service learning had been successful in my
strategic research classes, I decided to integrate it into the principles class. Student groups
created and pitched a mini campaign for a university organization.
I decided to work with an on-campus organization for logistical purposes. I know
students do not like to venture off campus unless it is absolutely essential. Furthermore, I wanted
the target audience for the campaign to be students because it would be easier for my student
groups to access them for research purposes. Our service-learning client this past spring was the
Department of Performing Arts in the College of Communication at Marquette University. A
public relations/theatre student worked with the chair of the department to write a request for
proposal (RFP), which was presented to my students at the beginning of the semester. The class
also met with the client at the theatre for a question and answer session to gather more
information.
Student groups conducted thorough, relevant secondary and primary research with the
target audience to develop a comprehensive situation analysis; determined a problem/opportunity
that the client was facing; and developed a creative public relations plan that addressed the
determined problem/opportunity. Additionally, each team member was required to execute a
tactic that was outlined in the plan. During the final client presentation, students pitched their
ideas to the client. Student groups were graded on the following criteria:
Written Plan (including situation analysis/research; target audience; development
of objective, strategy, tactics; and grammar, style, format)
Visual Component (overall presentation and environment)
Creativity
Individual students were graded on their individual campaign pieces (press release, brochure,
email pitch, social media component, etc.). Each written material must have been a tactic in the
group’s plan. I also encouraged student groups to focus on one objective because the goal of this
project was to expose students to the steps of campaign planning, not to develop a
comprehensive public relations plan. I want my students to understand how all of the pieces fit
together strategically so they are well informed about the process as they take other course in the
major (i.e. writing, research, planning).
Discussion
Overall, the service-learning mini campaign project was successful. The students
developed creative yet practical plans for the Department of Performing Arts. In fact, the
department implemented two of the tactics this academic year: two-for-one date night and a
partnership with the philanthropic efforts of student organizations.
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First and foremost, students learned they don’t have to engage in traditional volunteer
work to contribute to the local community. Instead, they could give back to the community by
offering their communication knowledge and expertise. Secondly, students learned the process of
public relations planning through experience. They came face-to-face with issues related to
teamwork, the difficulties of collecting data and the realities of small budgets.
I believe working with a campus organization contributed to the success of the project.
Moreover, the client must have a clear understanding of the course and the students’ level of
knowledge. It must be emphasized that this in an introductory course; client expectations should
not be the same as clients who work with capstone campaigns classes. Therefore, it is imperative
to keep the students focused on one objective because this is a mini campaign not a
comprehensive plan. The idea is to give students a snapshot of the public relations process.
References
Aldoory, L., & Wrigley, B. (2000). Exploring the use of real clients in the PR Campaigns course.
Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 54, 126-142.
Beckman, M. (1997). Learning in action: Courses that complement community service.
College Teaching, 45, 72-76.
Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (1996). Implementing service learning in higher
education. Journal of Higher Education, 67, 221-239.
Daugherty, E. (2003). Service-learning integration in a public relations program:
Pedagogy for enhanced learning. Teaching Public Relations, 58.
Hartley, M., Harkavy, I., and Benson, L. (2005). Putting down roots in the groves of
academe: The challenges of institutionalizing service-learning. In D. Butin (Ed.),
Service-Learning in Higher Education: Critical Issues and Directions.
Palgrave/St. Martin’s Press.
Hunt, T. (1988). Student is own “client” in campaigns course. Teaching Public Relations,
3.
Slater, M.D. (1991). Combining cooperative learning and individual client work in the
Public relations “capstone” course. Teaching Public Relations, 22.
Silverman, D. A. (2007). Organ donation awareness campaigns in the PR Campaigns
course. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 61(4), 411-428.
132

Adoption of Participatory Adult Learning Theories in an Online Graduate
Public Relations Management Course:
Using Reflection Techniques to Assess Learning Outcomes
Lisa Fall and David Taejun Lee
University of Tennessee
Lfall@utk.edu
davidtjlee@gmail.com
Abstract
Participatory adult learning theories that encourage experiential learning play an integral
role in the learning process. Conducted within the framework of adult learning theories (e.g.,
Dewey, 1916, 1938; Knowles, 1980, 1990, 2001; Kolb, 1984, 2001, 2005), the purpose of this
study is to demonstrate how reflection serves as viable technique for assessing outcomes among
students. This study examines adult students (n=251) enrolled in an online graduate Public
Relations Management course during a three-year period. Data were collected among students
from all over the country who were enrolled in this online course at a mid-sized Midwestern
institution. They were all enrolled in this course as part of their elective course requirements.
The instrument consisted of pre-and post-online discussion board postings via Blackboard, which
serves as the institution’s software platform for curriculum delivery. Results reveal that
students’ overall perception of the public relations industry positively increased after
successfully completing this course. In particular, their definitions of the field demonstrated
more positive language, as revealed by the open-ended definitions they supplied before vs. after
completing the course. Based on these findings, implications are discussed, recommendations for
educators are addressed, and suggestions for future research are suggested.
Introduction
In 1977 Rex Harlow published results from a study in which he identified nearly 500
different terms to define public relations. Now, some 30 years later, Harlow’s terms represent a
pale comparison to the massive amounts of definitions mushrooming in the marketplace. A quick
Google Internet search, using “definition of public relations” as the key search terms, reveals
some 825,000 “hits” (retrieved on September 14, 2008). And, if one turns to academic journals
or public relations textbooks as the sources for a “common” definition, a plethora of explanations
are found there, too. So, it comes as no surprise that the general public is confused about what
exactly the public relations industry represents – and that parents are perplexed, and somewhat
concerned, when their children report that they have decided to major in “public relations.”
Review of the Literature
This study employs participatory learning theories as its framework: Educational
Learning Theory (Dewey, 1916, 1938), Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984), and
Angragogy Theory (Knowles, 1980, 1990, 2001). One of the common denominators among
these three theories is the use of reflection as a technique to enhance the learning process.
Following is a brief explanation of each theory. Dewey believed that learning was active and that
education and democracy are connected. He posited that education was too polarized – on one
end of the spectrum is “traditional” and the other is “progressive.” He criticized traditional
education for lacking a holistic understanding of students and for placing too much emphasis on
curriculum content rather than content and process. He criticized progressive education for being
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too “reactionary” and too free-flowing for the sake of freedom. He argued that educators must
understand the nature of human experience and that this experience is explained by two key
principles: interaction and continuity. He believed that one’s past experience is a function of the
interaction between one’s past experiences and one’s present situation, as explained in his
Educational Learning Theory (Dewey, 1916 & 1938).
Kolb (1981, 1984, 2005) explained that Experiential Learning Theory has a variety of
tenets: learning is a process, all learning entails relearning; learning requires the resolution of
conflicts between modes of adapting to the world; learning is a holistic, integrated function of a
total person; there is synergy between the person and his/her environment; and learning is a
process of creating knowledge. Kolb further posits that learning is “a process whereby
knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (1984, p. 41). His four-phase
cycle of Experiential Learning Theory involves concrete experience, reflective observation,
abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation (1984). His theory explains modes of
“grasping” (how we see the world) by means of experience and abstract conceptualization and
“transforming” (what we do) by means of reflective observation and active experimentation
(1984, 2005).
Knowles (1980, 1990, 2001) is known as one of the leading theorists of adult learning.
“Andragogy,” in contrast to “pedagogy,” means “the art and science of helping adults learn”
(1980, p. 43). His theory is based on five components: self-concept, experience, readiness,
orientation, and motivation. Further, Knowles identified particular characteristics of adult
learners: they are autonomous and self-direction, they possess a foundation of life experiences
and knowledge, they are goal-oriented, they are relevancy-oriented, and they are practical
(1980). He and his colleagues, Holton and Swanson (2001) posit that reflection (whether in the
way of observation or action) is critical to the learning process. Rogers supports this premise,
suggesting that reflection leads to the intent of converting experiences into meaningful learning
and enables better choices or actions in the future as well as enhancing one’s overall
effectiveness (2001, p. 41).
A plethora of studies have been conducted to measure attitudes, opinions, and perceptions
regarding how various populations (including students) view the public relations industry.
However, when searching for studies that examine graduate students’ perceptions – before and
after they have completed a public relations course – only one was found. Botan and Hunt (1988)
investigated gender differences, by means of pre- and post-measures, with regard to students’
perceptions of their own competency. No significant differences were found. And, to date no
studies have been published that examine perceptions among non-public relations students or
members of the “general public” who have actively sought to educate themselves about the
public relations field. Hence, this study’s purpose is to examine public relations definitions
reported by those who have no prior education in this discipline. This study fills a void in the
literature by examining perceptions among a population that closely resembles “Jane and John
Doe,” and “Men and Women on the Street,” so to speak. In tandem, this study seeks to
demonstrate how reflection serves as a practical assessment tool for public relations educators.
Method
The sampling frame is made up of 251 graduate students who had successfully passed
(earning a grade of “C” or better) an online graduate level public relations management course
while enrolled in a masters program at mid-sized Midwestern state university. Longitudinal in
nature, data were collected between January 2004 and March 2008. While enrolled, the students
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all had the same instructor, the same online curriculum, the same course assignments, and the
same required textbook (Effective Public Relations by Cutlip, Center, & Broom). All students
also were enrolled in a specialized Masters program, which does not offer a concentration in
public relations; they were taking this course to fulfill an elective requirement. In their online
introductory postings, students were asked to specify if they work in the public relations field or
have public responsibilities in their line of work; the majority (98%) indicated that they did not.
Both before enrolling in the graduate public relations management class, then after
completing the course, all students were asked to identify what they believe to be the best
definition of “public relations.” All respondents had access to an online discussion board link on
the Blackboard class website to which they could post their definitions. A total of 251 online
written accounts were collected. A total of 117 were completed by men and 134 were completed
by women. Students were also asked to identify the industry in which they are employed.
Answers varied, ranging from corporate, government, military, medical, and nonprofit
organizations to banking, education (K-12 and post-secondary education) and human services.
Thematic analysis was carried out using procedures and techniques to identify overarching
themes (e.g., Goetz & Preissle, 1993; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Glaser
& Strauss, 1967). These themes were then analyzed based on the goals of the study.
Results
Results from this study revealed the emergence and reoccurrence of three primary
themes: 1) ethically-charged concerns, 2) influence-related concerns, and 3) social responsibility
concerns. The relative prominence of each of these primary themes was identified across the
sample as a whole, as well between the responses posted before and after completing the course.
Theme 1: Social responsibility definitions
Under the first main theme, there was a considerable increase from before (30.3%) vs.
after (46.6%) the students had completed the course. Whereas 30% (n=76) of students defined
public relations in terms of social responsibility before completing the course, 47 (n=117) cited
definitions of social responsibility after completing the course: 1) most public relations
practitioners serve the good of the public, 2) the public relations industry does a good job of
promoting its positive qualities and 3) society views public relations practitioners in a positive
light. (See Table 1)
Theme 2: Ethics-oriented definitions
Respondents’ definition of public relations related with regard ethics and ethical issues
eth-charged emerged as a distinct second dimension. Whereas 38% (n=95) of students defined
public relations in terms of ethics before completing the course, 23% (n=58) cited definitions of
ethics after completing the course – indicating a noticeable decrease. In particular, these
responses reflect that public relations practitioners need to have the ability to not only benefit
their organizations by ethically and morally performing their jobs, but to balance the private
interests of the organization while considering the interests of key publics as well – through
strategic planning and symmetrical communication programs: 1) public relations is seen by many
as a “less than ethical” profession, 2) work needs to be done to improve public’s perception of
the public relations industry and 3) public relations is more reactive than proactive. (See Table 1)
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Theme 3: Influence-related definitions
The third primary theme identified among these definitions focuses on factors that
influence perceptions about the public relations field, including the media, practitioners’
behavior, and the general public. Whereas 32% (n=80) of students defined public relations in
terms of influence before completing the course, 30% (n=76) cited definitions of influence after
completing the course: 1) practitioner behavior influences perceptions about public relations,
2) the media influences perceptions about public relations and 3) the general public influences
perceptions about public relations. (See Table 1)
General Discussion /Conclusions
Four overarching conclusions can be drawn from this study. First and foremost, this
study demonstrates how reflection can serve as a viable assessment technique for public
relations educators. Second, in terms of content revealed during the reflection exercise, results
indicate that overall perceptions about the public relations industry are more positive after
respondents engaged in some general education about the public relations field. As such,
continued education about our profession is critical. Third, as revealed from this thematic
analysis, three themes seem to resonate among the public relations definitions provided by these
adult students: 1) ethically-oriented definitions 2) influence-related definitions and 3) social
responsibility definitions. Finally, from the analysis of respondents’ statements and comments,
we can clearly observe negative versus connotative terms that have been revealed among this
sample.
With regard to public relations education, this study substantiates the point that ethical
and social responsibility concerns are key drivers in our field. Therefore, it is vital to establish
and strengthen public relations coursework that focuses on ethics and social responsibility.
Moreover, social responsibility education needs to migrate from a focus on issues-based, standalone
societal issues/trends to a more integrated focus on individual and corporate sustainability,
which includes coverage of topics such as philanthropy, community responsibility, economies,
and social entrepreneurship. Our findings suggest that education will continue to play a
significant role in managerial-oriented and societal-driven perceptions among future public
relations practitioners.
One of the limitations of this study was that the sample size is relatively small in
comparison to the total number of domestic and international graduate public relations programs
that presently exist. We acknowledge that the results are not generalizable to all graduate
students – but only to students enrolled in this class at this specific institution. However, we
believe our work takes a first necessary step required to establish a baseline for use in future
examinations. The next step is engage in a more robust analysis between and among institutions
and various graduate programs.
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Table 1: Thematic Analysis Results
Category
Ethically-
Charged
Concern
Influence-
Related
Concern
Social
Responsibility
Concern
Before Education
n Percent
After Education
n Percent
Connotation
Word
Type
(%)
(%)
Negative Ethics and Professionalism 25 10 32 12.7
Legal Infringement (e.g., privacy, 10 4 6 2.4
secret, intellectual property,
copyright, etc.)
Spin 15 6 5 2
Unscientific Discipline 9 3.6 4 1.6
Propaganda (e.g., public
18 7.2 5 2
manipulation)
Lobbying 12 4.8 6 2.4
Subtotal 95 37.8 58 23.1
Neutral Corporate Communication (i.e.,
15 6 14 5.6
strategic communication, integrated
marketing communication)
Organizational Communication (e.g., 14 5.6 14 5.6
government, non-profit organization)
Relationship Building &
10 4 12 4.8
Management
Reputation Management 9 3.6 12 4.8
Persuasive Effects (e.g., perception, 7 2.8 12 4.8
attitude, image, recall, liking of,
memory, etc.)
Public Opinion Formation 5 2 1 0.4
Internal & External Communication 5 2 2 0.8
Management Function 5 2 3 1.2
Damage (i.e., Crisis, Risk) Control 5 2 3 1.2
Issues Management 2 0.8 1 0.4
Media Relations & Management 2 0.8 1 0.4
Stakeholder Management 1 0.4 1 0.4
Subtotal 80 31.9 76 30.3
Positive Social Responsibility 25 10 40 15.9
Public Good 16 6.4 32 12.7
Two-Way (Reciprocal)
12 4.8 22 8.8
Communication
Public Education 15 6 15 6
Mutual Trust 5 2 8 3.2
Health Communication 1 0.4 0 0
Environmental Communication 2 0.8 0 0
Subtotal 76 30.3 117 46.6
Total 251 100.0 251 100.0
References
Botan, C. & Hunt, T. (1988). Do Female Students Approach the Study of Public
Relations with Different Perceptions of Skills from Those of Male Students? Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism
and Mass Communication, Portland, OR.
Coombs, W.T. & Holladay, S. (2007). It’s Not Just PR: Public Relations in Society.
Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Cutlip, S., Center, A.., & Broom, G. (2000). Effective Public Relations. New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall.
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Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan Company.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Macmillan Company.
Glaser, B.G. & Strauss, A.L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for
Qualitative Research. .Chicago: Aldine Publishing.
Harlow, R. (1977). Public relations definitions through the years. Public Relations Review, 3(1),
49-63.
Knowles, M., Holton, E. & Swanson, R. (2001). The Adult Learner: The Definitive
Classic in Adult Education and Human Resources. Burlington, MA: Elsevier.
Knowles, M. (1990). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston: Gulf Publishing.
Knowles, M. (1980). Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to
Andragogy. Chicago: Association Press.
Kolb, D. (1981) Learning Styles and disciplinary differences. In A.W. Chickering &
Associates (Eds.), The Modern American College: Responding to the New
Realities of Diverse Students and Changing Society. San Francisco: Jossey Bass,
232-255.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Publishers.
Kolb, A. & Kolb, D. (2005). Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential
learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning and Education,
4(2), 193-213.
Lincoln, Y.S. and Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalist Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Miles M.B., and Huberman A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of
New Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Morris, F. & Marienau, C. (2008). Developing habits of reflection for meaningful
learning. New Directions in Adult Education, 118, 75-85.
Rogers, R. (2001). Reflection in higher education: A concept analysis. Innovative Higher
Education, 26, 37-47.
138

Improving Feedback, Interaction and Editing Skills
in the Public Relations Writing Class
James M. Haney
University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point
jhaney@uwsp.edu
The critical importance of a course in public relations writing and production was
confirmed in 1999 when PRSA developed its report on Public Relations Education for the 21 st
Century. (1) Technological changes in the last decade have sped up the reception and delivery of
public relations documents, but the essential need for well written materials has not diminished.
As Thomas Bivins has noted: Today’s employers continue to “value employees who can
communicate well through the written word.” (2) Feedback from industry professionals and
surveys of the PRSA’s Counselors Academy suggest that writing is the area where young
professionals need the most improvement. (3)
Instruction in a public relations writing course requires detailed feedback so students can
construct clear and effective documents. This author has taught the public relations writing class
for many years and has tried to teach skills he has used in his professional PR career. Students in
this class must produce a wide range of public relations tactics including numerous news
releases, fact sheets/backgrounders, advisories, newsletters, brochures and a press kit. Material
covered in the course include the characteristics of effective writing, elements of AP style,
document design and how to enhance the likelihood that your written documents will be used by
the media and other important audiences.
The heart of any strong writing class is the careful feedback provided by the professor to
the student’s work. It is critical to evaluate the accuracy of the document and how effectively it
tells a clear and compelling story. Attention to word choice mistakes, misspelled words and
syntax errors is also vital. Because of the importance of one-on-one feedback, some universities
have decided that much or all of the PR writing class can be delivered through online instruction.
Though a well constructed Internet writing class can deliver valuable instruction effectively,
many writing classes continue to be taught in the more traditional face-to-face format.
This paper will highlight ways to build feedback, class interaction, listening and editing
skills for students in a traditional public relations writing class. These suggestions are designed
to develop some “best practices” that other instructors of PR writing might consider for their
classrooms.
Group Writing/Editing Assignments
Students need good role models for their writing. Examples in textbooks and materials
produced by professionals in nonprofit or corporate settings can serve as some of those models,
but students can also be effective role models for their classmates.
Learning how to write effectively for the public relations profession requires students to
understand the importance of being clear, concise and accurate. They also need to learn how to
tell compelling stories with strong leads without errors in grammar, spelling and vocabulary.
Useful feedback can be given one-on-one through written comments on assignments or orally in
a student conference where the strengths and weaknesses of a student’s writing can be discussed.
Because this author found himself talking too much in a lecture format when he started to teach
the writing class, he looked for some ways to increase class participation in the writing process.
After trial and error, two types of group writing/editing exercises were designed.
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The first process reviews homework assignments as a group activity. Student writing
(such as news releases, fact sheets, or advisories) are placed on a document camera for the entire
class to see. The student’s name is not revealed to the class in order to reduce potential
embarrassment for the student and others in the room. Generally, two or three examples of the
release are put up on the screen at the same time and students are asked to assess the strengths
and weaknesses of each written item. It is important to highlight items that are well done as well
as those that need improvement. This process can help to identify and praise good work and
discourage errors. It need not be used for every homework assignment, but it can be a valuable
tool for some exercises. Some of the questions that might be posed include:
• Which document has the most compelling lead? (Why?)
• Is there a way to say this more concisely?
• Do you see any problems with spelling, syntax, or vocabulary?
• Have the writers followed the AP Styleguide?
The suggestions provided through this feedback process give students the opportunity to
evaluate their classmates’ writing and suggest editorial changes to enhance their colleagues’
work in an unthreatening manner. The exercise can provide help to identify good writing
examples the students can learn from and highlight problems students should try to avoid.
Prior to any group activity it is essential that students know the applicable standards in
advance of attempting the writing assignment. It is essential for students to understand the
precise format or template you want them to use for their work. It is useful to explain to students
that there are many different acceptable styles for a document like a news release, but your
requirement to use one template in the class throughout the semester ensures that they master one
format during the class. They can always adjust the template to conform to an employer’s style
when they begin an internship or a new job, but the reinforced use of a widely used standardized
model in class gives them a solid foundation for their professional careers.
The second type of group writing/editing exercises takes place solely in the classroom. A
full class session or a portion of a period should be identified in advance as a practice writing
session. The students should be provided some written facts they should use for a news release
or a media advisory. The facts are arranged in no particular order and some of them are
inappropriate for students to include in the final document. Students should be given a few
minutes to write different elements of the document such as a caption or headline, a lead, or a
proposed quotation.
If the class is taught in a computer lab, students can print their efforts and the instructor
can put them on a document camera for class review, or they might project their work on a
screen directly from their computers. If the class is taught in a classroom without individual
computers for each student, the instructor can ask students to dictate their work as he or she types
it on a computer and projects the written material for the entire class to evaluate. It is important
to project 4-6 examples on the screen before you discuss any of them. Doing so allows the class
to compare and contrast a number of examples without focusing on one student’s work at a time.
With multiple examples being reviewed simultaneously, students tend to focus on the writing
and not on who submitted each item.
Students need to know that all of them will have their work evaluated and the
assessments made will be offered in a friendly way using only constructive comments.
Encourage volunteers in class to share their work. If you don’t have enough volunteers, ask
again for examples. If that fails, call on specific students who have not volunteered to share
what they wrote. As you make sure all students in the class participate in this process, students
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will realize they all are expected to contribute to the exercise. Once students know that everyone
must share their work, getting volunteers for future exercises will be easier.
The following suggestions might improve the use of these two exercises. Remember to:
• Use a constructive tone for all comments in order to avoid embarrassing students.
• Include every student in the process. Begin with volunteers, but don’t be afraid to
call on other students to ensure 100% participation in the exercises.
• Demand more of work prepared as out-of-class assignments because students have
had more time to construct them. Be sure such efforts conform to the exact
requirements you have specified for the design and layout of your documents.
• Be sure the documents projected on the screen are clearly visible to all in the room.
Zoom in on the document or increase the font size on your computer as needed.
• Identify which written examples are the most compelling or tell the story most
effectively. Don’t just concentrate on technical issues. Be sure the overall document
will achieve the response you desire from your target audience.
Group Interviewing/Listening Exercises
Many written exercises require students to use facts provided by the instructor as they
complete news releases or fact sheets/backgrounders. Other exercises require the students to do
their own research on the subject they are writing about. Though both of these assignments are
valuable, this author has used a third type of exercise to force students to develop their
interviewing and listening skills.
At least once in the semester, students are told that they will be involved in an in-class
group assignment that will require them to question a source and take careful notes. The
professor tells them a serious incident has happened on campus and they must prepare a news
release for a news conference the chancellor will hold in two hours. The students will have the
opportunity to interview an official from the university police department who can fill them in on
the details surrounding the incident, but they must ask specific questions in order to get any
information for their release.
Students are told before the role play exercise takes place that the entire incident is
hypothetical, but they should treat it seriously. The class takes a short time to review some
important principles of effective crisis response since the incident will present a serious
challenge for the campus. They are told they may pose any question they want to ask, but their
source might not have all the answers because the incident just took place a short time ago.
Students may also ask as many questions as they have and may ask to have information repeated
if needed. The professor can take on the role of the university police official (or you could invite
a guest into class to assume the role). When the role play begins, the source simply states that
there has been a shooting at the university center.
The students must extract all the relevant details including how many people have been
killed and injured, what happened to the gunman, what kind of weapons were used, where the
injured are being treated and what are their medical conditions, how did the incident happen and
how long did it take police and emergency crews to respond. The source will give very detailed
answers to these and other questions. Students will be told that victims have been transported to
three different hospitals and the general condition of each person. Precise times of 911 calls and
response times will be detailed. In short, if the students ask the right questions, they will receive
a great deal of specific information about the shootings.
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The exercise poses three challenges for the class. First, students must ask good
questions. This is an important skill for a public relations professional as well as a reporter.
Often you only have a limited amount of time to question your source. You must think
strategically to ensure that you are getting all of the information you need. Second, students
must listen carefully and be sure to keep all the facts straight. Again, they may ask questions
multiple times and have the source repeat information as needed, but when the role play exercise
is over they cannot ask additional questions prior to writing their news releases as out-of-class
assignments to be handed in at the next period. Third, they must use good judgment in deciding
what information to release. Because the crisis release they are preparing will be a difficult story
for the campus and community, they must ensure that the details they describe are accurate and
presented professionally in the best taste possible.
This exercise can be done with other non-crisis topics too. For example, details on a
corporate merger or the appointment of a new company president could be revealed through a
role play exercise. The value of this type of exercise is that students must formulate relevant
questions, listen carefully and take good notes, and write an effective release. This exercise is
very consistent with real world working conditions because often the public relations
professional must get all of his or her information by interviewing sources. It is also valuable
because it forces the students to participate actively in the class and produces a very stimulating
group activity.
Some suggestions for making these role play exercises successful include:
• Be sure the source (either the professor or someone else) has a good command of the
facts so he or she can answer questions promptly and accurately during the exercise.
• Explain to students in advance that the situation is hypothetical, but they need to treat
it seriously. .
• Advise students that the exercise will require them to ask relevant questions and take
careful notes to ensure that the news releases they produce are accurate.
Conclusion
It is important to find creative ways to increase class participation in public relations
writing classes. The suggestions presented in this paper are designed to improve feedback,
interaction, listening and editing skills for PR writing students. They do not replace the need for
excellent one-on-one feedback, but they serve as useful supplements in one of our discipline’s
most important classes.
Notes
Thomas H. Bivins, Public Relations Writing: The Essentials of Style and Format, 5 th Ed.,
(Boston: McGraw Hill, 2005), p. 2.
Report of the PRSA 1999 Commission on PR Education, Public Relations Education for
the 21 st Century: A Port of Entry, (New York: PRSA, 1999).
Burton M. John III, “Whither PR Writing? Skills Show Decline, Some Say,” Public
Relations Tactics, April 2002, Vol. 8, Issue 2, pp. 1 and 22.
142

How to Win Friends and Impact Students:
Maximizing the Benefits and Minimizing the Pitfalls
of Using Campus Clients
Julie K. Henderson
University of Wisconsin - Oshkosh
henderso@uwosh.edu
Introduction
This paper presents some helpful hints in working with campus departments, clubs, and
offices to provide public relations students with real-world experience in creating public relations
materials.
Public relations students often are required to produce such materials in their classes.
This learning technique is much more successful when real clients are used as opposed to canned
information. This paper addresses the systematic use of campus clients, and the resultant
building of relationships on campus, thus demonstrating to students another aspect of public
relations. In addition, suggestions for maximizing the benefits and minimizing the pitfalls are
made.
Benefits to students, clients, and the professor
Creating materials for an actual client is an excellent learning experience for students.
Using campus clients facilitates this step for students, especially those without transportation.
Providing students with a list of clients that are self-nominated means students do not have to
make cold calls.
Working with real clients means they also have to employ their research and interviewing
skills, and learn about working with a client – the positive and the negative. They have to make
the initial contact, explain what they are doing, gather information, set-up interviews, and learn
to please the client. While this is more difficult than, for example, creating publications from
canned information, it is also much more rewarding for the students. They are excited to work
on publications that will actually be used and can be added to their portfolios.
Writing a business letter should be incorporated into this technique as another learning
experience for students. Especially today, with the prevalence of e-mail and text messaging,
students are sometime unfamiliar with the proper tone and format of a business letter, or are
confused about the difference between a memo and a business letter. However, most will need to
write one when applying for their first jobs.
The impact on the clients is positive in that most of them do not have the time, money, or
expertise to create public relations materials, but do have a need. This creates positive bonds
between the home department and others on campus.
In terms of professor morale, it is enjoyable to see students excited about class projects,
and to receive the thanks from campus colleagues. A tenure-track faculty member may gain an
added benefit, new relationships across campus that generate opportunities for collaboration and
letters of appreciation for promotion files.
On the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh campus of about 10,000 students, frequently 50
to 75 people will respond. While not all can be accommodated, this introduction to the public
relations programs often leads to other requests for help that can be incorporated into other
public relations classes, or offered to the Public Relations Student Society of America chapter.
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Pitfalls
A variety of problems can also arise using campus clients.
A classroom assignment has to be fair to each student, and thus each should be
comparable. Clients will sometimes want an electronic version versus a paper version, or a 4-
page newsletter other than a 2-page. Decide ahead of time what leeway to allow. In addition,
clients may not be familiar with the terminology, for example, not know the difference between a
brochure and a newsletter. It is important to make these clarifications at the beginning.
The timeline should also be set at the beginning of the assignment. Will the material be
completed at a time beneficial to the client? It is not unusual for a colleague to assume the
assignment will be completed in one week.
Experience has indicated that when this opportunity is offered campus-wide, there will be
more potential clients than there are students available. Establish this possibility with your first
communication and explain how selections will be made. After students have selected the client
with whom they want to work, be sure to communicate with all the people who have responded,
even if they are not selected.
Make sure clients are going to be available, for example, are not going to be gone for the
semester. Make sure students know that emailing a client once, or leaving one message on a
voicemail, does not constitute enough effort. Often the comment “I could not get ahold of my
client” translates, with a little prodding, into the fact that the student called once and left a
message, or stopped by an office during non-office hours. Encourage persistence.
While one of the benefits of using campus clients is to create good will for the home
department, the opposite sometimes can occur. Alas, not all students are above average. Build in
an opportunity to review student work at least twice before it is forwarded to the client. A
brochure with the client’s name misspelled does not reflect well on the public relations program.
A Typical Timeline and Checklist
1. About three weeks before the semester begins, distribute a memo to other faculty and
staff on campus, either via email or on paper. Most campuses have an employee list serv.
This memo should include:
• A description of what the students will be creating. Be very specific in terms of format.
• Timeline, so that clients know when to expect the finished product
• Request for contact person name, preferred method of contacting him or her (email,
telephone) and best time.
• Any limitations on who the client may be – i.e., only campus-related, no private
businesses, etc.
• An explanation that not every request will be able to be honored (not enough students).
2. The assignment is carefully described in the syllabus, including specifications and
limitations. Students are told what is expected of them in terms of research and interviews
3. During the first one-two weeks of class, students are allowed to pick a client from the
responses.
4. Students work on their assignments, including the research and interviewing. After being
submitted, the assignments are returned with suggested changes and errors marked.
5. Students redo assignments, and create the client packets. . In its final form, the
assignment includes a corrected version of the material, an envelope addressed to the client, and
a business letter from the student to the client explaining what is enclosed, and how the client can
contact the student in the future if needed.
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6. After reviewing assignments to make sure corrections have been made, grades are
recorded and packets are mailed to clients.
145

Tales of a Service Learning Component in the Public Relations Foundations and Research
Course: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
Ann D. Jabro
Robert Morris University
jabro@rmu.edu
Background
Public relations practitioners and academics herald the value of an internship experience
(Coco, 2000; Kelley, 2004; Sgroi & Ryniker, 2002). Internships typically commence after
students complete the introductory major-specific courses. Internships are but one form of
experiential learning. Service learning or according to Dostillo (2008) “a methodology that
combines academic instruction, meaningful service, and critical reflective thinking to enhance
student learning and civic responsibility (p.1) is another pedagogic approach to motivate learning
and engagement.
This presentation focuses on a service learning project designed to introduce and apply
diverse formal and informal research methods while learning about the steps in a public relations
campaign during an introductory course in public relations and research methods. Oral and
written communication, team building, group dynamics and conflict management competencies
were also explored in the course. After assiduous reflection on the experience by both the
instructor and the students, analyses of students’ weekly reflection logs, final project oral
presentation rubrics and individual written projects and team member evaluations, the good, the
bad and the ugly aspects are shared with colleagues to increase awareness of the strengths and
weaknesses of combining this content in an introductory course and best practices for using
service learning as praxis are recommended.
This first course in the public relations sequence was not the ideal place to incorporate a
service learning activity; however, the students enrolled in the course were both majors and nonmajors
and ranged from sophomore to senior class standing. This course was the first of seven
courses constructed for a newly-approved concentration in public relations and its debut in the
curriculum offerings. Five weeks into the semester, the majority of students in the class, seniors,
expressed deep concern that they would leave the University without an opportunity to
implement the information being taught in class; they wanted more than text reading and
assignments about public relations. The students wanted to “do” public relations.
To understand the needs and expectations of the students enrolled in the course, a presemester
assessment survey featuring open-ended, forced response and scale questions was
administered on the first day of class. The findings are presented in Table 1: Pre-assessment
survey results.
Table 1: Pre-assessment survey results
Course preference: elective (73.8%) concentration requirement (22.2%)
Class Standing : senior (73.8%) junior (4.20%) sophomore (21.5%)
PR as a career choice: not likely (73.8%) likely (22.2%)
Self-identified slackers (barely meet deadlines): (82.0%)
Desired grade “A”: (95.2%) B – C range (4.80%)
Availability outside of class: 3-6 hrs. weekly (50.0%) less than 3 hrs. (50.0%)
Work commitment: 20 hrs. weekly (25.5%) 40 hours weekly (25.5%)
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The pre-assessment survey results suggest the service learning task needed to meet the following
criteria:
(a). Focused on one client.
(b). Reinforce course concepts covered to date with ample application opportunities.
(c). Client located in close proximity to campus or on campus.
(d). Course time devoted to project work.
Service Learning Components
The instructor served as internship coordinator for the department and interfaced with the
Academic Internship Program (AIP) administered through the University’s Career Services
Center. She was aware a data collection effort needed to be conducted to ascertain students’
awareness of the AIP and their general satisfaction with the execution of the program, but funds
were not available. Thus, she coordinated a service learning project that involved three branches
of the University: Student Affairs, Career Services and students and faculty. The course syllabus
was revised to reflect the addition of the project and deletion of several quizzes, tests and
homework assignments. The new graded tasks included reflection logs, individual and group
member evaluations, weekly progress reports, team deliverables, and an oral presentation with
Powerpoint slides delivered before the Dean of Students, Director of the Career Center and Dean
of the School of Communications and Information Systems.
Course Materials
The following instructional materials were used throughout the semester:
(a). Research – Primer of Public Relations Research by Don W. Stacks
(b). PR - Effective Public Relations, 9th edition, by Scott Cutlip, Alan Center, and Glen
Broom.
(c). New Media – blogs, website, on-line resources.
(d). Popular Books on PR – students selected a popular text, prepared a book report and
presented a synopsis orally to the class.
Project
1. Class Structure: The class met once weekly for 165 minutes. The management
structure was bureaucratic hierarchy. The instructor served as the CEO with five directors who
managed a small team of five members (situational analysis, formal research, informal research,
promotion, external research/report preparation) and served as liaisons between the director and
the team members. The directors reported weekly to the CEO using electronic communication
or face-to-face meetings. Students worked in their team and/or worked with the CEO every
session. Approximately 120 minutes were allocated to the execution of a component of the
project. Weekly, students prepared a double-entry journal reflection. Double–entry journal
reflections require the student to scribe the activities he or she performed during the week,
personal thoughts and reactions to the experience on one side of a notebook and on the other side
of the notebook, discuss how the task related to a key concept, class presentation or reading
(Bringle & Hatcher 1999). Additionally, a work log tracked the number of minutes spent on
activities related to the group task, weekly assessments of the communication strengths and
weaknesses within the group and/or between groups and/or the CEO.
2. Project Goals: Each team was assigned specific tasks within individual work teams.
The tasks are as follows:
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(a). The Situational Analysis Team worked diligently to complete research and identify
the focus and potential direction for the research teams to pursue. It was determined that
awareness of the internship program within the university student body generally, and the
specific measures to obtain an internship were unknown to students.
(b). The formal research team designed an electronic survey for distribution to 2,000
students to ascertain: (i). Awareness of the program, (ii). Percentage of students who enjoyed the
experience and a delineation of the reasons, and, (iii). Percentage of students who disliked the
experience and an identification of their concerns. The team trained with a colleague on
Websurveyor (electronic surveying software) in preparation for the pilot test and eventual
execution of the survey. The instructor assisted the team with data analysis and report
preparation.
(c). The informal research team conducted participant observations, held focus groups,
and depth interviews to ascertain similar information.
(d). The promotions team collected prizes to entice participation in both data collection
efforts, promoted the service-learning aspect of the course and garnered publicity for the effort.
(e). The external research/editing team created a mail/telephone survey to understand
how internship programs were advertised, administered and positioned at other universities.
Pennsylvania boasts 133 colleges and universities. Using Peterson’s Four-Year Colleges 2008
and a random digits chart, 25 schools were selected to participate in the study, of which 10
participated. Surveys were sent electronically and a follow-up opportunity to take the survey via
telephone was offered to potential respondents three weeks after the initial solicitation. The team
was also responsible for compiling the final report for oral presentation.
I have not analyzed all the data collected during this project. For the purposes of this
presentation, I presented the preliminary results from the following sources: qualitative content
analysis of students’ weekly double-entry reflection logs, and the instructor’s log. Results from
quantitative analyses of students’ final assessments, team oral presentations, and individual final
evaluations also inform this discussion. In an effort to present research results in the context of
problem and recommended solutions, I have collapsed the results and discussion sections.
Results and Discussion
The Good
Instructor and students alike were amazed at how much was learned and applied in 8
weeks. “If this project was an indication of the job I’ll perform in an agency, I can’t graduate
soon enough. This project was an adrenaline rush! I interviewed the president of the university
and numerous others to create a plan for the class”.-Member AE Team.
The Formal research team that designed and executed the Websurveyor study enjoyed the
greatest success with respect to learning and applying public relations theory and practices.
They had limited time to analyze the open-ended questions due to the late administration of the
survey.
The Situational Analysis team did a comprehensive job and enjoyed interviewing the
President of the University. They were leaders in the course and their problem identification and
decision-making skills were honed during the project. They met with the professor as a team and
worked diligently to keep peace and promote quality work.
The external research team confronted the reality of survey research: motivating survey
participants to participate in an electronic or telephone survey. “She told me to call back on
Monday at 10:00 a.m. and never answered her telephone when I called. I left this woman 12
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messages and she never even called me back once. This is depressing”. –Member External
Research.
Post-assessment surveys support learning occurred. The majority of students indicated
the experience was challenging, an opportunity to link course theories and concepts with
practical application. Students indicated they had a better sense of how research grounds all
aspects of public relations. “This project made me realize that an individual perception of a
situation can be very misguided, even downright wrong. When we started analyzing the openended
questions from the survey I realized the extent of the diversity of opinions held by my
colleagues. I can only imagine what cost and damage to a company’s reputation occurs when
research is inaccurate.” –Member, Formal Research.
Students indicated they enjoyed relatively strong communication within their work teams
but were most frustrated with the lack of communication between groups and sometimes with the
members of their individual groups.
Solution: A key role in any service learning project is the project manager. He or she
must be assigned to oversee all aspects of the individual group tasks, such as securing permission
to conduct research (Institutional Research Review Board), interfacing with the administration
on permission to survey students, obtain student e-mails, communicate with students about the
project, posting information on university property). While the instructor typically performs this
role, it is beneficial to have another class member coordinating intricate details in cooperation
with the instructor. The situational analysis team working diligently early in the project and
would be appropriate to serve in this role.
The Bad
Recall that service-learning was added to the course approximately five weeks into the
semester. While points were ascribed to specific contributions, the instructor failed to think about
the worst case scenario: a dysfunctional group. Students self-selected teams. Despite the request
of the instructor to select teammates who had different strengths, in certain situations, “friends”
were together. Not all friends share a similar work ethic, intellect and willingness to
compromise. There were several personal arguments that impeded completion of professional
work.
Solution: Each student creates a cost-benefit analysis of their research, writing, public
speaking, communication, conflict-resolution and team skills as well as course content
preferences. The analysis section should focus on what group members are needed to create a
productive team. The instructor then formulates teams based on self-identified strengths and
weaknesses.
The Ugly
The instructor admits that she was naïve to believe that all students would embrace
service-learning. One team simply didn’t perform the tasks they were assigned until the last
week of class. Unfortunately, the promotions team had to be threatened (incomplete grade) to
motivate them to contribute. While they were able to pull through at the last minute, they
created absolute chaos for several weeks and eroded the excitement and enthusiasm the class
started the project with.
Three teams “got it” (the interdependency of the teams) over the course of the semester
and their oral presentations were outstanding. The Dean of Students was extremely impressed
with the data collected and interpreted for him during the presentation. Students had three days
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to collect data which motivated the promotions team to rally 600 students to respond to the
survey! This 30% return rate was achieved during finals week. Members of the promotion team
waited at building doors and distributed lollipops with the survey address. The promotions team
managed to get 20 gifts (CD’s, gift certificates, etc.) to motivate students to participate in the
event. However, they didn’t use the resources in their group or the class wisely. The informal
research team conducted excellent focus groups, but the execution of the other methods was
mediocre at best.
Solution: Weekly grades for the reflection journals, work logs and progress reports
coupled with a clear delineation of points for specific tasks and penalties for failure to meet due
dates and deliver appropriate product (effort and outcome).
As a result of this experience, the design and implementation of a Service-learning
project is a productive and efficient tool to teach foundations of public relations and research
methods. A list of potential “Best Practices for constructing a meaningful service-learning
experience” has been generated for colleague consideration.
Table 2: Best Practices for constructing a meaningful service-learning experience
(a). Carefully select the Client. Understand how much time your students can devote to the
project and identify a client in a manageable proximity to the campus.
(b). Appoint a Project Manager. Coordinate individual and team tasks together.
(c). Be proactive. Use Brainstorming Technique before every task is executed. Probe what might
go wrong and ensure that you have a strategy to manage all situations.
(d). Monitor data collection. Monitor construction and execution of data collection to ensure the
reliability and validity of the data collection effort.
(e). Accountability. Oral/written presentations of project deliverables presented to the client/s to
promote ownership, accountability and presentation practice for students.
(f). Assess. Devise and assess learning on a regular basis using diverse methods.
(g). Refresh memories! A review of the duties of a leader, group member and managing conflict
should be addressed early-on in the group process.
References
Bringle, R. & Hatcher, J. (1999). Reflection in Service Learning: Making Meaning of
Experience. Educational Horizons, Summer, 179-185.
Coco, M. (2000). Internships: A try before you buy arrangement. S.A.M. Advanced Management
Journal, 65(2), 41-47.
Dostillo, D. (2008). Service Learning for the Novice. Spring Service Learning Network training
module.
Kelley, D.R. (2004). Quality Control in the Administration of Sport Management Internships.
Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 75(1), 28-30.
Sgroi, C. & Ryniker, M. (2002). Preparing for the real world: A prelude to a fieldwork
experience. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 13(1), 187-200.
150

Who Should Teach Investor Relations?
Alexander V. Laskin
Quinnipiac University
Alexander.Laskin@quinnipiac.edu
Extended Abstract
Investor relations is an important function of modern corporations. It is a profession on
the borderline of several disciplines including public relations, accounting, finance, marketing,
and law. National Investor Relations Institute defines investor relations as “a strategic
management responsibility that integrates finance, communication, marketing and securities law
compliance to enable the most effective two-way communication between a company, the
financial community, and other constituencies, which ultimately contributes to a company's
securities achieving fair valuation” (NIRI Board, 2003). Through its short history investor
relations saw practitioners of various backgrounds take a lead. Laskin (2008) claims that three
distinct stages can be identified in investor relations history: communication era, financial era,
and synergy era.
Communication era (1945 – 1975) saw the dominance of communication and public
relations practitioners in investor relations with main focus on publicity and information
dissemination. Financial era (1975-2005) experienced a shift from communication expertise to
financial expertise. New investor relations officers were former financial analysts or accountants,
who focused on persuasion and achieving the highest valuation possible for company’s
securities. Today, investor relations profession stands on the border of a new era – a synergy era,
where financial and communication expertise will be combined. New investor relations officers
will focus on building relationships with shareholders and financial analysts, and aim to achieve
fair valuation of company’s securities.
Morrill (1995), observing the evolution of the investor relations profession, also points to
the need of integrating expertise from variety of fields in investor relations:
If delegated to public relations the skills were not there. If delegated to outside public
relations counsel, not only were skills lacking but the outsider had difficulty keeping well
enough informed. If given to finance, the numbers were there but the communication
skills were lacking. Corporate secretaries were experienced in managing the shareholder
list, but not the shareholders. Legal counsel saw everything as a potential court case.
(chap. 1)
Thus, a successful investor relations practitioner must be knowledgeable about and
skilled in several disciplines. This, however, creates a significant challenge for the education of
such investor relations officers. The training must incorporate variety of different disciplines
often located across departments and colleges on University campuses.
In the corporate world, such a unique position of investor relations has been recognized
and the function today is commonly assigned to a separate organizational structure – an investor
relations department, where practitioners with various experiences work together complementing
each other skills (Laskin, 2006a). It is, however, more problematic to create such a symbiotic
structure in the academic community. Often, silo mentality prevents such collaboration between
colleges and departments. This leads to a situation where investor relations course is a rare find
on university campuses, academic research about investor relations is almost non-existent, and
practitioners of investor relations lack knowledge and skills of day-to-day investor relations
operations.
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Indeed, it is almost impossible to find a public relations program in the United States that
teaches a standalone course in investor relations. Even those programs that do list such a course
rarely in fact offer it to students. For example, University of Houston has investor relations
course in its program description, however, it has not taught this course in years (Heath, personal
communications, 2007). It is also quite rare to hear professors discuss investor relations issues in
classes such as public relations strategy or public relations campaigns. Can, then, investor
relations be even considered a part of public relations? PRSA seems to say yes, naming investor
relations one of the public relations sub-functions. Yet, the reality of the investor relations
profession seems to say no – with the majority of investor relations practitioners having a
financial rather than a communication background. Can this mean that the educational
background in finance is better suited for the realities of the investor relations profession? The
answer once again seems to be no – many CEOs report that the most important quality they need
in their investor relations staff is communication abilities!
So, what are the reasons for the lack of investor relations education? First and foremost, it
is a lack of investor relations knowledge among public relations faculty. Public relations faculty
does not have background in investor relations and does not conduct research in investor
relations. In fact, Sallot, Lyon, Acosta-Alzuru, and Jones’s (2003) content analysis of all articles
published in Public Relations Review, Journal of Public Relations Research, and its predecessor,
Public Relations Research Annual, since their inceptions through 2000, reports only one investor
relations article out of 748 total public relations articles analyzed. The search in Communication
Abstracts with keyword public relations returns 1,316 articles. The search with keywords
investor relations or shareholder relations produces only two hits.
Second, it is the lack of an investor relations textbook. Investor relations education
requires developing a comprehensive investor relation textbook, which would incorporate
theoretical development in the field as well as practical case-studies. Investor relations textbook
can be the first step to encourage development of the stand-alone courses in investor relations.
Such a textbook and such a course would have to incorporate knowledge from various areas of
expertise, housed traditionally in different departments and colleges on a university campus. For
example, investor relations course at a minimum should incorporate knowledge of strategic
communication and basic accounting. It also should include financial analysis, legal aspects of
investor relations, and marketing. The reliance on one-on-one and small group communications
in investor relations requires expertise in public speaking, professional business writing, and
communication technology (Laskin, 2008).
Third, investor relations is an interdisciplinary filed. It is best taught by faculty from
public relations, finance, accounting, and law departments. Yet, developing such cooperation
might prove a difficult task, especially at a big Research 1 University. However, smaller and
private Universities might be more conducive to such a collaboration.
The benefits of developing an investor relations program could be great. Students will
have an opportunity of working in a highly-paid specialization. In fact, several salary surveys
document investor relations as the highest paid specialization of public relations. 2006 salary
survey sponsored by PRWeek and Korn Ferry identified investor relations as the highest paid of
the eight specializations, or disciplines, measured (PRWeek, 2006). The median salary for
practitioners specializing in “financial/IR” was $165,620, followed by “crisis management”
($150,000) and “reputation management” ($143,000). Salaries for the remaining specializations
ranged from $98,500 for “public affairs” to $59,910 for “community relations” (p. 19).
Similarly, investor relations was the highest paid specialization among members of the Public
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Relations Society of America (PRSA) in the society’s salary survey (Tortorello & Wilhelm,
1993).
Investor relations practitioners with well-rounded education are better prepared to the
changing realities of new investor relations. The chain of corporate scandals, caused by senior
management’s manipulation of information disclosed to investors, and, as a result, inability of
investors, both private and corporate, to properly understand the company’s business and its
value, changes the way investor relations does business. Alan Towers calls Enron “the Watergate
of business” and suggests that companies now have to rely on their investor relations to “inspire
confidence” in their investors (as cited in Allen, 2002). To regain confidence investor relations
must communicate faster, provide more information, make information more relevant to
understanding the company’s business and its value, and use the appropriate communicative
channels. Morgenson (2002) concludes that investor relations departments have to improve the
quality and quantity information, exclaiming in the article title: “Information sooner, yes, but
make it better, too” (p. 1).
In addition, the globalization of business leads to a globalization of investor relations as
well. New technologies of travel and communications made investing a truly international
phenomenon. A corporation now competes for investment capital on a global scale in a 24/7
framework. New technologies make information available globally, instantly and to a wide range
of publics – consumers, investors, suppliers, and so on. Silver (2003) suggests that perhaps this
should lead to merging of various communications functions, such as public relations and
investor relations, into one unified function in charge of all corporate communication efforts.
Rosenstein, Kelly, and Laskin (2007) conclude that “investor relations represents one of public
relations’ most unfortunate paradoxes” (p. 1). Investor relations practice has grown in
importance and received increased attention in corporate America. Yet, it commands little
attention in public relations education and research. Perhaps, it is time to change this by offering
investor relations course and minor as part of public relations curriculum.
Bibliography
Allen, C. E. (2002). Building mountains in a flat landscape: Investor relations in the post-Enron
era. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 7(4), 206-211.
Allen, D. (2004). Fundamentals of investor relations. In B. M. Cole (Ed.), The new investor
relations: Expert perspectives on the state of the art (pp. 3-21). Princeton, NJ: Bloomberg
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Argenti, P. A. (2007). Corporate communication (4 th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Bhagat, S., Black, B.., & Blair, M. (2004). Relational investing and firm performance. The
Journal of Financial Research, 27(1), 1-30.
Budd, J. F. (1993). CEO credibility: The management of reputation. Lakeville, CT: Turtle
Publishing Company.
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relations (pp. 84-101). New York: Longman.
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Kelly, K. S. (1991). Fund raising and public relations: A critical analysis. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kelly, K. S. (1992). Fund raising: Functional element in public relations education. Journalism
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Kelly, K. S. (2002). The state of fund-raising theory and research. In M. J. Worth (Ed.), New
strategies for educational fund raising (pp. 39-55). Westport, CT: American Council on
Education and Praeger Publishers.
Koller, T. (2007, June). Valuation and IROs’ important role in the equation. Paper presented at
NIRI Annual Conference, Orlando, FL.
Laskin, A. V. (2008). Investor relations: A national study of the profession. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Florida.
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study. Public Relations Review, 32(1), 69-70.
Laskin, A.V. (2006b). How two-way symmetrical communication model informs investor
relations. In M. Watson-DiStaso (Ed.), Changing roles and functions in public relations:
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FL: The Institute for Public Relations. Retrieved January 1, 2008, from The Institute for
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capital in the 21 st century. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
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http://www.niri.org/about/origins.cfm
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investor relations practice: A national study of public relations’ neglected specialization.
Paper presented to the 2007 Annual Convention of the Association for Education in
Journalism and Mass Communication, Washington, DC.
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154

From Britney Spears to Burger King: Incorporating the
Public Relations RACE Process into Current Event Discussions
Teresa Mastin
DePaul University
tmastin@depaul.edu
Kelly B. Everling
Michigan State University
everling@msu.edu
Abstract
In response to the vast number of varied outlets students use to stay connected to world
news and popular culture, we offer an assignment designed to incorporate analysis of current
events—regardless of genre—into daily classroom discussions. Recognizing that students need
to become consumers of news to be successful in public relations, we illustrate how public
relations topical discussions can be generated from all news items. For example, one day’s topics
may include the launch of a Burger King promotion, the antics of Britney Spears, and the
introduction of an innovative technological device. By introducing and illustrating the use of the
public relations research, action, communication, and evaluation (RACE) process through its
application to a range of daily news events, students develop a thirst for current information
while learning to think critically about key components of the strategic management planning
process.
Introduction
In response to the vast number of varied outlets students use to stay connected to world
news and popular culture, we have created an assignment designed to incorporate analysis of
current events—regardless of genre—into daily classroom discussions. While recognizing that
students need to become (or remain) consumers of news to be successful in public relations, we
also seek to illustrate that discussions of public relations topics can be generated from all news
items. For example, one day’s topics may include the launch of a new Burger King promotional
campaign, the antics of Britney Spears, and the introduction of an innovative technological
device. By introducing and illustrating the use of the public relations research, action,
communication (RACE) process through its application to daily news of all types, students
develop a thirst for current information while learning to think critically about key components
of the strategic management planning process.
Literature Review
Professional and academic publications often stress the importance of using varied
techniques in the classroom in order to effectively prepare future business professionals. Recent
public relations publications have featured articles outlining innovative classroom techniques and
assignments, designed to improve students’ quality of writing, customer service and critical
thinking skills (Johnson & Sallot, 2006; Misra & Ballard, 2003; Berger 2002).
In particular, Berger (2002) created a real-time merger project with students in his
integrated communications course that enabled students to conduct on-site research, data
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analysis, and communications planning. He emphasized the importance of such projects “to
prepare students for jobs in a dynamic and demanding work world” (198).
Johnson and Sallot (2006) created a “gatekeeper interview” assignment, which required
students to interview key members of the media in an effort to uncover their feelings toward
journalist-public relations practitioner relationships. The authors spoke with students who
participated in the class within the past five years, seeking to uncover the value of the assignment
in regard to their current positions.
Misra and Ballard (2003) created a “Community Needs and Strengths Assessment”
project for students enrolled in a Community Health course at Texas A&M. Students were able
to work closely with key publics to assess the community’s needs and strengths and develop an
appropriate health educational program. Similarly, Muir (2001) used current controversial/crisis
situations found in business to encourage students to use critical thinking and managerial skills to
respond to each situation. Muir concluded:
Ultimately, students benefit tremendously when real workplace issues and controversies
are introduced into business communication. Most students have encountered these issues
in the media or other classes, but in the business communication context, they combine
reading, research, critical-thinking, and decision-making skills with writing and speaking
techniques…students examine business issues and crises not only in terms of their
personal views and ethics but with regard to the needs of their organizations and the
people who may be affected by their decisions” (83).
Furthermore, Johnson and Sallot (2006) reported that increased confidence was a benefit
of their gatekeeper assignment. Finally, Sparks and Conwell (1998) called for increased practical
and theoretical student experiences after studying the curricula of public relations programs
nationwide (43).
Based on the positive results outlined in the aforementioned existing research, the authors
developed an integrated current events project that requires students to incorporate the public
relations RACE process into an assignment that makes use of many skills essential to the
successful practice of public relations.
The Assignment
This assignment is appropriate for all levels of public relations courses, but is particularly
ideal for smaller classes that focus on strategic public relations planning. The assignment
requires that each student monitors daily news, provide an oral presentation about a current event
on an assigned date, discuss the event in light of the four-step RACE process, and submit a final
written evaluation of the current event presented outlining how each element of the RACE
process was used or should have been used. This final component helps students develop critical
analytical skills while encouraging strategic thinking and meaningful recommendations.
The assignment is typically introduced within the first month of the public relations
course. In upper-level courses where students already have a working knowledge of the RACE
process, the project may begin during the first weeks of the course.
In lower-division course, after students have been introduced to the RACE process, the
professor uses top news stories of the day to thoroughly illustrate the RACE process. These
illustrations generally entice students to discuss the role that public relations plays in everyday
life. Moreover, students are encouraged to offer strategic counsel to the subjects of the news
stories—whether the subjects are celebrities, multi-national corporations, non-profits, or
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governmental entities. The professor shapes the discussion to clearly focus on how the RACE
process was used or how the students might recommend the process be used more effectively.
Students are then assigned a day during the quarter/semester on which they are
responsible for leading the current events discussion. On that day, students are responsible for
leading the in-class discussion, incorporating the RACE process as previously illustrated by the
professor. Some students prefer to prepare PowerPoint slides to formalize the presentation. This
practice is discouraged, because too often students rely heavily on the slides and less on
stimulating discussion among their classmates. In addition to the oral presentation, students are
required to submit a written report outlining the day’s news stories, the ways the RACE process
was used in each, and what recommendations the students would have for the subjects. By
offering recommendations, students become empowered to think outside-of-the-box, applying
their textbook and “street” knowledge to offer strategic counsel in real-world scenarios. Often
the written portion of the assignment is the most gratifying for students, with many suggesting
that the opportunity to provide “counsel” in real-world situations helped them fully understand
the RACE process and its importance in successful public relations initiatives.
Final Thoughts
As public relations students gain practical experience through multiple internships and
other employment opportunities, it is also critical that public relations educators incorporate
innovative techniques into the classroom setting that illustrate the importance of key public
relations skills. As the success of public relations campaigns continues to depend upon the
strength of each of the components found in the four-step RACE process, it behooves public
relations educators to develop creative ways to provide public relations students with real-life
scenarios from which to strengthen their research, action, communication, and evaluation skills.
Real-world assignments that integrate news-gathering, writing, problem-solving, and strategic
consulting while also emphasizing reasoning, critical thinking, and oral presentation skills
prepare students to compete in an increasingly competitive job market.
While it is often difficult to incorporate multiple learning tools within one classroom
project, this assignment accomplishes much by design. It encourages students to become
consumers of all types of news, assess situations quickly, organize recommendations based upon
the RACE process, and present their thoughts effectively—all skills eagerly sought in today’s
public relations marketplace. What better way to prepare tomorrow’s public relations
professionals today than to practice these skills in the classroom?
References
Berger, B. K. (2002). Applying Active Learning at the Graduate Level: Merger Issues at
Newco. Public Relations Review, 28, 191-200.
Johnson, E. A., and L.M. Sallot. (2006, Summer). The Gatekeeper Interview Assignment:
Teaching Public Relations Students How to Write for the News Media and to
Conduct Media Relations Effectively. Journalism and Mass Communication
Educator, 61(2), 165-178.
Misra, R., and D. Ballard. (2003). Community Needs and Strengths Assessments as an
Active Learning Project. Journal of School Health, 73(7), 269-271.
Muir, C. (2001, March). The Business Controversy Exercise. Business Communication
Quarterly, 64(1), 79-83.
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Sparks, S.D., and P. Conwell. (1998). Teaching Public Relations – Does Practice or Theory
Prepare Practitioners? Public Relations Quarterly, 43(1), 41-43.
158

Show Me! Portfolios as Instruments of Student Evaluation
Dan P. Millar and Debra A. Worley
Indiana State University
dpmillar@sbcglobal.net
cmdebra@isugw.indstate.edu
Abstract
Research investigating attitudes of educators and practitioners regarding undergraduate
student portfolios finds general agreement between the two groups: portfolios serve a useful and
important function in the assessment of student outcomes. While portfolios have been used in
other disciplines for decades, their use is relatively recent in public relations. Fewer than half the
undergraduate programs report using a portfolio to assess their students. What should be
assessed? Literature recommends two levels of assessment: (1) assessment of student progress
through the public relations major and (2) assessment of student proficiency and/or mastery of
the knowledge, skills and attitudes expected of entry-level practitioners. A process and/or
academic portfolio documents the first level while a professional and/or employment portfolio
documents the second.
Discussion
The “Show me!” command applies to three levels of evaluation: student self-evaluation,
others (faculty, practitioners) evaluating students, and outsiders (professionals, advisory boards,
accrediting agencies) evaluation a curriculum. The title reveals that this paper will focus on
student self-evaluation and others evaluation of the individual student.
Interest in portfolios evolved from an (a) desire to use more student-centered methods of
evaluating progress toward graduation than traditional methods and (b) on-going interest that
arises from the need for public relations majors to demonstrate to potential employers that
they possess knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to capture and survive in initial
employment.
What Did the NCA Research Find Regarding Portfolios?
Preparation for a 1998 National Communication Association’s summer conference,
“Dialogue in Public Relations Education, “summer conference included a formative research
project within which the opinions of educators and practitioners were solicited on a number of
topics. One of those topics addressed the methods of assessment of student outcomes from a
public relations program. The results of the two groups suggests overall agreement between
them, significant differences of opinion appeared.
Specifically, educators more strongly believe that:
• Programs should systematically assess student outcomes;
• Assessment should be an informal part of a students’ education;
• Assessment should evaluate specific outcomes, specified in advance.
Professionals felt more strongly that:
• Students should undergo a portfolio assessment prior to graduation;
• Assessment programs should include area professionals;
• Individual assessment should occur annually. (Stacks, 1999, p. 18)
Professionals valued the portfolio. The difference of opinion continued when both
groups were queried regarding methods of assessment. Overall, general agreement emerged
between the two groups on 12 of the 19 items surveyed. Of the seven items on which
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statistically significant differences appeared, the difference was one of degree, again high to
higher rather than agreement/disagreement. Educators preferred grades from major public
relations courses as an assessment method. Practitioners preferred:
• Standardized written graduation examinations;
• Department or program authored written exams;
• Portfolio review by practitioners;
• Employee satisfaction with graduate;
• Survey of employer satisfaction with graduate’s public relations abilities;
• Visiting or external advisory board evaluations. (Stacks, 1999, p.19)
Again, professionals valued the portfolio.
What is a Portfolio?
Participants in the NCA summer conference noted that portfolios take two forms:
academic and professional. An academic portfolio contains material “such as research reports,
analyses, case studies and other work completed at various stages of students’ undergraduate or
graduate programs” (Rybacki and Lattimore, 1999, p. 71). A professional portfolio contains
“copies of work a student has does such as brochures, news releases and public service
announcements” (Rybacki and Lattimore, 1999, p. 71).
Process (Academic) Portfolio
The purpose of the process portfolio is to provide students “feedback that will improve their
performance and positively influence their attitudes and perceptions toward themselves, toward
others, and expand their career opportunities” (Knight and Gallaro, 1994, p. 27). Some of selflearning
results from the “mirroring back” to the student what they have and have not
accomplished. Reflection is an important part of the learning. “A solid assessment program
consistently assists, as well as requires, students to take responsibility for record-keeping and
metacognition and reflection while learning” (Cole, 1995).
What should be included in a Process Portfolio?
Separated from traditional, “snapshot” methods of assessment--exams and papers--the
portfolio reveals an evolution of knowledge and skills over time. Faced with the contents of
the portfolio at any point in an undergraduate’s career, the student may make program and/or
career decisions. If the presentation and contents matches or exceeds student (and faculty
and/or professional evaluator) expectations, that knowledge may strengthen the commitment
for preparation for a public relations career. On the other hand, if the student finds the
presentation and content to fall below expectations, course adjustments in the curriculum can
be made. Or, the student could decide to leave the field.
Who should evaluate a Process Portfolio?
Shulman makes an interesting point about the creation of portfolios for future teachers
that we find appropriate for the process portfolio for public relations students. “A key point I
want to stress at the beginning--and it is a theme that I will return to regularly--is that a
portfolio is a theoretic act. By this I mean that every time you design, organize, or create
your…program template, a framework, or a model for (public relations) will determine a
reasonable portfolio entry. What is declared worth documenting, worth reflecting on, what is
deemed to be portfolio-worthy, is a theoretic act” (cited in Lyons, 1998, p. 23).
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The Student. In a real sense, what a student elects to put into the process portfolio
reveals what the student thinks about her/himself within the context of what s/he thinks about
public relations. Watching the evolution of a “theory of public relations” and the skills and
attitudes needed for success within the field, may be the most important learning for the student
and the faculty evaluator.
The process portfolio may contain anything that demonstrates the student’s mastery of
public relations skills. Frequently the process portfolio is arranged chronologically including
written projects, independent study reports, personal journals, unfinished or unsuccessful work,
and tests. It may also include a student’s statement of a personal philosophy of public relations
and where in the field the students feels most comfortable: where s/he “fits.” Cole (1995)
writes of the benefit to students: “Because students design the portfolio with the purpose of
proving their learning, it concretely represents their efforts and accomplishments. This aids
students in valuing themselves as learners as well as valuing their work” (p. ).
The process portfolio changes and expands as the student masters the skills and
develops the attitudes expected of a public relations major. The activity itself shapes the
student’s self-evaluation as a potential public relations professional.
The Faculty. Process portfolios complement the traditional methods of assessment.
Because traditional methods are not sensitive to different skill growth patterns, they give an
incomplete view of students’ abilities. In addition, traditional assessment methods, particularly
testing, do not demand that students reflect on and judge their own work. On the other hand,
creating a portfolio does demand such self-reflection. Involving the student in their own
assessment is an advantage of portfolios when compared with traditional methods of evaluation
(Cole, 1995). To be most useful in evaluating student progress, the students should place items
in the process portfolio at regular intervals and be evaluated by faculty as part of a continuous
program of assessment (Cole, 1995).
Professional (Employment) Portfolio
The professional portfolio, sometimes referred to as an “interview-ready” or
employment portfolio, illustrates the proficiency and/or mastery of the knowledge, skills and
attitudes expected of entry-level practitioners (Cole, 1995). The purpose of the professional
portfolio is to demonstrate to a potential employer the preparation of the student for the
workplace; the accumulation of important knowledge; the mastery of expected skills; and the
acceptance of productive attitudes (Searson and Knight, 1998). As such, the contents of the
entry-level professional portfolio should match the expectations of potential employers.
Every item selected for inclusion should be (a) material the student wishes to share,
AND (b) clearly reveal the students’ mastery of the expected knowledge, skills and attitudes.
What should be included in a Professional Portfolio?
The importance of portfolios in the assessment of students becomes especially
important within the context of desired outcomes for entry-level personnel. While the process
portfolio can include anything and everything that illustrates growth as a public relations
student, the professional portfolio is guided by the knowledge, skills and attitudes expected by
practitioners of newcomers to the field. The NCA survey found 23 items scoring 6.0 or higher
(7.0 scale) including self-starter, organized, critical think and problem solving skills,
interpersonal skill, knowledge of current events and flexibility. Research undertake by the coauthors
revealed several methods for demonstrating these various skills, for example, “critical
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thinking:” write an opinion piece in which a position must be taken and defended; written case
analysis; and write a strategic public relations plan.
Who Should Evaluate a Professional Portfolio?
The Faculty. Working with the student, the faculty serve as the initial evaluators of a
professional portfolio. Several reasons recommend faculty as initial evaluators: (a) faculty
ought to be sympathetic judges of the substance and organization of the portfolio, (b) the
quality of the portfolio reveals the quality of the curriculum and its pedagogy (Cole, 1995), and
(c)faculty frequently serve as references for students.
The Practitioners. One place for practitioners to have direct involvement in student
assessment is the evaluation of student portfolios. Three advantages arise: (a) practitioners
witness firsthand the quality of students from a particular program., (b) the student and the
faculty gain insight into the changing expectations of the industry, and (c) involvement
enhances the necessary connection between the academic and work worlds.
What Criteria Will Evaluators Use to Judge Portfolios?
1. organized: logical sequencing of the material
2. ease of use: table of contents, tabs, explanatory paragraphs of complex projects
3. accuracy of language use (grammar, spelling, style, etc.)
4. appearance: quality of container, font, paper, quality, use of color, white space, etc.
5. displays a variety of work: a diverse set of skills revealed in the materials
6. evidence of increasing responsibility for the work
7. shows creativity and imagination: in the completed items, in the portfolio itself
8. adapts to the audience: items included appropriate to the evaluator’s circumstance
Description of the Instructions for Process and Professional Portfolios
Handouts describing the process and professional portfolio assignment at Indiana State
University will be available for attendees. In addition, at least example of a process portfolio in
progress and a completed professional portfolio will be available for inspection.
References
“A Portfolio Evaluation Checklist,”
(http://712educators.tqn.com//library/weekly/blportcklist.htm).
Belanoff, P. and Dickson, M. (1991). Portfolio: Process and product. Portsmouth, NH.:
Boynton/Cook Publishers.
Cole, D. Ryan, C. and Kick, F. (1995). Portfolios across the curriculum and beyond.
Thousand Oaks, CA.: Corwin Press.
Fogarty, R. “Student Portfolios: A Collection of Articles,” (http://www.business1.com/iri
SKY/stp.htm).
Farr R. (1998). Portfolio and performance assessment: Helping students evaluate their
progress as readers and writers (2 nd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
Fetterman, D. (ed.). (1998). Qualitative approaches to evaluation in education: The silent
scientific revolution. New York: Praeger.
Fusco, E. (1993). The portfolio assessment handbook: A practical guide for implementing and
organizing portfolio evaluation. Roslyn, NY: Berrent.
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Gill, K. (ed.). (1993). Process and portfolios in writing instruction. Urbana, IL: National
Council of Teachers of English.
Lyons, N. (ed.). (1998). With portfolio in hand: Validating the new teacher professionalism.
New York: Teachers College Press.1998.
Knight, M. and Gallaro, D (Eds.). (1994). Portfolio assessment: Applications of portfolio
analysis. New York: University Press of America.
Holloway, M. and Landa, R. (1994). The visual communication portfolio: The measure of
one’s work. In N. Lyons (Ed.) With portfolio in hand: Validating the new teacher
professionalism (pp. 85-96). New York: Teachers College Press.
“Portfolio,” (http://www.seattles.edu/~genhold/portfolio.html).
“Portfolio Checklist,” (http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~emw4/html599ss/portfolio/htm?.
Porter, C. (1995). The portfolio as a learning strategy. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton-Cook
Publishers.
Public Relations Society of America. (1994). Public relations professional career guide.
New York: PRSA.
Remmers, F. and Londino, C. (1994). The public relations portfolio. In N. Lyons (Ed.) With
portfolio in hand: Validating the new teacher professionalism (pp. 27-36). New
York: Teachers College Press.
Rybacki, D. and Lattimore, D. (1999). Assessment of undergraduate and graduate programs.
Public Relations Review, 25(1), 65-66.
Searson, M. and Knight, M. (1998). Developing an employment portfolio for professional
educators. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt.
Shulman, L. (1998). Teacher portfolios: A theoretic activity. In N. Lyons (Ed.) With portfolio
in hand: Validating the new teacher professionalism (pp. 23-38). New York:
Teachers College Press.
Stacks, D.W., Botan, C. and VanSlyke Turk, J. (1999). Perceptions of public relations
education, Public Relations Review, 25(1), 9-28.
Pamela Winsor, “A Guide to the Development of Professional Portfolios in the Faculty of
Education,” (http://www.edu.uleth.ca/fe/ppd/contents.html).
Wolf, D. (1998). Anatomy of a portfolio assessment system. In N. Lyons (Ed.) With portfolio
in hand: Validating the new teacher professionalism (pp. 189-201). New York:
Teachers College Press.
163

Research-based Public Relations Teaching:
Student Perceptions of the Commission’s Outcome Variables Tracked in Pre and Post
Assessments as Students Progress in the Curriculum
Bonita Dostal Neff
Valparaiso University
Bonita.neff@valpo.edu
Overview of Commission Studies
1998 study
The report of the Commission on public relations education in October of 1999 was
entitled: Public Relations Education for the 21 st Century: A Port of Entry. To obtain the
representative perspectives of the various communication disciplines involved in public
relations, the key communication associations were invited to participate (elected
representatives) as board representatives to develop the document on public relations education.
These communication associations included: Association for Women in Communication, Public
Relations Society of America, International Communication Association, International
Association of Business Communicators, National Communication Association, Institute for
Public Relations, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, and
International Public Relations Association.
As head of the Outcome Variables Task Force (later co-chaired), my executive team
initiated the procedures for identifying and clustering the outcomes. The execution of this effort
at the joint NCA-Commission conference in Washington D.C. resulted in a brainstorming
session on outcome variables. This stage involved physically written outcomes placed on the
walls of the room. The second phase clustered these variables into key concepts. Hence, the
foundation for the national questionnaire was established. Only the scale (1=low; 7=high) and
the mission of including both types of professionals (a diversified group of academics and
practitioners were surveyed) remained.
2006 study
The second study culminated in a report entitled: The Professional Bond: Public
Relations Education and Practice, November 2006. The report was based more on a series of
research pieces focusing on, for example, the public relations education programs and interviews
of key practitioners in the field. Additional topics were included and expanded like “Diversity,”
“Communication Technology,” “Global Implications,” “Supervised Experience,” “Distance
Learning,” “Governance and Academic Support,” “Faculty Credentials,” “Professional and Preprofessional
Organizations,” “Program Certification and Accreditation,” and “A Call to Action.”
Evolution of Outcome Variables
As head of the public relations major, my program tested the Commission’s outcome
variable results by pre-testing and post-testing each class for the last three years (See instrument
attached). Note the bolded outcome variables are the nonCommission variables based on the
broadly themes areas suggested in the second report. Specifically, these additional variables
were developed from class work experience and PRSSA activity.
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Courses of Study
The courses in the major included: Principles of Public Relations, Advanced Public
Relations, Theory to Practice, Community Relations, Crisis Communication, and Public
Relations Research Seminar. The Internship, Independent Study, Honor Work, and Internet
Resource classes are not included in this study.
PRSSA/student agency
Many of the variables developed from the student work on PRSSA activities and student
agency client work. For example, “budgets projects” and “reads an account ledger” emerged
from both class and client work. Note the outcome variables developed through class and
student agency work are reflected by the italicized listings in the table on cluster outcomes.
Outcome Variables from the Commission
Evolution of outcome variables incorporated into testing
The inclusion of additional variables moved the testing into a greater emphasis on
business needs, diversity, ethics, global communication, theory, organizational application,
assessment, and process communication. By expanding the outcome variables, the pre and posttest
data better articulated the concepts stressed in the 2006 Commission report.
Pre-Post test format—personal & employer perspective
With a fuller spectrum of outcome variables in the evaluation instrument, the structure of
the analysis was expanded from personal student assessment to the students’ perception of the
employer’s perspectives on the outcome variables. This allowed students to think about the
standards in the industry.
Clustering of Outcome Variables
A. Introductory class: Avoiding contamination of data was important in assessing
the orientation of students taking their first professional class. So prior to giving
the pre-test, the students were asked to come up with five words when one hears
the word public relations. Obviously, the results focus not only on outcome
variables but nonrelated or negative words about public relations: spin, lying,
social parties, etc.
B. Other classes receive treatment: The other classes receive the usual pre and posttest
treatment. Again, this level involves five classes above the introductory level.
C. Key Concepts introduced (clustering): Once the data is gathered, the analysis
focused on clustering the outcome variables into a single dimension. Several
dimensions were identified and included: personal characteristics, general
education, tactical skills (oral, written, and technical), strategic approaches, and
professional awareness.
Implications of results
Methodology of Research
In an earlier presentation on the “Comparison of Outcome Variables for Public Relations
Majors: An Integrated Communication Perspective,” the two columns of “Personal Ability” and
“My Employer’s Requirement” were compared (Neff, 2008). The results indicated at this point
for three groups (freshmen/sophomores, juniors, and seniors) focused on 50 students: “Fifteen
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freshmen and sophomores, twelve juniors, and twenty-three seniors” completed the outcomes
variable assessment instrument in the spring of 2008.
The results indicated a variance of levels although not statistically significant. The
personal variables for each group resulted in a curious mix of data. For example:
FR/Soph Juniors Seniors
5.60 5.48 5.49
The results are close but still what was not obtained was equally interesting. One theme,
for example, developed from the narrative part of the data. This data base suggested students
who were more advanced in their training tended to more realistically rate their abilities. Yet
with all the summary scores above a 5.00 the data further suggested students felt quite confident
of their personal abilities.
The employer attributes of outcome variables from the student perspective were values
much higher—6.00 or higher. Again, a similar mix of summary results was obtained, however.
FR/Soph Juniors Seniors
6.53 6.12 6.00
Here the narrative data suggested the more courses a student had, such areas as technical
applications were viewed as not to be valued by the employers. This stance, of course, comes
from the body of knowledge that establishes technical applications at a lower level position
lacking responsibility, status, and economic value. Thus students were avoiding identifying with
this role.
Extension of Study: Progress of Students Moving Through Curriculum
This part of the research examined further the assessment results in terms of the 1)
overall assessment of personal abilities with 2) overall assessment when comparing introductory
with seminar level courses. With this approach, the variance between the course levels indicated
the growth one assumed. Even on the seminar level there is a difference, although not at a
significant level, between juniors and seniors. Freshmen and sophomores, in particular, do not
have enough experience or assurance in a number of outcome variables.
Outcome Variables: Overall Personal Abilities Assessment
Principles Course
Seminar Course
Freshmen/Sophomores Juniors Seniors
(11) (14) (13)
4.95 5.53 5.90
Because assessing personal abilities heavily reflect one’s personal sense of confidence
and experience, the personal outcome variables (see below) are assessed as a cluster. Note:
Because the juniors and seniors are so close in their overall personal ability assessment, the
numbers are combined in the comparisons below.
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Table 1. Cluster Comparison of Grade Levels: Personal Abilities
Principles Course Seminar Course
Freshmen/Sophomores Juniors/Seniors
Personal Characteristics
Flexible 4.90 6.33
Good attitude 6.18 6.22
Self-starter 5.18 5.96
Takes criticism 5.27 5.33
Interest in culture 5.81 5.70
Organized 5.36 5.81
Pragmatic 3.55 4.19
Leader in PR projects 4.63 4.93
Experiences other cultures 4.45 5.30
Sensitive to other cultures 5.82 5.81
Sensitive to diversity 5.91 4.41
Reflects diversity in work 5.82 5.81
Works well in teams 5.82 4.41
Handles crisis communication 3.64 4.81
Willing to travel globally 6.18 4.67
The results suggest some need to explore further the categories responded to in the
personal characteristics cluster. Perhaps the word “pragmatic” received such a low score
because the respondent did not know what the word meant. Perhaps the responses to the
“sensitive” outcome variables could be read as being responding to such a situation rather than
bringing a strong understanding perspective to diverse situations.
Overall the two groups of students had some interesting similarities and differences.
Freshmen/sophomores were below a 5.00 in “flexible,” “leader in PR projects,” “pragmatic,”
“experiences other cultures,” “sensitive to other cultures,” and “handles crisis communication.”
The juniors/seniors were below in “pragmatic,” “leader in PR projects,” sensitive to diversity,”
“works well in teams,” “handles crisis communication,” and “willing to travel globally.”
As mentioned the outcomes variable of “pragmatic” needs to be tested to assure
understanding is established. The little difference in “leader in PR projects” suggests not enough
students are working on this level. The concept of “handles crisis communication” may be a
more advanced post graduate personal attribute.
The major contrasts in terms of opposites are several. “Flexible” is low for the F/S (4.90)
but quite high for the J/S (6.33). The reverse is true for “willing to travel globally” where the
F/S are much higher (6.18) than the J/S (4.67). Why the students decline in the desire to travel
globally is not clear. A number of the students at this time are taking a semester abroad or
special programs in urban or political contexts. Obviously, more narrative information is
needed.
Conclusions
There are several conclusions and recommendations from this research approach.
1. The new outcome variables need to be tested further for clarity of understanding.
2. More narrative work needs to be conducted to clarify the interpretations a student brings
to concepts.
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3. When outcome variables are not strengthened during the program, each course should
address the key concepts addressing those key personal attributes.
References and Background
Banks, S. (2000). Multicultural Public Relations: A Social-Interpretive Approach. Ames, Iowa:
Iowa State University Press.
Borland, P. and Neff, B.D. (2002). Networking: Enhancing Your Academic Success by
Association.” In Teaching Public Relations Handbook.
Public Relations Education for the 21 st Century: A Port of Entry. (1999, October). Commission
on Public Relations Education.
The Professional Bond: Public Relations Education and the Practice. (2006, November).
Commission on Public Relations Education. www.commpred.org
Hanson-Horne, T. and Neff Dostal, B. (2008). Public Relations: From Theory to Practice.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Neff. B. D. (Spring 2002) Integrating a Leadership Process Redefines the Principles Course,
Public Relations Review.
Neff, B. D. (1989) The emerging theoretical perspective in PR: an opportunity for
communication department. Public Relations Theory, Botan and Hazleton, eds,
Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Neff, B. D. (1998). Harmonizing Global Relations: A Speech Act Theory Analysis of
PRForum. Public Relations Review, 24, 3, 351-376.
Neff, B.D. (1985). State of the art in public relations: An international perspective. Paper
presented to the International Communication Association, San Francisco, CA.
Neff, B.D. (2008). “Comparison of Outcome Variables for Public Relations Majors: An
Integrated Communication Perspective,” refereed paper presented at the annual
conference of the International Academy of Business Disciplines, Houston, Texas.
Neff, B.D. (May 1984). Organizational Communication in Language. A refereed paper
presented at the International Communication Association’s annual meeting, San
Francisco, Ca.
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Appendix
Name________________ Semester _________Class____
Courses completed or enrolled in Public Relations: 265___374__375___376___368__
On a scale of 1 (low) through 7 (high), circle the response that best describes you (first
column) and the response that you think public relations professionals require in an
entry-level position.
My Personal Ability My Employer’s Requirement
Communicate Publicly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
College PR activities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PRSSA (student agency) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Active in college media 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Aware of Social Trends 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Info on mass media 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Creative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Problem Solving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Critical Thinking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Skill in technology 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Internship 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Flexible 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Telephone protocol 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Good attitude 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Good resume/references 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Portfolio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Radio news reporting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Research 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Self-starter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Social science background 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sorts fact & opinion 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Statistics 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strategic Thinking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Takes criticism 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
TV production 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Type – 45wpm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Knows business 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Protocol (media) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
E-mail/work processing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Desktop publication 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Interpersonal skills 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Interest in culture 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Internet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Current events 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Liberal arts background 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Organized 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Photography 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pragmatic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Presentational software 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Writes ads 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Writes brochures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-continue-
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Name________________
My Personal Ability My Employer’s Requirement
Writes features 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Newsletters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
News clips 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Write news releases 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Reports 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pitch letters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Video clips 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Leader in PR projects 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Plans special events 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Budgets Project 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Reads accounting ledger 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Speaks a second language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Writes in a second language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Experiences other cultures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Knows PR code of ethics 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Makes ethical decisions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Willing to travel globally 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sensitive to other cultures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sensitive to diversity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Reflects diversity in work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Works well in teams 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Conducts communication audits 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Knows theory 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Applies theory to work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Knows assessment tools 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Knows evaluation techniques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Knows PR professional associations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Has a mentor in public relations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Handles crisis communication 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Has two or three internships in PR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Experience in handling clients 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Interviewing expertise 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Group decision making expertise 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Please circle: freshman sophomore junior senior Major________ Minor_____
Have you studied abroad? Yes No If so, when_____ If scheduled, when? ______
Member of the following: PRSSA? Yes No PRSSA student agency team? ______
AWC? Yes No
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Outcome Clusters
(italicized are new outcomes)
Personal Characteristics
Flexible
Good attitude
Self-starter
Takes criticism
Interest in culture
Organized
Pragmatic
Leader in PR projects
Experiences other cultures
Sensitive to other cultures
Sensitive to diversity
Reflects diversity in work
Works well in teams
Handles crisis communication
Willing to travel globally
General Education
Social Science background
Aware of Social Trends
Info on mass media
Knows business
Protocol (media)
Current events
Liberal arts background
Speaks a second language
Writes in a second language
Strategic Approaches
Creative
Critical thinking/problem solving
Research
Sorts facts from opinion
Strategic thinking
Plans special events
Makes ethical decisions
Knows theory
Applies theory to work
Knows assessment tools
Knows evaluation techniques
Experience in handling clients
Tactical Skills
-oral-
Communicate publicly
Telephone protocol
Interpersonal skills
Conducts Communication audits
Group decision-making
expertise
Interviewing expertise
-written-
Writes ads
Writes brochures
Writes features
Newsletters
News clips
Writes news releases
Reports
Pitch letters
-technical-
Type-45wpm
e-mail/word processing
desktop publishing
Internet
Radio news reporting
TV Production
Photography
Presentational software
Budgets projects
Reads accounting ledger
Video clips
Statistics
Professional Awareness
College PR Activities
PRSSA (or any Student Club with PR--AWC)
Active in college media
Internship
Good resume/references
Portfolio
Knows PR code of ethics
Knows PR professional associations
Has a mentor in public relations
Has two or three internships in PR
171

A Learning Organization: The Public Relations Classroom Away from Home
Robert J. Petrausch
Iona College
rpetrausch@iona.edu
A learning organization is one of that learns continuously and transforms itself. Learning
takes place in individuals, teams, the classroom, and even communities with which the
organization interacts. Professors who teach public relations courses can turn classrooms away
from home into a learning organization by building high-performance teams, encouraging
collaboration and team learning, promoting inquiry and dialogue, and creating continuous
learning opportunities. The linchpin of this approach can be found in helping students practice
and implement action research, a process whereby students collect and analyze data together,
reflect on problems in groups, and provide group-designed interventions as a way to solve public
relations problems. Three action technologies can enhance action and learning in the classroom
away from home: (1) action research, students use data to inform action; (2) In action refection
learning, students learn how to learn from their experiences; (3) In action science, students
examine their experiences to see patterns of learning or meta learning.
Research Dimension for Learning Organization Team Performance
A growing body of research links team success to bringing together people with
complementary skills, talents, and a collective mind whereby individuals share expertise and
knowledge. In a 1995 experiment, psychologists Diane Wei Liang, Richard Moreland, and Linda
Argote demonstrated different ways that team members benefited from their collective
knowledge when they learned together. This team of psychologists trained college students to
assemble transistor radios alone and in groups of three. The results showed that members of
groups that had trained together remembered more details, built better quality radios, and
exhibited greater trust in fellow members. By contrast, students in newly-formed groups were
less likely to have the right mix of skills to complete tasks efficiently and knew less about each
other’s strengths (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2007, p. 58). Additional research done by organizational
behavior expert Kyle Lewis of the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas
favors face-to-face activity in drawing on a team’s ability to access distributed knowledge. In
groups that used phone or email exclusively, the skill did not emerge, according to Lewis’s
research (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2007, p. 59).
Steven W.J. Kozlowski and Daniel R. Ilgen at Michigan State University noted in a
Scientific American Mind magazine article that when they reviewed the past 50 years of research
literature on team factors that characterize best collaboration, the reality boiled down to “what
team members feel, think, and do provide the strong predictors of team success” (p.56). The
authors also suggest that these factors can be used to make teams work better, as well as spend
more time providing students with exercises and knowledge about the team process itself.
Keith Sawyer, a psychologist at Washington University, has spent more than 15 years
studying group performance in jazz groups, theater ensembles, small businesses, and large
corporations. He posits that improvisation can lead to group genius and organizations can
successfully build improvisational teams. On the basis of his research, he identified seven
characteristics of effective creative teams: (1) Innovation emerges over time. Team members
who are working together can build a small chain of incremental ideas that lead to final
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innovation; (2) Successful collaborative teams practice deep listening. Team members benefit
most when they listen for other improvised ideas by team members and put those ideas into
practice; (3) Team members build on their collaborative ideas. Teams benefit from multiple
ideas from like-minded individuals; (4) Only afterwards does the meaning of each idea become
clear. Team members understand the value of ideas once they are embedded into other ideas
crafted by team members. (5) Surprising questions emerge. Team members are most creative
when ideas are translated into questions and problems. (6) Innovation is inefficient. Improvised
ideas in teams often have more misses than hits, although the hits, according to Sawyer, can be
phenomenal. (7) Innovation emerges from the bottom up. Teams need to recognize that they can
become more creative if they start with details and move to the big picture; by contrast, business
executives like to start with the big picture and turn to details (Sawyer, 2007, pp. 14-17).
Perhaps the key finding from Sawyer’s (2007) research is that “innovation emerges from
the bottom up, unpredictably, and improvisationally and it’s often only after innovation has
occurred that everyone realizes what’s happened. The paradox is that innovation can’t be
planned, it can’t be predicted, it has to be allowed to emerge” (p. 25).
Internships as Applied Team Learning
The Torino Italy Olympic Games in 2006 hosted by NBC Universal was for many Iona
College students the opportunity of a lifetime. NBC had hired 123 interns from college campuses
in the United States and put them to work in jobs such as production support, press relations,
research, accommodations, executives support, and as runners and loggers for the broadcast
team. Eleven Iona students from the Mass Communication Department went to Torino to apply
what they had learned in the classroom to a real-world setting at the Winter Olympic Games.
They all participated in extensive briefings by NBC officials and would spend as much as ten to
twelve hours a day on their assignments. The students collaborated with each other in various
assignments working in a team setting and learning how to deliver results in real-time activities.
Iona College in New Rochelle, New York had set up a website for the students to post
photographs, blogs, and journal entries about their experiences at the games. Students on campus
could go to the website and find out what was happening at the Olympics based on students’
reports and diaries. The students were able to participate in new media initiatives with broadband
Internet coverage the most technologically advanced of any Olympic Games. NBC had reported
that Internet coverage increased from eight countries for Athens 2004 to over 20 across four
continents. The students had learned about new media initiatives in the classroom and now they
were witnessing those initiatives first hand in the field. They were learning about new High
Definition Television (HD) features from the professionals at NBC as well as how to use HD
cameras in the various venues. They could log on to an NBC Media Archive Site to search and
find tapes of what was recorded that day at the various sports venues. They were also able to
judge the enormous task of putting together the production for a major event on a global scale.
This experience exposed student interns at Iona and other colleges to the high-stakes reality of
new technologies at work and what they needed to learn about new media. Students who majored
in broadcasting and public relations provided NBC web writers with updates and quotes for the
various events and also updated information for the Daily Olympic newsletter.
Conclusion
Dreams and group genius help HP teams achieve a flow of ideas and provide solutions
for organizations in the public and private sectors. The ability to share ideas, move quickly and
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produce results are the chief benefits HP teams bring to the organization. They become a catalyst
for change in a world that often supports the status quo. The leader is the vital link to the team in
the classroom and the workplace. He or she can grow dramatically from the team experience as
well. College programs in the Arts and Sciences, Business, Education, and Engineering are
introducing the team concept into the classroom to advance learning and provide a way for
students to practice real-world scenarios. In the private and public sectors, HP teams are helping
organizations become more creative and innovative. The team concept cannot solve all problems
and may not be the best route for some organizations. Yet current research on teams has graded
them favorably for fostering innovation and building morale in the classroom and workplace. HP
teams are also learning from past mistakes, obstacles, and missed opportunities to retool and
adapt more easily to organizational life. Future research is needed to better understand the
creative function of teams and how the role of communication and emotion can support better
team performance.
References
Duke Corporate Education. (2005). Building effective teams. Chicago: Dearborn Trade
Publishing.
Katzenbach, J. R., & Smith, D. K. (1993). The wisdom of teams. New York: Harper Business.
Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Ilgen, D. R. (2007, June/July). The science of team success. Scientific
American Mind, 54-59.
Lencioni, P. (2002). The five dysfunctions of a team. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Marsick, V & Watkins K. (1993) Sculpting the Learning Organization. San Francisco: Jossey
Bass
Rapaille, C. (2006). The culture code. New York: Broadway Books.
Sawyer, K. (2007). Group genius. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books.
Sidle, C. C. (2005). The Leadership Wheel: Five steps for achieving individual and
organizational greatness. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
Quick, T. (1992). Successful team building. New York: American Management Association.
174

Breaking Ground In A Public Communication Class—
Working With “The Wounded Warrior Regiment”
Gemma Puglisi
American University
puglisi@american.edu
CLIENT: “The Wounded Warrior Regiment” of the United States Marines Corps
Graduate students in the PR Practicum class were given a real world experience. As in
all practicum courses, students are encouraged to work with a client. But this client was quite
different.
Objective
Students would devote the semester helping the US Marine Corps’ Wounded Warrior
Regiment and plan their first year anniversary celebration. The WWR was created to help the
injured men and women who serve our country make the transition from the battlefields to home
life. It is there to help them and their families. Students were also asked to develop a strategic
plan for the future of the Regiment as well as marketing materials.
Challenge
Because the US Marine Corps is part of the US government, students would be limited to
how much they could do. It was the first time a university worked with a division of the armed
services. No student could contact the press, and students served as volunteers for the
organization. The challenge was for students to come up with a strategic communications’ plan
to raise awareness for the Marines as well as the public.
Process
The class was divided into two teams: (l4 students in the class)
TEAM l
The Marines Marketing Managers (M3) Team was charged with developing invaluable
communication and marketing materials that would effectively represent the mission and the
vision of the WWR to all their audiences (Marines, Retirees, Veterans, families of wounded
soldiers, Congress, media and the general public.) The Regiment lacked the formal materials
needed to effectively communicate to key audiences, including the media. Although a
significant undertaking, the team members were up to the challenge.
Students on this team also produced two videos. One was a “mini-video” that described the
mission of the organization. This was shown at the anniversary celebration in Quantico. Some of
the photographs used for this mini-video were shot by photography students at the university.
Another video/documentary was produced which featured various members of the WWR and
their families. This documentary was produced by both students in the class and a film student at
American.
TEAM 2
The Events Team was tasked with developing a detailed communication plan that would
help guide the Wounded Warrior Regiment for years to come. They also advised the Regiment
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to have a formal celebration event in April 2008 to commemorate the anniversary. Both teams
helped with developing materials (including those listed under the M3 Deliverables) and worked
on planning the celebration that took place on April ll, 2008 at the Marine Corps’ Museum and at
the Clubs at Quantico in Quantico, Virginia.
This group also provided a press release and a media advisory to assist with the WWR
communicating to the media.
Discussion
l) How did the project come to us?
A former Lt. Colonel in the Marine Corps and a friend of mine heard of the work my
class did in the past and thought this would be a great opportunity.
2) Why was the project a challenge?
Working with the government is quite different as you can imagine. Also, there is a
specific “culture” in the Marine Corps that we had to understand. There is a hierarchy and at
times, the students had to wait to get approval on certain ideas/projects. Also, this was a new
organization, so it was truly creating and strategizing on what needed to be done.
3) How did the students feel about the project?
They knew it was ground-breaking. There were some elements of frustration because the
unit was new and as mentioned above, getting approvals at times was delayed.
Overall, I can say the students felt an enormous sense of accomplishment, particularly
when 30 members of the WWR came to the university to hear their final presentation.
4) How did the Regiment feel about our doing this?
Students were each awarded a certificate for their work and appreciation. The university
received several plaques from the WWR as a thank you for our work and our “brotherhood.” It
was a very moving presentation and the students’ work will be a legacy to the Regiment. The
Regiment was thrilled to have students come to Quantico and acknowledged them repeatedly at
the first anniversary celebration. I was proud to be their
Professor.
Evaluation
The Wounded Warrior Regiment was richer because of the student’s contributions and
the PC Practicum class learned how their work can make a difference and continue on after they
graduate. It was a win-win situation.
MATERIALS the Wounded Regiment has:
O Fact Sheets (by Audience)
O A backgrounder
O PowerPoint templates
O PowerPoints (by Audience)
O A brochure
O Newsletter Template (w/initial article)
O 6 Posters
O Hometown Release Forms
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O A Video Documentary
O A mini-video
O A strategic Communication plan (on CD)
O Poster students created for the final presentation
O Invitation to our final presentation
O Program for our final presentation
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Strategic Communication:
Aligning the Practice with the Profession in Military Public Affairs
Bey-Ling Sha and David Dozier
San Diego State University
bsha@mail.sdsu.edu
ddozier@mail.sdsu.edu
Robert Pritchard
Ball State University
rpritchard@bsu.edu
Abstract
Military public affairs officers (PAOs) often receive only technical training before being
thrown into the strategic communication sphere, in which they are expected to operate as
managers. In that capacity, one of the challenges faced by PAOs is the lack of clear military
doctrine regarding public affairs, as well as general confusion surrounding the term “strategic
communication,” which has different connotations for different areas of the military, private, and
public sectors. This lack of clarity regarding strategic communication is not surprising, since the
term is used in myriad ways in public relations and communication literature. For military PAOs,
who practice in literal life-and-death situations, this lack of clarity regarding strategic
communication has particularly dangerous risks.
In 2005, the U.S. Department of the Navy inaugurated an innovative program with San
Diego State University, whereby mid-level PAOs complete a regular, 24-month master’s
program in an intense and rigorous 10-month curriculum. Framed by literature on strategic
communication, military public affairs, and graduate education in public relations, this paper
offers a three-year evaluation of the SDSU PAO program, spelling out implications for graduate
pedagogy, military public affairs practice, and theory-building in “strategic communication.”
The study draws upon qualitative and quantitative data collected each year from PAOs as they
exit the program.
178

Reflection as an Assessment Tool in Public Relations Service Learning
Jonathan R. Slater
SUNY Plattsburgh
Jonathan.slater@plattsburgh.edu
Carolyn White Bartoo
Widener University
cwbartoo@mail.widener.edu
Although the current literature clearly makes a strong case for what are the common and
generally accepted practices in the public relations service learning curriculum, available
scholarship on public relations service learning has little to say about what precisely constitutes
best practices. A perusal of the very limited writing on service learning in public relations reveals
that reflection stands out as one of the few consistently prescribed practices in public relations
service-learning pedagogy. This should come as no surprise to public relations educators who
advocate the use of service learning in the curriculum, as reflection has long served and, from an
early date, been recognized as a desirable pedagogical tool in service learning within higher
education.
Philosophy and pedagogy of service learning
Instructors usually, but not exclusively, offer service learning opportunities in the context
of the campaigns course, where students have an occasion to devise, develop and execute
communication programs on behalf of organizations, e.g., not-for profit agencies, which would
not otherwise have the means nor sophistication to carry out such programs. Service learning
therefore provides students in the campaigns course a chance to experience management of a
public relations project first-hand and to deliver a professional-style campaign into the hands of a
deserving organization often advocating a worthwhile cause.
The obvious, measurable output of the service learning experience in a campaigns course
is frequently the finished campaign itself. But is there a method instructors can employ in order
to realistically fathom the input, i.e., what students have reaped intellectually and professionally
from participating in the elaboration of a public relations campaign? Is there a way to measure
the growth of their ethical and professional development? Personal reflection permits instructors
one way of delving into students’ perceptions about the service learning experience and what
they have learned.
Inferring from an unscientific survey of syllabi from campaigns courses, from
conversations with other instructors of the campaigns course, and their own class practices, the
leaders of the present poster session have observed that reflection can take various forms. Some
instructors ask students to maintain personal journals or submit culminating reflection papers,
perhaps complemented by a class presentation. Some instructors also require individual and team
self-evaluations mid-way through the course and at the end of session. Or reflection can occur in
a group setting in class as students process their expectations against the final outcomes, for
example. Whatever the technique an instructor chooses, the use of reflection is founded upon
well-established philosophical and pedagogical principles. In the first instance, reflection as a
purely Socratic exercise allows students to arrive at greater intellectual, affective and moral self-
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knowledge. Conventional classroom interactions rarely demand of students the type of metacognitive
gymnastics that reflection is capable of prompting.
In the second instance, reflection furnishes insights about student performance that would
ordinarily not be accessible to instructors in traditional classroom settings, where they are
regularly left to infer or intuit learning outcomes from sets of mostly quantifiable data, e.g.,
homework grades and test scores. Granted, self-reporting does not guarantee students will be
frank or thorough in their reflections. Yet, if instructors properly cultivate a sense within their
students of the value and gravity of reflection, students may, in fact, tend to take reflection more
seriously than if the task were merely assigned to them gratuitously without overt concern for its
significance.
Cognitive, normative and evaluative functions of service learning
Aside from reflection’s philosophical and pedagogical soundness, there are also three
very practical reasons to include reflection in the public relations service learning experience.
First, reflection serves a cognitive role. Reflection helps students to frame their service learning
experiences within the context of what they already know about communication and public
relations from their fundamental and theoretical course work.
Second, reflection serves a normative or prescriptive function in that students can gauge
the effects of their own successes and failures in preparing a campaign in order to better
understand what works and what does not. In doing so, students will perhaps be better suited in
their career roles to recognize desirable professional behaviors, outcomes and best practices.
Moreover, reflection may afford students a deeper appreciation of the ethical implications of
their decisions and actions in relation to their campaign teammates, their clients, and their
clients’ publics – especially pertinent in a society in which organizations often make excuses that
seem to render professional virtue irrelevant. The fact, too, that fostering civic engagement is
seen as a virtuous behavior in service learning adds a further normative dimension to the
campaigns course.
Finally, reflection provides an evaluative tool for instructors. In today’s classroom,
educators are routinely called upon to explain and justify their teaching goals as they pertain to
student learning outcomes. The assessment of student learning outcomes therefore weighs
heavily in how institutions treat their divisions, departments and programs. Amassing and
analyzing well-documented student self-accounting can only enhance the case for sustaining
service learning in general and supporting the public relations campaigns course in particular.
Growth and mastery
Inherent in the term “service learning” is the notion that the former in some fashion leads
to the latter. But does service naturally imply learning? Does the mere fact of engaging public
relations students in an experiential process help them to build knowledge and grow toward
professional mastery? Service learning theorists and public relations educators would seem to
agree that challenging students with real-world situations by thoroughly immersing them in the
application of their art can indeed engender knowledge and mastery. However, experiential
education without reflection does not challenge students to process and apply their learning to
other academic or even professional knowledge they already have. The process of critical
reflection is the vital link that permits public relations students to ponder the important
relationship between their actions and outcomes of their work in the campaigns course.
180

Creating a Multi-Layered Case Study Using Broadcast Media Examples
William R. Sykes
Central Michigan University
sykes1wr@cmich.edu
The use of case studies in public relations education courses has been a long-standing
technique for engaging students in the discussion of PR principles and practices. Using a multilayered
approach to a case study has the potential to deepen the student’s understanding and
appreciation for the possible complexities involved in executing a public relations activity.
This particular approach to the multi-layered case study involves the use of broadcast
news events and is used in conjunction with a discussion of the media relations aspects of public
relations. The discussion might include crisis management planning or it could be limited to
developing talking points for a media interview on a particular subject.
Preparations
A decision must be made early on concerning the choice of the news event that will
become the focus of the case story. Generally speaking the best examples will be those that have
a potential controversial component to them.
The news story should include the various viewpoints with at least one of the key players
taking part in an on-camera interview. These examples can be found on network news, cable
news and local news outlets. At the network level, the first half hour of the morning news shows
can often yield timely examples that can serve as useful case studies. Other news venues that
can provide useful case studies are the prime-time news magazine shows like 60 Minutes.
A taping of the news story will need to be done as part of the case study preparation. A
VHS or DVD machine capable of recording the on-air presentation will be needed. Because the
segment will be a very small part of the overall program and will only be used for educational
purposes, concerns about copyright issues are minimal.
Once a news story has been selected and recorded, a write up of the story should be done.
The write up should describe the essence of the story and the various points of view presented in
the story. This write up will serve as the first layer of the presentation of the case study. An
example of a case write up is provided below. The write up is based on an interview segment that
appeared on the Today show.
The National Rifle Association has announced its intention to open a restaurant in
Times Square that will showcase the shooting sports. The NRA Sports Store will
promote the shooting sports, which have been around for centuries. 35-40 million
Americans a year practice the shooting sports. The shooting sports are safer than all of
the contact sports, safer than bathtubs and swimming pools.
The restaurant will have virtual skeet and trap shooting games,
as well as a grill with wild game menu items. No guns or ammunition will be sold nor
will there be video games showing people being shot.
However this announcement comes at a time when the country has experienced a series
of very deadly shooting incidents where a number of people have been killed. There is
already a group that has come out against the idea of a NRA restaurant in Times Square.
The Violence Policy Center believes that the restaurant will become a magnet for
gun control protests. They also believe that it will be used to recruit young people back
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into the gun culture. In addition, there is word that the mayor of New York City is against
the idea.
You are the PR representative for the NRA and must decide whether you will
accept an invitation to talk about the restaurant issue on the Today show and if you do
decide to go on the show, then you will need to develop talking points in light of the
published opposition to the idea. You have also been told that the Today show will
interview a member of the Violence Policy Center.
The next step in the case study preparation is to develop a series of questions that reflect
those asked by the interviewer during the actual news segment. Using the NRA story discussed
above, a list of potential questions is displayed below.
Thank you for agreeing to the interview. I would like to start by asking you why
has the NRA decided to build a restaurant in New York City’s Times Square?
The mayor of New York City has already expressed concern about your plans
hinting that the theme of your restaurant may not play well with the “community
standards” provisions for the type of businesses approved for the area. How do you
respond to those concerns?
We have just seen a rash of shootings in different parts of the country. Isn’t this
announcement coming at a bad time? Gun control advocates charge that you are using
this restaurant idea as a way to get kids back into the gun culture. How do you respond to
those arguments?
And finally, those same advocates say your restaurant will become a magnet for
gun control protests, which won’t be good for the other Times Square businesses. What is
your response to that charge?
As an additional element for later discussion, the news program’s website could be
accessed and the story’s treatment on the site captured to be viewed as part of the discussion at
the end of the exercise.
Case Study Execution
Now that the preparation work has been done, it’s time to execute the case study with all
of its components. Depending on the size of the class, it could take up to 90 minutes to complete
the assignment. Students should be divided into teams and introduced to the case study write up.
They should be instructed to discuss the write up and decide whether or not to appear on the
Today show as well as to develop the “talking points” that might be used if they do decide to
appear on the show. They should be given a specific amount of time to come to a decision.
Once the time limit has been reached, each team must explain why it decided to accept or decline
the interview request. If a team decides to accept the offer, then team members must discuss
what their “talking points” might be for the interview.
In phase two of the case study, a student from one of the teams that would agree to the
interview request would be selected to participate in a mock interview. Students would not be
told ahead of time that this is going to happen. A second student from another team would be
selected to serve as the interviewer and given the list of prepared questions. The student being
interviewed must follow the talking points developed by his/her team. Once the mock interview
has been completed, a group discussion would be held to review how the student did both in
terms of the talking points and any non-verbal behavior that might have been observed. The
student might also be asked to describe how it felt to be interviewed while trying to stay to the
talking points.
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Finally in phase three of the case study, students are shown the actual recorded segment
of the story and the web presentation of the story if captured. Students would be asked to assess
how their efforts compared to those taken by the individuals in the actual news story and the
observations are then related back to the earlier lecture points.
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Hybrid Teaching: Maximizing the Benefit of Online and Experiential Learning for
International PR Courses
Maria Elena Villar and Rosanna Fiske
Florida International University
mevillar@fiu.edu
fisker@fiu.edu
Abstract
Hybrid teaching, or the integration of traditional classroom and on-line instruction, is
used to bridge the divide between these two teaching methods. With the tools now available,
especially with Web 2.0, hybrid teaching increases student engagement and provides
opportunities for students (and faculty) to learn technical skills that will be crucial for their
professional practice.
Integration of New Technologies into Curriculum
Hybrid courses differ from traditional class settings in that the classroom is not the only meeting
place or opportunity for information exchange. Students must use technology as part of their
coursework, including networking tools to communicate with a group. With required chat
sessions, blog postings, in-class presentations, and design executions, virtually all their work is
available for peers to evaluate, as it would be in a “real world” professional environment. Below
are examples of interactive and independent learning activities used in their courses that would
be impossible or impractical in traditional classroom courses.
.
Example 1 Online Chats: Students in a typical senior-level “campaigns” class use the online chat
tools to communicate with one another or with the professor on a weekly basis.
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Example 2 Online Assignment: Students in a Hispanic Marketing Communications class use
the online forum for providing and receiving feedback on their assignments. Here is an example
of an online assignment.
Industry/Market Profile Project and Presentation
Throughout the course, we have discussed the main cultural and demographic characteristics of U.S. Hispanics. This
has included Hispanics’ interaction with the U.S. marketplace and its products as well as Hispanic consumer
behavior. In this final project, you are to integrate concepts such as level of acculturation, country of origin, cultural
characteristics and in-culture consumer behavior in order to design and recommend an effective in-culture marketing
communication campaign for a pre-assigned industry. Essentially, you are acting as an account planner or public
relations researcher. As such, your information should be so relevant and thorough, that a professional would have
enough of an understanding of the sub-group, the market, and the industry to be able to begin an advertising or PR
campaign.
How does it work?
You will work in teams to prepare a profile of one of the top U.S. Hispanic sub-groups, as determined by the market
your team selected. You’ll also prepare an industry overview in order to develop an integrated plan summary that
addresses the best target within that market for said industry. The project should tie in the statistical and cultural
dimensions of your sub-group in such a way that an individual who knew nothing about your sub-group would be able
to have a fairly good understanding of its most important characteristics. In addition, you should use all of the
information you’ve gathered up to this point so that a communicator wanting to gain insight into the industry and the
market would be to know what direction to take i.e. what neighborhoods, what cultural nuances, what language, etc.
The Presentation
Please submit online the PowerPoint presentation that you will use to present your information in class. You’ll have to
incorporate factual, statistical, historical information (both from the sub-group’s migration to the U.S. as well as from
the home country), industry examples, and cultural characteristics as found in your research. Please remember that
it’s important to show specific examples or industry case studies from your knowledge and research. Don’t forget to
include what cultural significance your sub-group has brought to its region or marketplace. Consider also including
geodemographics, behavioristics, and other important aspects to understanding the profile and the industry. You will
make a 15-minute presentation in class in which you will present the above, including defining your target and your
target’s needs, discussing the competition, and presenting strategies for communicating about the products or
services in your industry.
Evaluation
On the due date, post your team’s final document on the Discussion Forum titled “Industry/Market Project”. Each
team will provide feedback on another team’s PowerPoint presentation (only one posting per team is necessary but it
must indicate the team’s overall opinions). You are to evaluate how the other team’s profile project covered its
assignment. Specifically, you need to think about the following:
1. Was it thorough? Did you understand the sub-group’s idiosyncrasies and history?
2. Do you know specifically what Hispanic sub-group is represented in the area? Explain.
3. Did the presentation provide enough information on cultural characteristics, geodemographics, and
behavioristics for you to be able to work in that market? Explain.
4. Was the industry adequately represented? Would you know how to begin a campaign within the industry? Give
specific examples in your evaluation.
While only one grade will be assigned to the group for the paper and presentation, you will be asked to evaluate the
participation of your group’s members.
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Example 3 IMC Analysis Blog: Students were assigned dates to contribute to the course blog
on analysis of IMC strategies encountered during the Study Abroad courses in Berlin, Germany.
Sample Blog Entries
Student Feedback
A survey of students who had taken hybrid courses was conducted during the 2008
summer term. Participants included 69 graduate and undergraduate students from the School of
Journalism and Mass Communication at Florida International University in Miami. As shown in
the figures below, students generally agreed that online assignments were useful learning
experience, but this did not represent a strong majority.
Online chats were useful learning
experiences.
Online class assignments were useful
learning experiences.
neutral
24%
disagree
29%
neutral
24%
disagree
18%
agree
47%
agree
58%
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New Methods of Student-to-Student and Student-to-Faculty Interaction
Hybrid models enhance communication between faculty and students because
discussions started in the classroom are continued online. Social Networking tools such as
Facebook become an extension of course discussions and student interactions. A site was
developed to post information about the upcoming travel for a Hybrid Study Abroad course,
where there were three weeks of residential classes, and much of the pre-travel and post-travel
assignments were conducted on-line.
Sample 1: Facebook Group
Follow-ups to course activities posted by
students on course Facebook page
Sample 2: Immediate Feedback and Interaction: Students in a graduate level Global Communications
course post items online for discussion related to an assigned case study.
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Student Feedback
Again, students surveyed had varied opinions on their ability to communicate with other students
in a hybrid course, as compared to a regular course.
You learn more from other students in a
hybrid course than a regular course.
It is easier to communicate w ith
classmates in a regular course than in a
hybrid course.
nuetral
31%
disagree
28%
nuetral
18%
disagree
45%
agree
41%
agree
37%
Role of the Instructor
While in traditional classrooms the main role of the instructor is to engage students
through lectures and verbal discussions, the instructor’s role in hybrid classes is not only to
provide course material, but to coordinate, consult and mentor. While almost half of the students
surveyed felt that the role of the professor is basically the same in hybrid courses and regular
courses, student satisfaction with the role of the instructor was mixed. Forty three percent of the
students surveyed felt that professors were less “hands-on” in a hybrid course than a regular
course; while only 20% felt the instructor was more “hands-on” in a hybrid course. Some
students cited contact with the professor as a negative aspect of the hybrid format.
Sample comments include:
“I missed the personal interaction with the professor”
“[There was] not enough time with professor”
“I need a teacher”
“You have to wait for the instructor to write back”
However, other students cited this as a positive aspect, with comments such as:
“Easy access to materials, professor and other students”
“The feedback from the professor is more thorough so you learn more from your
mistakes” “Fluid communication with professor.”
Differences in satisfaction with the role of the professor could not be explained by
differences in course topics, instructors or self-reported academic achievement. They were
somewhat related to graduate versus undergraduate status, and possibly to flexibility of learning
styles, although this cannot be ascertained from this survey. Further research must go beyond
student satisfaction and perceptions of advantages and disadvantages of hybrid course formats, to
focus on students’ traits that may make certain students more inclined to online formats and
more likely to achieve learning objectives.
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