Conservation Science in the RSPB 2006

CONSERVATION 

SCIENCE 

2006 

I N T H E R S P B

Contents 

Conservation science in the RSPB 1 

Introduction 2 

Funding 4 

Partnerships 5 

The application of science 8 

Case study – conservation management and the partial recovery of the corncrake 9 

Case study – finding a cause for and solution to the declines of Asia’s critically endangered vultures 12 

Monitoring and indicators 14 

A census method for crossbills 15 

The Repeat Woodland Birds Survey 16 

The 2004 nightjar survey 18 

Declines in migrant birds breeding in Europe 20 

Mapping moorland habitats for birds using satellite images 22 

The 2004 hen harrier survey 24 

The ecology of threatened species 26 

Advances in the study of Lophopus crystallinus 27 

Winter flooding and bearded tits 29 

Causes of black grouse decline 31 

Yellow wagtails breeding on arable farmland 32 

Breeding biology of hedgehogs in the Outer Hebrides 33 

Invertebrates in the diets of moorland breeding birds 35 

Climate change and ring ouzels 37 

Ecological process and issues research 39 

GMHT cropping and food for farmland birds 40 

Managing the risk of disturbance to breeding stone-curlews 42 

Acid grassland re-creation on former arable land at Minsmere 44 

Predator control and lapwings on RSPB reserves 46 

The impact of mice on breeding seabirds on Gough island 47 

Underpinning the RSPB’s response to the spread of H5N1 avian influenza 49 

PhD training 50 

Publications 52 

Publications in scientific journals, proceedings and books 53 

Reports, theses and other publications 57

Arctic tern on nest 

Andy Hay (rspb-images.com)

1 

Conservation science 

in the RSPB 

The RSPB is the UK charity working to secure a 

healthy environment for birds and wildlife, helping to 

create a better world for us all. We belong to BirdLife 

International, the global partnership of bird 

conservation organisations. 

The RSPB prides itself on using the best scientific 

evidence available to guide its conservation policies and 

practice. Only by basing our work on such evidence can 

we be confident that our actions will be of benefit to birds 

and other wildlife. 

For further copies of this report, or those for earlier years, 

please contact the Conservation Science Department, The 

RSPB, UK Headquarters, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire 

SG19 2DL, e-mail science@rspb.org.uk or visit 

www.rspb.org.uk/science

2 

Willow warbler 

Ben Hall (rspb-images.com 

Introduction 

Welcome to the fifth report on the 

RSPB's scientific work. While the 

score or more of projects included 

in this report represents just a 

snapshot of our overall scientific 

programme, we hope they will 

demonstrate the depth and 

breadth of the RSPB’s scientific 

work. A more complete list of our 

scientific projects can be found in 

last year's report, available at 

www.rspb.org.uk/science. 

Two of the projects included in this 

report outline an emerging issue for 

the RSPB, and indeed ornithologists 

and conservation biologists more 

generally – the decline of longdistance 

migrant birds. The first 

project, on pages 16–17, did not start 

life as a study of migrants, rather it 

was a re-survey of birds in more than 

350 woods throughout Britain. This 

large project (involving the RSPB, 

BTO, Defra, EN – under the Action 

for Birds in England, AfBiE, 

partnership – FC and the Woodland 

Trust) was set up amid concerns 

about declines of woodland birds. 

One of its more striking results, 

however, was that all seven long 

distance migrants surveyed in these 

woods had declined over a period of 

20 years or so, some dramatically so. 

Woodland populations of, for 

example, willow warbler, wood 

warbler and tree pipit, all declined by 

more than a half. 

The second study, on pages 20–21, 

adopted a much broader approach, 

using data on population trends of all 

breeding birds in most European 

countries during 1970–2000, collated 

by BirdLife for its recent publication 

Birds in Europe. Analyses of these 

data showed that inter-continental 

migrants had declined more than 

those that winter in Europe. 

Interestingly, although some bird 

species that breed in Europe migrate 

to Asia, the declines of long-distance 

migrants seem to be restricted to 

those that winter in Africa. 

While it is tempting to assume that 

these declines are due to problems 

on migration or wintering grounds, 

this may not be the case, as 

migrants may be struggling on their 

breeding grounds for a range of 

reasons. With funding from EN, 

under AfBiE, we are reviewing the 

evidence for these declines in order 

to understand their causes better. 

While we await this more complete 

understanding, climate change is 

strongly implicated in the decline of 

the ring ouzel, one of UK’s rarer 

migrant birds, albeit one that winters 

in North Africa rather than crossing 

the Sahara. A study, reported on 

pages 37–38, involving the RSPB, 

SNH, NERC, Scottish Ornithologists’ 

Club, Cambridge University and 

several ouzel enthusiasts, has shown 

that declines of ring ouzels in 

southern Scotland were greatest in 

years that followed warm summers, 

and that recent changes in British 

summer temperatures have been 

large enough to account for this 

species’ decline. We have recently 

started a new project in Scotland to 

understand why warmer 

temperatures create problems 

for ouzels.

3 

Fortunately, not all migrants are 

faring badly and one, the nightjar, is 

doing well according to the results of 

a 2004 survey, reported on pages 

18–19, undertaken by the RSPB, 

BTO, EN and FC as part of the 

Statutory Conservation 

Agencies/RSPB Annual Breeding Bird 

Scheme (SCARABBS). Since the 

early 1980s, nightjar numbers have 

more than doubled, to about 4,600 

males. Another 2004 SCARABBS 

survey, of the hen harrier, again 

involving a range of partners and 

reported on pages 24–25, has also 

shown increases, with its population 

in the UK and Isle of Man increasing 

by more than 40% since 1998. Most 

of this increase occurred in the north 

and west of its range, though there 

were declines in England and 

southern and eastern Scotland. 

Somewhat more bleakly, the UK 

population of black grouse still 

seems to be declining. Long-term 

monitoring by the Perthshire Black 

Grouse Study Group has revealed a 

particularly marked decline in that 

county, and a recent analysis, 

outlined on page 31, has shown that 

this has been largely due to the 

maturation of conifer forests in the 

area, probably as the ground 

vegetation used for nesting and 

brood rearing is lost as the 

forest matures. 

In previous issues of Conservation 

Science in the RSPB we have 

reported on the dramatic declines of 

Gyps vultures in Asia (2001: 25) and 

the search for the cause (2005: 34), 

eventually identified as toxic 

poisoning by the veterinary drug 

diclofenac. Here we bring this story 

up to date and show how, working 

with many partners (listed on page 

13), an alternative drug – meloxicam 

– has been found that can replace 

diclofenac and is also safe for 

vultures. In May 2006, the Indian 

Government ordered a halt on 

production of diclofenac and 

promoted meloxicam as a safe 

alternative. The rapidity with which 

the cause of the vulture declines was 

diagnosed, a solution tested and 

begun to be implemented, has been 

truly remarkable. We cannot remain 

complacent, however, as vulture 

populations have yet to recover. 

Finally, one of the RSPB’s bigger 

media stories in 2005 was that on 

the impact of introduced house mice 

on breeding seabirds on Gough 

Island in the South Atlantic. These 

mice were introduced onto Gough 

during the 19th century, have evolved 

to twice their normal size, and have 

been shown by the RSPB and the 

University of Cape Town to be 

effective predators of seabird chicks, 

threatening populations of Atlantic 

petrels and Tristan albatrosses (pages 

48–49). The public imagination was 

captured with widely broadcast video 

footage showing up to 10 mice at a 

time attacking, and ultimately killing, 

seabird chicks that were in some 

cases 200 times their size. The 

feasibility of removing Gough’s mice 

is now being investigated. 

As an applied conservation 

organisation, we need to disseminate 

the results of our work to 

conservation practitioners as soon as 

we are confident of them, while also 

maintaining the quality of our 

scientific work by publishing it in the 

peer-reviewed scientific literature. 

Thus, while in most cases the 

information contained in this report is 

based on publications in peerreviewed 

scientific journals, in others 

we have presented important 

preliminary results that have not yet 

been published formally. A complete 

list of all publications for 2005 and 

the first half of 2006 is provided 

towards the back of the report, and 

for previous years is available at 

www.rspb.org.uk/science. 

We would be delighted to hear of 

any ideas that you might have on 

how we could improve future 

versions of this report. 

Dr Mark Avery 

Director, Conservation, 

the RSPB 

Dr David Gibbons 

Head of Conservation Science, 

the RSPB

4 

Funding 

The RSPB has a policy of keeping 

only a few months’ running costs 

in its financial reserves. We must 

raise all our annual expenditure 

every year and we depend on a 

range of sources for this funding. 

Around 80% of the RSPB’s income 

comes from the generosity of 

individuals (our members and 

supporters) and although this income 

can be predicted with some 

certainty, it is by no means 

guaranteed and fluctuates. The RSPB 

must continue to pursue a wide 

variety of funding sources to 

continue its work and grant funding 

is a vital source in the mix. Many 

organisations (listed below) have 

funded specific science projects in 

2005–06 through, for example, 

research contracts and grants 

towards partnership projects. Many 

of those listed are also active 

partners in the research, or may 

have provided additional support for 

wider conservation action. 

Anglian Water 

BP (through Scottish Forestry Alliance) 

British Birdfair 

British Potato Council 

British Trust for Ornithology 

Countryside Council for Wales 

Community Environmental Renewal 

Scheme 

Crop Protection Association UK 

The Crown Estates (via the Marine 

Stewardship Fund) 

Darwin Initiative 

Department for Environment, Food 

and Rural Affairs 

Department for International 

Development 

English Nature 

Environment and Heritage Service, 

Northern Ireland 

EU Life Environment Fund 

EU Life Nature Fund 

Foreign and Commonwealth Office 

Forestry Commission (England, 

Scotland and Wales) 

HGCA 

Heritage Lottery Fund 

Ministry of Defence 

Moors for the Future 

Morrisons 

The Overseas Territories Environment 

Programme (OTEP) 

Perth & Kinross Quality of Life Trust 

The Rufford Foundation 

Sainsbury’s Supermarkets Ltd 

Scottish Executive's Biodiversity 

Action Grants Scheme 

Scottish Executive Environment and 

Rural Affairs Department 

Scottish Natural Heritage 

SITA Trust 

Syngenta Crop Protection UK 

The Woodland Trust 

Sources of funding for RSPB science 2005/06 RSPB science expenditure 2005/06 

(£4,743,404) 

RSPB fundraising 

Research grants and contracts 

In-house 

Contracted out 

Studentships

5 

Partnerships 

By working with a wide range of 

partners during 2005–06 (listed 

below), the RSPB was able to 

maximise the quantity and quality 

of conservation science that it 

undertook. The value of 

partnership is nowhere more 

evident than in the contribution 

made by thousands of 

birdwatchers who take part in bird 

monitoring. Their contribution is 

invaluable. 

Aculeate Conservation Group 

ADAS 

AEWA Secretariat 

Allerton Research and Education Trust 

American Bird Conservancy 

Andhra Pradesh Forest Department 

A P Leventis Ornithological Institute, 

Nigeria 

Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 

Association for the Conservation of 

Biodiversity in Kazakhstan (ACBK) 

Audubon 

Avian Demography Unit, University of 

Cape Town 

BASC 

Bird Conservation Nepal 

Bird Conservation Society of Thailand 

(BCST) 

BirdLife Africa Secretariat and 

Partners 

BirdLife Europe Office 

BirdLife Indonesia 

BirdLife International 

BirdLife International Indochina 

Programme 

BirdLife Middle East Office 

BirdLife South Africa 

BirdWatch Ireland 

Biodiversity and Nature Conservation 

Association, Myanmar (BANCA) 

Biomathematics and Statistics, 

Scotland 

Bombay Natural History Society 

(BNHS) 

Botanical and Zoological Museums of 

the University of Copenhagen 

British Antarctic Survey 

British Birds 

British High Commission, New Delhi, 

India 

British Museum of Natural History 

British Ornithologists’ Union 

Buglife 

Bulgarian Society for the Protection 

of Birds 

Bumblebee Conservation Trust 

Bumblebee Working Group 

Butterfly Conservation 

CABI Bioscience 

Cambridge Conservation Forum 

Centre for Agri-Environmental 

Research, University of Reading 

Centre for Ecology and Hydrology 

Centre for Evidence Based 

Conservation, University of 

Birmingham 

Centre for Life Sciences Modelling, 

University of Newcastle 

Centre for Research into Ecological 

and Environmental Modelling, 

University of St Andrews 

Centre for Social and Economic 

Research on the Global Environment, 

UEA 

Central Science Laboratory 

Centre d’Etudes Biologiques de 

Chizé, du Centre National de la 

Recherche Scientifique 

Chagos Conservation Trust 

The Conservation Biology Group 

(University of Cambridge) 

Conservation International 

Conservation Society of Sierra Leone 

Crown Estate 

Czech Society for Ornithology (CSO) 

Department des Eaux et Forêt – 

Morocco 

Department of Agriculture and Rural 

Development (NI) 

Department of Biology and 

Biochemistry, University of Bath 

Department of Biology, University of 

York 

Department of Environmental and 

Biological Sciences, University of 

Stirling 

Department of Forest and Wildlife, 

India 

Department of Geography, University 

of Reading 

Department of Geospatial and Space 

Technology, University of Nairobi 

Department of National Parks, 

Wildlife and Plant Conservation, 

Thailand 

Departments of Plant & Soil Science 

and Zoology, University of Aberdeen

6 

Department of Zoology, University of 

Cambridge 

Department of Zoology, University of 

Oxford 

Department of Zoology & Animal 

Ecology, University of Cork 

De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Trust, 

South Africa 

Direction Régionale des Eaux et 

Forêts du Sud-Ouest, Agadir, 

Morocco 

Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust 

Doga Dernegi (Turkish Nature 

Society, BirdLife affiliate) 

Endangered Wildlife Trust (South 

Africa)/Vulture Study Group 

Environment Agency 

European Birds Census Council 

European Commission 

European Food Standards Agency 

(EFSA) 

European Topic Centre: Biological 

Diversity 

exeGesIS Spatial Data Management 

Ltd 

Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka 

(FOGSL) 

Footprint Ecology 

Forestry Division, Sierra Leone 

Forest Research, Northern Research 

Station 

The Game Conservancy Trust 

Global Vegetation Monitoring Unit, 

Joint Research Centre 

The Government of Tristan da Cunha 

G Spoor Associates 

Harper Adams University College 

Geographical Research Institute, 

Hungarian Academy of Sciences 

Indian Veterinary Research Institute 

International Advisory Group for 

Northern Bald Ibis 

Institute of Biomedical & Life 

Sciences, University of Glasgow 

Institute of Water and Environment, 

Cranfield 

Institute of Zoology, London 

Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna 

Selvatica, Bologna 

IUCN 

JNCC 

Francis Kirkham, Ecological 

Consultant 

Konrad Lorenz Institute 

Leicestershire and Rutland Wildlife 

Trust 

Linking Environment & Farming 

(LEAF) 

The Macaulay Institute 

Makerere University Institute of the 

Environment and Natural Resources 

Malloch Society 

The Manx Atlas Project 

Marine Turtle Research Group, School 

of Biological Sciences, University of 

Exeter 

Ministry of Agriculture, Syrian Arab 

Republic 

Ministry of Environment, Syrian Arab 

Republic 

Montana State University 

Montserrat Ministry of Agriculture, 

Lands, Housing & Environment 

Montserrat National Trust 

National Bird of Prey Trust 

National Environmental Research 

Institute, Denmark 

National Institute of Agricultural 

Botany (NIAB) 

National Institute of Water & 

Atmospheric Research, New Zealand 

National Museums of Kenya 

National Soil Resources Institute, 

Cranfield University 

National Trust for Scotland 

Natural Environment Research 

Council 

Natural Research Ltd UK 

Natural Resources Department, 

Government of Tristan da Cunha 

NatureKenya 

NatureUganda 

Neotropical Bird Club 

NERC 

Nigerian Conservation Foundation 

Norwegian Institute for Nature 

Research (NINA) 

Nottinghamshire Wildlife Trust 

Ordnance Survey 

Oriental Bird Club 

Parc National de Souss-Massa 

Penny Anderson Associates 

Percy Fitzpatrick Institute of African 

Ornithology 

The Peregrine Fund

7 

Perthshire Black Grouse Study Group 

Plantlife 

Polish Society for the Protection of 

Birds (OTOP) 

Ponds Conservation Trust 

Portuguese Society for the Study of 

Birds (SPEA) 

QPQ Software 

Queen's University, Belfast 

Rare Breeding Birds Panel 

Rare and Endangered Species Trust – 

Namibia 

Rothamsted Research 

Royal Botanic Garden – Edinburgh 

Royal Botanic Garden – Kew 

Royal Holloway College 

Royal Navy Birdwatching Society 

(RNBWS) 

Royal Veterinary College 

Russian Bird Conservation Union 

SCAN Ringing Group 

School of Animal and Microbial 

Sciences, University of Reading 

School of Biological Sciences, 

University of East Anglia 

School of Biology, University of 

Newcastle 

School of Biology, University of 

Nottingham 

School of Biology & Biochemistry, 

Queen's University Belfast 

School of Biological and Biomedical 

Sciences, University of Durham 

School of Biological Sciences & 

School of Geosciences, University of 

Edinburgh 

The Scottish Chough Study Group 

The Scottish Crofting Foundation 

Scottish Crops Research Institute 

Scottish Environmental Protection 

Agency 

Scottish Agricultural College 

Scottish Forestry Association 

Scottish Raptor Study Groups 

The Seabird Group 

Shetland Oil Terminal Environmental 

Advisory Group 

Slender-billed Curlew Working Group 

SOVON 

Spanish Ornithological Society (SEO) 

State Government of Haryana, India 

State Government of West Bengal, 

India 

Statistics Netherlands 

Mr Jonathan Tipples 

Ukrainian Society for the Protection 

of Birds 

UK Overseas Territories Conservation 

Forum 

The University of Chiang Mai 

The University of Coimbra, Portugal 

The University of Helsinki 

The University of Leuven 

The University of Pretoria 

The University of Wolverhampton 

Universities Federation for Animal 

Welfare 

UNEP World Conservation 

Monitoring Centre 

Vaderstad 

VURV (Czech Crop Production 

Research Institute) 

Dr Adam Watson 

Mr Nicholas Watts 

Wales Raptor Study Group 

The Wildlife Biological Resource 

Centre, South Africa 

Wildlife Conservation Society 

Cambodia 

Wildlife Institute of India 

The Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust 

Wildwings Bird Management 

Wiltshire Ornithological Society 

WOCAT (World Overview of 

Conservation Agriculture and 

technologies) 

Woodland Trust Scotland 

WWF – US 

Yorkshire Dales National Park 

Authority 

Zoological Museum, University of 

Copenhagen 

Zoological Society of London

8 

The application of science

9 

Conservation management and the 

partial recovery of the corncrake 

The corncrake was a widespread 

breeding bird in the UK in the late 

19th century, but then suffered a 

marked decline through most of 

the 20th century. By the early 

1990s, corncrakes were largely 

confined to northern and western 

Scotland and, even there, 

populations were declining. 

Corncrakes are trans-Saharan 

migrants, which forage, nest and 

rear their young in tall grass and 

herbs, nowadays particularly hay 

and silage meadows. The rapid 

population declines began soon 

after the introduction of 

mechanised mowing of hay and 

appear to have been triggered by 

the destruction of nests and chicks 

when meadows are mown. 

Research on corncrake ecology in 

Scotland and Ireland, especially 

comparison of population trends in 

areas with different agricultural 

practices, and radio-tracking studies 

of habitat selection and breeding 

biology, have enabled us to design 

management schemes to improve 

breeding productivity and the 

survival of adults. In spring, 

vegetation in hay and silage 

meadows is not tall enough to 

conceal birds so, until the grass 

grows sufficiently tall, they are 

restricted to patches of marshland 

and tall herbage. High proportions 

of nests and broods from second 

and subsequent breeding attempts 

are found in fields that will be 

mowed. The mowing season 

(June–August) overlaps substantially 

with the breeding season and many 

nests are at risk of being destroyed. 

A high proportion of chicks is also 

killed when isolated in areas of still 

uncut grass surrounded by mowed 

areas, which they are reluctant to 

cross to escape to cover at the edge 

of the field. 

From these studies, we 

developed three specific 

conservation measures: 

• To increase, by fencing and the 

establishment of suitable plant 

species, the area of cover at 

times when vegetation in grass 

fields is too short for corncrakes 

(in spring and after mowing). 

Corncrake 

David Kjaer (rspb-images.com)

10 

Andy Hay (rspb-images.com) 

• To reduce the overlap between 

the corncrake breeding and 

mowing seasons by delaying the 

date of mowing. 

• To reduce the mortality of chicks 

caused by mowing, by changing 

the pattern of mowing to allow 

chicks to escape from mowed 

areas whilst remaining in cover – 

corncrake-friendly mowing 

techniques (CFM). 

A recovery programme for corncrakes 

in Scotland began in 1992. It includes 

prescriptions to reduce losses of nests 

and chicks by delaying mowing until 

after the end of July and using CFM 

techniques. Early and late cover 

habitats are also being provided. 

Changes to land management have 

been achieved in several ways. These 

include the acquisition and 

management of nature reserves, 

payments to farmers and crofters for 

specified management under 

voluntary agreements with the RSPB, 

Scottish Natural Heritage or National 

Trust for Scotland, and participation by 

farmers and crofters in agrienvironment 

schemes in which 

payments for management are made 

by the Scottish Executive Environment 

and Rural Affairs Department. 

During 1993–2003, an average of 70% 

of corncrakes in the core area of the 

range (the Hebridean islands and 

Orkney) occurred in 1-km National Grid 

squares in which schemes to reduce 

losses of nests and chicks were in 

operation. About half of the tall grass 

present in areas with corncrakes was 

included in schemes intended to 

modify mowing to reduce losses of 

nests and chicks. Coverage by 

schemes that create or maintain early 

and late vegetation cover was less 

good, with about 36% of corncrakes 

Numbers of singing male corncrakes in Britain, 1978–2005. 

Results are from full surveys in 1978, 1988, 1993, 1998 and 2003, 

with estimates based on surveys in the core of its range for other 

years. 

1200 

Number of males in Britain 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 

1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 

Year

11 

occurring in squares with such 

schemes. Since the implementation 

of these measures, the population 

has more than doubled to currently 

more than 1,000 singing males. A 

simple population model, based 

upon recent estimates of the annual 

survival rates of adults, allows us to 

estimate the effect on corncrake 

population trend of the schemes that 

seek to reduce losses of eggs and 

chicks to mowing. Allowing for the 

effect of the timing and method of 

mowing on breeding productivity, 

the level of implementation of 

conservation measures achieved 

would be expected to increase the 

annual number of chicks reared to 

independence per adult female 

corncrake by at least 11%. This 

compares well with the estimated 

13% increase in annual breeding 

productivity that would be required 

to account for the observed change 

in population trend, from a decline 

of about 3% per year from 1988 to 

1993 to an increase of about 5% 

per year from 1993 to 2004. 

Given that provision of early and 

late cover, which was ignored in 

this analysis, should also have had 

positive effects, it appears that 

these conservation measures have 

been implemented on a sufficient 

scale to account for the marked 

change in fortunes of the 

corncrake. Although research was 

essential in identifying the correct 

prescriptions to use, the actual 

success achieved so far for the 

corncrake has depended on the 

willingness of all those involved to 

implement management on 

the ground. 

Contact: 

rhys.green@rspb.org.uk 

Contributions to corncrake recovery work and 

research led by the RSPB in Scotland have 

been made by Scottish Natural Heritage, 

Scottish Executive Environment and Rural 

Affairs Department, National Trust for Scotland, 

Scottish Agricultural College and the Scottish 

Crofting Foundation. The RSPB is grateful for 

the active participation of farmers and crofters 

in corncrake conservation schemes. 

Green RE (2004) A new method for estimating 

the adult survival rate of the Corncrake Crex 

crex and comparison with estimates from ringrecovery 

and ring-recapture data. 

Ibis 146: 501–508. 

Green RE, Tyler GA, Stowe TJ and Newton AV 

(1997) A simulation model of the effect of 

mowing of agricultural grassland on the 

breeding success of the Corncrake (Crex crex) 

Journal of Zoology, London, 243: 81–115. 

O’Brien M, Green RE and Wilson J (in press) 

Partial recovery of the population of 

Corncrakes Crex crex in Britain 1993–2004. 

Bird Study. 

See also: 2005: 15 

The percentage of singing male corncrakes in the core range that 

were recorded in 1-km squares with land managed in a scheme as 

early/late cover (green), or by modifying the timing and/or 

method of mowing or grazing of grass (red). 

Percentage of males 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Chris Gomersall (rspb-images.com) 

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 

Year

12 

Finding a cause for and solution to the 

declines of Asia’s endangered vultures 

In 1999, scientists from India’s 

Bombay Natural History Society 

(BNHS) reported that there had 

been dramatic declines in the 

number of vultures at breeding 

colonies in several sites in western 

India. As a close collaborator with 

BNHS, the RSPB was invited to 

support repeat surveys to 

establish if these declines were 

widespread. 

Teams from the BNHS retraced the 

route of road-transect surveys 

undertaken in the early 1990s, driving 

more than 6,000 km across India in 

search of vultures. The results 

confirmed that India’s Gyps vultures 

had undergone a catastrophic 

decline: one species – the long-billed 

vulture – had decreased by 92% and 

another – the Oriental white-backed – 

by 96% in just 10 years. Further 

surveys in 2002 and 2003 confirmed 

that these declines were continuing 

and also applied to the other Indian 

resident Gyps vulture species, the 

slender-billed vulture. Surveys of 

vultures in Pakistan and Nepal 

revealed similar rapid declines. In the 

1980s, the the Oriental white-backed 

vulture was considered to be 

probably the most abundant large 

bird of prey in the world; the 

combined populations of the three 

Gyps species may have exceeded 

40 million. All three species are 

now listed by IUCN as 

Critically Endangered. 

With confirmation of the population 

crash, urgent research was begun to 

establish the cause of the declines. 

In late 2003, Lindsay Oaks, working 

in Pakistan with the US-based 

Peregrine Fund and the Ornithological 

Society of Pakistan, discovered that 

the veterinary drug diclofenac was 

toxic to vultures. Diclofenac is a 

painkiller and anti-inflammatory drug 

commonly used to treat sick and 

injured domestic livestock across 

south Asia. It was introduced to the 

region at about the same time that 

the decline in vultures began. 

Vultures die from kidney failure when 

they consume carcasses of livestock 

that contain toxic residues after 

being treated with diclofenac a few 

days before death. 

Research by the RSPB and its 

partners confirmed the toxicity of 

diclofenac to Gyps vultures and its 

role in declines across India and 

Nepal, and demonstrated that only a 

very small proportion (

13 

Vulture in the BNHS and Haryana 

Forest Department’s breeding 

centre at Pinjore, India. 

Richard Cuthbert (RSPB) 

alternative drug that could be used to 

treat livestock and that is safe to 

vultures. Questionnaires were sent 

to zoos and veterinarians requesting 

details on the safety of painkillers 

and anti-inflammatory drugs used to 

treat birds of prey. The survey 

highlighted other drugs with similar 

toxic effects to diclofenac, but also 

found that the anti-inflammatory 

drug, meloxicam, had been used 

safely in the treatment of hundreds 

of birds, including 39 Gyps vultures. 

In collaboration with scientists from 

India, South Africa and Namibia, 

detailed safety testing was carried 

out, initially on the abundant and 

closely related African white-backed 

vulture, and then on the affected 

species in India. This confirmed that 

meloxicam, which is an effective 

drug for treating livestock, is a safe 

alternative to diclofenac for vultures 

and other scavenging birds. 

The last major obstacle hampering a 

diclofenac ban was thus removed. In 

May 2006, the Indian government 

ordered all drug companies in India 

to halt the production and sale of 

diclofenac within three months and 

to promote the use of meloxicam as 

a safe alternative. There is still a long 

way to go, but the acceptance by 

the Indian government of the role of 

diclofenac and safety of meloxicam 

is the critical first step to ensure the 

survival of Asia’s vultures. Achieving 

this rapid and high level of 

acceptance from government was a 

direct result of the carefully targeted 

and co-ordinated research effort 

from the multinational group of 

conservation scientists involved. 

Contact: 

richard.cuthbert@rspb.org.uk 

Partners in this work included Bombay Natural 

History Society, Bird Conservation Nepal, The 

Zoological Society of London, Pretoria 

University, BirdLife South Africa, The National 

Birds of Prey Trust, the Wildlife Institute of 

India, The Indian Veterinary Research Institute, 

Haryana Forest Department, The De Wildt 

Cheetah and Wildlife Trust’s Vulture Unit, 

Wildlife Biological Resource Centre (South 

Africa), the Rare and Endangered Species Trust 

Namibia, Natural Research Ltd UK and the 

University of Aberdeen. 

This study was supported by the Darwin 

Initiative for the Survival of Species and the 

Rufford Foundation 

Prakash V, Pain DJ, Cunningham AA, Donald PF, 

Prakash N, Verma A, Gargi R, Sivakumar S and 

Rahmani AR (2003) Catastrophic collapse of 

Indian white-backed Gyps bengalensis and longbilled 

Gyps indicus vulture populations. 

Biological Conservation 109: 381–390. 

Green RE, Newton I, Shultz S, Cunningham AA, 

Gilbert M, Pain DJ and Prakash V (2004) 

Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture 

population declines across the Indian 

subcontinent. Journal of Applied Ecology 

41: 793–800. 

Shultz S, Baral HS, Charman S, Cunningham AA, 

Das D, Ghalsasi GR, Goudar MS, Green RE, 

Jones A, Nighot P, Pain DJ and Prakash V (2004) 

Diclofenac poisoning is widespread in declining 

vulture populations across the Indian 

subcontinent. Proceedings of the Royal Society 

of London B (Suppl) 271: S458–S460. 

Swan GE, Cuthbert R, Quevdeo M, Green RE, 

Pain DJ, Bartels P, Cunningham AA, Duncan N, 

Meharg AA, Oaks JL, Parry-Jones J, Schulz S, 

Taggart M, Verdoorn G and Wolter K (2006) 

Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps vultures. Biology 

letters 2: 279–282. 

Swan GE, Naidoo V, Cuthbert R, Green RE, Pain 

DJ, Swarup D, Prakash V, Taggart M, Bekker L, 

Das D, Diekmann J, Diekmann M, Killian E, 

Meharg A, Patra RC, Saini M and Wolter K 

(2006). Removing the threat of diclofenac to 

Critically Endangered Asian vultures. Public 

Library of Science Biology 4, 1-8. 

Cuthbert R, Green RE, Ranade S, Saravanan S, 

Pain DJ, Cunningham AA and Prakash V (2006) 

Population trends of Egyptian Vulture Neophron 

percnopterus and Red-headed Vulture 

Sarcogyps calvus in India. Animal Conservation 

9: 349–354. 

See also: 2001: 25; 2005: 34

14 

Monitoring and indicators 

The RSPB is involved in a wide variety of monitoring 

schemes for birds and, to a lesser extent, other 

taxonomic groups. 

Increasingly, we are helping develop monitoring schemes 

outside the UK, and are using monitoring data to produce 

policy-relevant indicators that measure the changing state 

of the environment.

15 

A census method for crossbills 

Crossbills are not easy to census 

because, unlike many passerines, 

they do not often sing at dawn. 

Occurring in conifer woods, they 

are quiet when feeding and are 

generally seen only when flying 

overhead giving their characteristic 

flight calls. However, they respond 

readily to playback of excitement 

calls broadcast from loudspeakers. 

Not only do they fly towards this 

lure, but they often respond by 

calling. Tape-recording these 

distinctive excitement calls allows 

each species (Scottish, parrot and 

common) to be identified 

subsequently from sonograms. 

This playback technique is a potential 

census method for these crossbill 

species, but it is necessary to 

understand and measure the factors 

that could influence the response to 

the lure. Fieldwork was carried out 

between December and April in 

highland Scotland between 2002 and 

2005. Birds were first located visually 

or by sound, and then the lure call was 

played for a maximum of five minutes. 

The number of birds, their behaviour 

prior to the playback, the type of 

woodland, date, time of day and 

distance from the lure were all 

recorded. Calls were also taperecorded 

for later identification. 

One hundred and fifty-two tests were 

carried out on all crossbills. The only 

significant factor determining likelihood 

of response was distance from the 

lure. Birds farther away were less likely 

to respond. Crossbills are lured from 

an effective area of 18 ha around 

each point at which the lure is played. 

Pilot surveys were then carried out at 

Abernethy Forest and Glenmore Forest 

in Strathspey. Playback was used over 

a grid of points and estimates for the 

density of crossbills were 2.8 and 9.8 

birds per km 2 respectively. Now that 

we have a validated survey technique 

for crossbills, we are in a position to 

make the first survey of the Scottish 

crossbill, Britain’s only endemic bird. 

Contact: 

ron.summers@rspb.org.uk 

The study was carried out in collaboration with 

the Centre for Research into Ecological and 

Environmental Modelling, University of 

St Andrews. 

Buckland ST, Summers RW, Borchers DL and 

Thomas L (2006) Point transect sampling with 

traps or lures. Journal of Applied Ecology 43, 

377–384. 

Summers RW, Jardine DC, Marquiss M and Rae 

R (2002) The distribution and habitats of crossbills 

Loxia spp. in Britain, with special reference to the 

Scottish Crossbill Loxia scotica. Ibis 144: 393–410. 

See also: 2001: 23; 2004: 36 

The probability of crossbills responding decreases with distance 

from the playback lure. The fitted line is from a logistic regression 

model of the frequency of responses (1) and non-responses (0) at 

different distances. Some data points include multiple records. 

Probability of response 

1 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

Dusan Boucny (rspb-images.com) 

0 

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 

Distance from lure (m) 

Crossbill

16 

Repeat Woodland Birds Survey 

Several woodland species have 

shown substantial declines over 

the last 25 years and three 

species (lesser spotted 

woodpecker, marsh tit and 

willow tit) have been added to 

the red list of birds of 

conservation concern. However, it 

was unclear whether national 

monitoring schemes were 

providing representative data for 

all woodland species. Therefore, 

to establish population trends of 

the key species within this 

habitat, in 2003–2004 in 

partnership with the British Trust 

for Ornithology (BTO), we resurveyed 

more than 400 woods 

distributed throughout Britain 

that had been originally surveyed 

in the mid 1980s and before. The 

methods were an exact match of 

those used in the original 

surveys, with the RSPB using 

point counts and the BTO 

territory mapping. In order to test 

the potential causes of these 

declines, we also gathered data 

on woodland habitat and other 

environmental measures, such as 

climate change, the summer 

activity of deer and the 

abundance of grey squirrel dreys. 

scarcer and more localised resident 

species, such as the hawfinch, 

lesser spotted woodpecker, lesser 

redpoll and willow tit, had also 

suffered substantial declines. These 

findings are broadly in line with 

those of national monitoring 

schemes but have provided a much 

clearer picture of the scale and 

geographical pattern of changes. 

Hawfinches 

Analyses showed that many of the 

declines appeared to be related to 

changes in woodland structure. 

Although factors driving these 

structural changes themselves are 

not clear, potential causes include 

increase in woodland age, reduction 

in active management and increased 

grazing and browsing by deer. For 

only two species, hawfinch and 

David Kjaer (rspb-images.com) 

Population changes revealed a 

mixed picture, with 11 of the 34 

species showing large increases 

(>25%), eight large decreases 

(>25%), and a further two worrying 

indications of overall decline. The 

survey confirmed declines in all the 

long-distance migrants, such as 

willow warbler and spotted 

flycatcher, and found that several

17 

Mike Lane (rspb-images.com) 

Mike Read (rspb-images.com 

Great spotted woodpecker 

Willow tit 

Species with population changes of more than 25% from both the 

BTO and RSPB surveys. Two species where RSPB surveys were 

more representative are shown*. Significant changes are in bold. 

Species BTO survey sites RSPB survey sites 

(% change) (% change) 

Declining species 

Lesser redpoll -88.9 -58.7 

Willow tit -77.5 -72.5 

Willow warbler -74.2 -68.8 

Spotted flycatcher -70.4 -36.3 

Tree pipit -69.7 -85.4 

Wood warbler -64.0 -55.0 

Lesser spotted woodpecker -43.6 -58.9 

Garden warbler -25.6 -39.4 

Hawfinch* -17.4 -73.5 

Redstart* -7.7 -54.4 

Increasing species 

Blue tit +30.8 +32.5 

Great tit +51.2 +31.8 

Treecreeper +51.5 +95.1 

Wren +56.5 +91.0 

Blackcap +57.2 +79.8 

Robin +63.5 +71.3 

Great spotted woodpecker +69.8 +123.1 

Coal tit +74.0 +48.7 

Green woodpecker +80.7 +269.3 

Goldcrest +138.3 +87.5 

Chiffchaff +154.8 +190.7 

lesser spotted woodpecker, was 

there any link to grey squirrel 

abundance, both being more likely to 

have declined in woods with higher 

numbers of dreys. Further research 

will be needed before the relative 

importance of these factors, as 

well as the potential role of widerscale 

processes such as climate, is 

fully understood. 

Contact: 

arjun.amar@rspb.org.uk 

This study was funded by RSPB, BTO, DEFRA, 

English Nature (as part of the Action for Birds 

in England partnership), Woodland Trust and the 

Forestry Commission 

Amar A, Hewson CM, Thewlis RM, Smith KW, 

Fuller RJ, Lindsell J, Conway G, Butler S and 

MacDonald MA (2006) What’s happening to 

our woodland birds? Long-term changes in the 

populations of woodland birds. RSPB Research 

Report No 19, RSPB, Sandy. 

See also: 2006: 20

18 

The 2004 nightjar survey 

Restoration of lowland heathland from mature conifer plantations at 

Farnham Heath and elsewhere is likely to continue to benefit nightjars. 

Mike Coates (RSPB) 

The nightjar is an evocative bird of 

heathland and forests, but its 

crepuscular behaviour makes it 

difficult to survey. Since the 1950s, 

large-scale losses of heathland to 

agriculture, built development and 

afforestation have led to overall 

contractions in range and numbers. 

Nightjars are surveyed by counting 

males making churring calls at dusk. 

The first national survey in 1981 gave 

an estimate of 2,100 churring males in 

Britain in 241 10-km squares and the 

second, in 1992, an estimated 3,400 in 

268 10-km squares. Although this is an 

encouraging sign of recovery, the atlas 

of breeding birds in 1970 had recorded 

nightjars in 562 10-km squares. 

The 2004 survey aimed to estimate 

the size of the current population and 

assess whether there had been any 

further changes in size and range. 

Observers covered more than 3,250 

1-km sample squares and counted 

4,131 churring males. Allowing for 

potentially suitable habitat in 

unsurveyed squares, the total 

population was estimated at 4,606 

(95% confidence limits ± 913) – a 

36% increase since 1992. 

Nightjars were recorded in 275 10-km 

squares, 2.6% up on 1992. There 

was, however, evidence of localised 

declines and range contractions in 

north Wales, northern England and 

Scotland. For instance, numbers in 

Northumberland declined by 78% 

between 1992 and 2004, and the 

number of occupied 10-km squares in 

Scotland dropped from 18 to seven. 

Habitat recorded within a 50-metre 

radius of each churring male showed 

that, in 2004, 57% of nightjars 

were associated with forest 

plantations (similar to 1992) and 

59% with heathland (slightly higher 

than in 1992). 

The UK Biodiversity Action Plan 

objectives for population increase 

(4,000 churring males by 2003) and 

maintaining range (at least 268 

occupied 10-km squares) have 

been reached, but the target for a 

5% range increase has not. Overall, 

the continued increase in the 

national population is probably 

attributable to habitat protection, 

management and restoration of 

heathlands, and the continued 

availability of clearfell and young 

forest plantations. 

Contact: 

simon.wotton@rspb.org.uk

19 

Mike Richards (rspb-images.com 

Changes in the numbers of ‘churring’ males recorded by country 

and region between the surveys in 1992 and 2004. 

Country/Region 1992 total 2004 total % change 

East England 585 649 +11 

Midlands 124 159 +28 

North England 292 308 +5 

South East England 1,000 1,468 +47 

South West England 863 1,276 +48 

Scotland 41 27 -34 

Wales 188 244 +30 

UK 3,093 4,131 +34 

The distribution of nightjars recorded in the 2004 survey. 

10-km squares containing 1–5 ‘churring’ males are shown in red, 

6–30 in orange and 31 or more in yellow. Squares surveyed where 

no nightjar were found are shown blank. 

The survey was part of the Statutory 

Conservation Agencies/RSPB Annual Breeding 

Bird Scheme (SCARABBS), organised by the 

British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) and the 

RSPB, and funded by the RSPB, English 

Nature (as part of the Action for Birds in 

England partnership), and the Forestry 

Commission (England, Scotland and Wales). 

Coverage was mainly by volunteers but 

supplemented by professional fieldworkers. 

Conway G, Wotton S, Henderson I, Langston 

R, Drewitt A and Currie F (in press) The status 

and distribution of European Nightjars 

Caprimulgus europaeus in the UK in 2004. 

Bird Study. 

Gribble F (1983) Nightjars in Britain and Ireland 

in 1981. Bird Study 30: 157–176. 

Morris A, Burges D, Fuller RJ, Evans AD and 

Smith KW (1994) The status and distribution of 

Nightjars Caprimulgus europaeus in Britain in 

1992. A report to the British Trust for 

Ornithology. Bird Study 41: 181–191. 

See also: 2002: 32

20 

Declines in migrant birds 

breeding in Europe 

For some time, there have been 

worrying indications from smallscale 

studies in several countries 

that European breeding 

populations of long-distance 

migrant birds might be in trouble. 

With the publication of Birds in 

Europe, a pan-European 

assessment of the health of 

migrant populations became 

possible. This brought together 

population trends for all breeding 

bird species in almost all European 

countries within two periods, 

1970–1990 and 1990–2000. The 

RSPB and BirdLife International 

have been working to assess 

whether migration strategy and 

wintering habitats are related to 

long-term population trends. 

Overall population trends within 

Europe for the two time periods 

were significantly more negative for 

inter-continental migrants (119 

species), principally those wintering 

in sub-Saharan Africa, than for those 

species that winter in Europe 

(approximately 220 species). An 

analysis of the population trends of 

30 pairs of closely related species, 

one an inter-continental migrant and 

one a species wintering in Europe 

(eg tree pipit and meadow pipit), and 

a subset of nine pairs, where each 

species in the pair breeds in the 

same habitat, indicated that this was 

true even when phylogeny and 

breeding habitat were accounted for. 

Species wintering in farmland, dry 

grassland and open savannah in 

Africa declined rapidly and 

significantly during the two periods, 

and these species appear to have 

made a large contribution to the 

overall pattern of decline. 

Intriguingly, migrants wintering in 

Asia did not appear to be declining, 

which suggests that the problems 

may lie on wintering or staging 

grounds in Africa. However, the 

possibility that these species are 

affected by factors operating on their 

European breeding grounds cannot 

be ruled out. For example, migrants 

may be less tolerant of changes, such 

as climate change, in their breeding 

habitats than are residents. Very little 

is known about the wintering and 

stopover sites of most species, making 

it impossible at present to explain 

why migrants as a group should show 

this consistent pattern of decline. 

Contact: 

Fiona.Sanderson@rspb.org.uk 

RSPB, BirdLife International, the British Trust for 

Ornithology, English Nature and St Andrews 

University are working together on further 

research in this area. 

BirdLife International (2004) Birds in Europe: 

Population estimates, trends and conservation 

status. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. 

Sanderson FJ, Donald PF, Pain DJ, Burfield IJ 

and van Bommel FPJ (2006) Long-term 

population declines in Afro-Palearctic migrant birds. 

Biological Conservation, 131, 93-105. 

Tucker GM and Heath MF (1994) Birds in Europe: 

Their conservation status. BirdLife International, 

Cambridge, UK. 

See also: 2001: 30; 2004: 16 

Trends were compared for pairs of closely related species where one was a resident (eg meadow pipit, left) 

and the other a migrant (eg tree pipit, right). 

Mike McKavett (rspb-images.com) 

Richard Brooks (rspb-images.com)

21 

Population trends in two periods (with standard errors) of pairs of 

closely related European breeding species – one a migrant and 

one a non-migrant. Overall trends are shown for 30 pairs and for 

a subset of nine pairs, where each species in the pair breeds in 

the same habitat. In each case differences between non-migrants 

and migrants were significant. 

All non-migrant and migrant species pairs 

0.3 

1970-1990 

The European roller (top) and 

lesser kestrel (bottom), long 

distant migrants to Africa, have 

declined rapidly and are listed 

respectively globally nearthreatened 

and threatened in 

the IUCN Red List. 

Alamy 

Population trend 

-0.2 

-0.7 

-1.2 

0.6 

1990-2000 


-0.2 

-1 

-1.8 

Pairs in which each species breeds in the same habitat 

0.3 

1970-1990 



-0.2 

-0.7 

-1.2 

0.6 

-0.2 

-1 

1990-2000 

Chris Knights (rspb-images.com) 

-1.8 

Non-migrant 

Migrant

22 

Mapping moorland habitats for birds 

using satellite images 

The abundance of golden plovers was 

poorly predicted by satellite imagery. 


Uplands and blanket bogs in the 

UK are of national and 

international conservation 

significance, but some key bird 

populations there have recently 

declined. Understanding the 

reasons for this depends on good 

information on both birds and 

their habitats, but the extent of 

these areas means this may be 

difficult to obtain using 

conventional methods. 

Comparison of the amount of heather in a subset of 26 2-km 2 

survey plots in south-east Scotland estimated from a supervised 

classification of a Landsat7 image (predicted) and derived from 

field-collected data (observed). Two data points overlap. 

Prediced % heather 

80 

60 

40 

20 

The RSPB and the Scottish 

Agricultural College explored the 

potential of satellite imagery to map 

moorland vegetation over extensive 

areas. Satellites measure differences 

in light reflected by different land 

cover. Using a subset of habitat data 

collected in a previous study, 

differences in reflectance between 

different plants were used to 

produce predicted vegetation maps 

for south-east Scotland, 

distinguishing the main plant species 

or taxa. These predictions were 

tested against the remaining data in 

the reference set. 

Although the reference data had not 

been collected specifically for use 

with remote sensing, common 

species (eg heather, purple moor 

grass) were mapped accurately. 

Relatively scarce plants (eg tall 

rushes, moss) were not so well 

mapped and predictions of variation 

in vegetation height were 

relatively weak. 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 

Observed % heather 

Using bird:habitat association 

models developed in the earlier 

study for red grouse and golden

23 

A Landsat7 image of south-east Scotland, showing the locations of the full 

set of 2-km 2 plots used in the moorland birds and habitat research work. 

plover, the potential for using these 

satellite-derived vegetation maps in 

bird studies was explored by using 

them to predict bird abundance. The 

outputs were again tested against 

the rest of the reference set not 

already used in developing the maps 

and models. 

The maps for red grouse were 

accurate. Predictions for the golden 

plover, for which vegetation structure 

is known to be important, were poor, 

a consequence of the low ability of 

the satellite images to detect 

variations in vegetation height. 

These results are encouraging, 

although further development and 

refinement is needed to allow a 

wider range of species to be 

included. Similar methods are 

already being used to study black 

grouse and ring ouzel. 

Improvements in image resolution 

and processing methods mean 

that satellite images could become 

an even more powerful tool in 

the future. 

Contact: 

graeme.buchanan@rspb.org.uk 

Buchanan G, Pearce-Higgins JW, Grant M, 

Robertson D and Waterhouse T (2005) 

Characterisation of moorland vegetation and 

the prediction of bird abundance using remote 

sensing. J. Biogeogr. 32. 697–707 

www.eurimage.com 

Laurie Campbell (rspb-images.com) 

Sim IMW, Gregory RD, Hancock MH and 

Brown AF (2005) Recent changes in the 

abundance of British upland breeding birds. 

Bird Study 52: 261–275 

See also: 2001: 15 & 32; 2005: 30 

Satellite prediction of heather and 

red grouse abundance were accurate.

24 

The 2004 hen harrier survey 

In common with many other 

raptors in the 19th century, hen 

harriers were driven close to 

extinction in the UK by human 

persecution, exacerbated by 

habitat change in the lowlands. 

Although there has been some 

population recovery since, they 

remain restricted to upland areas. 

There is evidence that illegal 

persecution limits the numbers 

and range of hen harriers in the 

UK, most markedly in areas of 

moorland managed for shooting 

driven red grouse. The hen harrier 

is red-listed as a species of high 

conservation concern and a 

priority species for the UK 

Partnership for Action Against 

Wildlife Crime. In order to monitor 

recent population trends, a 

national survey was conducted 

in 2004. 

Mature conifer plantations are being 

used increasingly by hen harriers. 

Philip Newman (rspb-images.com) 

The survey produced an estimate of 

806 territorial pairs (95% confidence 

limits 732–889) in the UK and Isle of 

Man in 2004, an increase of 41% 

since the previous survey in 1998. 

This increase was evident through 

the north and west of the UK range, 

with estimated numbers more than 

doubled in Orkney, the Hebrides and 

north Highlands, and lesser 

increases in the west Highlands, 

Northern Ireland, Wales and the Isle 

of Man. However, declines were 

detected in the Southern Uplands 

and eastern Highlands of Scotland, 

and in England. These decreases 

were all in areas where grouse 

moors are most prevalent and 

where the most likely cause is the 

continued illegal killing of harriers 

Populations of hen harriers by region in 1998 and 2004. 

Number of territorial pairs 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

Orkney 

Hebrides 

West 

Highlands 

North 

Highlands 

East 

Highlands 

Southern 

Uplands 

Isle of Man 

Northern 

Ireland 

Wales 

1998 

2004 

England 

% change 1998–2004: Orkney 181, Hebrides 100, North Highlands 

240, West Highlands 53, East Highlands -21, Southern Uplands -45, 

Isle of Man 16, Northern Ireland 66, Wales 54, England -47

25 

Hen harriers have declined in some moorland 

areas managed for red grouse. 

Mark Hamblin (rspb-images.com) 

because of perceived conflicts with 

grouse shooting interests. 

Nearly 10% of the Scottish 

breeding population was associated 

with brash/scrub or mature conifer 

plantations. Although well known in 

Northern Ireland and the Isle of 

Man for over a decade, this nesting 

behaviour had not previously been 

recorded widely in Scotland. This 

may have aided the population 

expansion, enabling hen harriers 

to exploit new habitats, in particular 

in areas where persecution is 

less likely. 

Contact: 

mark.eaton@rspb.org.uk 

The survey was part of the Statutory 

Conservation Agencies/RSPB Annual Breeding 

Bird Scheme (SCARABBS) and was funded by 

the RSPB, the Countryside Council for Wales, 

Environment and Heritage Service (Northern 

Ireland) and Scottish Natural Heritage, in 

collaboration with English Nature and Manx 

Atlas Project. Much of the surveying was 

done by volunteers from upland bird and 

raptor study groups. 

Etheridge B, Summers RW and Green RE 

(1997) The effects of illegal killing and 

destruction of nests by humans on the 

population dynamics of the Hen Harrier 

Circus cyaneus in Scotland. Journal of 

Applied Ecology 34: 1081–1105. 

Sim IMW, Dillon IA, Eaton MA, Etheridge B, 

Lindley P, Riley H, Saunders R, Sharpe C and 

Ticker M (in press). Status of the hen harrier 

Circus cyaneus in the UK and the Isle of Man 

in 2004, a comparison with the 1988/89 and 

1998 surveys. Bird Study. 

Summers RW, Green RE, Etheridge B and 

Sim IMW (2003) Changes in Hen Harrier 

(Circus cyaneus) numbers in relation to 

grouse moor management. In Thompson 

DBA, Redpath SM, Fielding AH, Marquiss M 

and Galbraith CA (eds.). Birds of Prey in a 

Changing Environment. The Stationery 

Office, Edinburgh.

26 

The ecology of 

threatened species 

Research into the ecology of threatened species is a particular strength of the 

RSPB, and provides a wealth of valuable information to guide conservation work. 

Outside the UK, most of our ecological research is undertaken on globally 

threatened bird species in RSPB ‘focal’ countries. In the UK, however, where there 

are few globally threatened bird species, research is directed at those species that 

have declined most. More recently, we have begun research on threatened species 

in other taxonomic groups.

27 

Advances in the study of 

Lophopus crystallinus 

Samantha Hill 

Burton Mill Pond where new colonies of 

Lophopus crystallinus have recently been found 

The freshwater bryozoan 

Lophopus crystallinus, also known 

as a moss-animal, is a small 

colonial invertebrate found in both 

still and running waters. Adult 

colonies are most often found 

during the winter on a variety of 

submerged substrates including 

rocks, logs and plants. It is 

currently the only bryozoan listed 

as a priority within the UK 

Biodiversity Action Plan. This 

group of organisms is often 

overlooked, so efforts to study and 

conserve this species since 2000 

have been co-ordinated by Action 

for Invertebrates – a partnership 

project supported by English 

Nature, the RSPB, Butterfly 

Conservation and Buglife. 

In Britain, most records of L. 

crystallinus are from eastern 

England. It was once relatively 

common in the Norfolk Broads, but 

has not been seen there for more 

than 30 years. Initial surveys 

confirmed the presence of this 

species at just two sites – Barton 

Blow Wells in Lincolnshire and the 

Chil Brook in Oxfordshire. 

A PhD studentship to study this 

bryozoan was established at Reading 

University in 2002, funded jointly by 

the university, the Environment 

Agency and Action for Invertebrates. 

The student, Samantha Hill, has 

successfully pioneered the 

development of innovative survey 

and monitoring techniques. 

Upturned traffic-cones were 

submerged in Barton Blow Wells, as 

artificial substrates on which to 

monitor seasonal patterns of colony 

size. Whilst some cones were left 

intact, others were scraped clean on 

each visit to study the settlement of 

new colonies. Despite this species’ 

association with cold water, the 

results clearly showed that 

settlement occurs between spring 

and autumn, with little sign of any 

migration at other times of year. 

Freshwater bryozoans are able to 

reproduce asexually through the 

production of statoblasts. These 

dormant capsules are resistant to 

environmental extremes and, once 

released, they are primary

28 

mechanisms for migration. Techniques 

for locating these statoblasts in flood 

debris have been developed. The 

results have been remarkable, with 

positive records for many rivers in 

southern England, where adult 

colonies were not previously known. 

Already, a new population has been 

located at Burton Mill Pond in Sussex. 

A colony of the freshwater bryozoan 

or moss animal, Lophopus crystallinus 

Samantha Hill 

Contact: 

ian.middlebrook@rspb.org.uk 

Hill SLL (2006) The Ecology and Conservation in 

Britain of Lophopus crystallinus, a Rare 

Freshwater Bryozoan. PhD thesis, 

Reading University. 

Hill S and Okamura B (2005) A review of the 

ecology of Lophopus crystallinus (Plumatellida, 

Lophopodiae), a rare species within the U.K. 

Denisia. 16:193-201. 

See also: 2002: 16; 2004: 20; 

2005: 25 

1 mm 

Lophopus crystallinus 

colonies germinating 

from statoblasts 

Samantha Hill 

Seasonal pattern of colony settlement by Lophopus crystallinus. 

The mean number (+/- 2 SE) of colonies found on 10 sets of 

artificial substrata (cones) is shown. Cones were scraped clean 

after each visit. 

30 

0.5 mm 

Mean number of colonies per cone 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

02/02/2004 20/04/2004 26/07/2004 26/10/2004 24/01/2005 

Date

29 

Winter flooding and bearded tits 

Bearded tit 

Richard Revels (rspb-images.com) 

Severe impacts of cold winter 

weather on bird populations are well 

documented, but a recent study at 

the RSPB’s Leighton Moss nature 

reserve has highlighted the 

potentially catastrophic effects of 

winter flooding on bearded tits. 

In the UK, bearded tits occur mainly in 

reedbeds along the south and east 

coasts of England. The outlying 

population at Leighton Moss in 

Lancashire has been the subject of a 

long-term study by former RSPB 

warden, John Wilson. It was John who 

developed bearded tit nestboxes, 

which have proved so successful here 

and at other sites around the UK. 

Leighton Moss was colonised by 

bearded tits in 1973, and the population 

rose to about 40 pairs by 1980. The 

provision of nestboxes since 1997 

coincided with a sustained increase in 

numbers to about 65 pairs in 2000. 

Annual nest count (vertical bars), adult (triangles) and first year 

(squares) survival rates (lines, + or - SE) for bearded tits at 

Leighton Moss. Survival rates are for the year preceding the nest 

count. Severe winter flooding occurred in the winter preceding 

the very low 2001 nest count and survival rates. 

1 


60 

0.8 

No. nests 

40 

20 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

Survival rate 

0 

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 

Year 

0 

Reedbeds at Leighton Moss, 

habitat of bearded tits

30 


Installing bearded tit ‘nestboxes’ at Leighton Moss 

The autumn of 2000 was the 

wettest in England and Wales since 

records began in 1766 and the 

reedbed at Leighton Moss was 

flooded for most of November and 

December. At this time of year, 

bearded tits feed mainly on reed 

seeds, which at Leighton Moss they 

gather mainly from the reed litter on 

the ground. With most of this litter 

under water, the bearded tits lost 

their main food source and body 

weights were low. The flood waters 

receded during late December but 

were followed immediately by 10 

days of cold weather, but not of the 

severity known to have caused 

previous population declines. 

A survey in 2001 revealed just seven 

active nests, a decline of 90% on the 

year before. Recaptures of ringed 

birds indicated that fewer than 5% of 

bearded tits survived the 2000–2001 

winter, compared to 56% of adults 

and 40% of first-years that survived 

other winters. 

The impact of this flood was severe, 

causing the birds to die either through 

lack of food or by being in such poor 

condition that they were unable to 

survive during the subsequent cold 

weather. Climate change is 

expected to bring wetter autumns 

and winters to north-western Europe 

and flooding of reedbeds could pose 

an increasing threat to bearded 

tit populations. 

Contact: 

will.peach@rspb.org.uk 

Wilson J and Peach W (in press) Impact of 

exceptional winter flooding on the population 

dynamics of bearded tits Panurus biarmicus. 

Animal Conservation. 

doi: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2006.00063.x

31 

Causes of black grouse decline 

Black grouse in Britain have 

declined throughout the 20th 

century and preliminary results 

from the 2005 national survey 

showed a further 22% decline in 

lekking (displaying) males over the 

last 10 years, with especially severe 

declines in southern Scotland. 

Many causes have been suggested, 

notably intensification of grazing and 

grassland management, afforestation 

and predation. Annual lek counts of a 

700-km 2 study area by the Perthshire 

Black Grouse Study Group recorded a 

steep decline from an estimated 800 

displaying males in 1990 to 270 in 

2002. In combination with habitat data 

derived largely from satellite imagery, 

these data were used to examine 

correlates of distribution and decline. 

Having accounted for the strong 

effects of slope and altitude, analysis 

showed that lek occurrence, lek size 

and change in lek size over time were 

each associated either positively with 

pre-thicket forest cover, or negatively 

with the amount of closed canopy 

forest. The actual lek sites tended to 

be located in areas of grass moor with 

20–40 % cover of dry heath 

vegetation within a 1.5 km radius. 

Leks within 1.5 km of improved 

pasture tended to be small. Thus, 

black grouse were most abundant in a 

landscape of pre-thicket forests and 

moorland made up of heather and 

grass mosaics. 

Analysis of the change in black grouse 

abundance within 1.5 km of 19 

discrete forest blocks suggested that 

variation in forest age alone accounted 

for about 60% of the decline. During 

the study period there has been a 

doubling of closed-canopy forest cover 

and consequent loss of pre-thicket 

forest. This process of forest 

maturation appears to have largely 

driven the recent decline, probably 

through loss of field-layer vegetation 

used for nesting and brood-rearing. 

The close association with conifer 

plantations (and woodland in general) 

throughout much of their British 

range suggests that the conservation 

of black grouse in the short- to 

medium-term may depend on the 

potential to enhance the extent and 

continuity of open habitat within a 

commercially forested landscape. 

Contact: 

james.pearce-higgins@rspb.org.uk 

We are grateful to the Perthshire Black Grouse 

Study Group who collected annual lek data and 

to Forestry Commission Scotland for access to 

relevant forest data. 

Pearce-Higgins JW, Grant MC, Robinson MC and 

Haysom SL (in press) The role of forest maturation 

in causing the decline of Black Grouse. Ibis 

See also: 2002: 24; 2006: 22 & 24 

Correlation between forest age in 2000 and the log-ratio of change 

in black grouse abundance from 1990/1992 to 1999/2002 within 

1.5 km of each forest block. A positive value of change indicates 

an increase in abundance, negative a decrease. Forest age alone 

accounts for 58% of the variation in change. 

Change in abundance 

1 

0.5 

0 

-0.5 

-1 

-1.5 

-2 


-2.5 

0 10 20 30 40 

Forest block age years

32 

Yellow wagtails breeding 

on arable farmland 

The UK’s near-endemic race of the 

yellow wagtail (flavissima) has 

declined strongly in grassland 

regions, and the bulk of the 

population now breeds on arable 

land in eastern England. It now 

qualifies for red-listing as a species 

of conservation concern, because 

of its large population decline in 

the last three decades. As part of a 

wider study of yellow wagtails, the 

RSPB and its partners funded a 

PhD project to understand the 

species’ ecology on arable land, 

and to identify possible 

conservation measures. 

The student, James Gilroy, found 

that, in areas dominated by winter 

cereals, as crop height and density 

increased, nesting activity declined 

rapidly by late June. Birds moved into 

more open spring-sown potato crops 

for second or replacement clutches, 

and nesting activity in these crops 

remained high until late July. Even for 

early nests in cereals, tall dense 

vegetation forced many birds to nest 

close to ‘tram-lines’ in the crop, 

where (as with skylarks) they suffered 

higher predation rates. Nests in 

another favoured crop, field beans, 

suffered very high predation rates. As 

bean crops develop, the crop 

understorey becomes very open, 

meaning that nests that were initially 

well hidden became more visible 

and vulnerable. 

In addition to these crop type effects, 

there was a strong effect of soil type 

on the density of yellow wagtail 

territories. Softer and more penetrable 

soils, such as peat, were associated 

with higher territory densities. The 

reason is unclear, but may relate to 

the greater organic matter content of 

such soils being associated with 

higher populations of invertebrates 

with a soil-dwelling life-stage. 

Future work is planned to determine 

whether small unplanted patches, as 

now used for skylarks, create any 

benefit for wagtails nesting in cereals; 

the best way to create late-season 

nesting habitat in areas currently 

lacking suitable crop types; and what 

links soil type with territory density. 

Contact: 

guy.anderson@rspb.org.uk 

This research is part of a collaboration between 

the RSPB, the University of East Anglia, English 

Nature (as part of the Action for Birds in England 

partnership), the British Trust for Ornithology, 

Anglian Water and Mr Nicholas Watts. 

See also: 2001: 18; 2004: 31; 

2005: 47 

Left: A predated yellow wagtail nest 

in field beans. The open understorey 

of the mature crop may make nests 

more visible and vulnerable. 

Seasonal pattern of nest density of yellow wagtails in arable crops. 

Approximately weekly data shown separately for six regularly 

monitored areas in Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire Fens. Areas 

with potatoes supported active nests for longer than those without. 

James Gilroy (UEA) 

Nest density (Active Nests km -2 ) 

5 

4.5 

4 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

Sites with potato fields 

Sites without potato fields 

3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 

May June July August 

Week

33 

Breeding biology of hedgehogs 

in the Outer Hebrides 

D Jackson (RSPB) 

Radio-tagged hedgehog on the South Uist machair 

Hedgehogs were introduced to 

South Uist in the 1970s, and have 

since spread to Benbecula and 

southern North Uist. RSPB studies 

showed that egg predation by 

hedgehogs had caused large 

declines in the internationally 

important breeding populations of 

waders on the islands, notably of 

dunlin, redshank and lapwing. 

Recovery is likely to depend on 

hedgehog removal, and a good 

knowledge of hedgehog ecology 

and population dynamics on 

the Uists is essential in 

designing this. 

This five-year study took place on four 

study sites on South Uist on machair 

(sandy coastal grassland, marsh and 

low intensity arable land) and 

blackland (peaty grasslands inland of 

the machair). Transect surveys of 

hedgehogs took place at night using a 

spot lamp, and some animals were 

radio-tagged to follow their 

movements over several months. 

Densities varied, being higher after a 

warmer preceding year, but on 

average were about twice as high on 

machair (32 per km 2 ) as on blackland 

(15 per km 2 ). Machair densities are 

higher than recorded elsewhere on 

mainland Britain, probably owing to 

the lack of hedgehog predators on the 

islands. Hedgehogs emerged from 

hibernation in the second half of April 

and became sexually active within a 

few days. Females were promiscuous, 

with litters born five to eight weeks 

after emergence. Two-thirds of subadult 

females attempted to breed, 

whilst all adults did so. More than 

80% of females attempted to breed 

twice during the summer and annual 

breeding success averaged 4.04 

young for adults and 0.85 young 

for sub-adults.

34 

These results indicate the scale of 

the conservation problem. In an 

average spring South Uist supported 

2,750 adult and sub-adult 

hedgehogs, producing approximately 

3,000 young spread over more than 

300 km 2 of suitable habitat. The 

study also showed that hedgehog 

removal is practical only when 

animals are not hibernating (mid 

April to October), and is undesirable 

during June to late September when 

removing females would risk leaving 

dependent young in dens. 

Machair 

Laurie Campbell (rspb-images.com) 

Contact: 

jeremy.wilson@rspb.org.uk 

Jackson DB (2001) Experimental removal of 

introduced hedgehogs improves wader nest 

success in the Western Isles, Scotland. Journal 

of Applied Ecology 38: 802–812. 

Jackson DB (2006) The breeding biology of 

introduced hedgehogs (Erinaceus europeaus) 

on a Scottish island: lessons for population 

control and bird conservation. Journal of 

Zoology 268: 303–314. 

Jackson DB (in press) Factors affecting the 

abundance of introduced hedgehogs (Erinaceus 

europaeus) to the Hebridean island of South 

Uist in the absence of natural predators and 

the implications for nesting birds. Journal 

of Zoology. 

Jackson DB, Fuller RJ & Campbell ST (2004) 

Long-term population changes among breeding 

shorebirds in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland, in 

relation to an introduced mammalian predator. 


See also: 2001: 34 

Seasonal pattern of courtship (dark) and mating (light) behaviour 

by hedgehogs found during approximately weekly spot-lamp 

searches at night on South Uist (n=1,289 encounters). 

% of females encountered each period 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

1/2/3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3/4 

April May June July August 

Week (quarter of month)

35 

G Buchanan (RSPB) 

Invertebrates in the diets 

of moorland breeding birds 

Tipulid larvae (leatherjackets) 

and adults (daddy longlegs) 

are important food for wader 

chicks and adults. 

UK moorlands are of economic 

and conservation importance, 

being managed for agriculture, 

forestry and game while also 

holding important bird 

populations. Major changes such 

as conversion to forestry have a 

considerable impact, but other less 

dramatic changes in land 

management, especially if they 

affect the availability of food to 

birds, could also seriously affect 

bird populations, many of which 

have already declined. 

A knowledge of moorland bird diets 

and the factors that affect prey 

availability is essential in helping to 

understand the effects that 

management changes may have on 

bird populations through their food 

supply, and the extent to which 

changes can be linked to population 

declines. Such knowledge of bird 

diets has been invaluable in helping 

to determine conservation action for 

lowland farmland birds. 

While invertebrates are known to 

form a major part of the diet of many 

moorland bird species, the relative 

contribution of different invertebrate 

species or taxa is unknown. The 

RSPB and the University of 

Newcastle reviewed available 

information on the diets of 14 

characteristic moorland breeding 

birds. Data from across each species’ 

global breeding range were collated 

to determine the role of invertebrates 

in the diet. Of the broad range of 

invertebrates taken during the 

breeding season, relatively few 

(spiders, beetles, true flies, true 

bugs, bees, wasps and ants, 

butterflies and moths and worms) 

were taken widely. Beetles and flies 

were the most prevalent, especially 

The occurrence of key invertebrate taxa in the diets of 14 species of moorland breeding birds, adults and 

juveniles being considered separately. A taxon was considered as being important (darker shading) if it 

constituted – > 5 % of the recorded diet, or if it occurred in – > 5 % of dietary samples analysed. 

% of bird species age categories 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Coleoptera - larvae 

Coleoptera - adult 

Coleoptera - unaged 

Diptera unaged 

Hymen. larvae 

Ephemeroptera 

Anoplura 

Odonata 

Collembolla 

Dermaptera 

Lepidoptera 

Lepidoptera 

Orthoptera 

Diptera larvae 

Diptera adult 

Hymen adult 

Oligocheatea 

Amphipoda 

Gastropoda 

Neuroptera 

Trichoptera 

Other 

Arachnida 

Crustacea 

Hemiptera 

Diplopoda 

Plecoptera 

Hymen 

Invertebrate taxa

36 

Dunlin 

Mike Lane (rspb-images.com) 

Carabidae, Curculionidae, Elateridae 

and Tipulidae. The prevalence of 

different invertebrates varied 

between bird families. Waders, 

especially adults, took more soilliving 

invertebrates (eg worms, 

Tipulid larvae) than passerines, which 

took more foliage invertebrates. 

Whilst detailed data are lacking, 

available information on the habitat 

preferences of these important 

invertebrates suggests that moorland 

management regimes that create a 

mosaic of habitats are likely to be 

most beneficial. In particular, 

heterogeneity in vegetation structure 

and species composition, and the 

presence of wet flushes associated 

with the synchronised spring 

emergence of adults of certain 

insect species, are likely to increase 

invertebrate food resources for birds. 

Contact: 

graeme.buchanan@rspb.org.uk 

This work was part of a project funded by 

Defra, English Nature and the Countryside 

Council for Wales. 

Buchanan GM, Grant MC, Sanderson RA and 

Pearce-Higgins JW (2006) The contribution of 

invertebrate taxa to moorland bird diets and 

the potential implications of land-use 

management. Ibis. 

doi:10.1111/j.1474–919x.2006.00578.x 

Wilson JD, Morris AJ, Arroyo BE, Clark SC and 

Bradbury RB (1999) A review of the 

abundance and diversity of invertebrate and 

plant food of granivorous birds in northern 

Europe in relation to agricultural change. Agr. 

Ecosyst. Environ. 75: 13–30. 

See also: 2001: 32; 2002: 11

37 

Climate change and ring ouzels 

Ring ouzel 

Jan Halady (rspb-images.com) 

The ring ouzel, with a population 

of only 6,000–7,500 breeding pairs, 

is rapidly declining in the UK. 

Declines have previously been 

explained in terms of topography 

and habitat, although large-scale 

processes, such as climate change, 

may also be involved. Ring ouzel 

data from four study populations 

in Scotland and northern England 

were analysed to examine 

whether breeding success and 

population change could be 

related to climate on both the 

upland breeding and Moroccan 

wintering grounds. 

The mean laying date of first 

clutches was later in years when 

rainfall in March and April on the 

breeding grounds was high. 

However, overall nesting success 

was not affected either by the 

timing of laying or by weather in 

May and June, when most nests are 

active. Instead, most of the variation 

in nesting success was explained by 

population size, being higher where 

population density was low. 

Breeding success did not therefore 

appear to be much affected 

by climate. 

Analysis of data from southern 

Scotland showed that population 

declines were greatest in years that 

followed warm summers with 

intermediate levels of rain. Declines 

were also greater two years after 

high spring rainfall in Morocco. Such 

rainfall is known to reduce juniper 

pollination and hence the abundance, 

18 months later, of berries on which 

wintering ring ouzels feed. Recent 

changes in British summer 

temperatures have been strong 

enough to account for the observed 

population decline, which could be 

linked to reduced post-breeding

38 

survival rates of adult and juvenile 

birds, possibly through limited 

food availability. 

Correlations between the annual change in a ring ouzel study 

population in southern Scotland and average June–August 

temperature (A) and precipitation (B) on the breeding grounds 

in the previous summer. Average March/April rainfall on the 

wintering grounds in Morocco two years previously is also 

shown (C). A positive index of change value indicates a year 

on year population increase, whilst a negative value indicates 

a decline. 

A 

Although in the short term it may be 

impossible to halt any continuing 

trend towards warmer summers in 

the breeding grounds, measures to 

counter the negative climatic effects 

may be possible through appropriate 

management of feeding habitats in 

both the UK and Morocco. A new 

project has been started to 

investigate habitat use and ranging 

behaviour of adults and 

fledglings during the critical late 

summer period. 

Contact: 

james.pearce-higgins@rspb.org.uk 

Risidual change 

0.1 

-0.1 

-0.3 

0.4 

B 

13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 

Average June-August temp (˚C), UK previous summer 

Ring ouzel data were provided by D Arthur, 

Grampian Ringing Group, the late W 

Brotherston and the late I Appleyard, whilst 

climate data were obtained through BADC. 

Funding from the Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, 

SNH, and a NERC CASE studentship 

contributed either to data collection or analysis. 

Beale CM, Burfield IJ, Sim IMW, Rebecca GW, 

Pearce-Higgins JW and Grant MC (2006) 

Climate change may account for the decline in 

British ring ouzels Turdus torquatus. Journal of 

Animal Ecology 75: 826–835. 


0.2 

0.0 

-0.2 

C 

60 80 100 120 

Average June-August rain (mm), UK previous summer 

Buchanan GM, Pearce-Higgins JW, Wotton SR, 

Grant MC and Whitfield DP (2003) Correlates of 

the change in Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus 

abundance in Scotland from 1988–91 to 1999. 

Bird Study 50: 97–105. 

Wotton SR, Langston RHW and Gregory RD 

(2002) The breeding status of the Ring Ouzel 

(Turdus torquatus) in the UK in 1999. Bird Study 

49: 26–34. 

See also: 2002: 25 


0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

-0.1 

-0.2 

-0.3 

20 40 60 80 

March/April precipitation, Morocco, 24 months previously

39 

Ecological process 

and issues research 

While studies of individual species will remain an important part of the RSPB’s 

research portfolio, increasingly we are studying a broad range of ecological 

processes and issues that affect birds. These range from studies of habitat 

management to the impact of disturbance, predation and pollution on bird 

populations, through the impacts of land uses such as agriculture, to those of a 

changing climate. Wherever possible, our research seeks to design novel solutions 

to mitigate the effects of any deleterious impacts.

40 

Woodpigeon 


GMHT cropping and 

food for farmland birds 

By 1999, several genetically 

modified herbicide-tolerant 

(GMHT) crops had reached the 

final stages of UK government 

approval prior to commercial 

cultivation. Each crop had been 

modified so that, when treated 

with a broad-spectrum herbicide, 

most weeds would be killed while 

the crop remained unharmed. 

There was concern that use of 

such herbicides might exacerbate 

declines in the weed flora and 

those bird species dependent 

upon it for seed food. Recognising 

these concerns, the UK 

Government commissioned the 

farm-scale evaluations (FSEs) to 

investigate the effects of the 

management of GMHT crops on 

farmland wildlife. 

More than 60 fields of each of four 

crops, spring and winter oilseed 

rape, beet and maize, were split in 

half. One half was sown with a 

conventional variety and managed 

according to normal practice, the 

other with a GMHT variety with 

weeds controlled by a broadspectrum 

herbicide. Along with a 

wide range of other measures, the 

amount of seed shed (‘seed rain’) 

from weeds known to be 

important in the diets of 17 

seed-eating farmland birds 

was compared. 

In beet and spring rape, ‘seed rain’ 

of weeds important in the diets of 

16 species was reduced in GMHT 

half fields compared to 

conventional halves; for no species 

did it increase. In winter rape, 

‘seed rain’ was reduced in GMHT 

halves for 10 species; for only one 

did it increase. By contrast, in 

maize, ‘seed rain’ was greater in 

Ratio of the rain of weed seeds important in each bird species diet in the GMHT compared to the conventional 

half for each crop; where this is more than 1, seed rain was greater in the GMHT half, and vice-versa. Each bar 

refers to a species; dark bars were statistically significant, the remainder were not. 

10 

More in GMHT 

Ratio (log scale) 

1 

0.1 

More in Conventional 

Beet Maize Spring rape Winter rape

41 

GMHT halves for seven species; for 

none was it reduced. 


These results suggest that should 

beet, spring and winter rape crops 

be largely replaced by GMHT 

varieties and managed as in the 

FSEs, important food resources for 

farmland birds would be markedly 

reduced. By contrast, GMHT maize 

could be beneficial. 

Following the publication of the 

results of the FSEs, approval was 

given for the commercial cultivation 

of GMHT maize – on condition it 

was managed as in the FSEs. 

Approval was refused for GMHT 

beet, spring and winter rape, 

unless management techniques 

less harmful to wildlife could be 

developed. To date, no GM crop 

has been cultivated commercially 

in the UK. 

Contact: 

david.gibbons@rspb.org.uk 

The FSEs were undertaken by the Centre for 

Ecology and Hydrology, Rothamsted Research 

and the Scottish Crops Research Institute and 

were funded by Defra and the Scottish 

Executive. The RSPB was involved in the 

Scientific Steering Committee overseeing 

the FSEs, and took the lead in the work 

outlined here. 

Gibbons DW, Bohan DA, Rothery P, Stuart RC, 

Haughton AJ, Scott RJ, Wilson JD, Perry JN, 

Clark SJ, Dawson RJG and Firbank L (2006) 

Weed seed resources for birds in fields with 

contrasting conventional and genetically 

modified herbicide-tolerant crops. Proceedings 

of the Royal Society, B 273: 1921–1928. 

See also: 2001: 28: 2004: 3 

Corn bunting 

The GM Farm Scale Evaluations were the largest agro-ecological 

experiment ever undertaken. Winter oilseed rape, seen here, was 

one of the four crops tested.

42 

Managing the risk of disturbance 

to breeding stone-curlews 

Stone-curlew 

Chris Knights (rspb-images.com) 

The open downland on Salisbury 

Plain and the heaths of Breckland 

in East Anglia are the preferred 

habitats of the stone-curlew, one 

of the UK’s rarest birds. 

Breeding pairs of this elusive bird 

experience disturbance because of 

recreational use of these areas by 

walkers. There is a risk that such 

disturbance will increase because 

much of their habitat is designated 

as open access land under the 

Countryside and Rights of Way Act. 

Many pairs also breed on military 

training areas where, because of 

reduced access to overseas 

training facilities, they too may be 

increasingly disturbed by the 

activities of soldiers and 

their vehicles. 

We investigated these potential 

problems and how to manage them. 

One of the outcomes is a 

computerised tool known as the 

Stone Curlew Access Response 

Evaluator (SCARE), which allows 

managers of heathland and 

downland sites to assess the 

effects on stone-curlews of different 

human activities. 

Many hours of observation of 

behavioural responses of breeding 

birds showed that different sources 

of potential disturbance had markedly 

different effects. For example, 

walkers with dogs were more likely 

to cause the birds to run away or fly 

than walkers without. Sites with 

frequent disturbance were much 

less likely to be occupied by a 

breeding pair. 

SCARE takes a mathematical model 

based on these results and applies it 

to a map of the stone-curlew site 

where management options are

43 


being debated. Using details of 

topography and the distribution of 

screening vegetation, such as 

woodland, it defines the area within 

which the birds can see walkers or 

vehicles. The user then specifies the 

routes used and the level of traffic 

and SCARE reports the predicted 

reduction in the chance of use by 

breeding stone-curlews. 

SCARE is based on research at the University of 

Cambridge funded by the RSPB and English 

Nature (as part of the Action for Birds in 

England partnership) and was developed in 

collaboration with exeGesIS Spatial Data 

Management Ltd. The co-operation of the 

Ministry of Defence is gratefully acknowledged. 

Taylor EC, Green RE and Perrins J (in press) 

Stone-curlews Burhinus oedicnemus and 

recreational disturbance: developing a 

management tool for access. Ibis. 

It can be used to evaluate the 

benefits to stone-curlews of 

management options such as 

closing public access to selected 

heathland and downland areas, 

re-routing tracks, creating belts of 

screening vegetation and better 

siting in quiet locations of special 

plots, where the substrate is 

managed for nesting birds. 

See also: 2002: 32; 2004: 34; 

2005: 39 

Contact: 

rhys.green@rspb.org.uk 

Illustration of the application of SCARE to the management of access. The map, with a grid of 50-metre 

squares, shows a stone-curlew nesting plot close to a track used by walkers with dogs. The graph shows the 

expected reduction, at different rates of disturbance by walkers with and without a screening hedge, in the 

chance that this plot will be used by a breeding pair. 

100 

screening 

plot 

Percentage reduction in use 

80 

60 

40 

20 

not screened 

screened 

track 

0 

0 1 2 3 4 5 

Number of walkers per hour

44 

Acid grassland re-creation on 

former arable land at Minsmere 

Dry acid grassland successfully re-created at Minsmere 

Malcolm Ausden (RSPB) 

Lowland dry acid grassland is a 

priority habitat in the UK and 

Government has set a target of recreating 

500 ha by 2010. At our 

Minsmere reserve we have been 

re-creating lowland dry acid 

grassland on 156 ha of former 

arable fields. 

The project has been carried out in 

four stages. After a year of baseline 

surveys to determine soil conditions 

and seedbank composition, there 

was a period of seven years of arable 

cropping aimed at reducing soil 

fertility. This was followed by a series 

of small-scale field experiments to 

identify suitable techniques for 

reducing soil pH. The fourth stage 

from 1996 onwards involved the 

application at a field-scale of three 

treatments: the addition of sulphur 

and re-seeding with an acid grass 

mixture; the addition of sulphur, 

bracken litter and heather cuttings; 

and natural regeneration. 

After nine years, the success of this 

habitat re-creation in terms of 

vegetation and colonisation by 

ground beetles was evaluated in 

2005. Vegetation in randomly located 

quadrats, and ground beetles using 

randomly located pitfall traps, were 

sampled in the treatment fields and 

adjacent existing acid grassland. 

Where the soil was suitably sandy, 

natural regeneration resulted in acid 

grassland of highest conservation 

value, in terms of the speciesrichness 

of annual plants 

characteristic of this type of 

grassland and the conservation value 

of its ground beetle fauna. Where the 

soil was less sandy, natural 

regeneration was less successful, 

but the addition of sulphur with reseeding, 

or added bracken litter and

45 

Harpalus smaragdinus is one of the ground beetles 

benefiting from grassland re-creation. 

Josef Hlásek 

heather cuttings, greatly increased 

the establishment of acid grassland 

plant species. The beetle fauna did 

not respond to these extra 

treatments on less sandy soils. 

Successful creation of acid grassland 

on arable land is thus dependent on 

the choice of the technique that is 

most appropriate for the local soil 

conditions, in particular sand 

content. An additional conservation 

benefit has been the attraction to 

the re-created acid grassland of 

breeding stone-curlews. 

Contact: 

malcolm.ausden@rspb.org.uk 

Ausden M, Allison M and Kemp M 2006. 

Creation of heathland and acid grassland on 

agriculturally improved land. Pp 119-135 in 

Prendergast, HDV (ed) Heathlands – past, 

present and future. The Proceedings of the 8th 

National Heathland Conference held at the 

University of Sussex, Brighton 7–9 September 

2004. East Sussex County Council, Lewis, UK: 

119–135. 

Occurrence (mean rarity score + SE) of ground beetles in former 

arable fields receiving different treatments, and on adjacent 

existing acid grassland. A higher score indicates that pitfall traps 

in those fields caught a higher proportion of restricted-range 

species. The scores for the natural regeneration field on the 

sandiest soil were significantly higher than in all other fields. 

Rarity score 

1.0 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

Owen KM, Marrs RH, Snow CSR and Evans CE 

(1999) Soil acidification – the use of sulphur 

and acidic plant materials to acidify arable soils 

for the recreation of heathland and acid 

grassland at Minsmere, UK. Biological 

Conservation 87: 105–121. 

Owen KM and Marrs RH (2000) Creation of 

heathland on former arable land at Minsmere, 

Suffolk, UK: the effects of acidification on the 

establishment of Calluna and ruderal species. 


0.2 

Owen KM and Marrs RH (2001) The use of 

0.0 

Existing 

acid 

grassland 

Sulphur 

plus 

re-seeding 

Sulphur, 

bracken litter 

and heather 

cuttings 

Field/treatment 

Natural 

regeneration 

(sandiest soil) 

Natural 

regeneration 

(least sandy soil) 

mixtures of sulphur and bracken litter to reduce 

pH of former arable soils and control ruderal 

species. Restoration Ecology 9: 397–409. 

See also: 2004: 38

46 

Ouse Washes 


Predator control and 

lapwings on RSPB reserves 

During the last few decades, 

lapwings have severely declined 

across a range of habitats 

throughout the UK. However, on 

wet grassland reserves appropriate 

management of livestock and 

water levels has generally been 

successful in attracting increased 

numbers to breed. Whilst this is 

gratifying, concern has been 

expressed that, although good 

nesting habitat has been provided, 

on some reserves lapwings have 

been suffering high levels of 

breeding failure resulting from 

predation of nests and young. 

In response, a large-scale long-term 

experiment was initiated in 1996 to 

examine the need for control of 

some predators on reserves 

managed for breeding lapwings. 

Although waders are vulnerable to a 

range of predator species, attention 

focused on crows and foxes, since 

these were believed to be the most 

important predators on RSPB 

reserves. On each of 11 sites, we 

examined the differences in 

predator densities and breeding 

success of lapwings in four-year 

periods with and without fox and 

crow control. All operations were 

carried out in strict accordance 

with the law and animal 

welfare considerations. 

neighbouring land. Whilst control of 

foxes and crows effectively reduced 

their densities (by 40% and 56% 

respectively overall), the actual 

number of predators removed varied 

from site to site, depending on their 

local density. We found no consistent 

improvement in lapwing breeding 

performance during years of predator 

control. However, poor nest survival 

was associated with high fox and 

crow numbers and the impact of 

predator control was dependent on 

the ‘background’ density of foxes and 

crows (ie densities in years without 

predator control). There were 

significant improvements in nest 

survival in years of predator control 

for those sites where background 

densities of foxes and/or crows 

were high. 

Results from the study indicate that 

fox and/or crow control is necessary 

on several of our wet grassland 

reserves and, following its 

implementation, we will monitor the 

effect over the next five years. 

Contact: 

Mark.Bolton@rspb.org.uk 

See also: 2001: 33 & 35; 2002: 10; 

2004: 30 

Even in years with fox and crow 

control, there were very large 

variations in the numbers of foxes 

and crows across sites, probably 

related to regional differences in 

densities of these predators and the 

extent of predator control on

47 

The impact of mice on breeding 

seabirds on Gough Island 

The devastating effect of rats and 

cats on seabird populations is 

well known, and much effort is 

now devoted to eradicating 

introduced predators from 

islands. Gough Island, a World 

Heritage Site, is part of the UK 

Overseas Territory of Tristan da 

Cunha and has never had rats 

and cats. It covers a 

mountainous 65 km 2 in the 

South Atlantic and, supporting 

millions of pairs of seabirds from 

20 species, is widely considered 

the most important seabird 

island in the world. 

Andrea Angel with a 

Tristan albatross chick 

wounded by mice 

The RSPB, with the University of 

Cape Town, began research on 

Gough in 2000–2001, funded by the 

Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 

Initially, the aim was to investigate 

the effect of longline fishing on 

Gough’s albatross species. 

Ross Wanless?Andrea Angel 

Fabio Olmos (BirdLife) 

The breeding success of Tristan albatrosses and Atlantic petrels on 

Gough Island. Mean overall success rates (+/- SD) from five 

published studies of Diomedea species of albatross and six 

studies of Pterodroma petrel species on islands relatively 

unaffected by invasive alien predators are shown for comparison. 

80 

70 

Tristan albatross 

Atlantic petrel 

Reproductive output 

(chicks per nesting pair) 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

Tristan albie 

0 

2001 2004 2005 Congenerics 

2001 2004 Congenerics

48 

However, it soon became clear 

that seabirds breeding there were 

facing an additional and 

unexpected threat. 

Survival of chicks of Atlantic petrel 

and Tristan albatross (both globally 

threatened species and endemic to 

the Tristan da Cunha group) was far 

lower than expected for a predatorfree 

island. Suspicion fell on house 

mice, which had been accidentally 

introduced during the 19th century. 

They were known to be superabundant 

on the island and to 

have evolved to twice normal size. 

Nevertheless, predation by 20–30 g 

mice on albatross chicks weighing up 

to 5 kg was previously unknown. 

Further research with nest cameras 

in 2003–2004 confirmed that mice 

had indeed become effective 

predators of large, healthy seabird 

chicks. Up to 10 mice at a time 

attacked and ate the live chicks, 

which subsequently died from their 

injuries. Observed predation rates 

were sufficient to drive population 

declines in Atlantic petrel, Tristan 

albatrosses and possibly other 

winter-nesting seabirds. 

Investigations continue into how 

and why this astonishing behaviour 

has evolved on Gough. The absence 

of other mammals may be important, 

allowing the mice to become 

numerous and dominant. The 

feasibility of removing Gough’s 

mice is being investigated. 

Although extremely challenging, 

this may be the only means of 

preserving the island’s exceptional 

seabird populations. 

Contact: 

Geoff.Hilton@rspb.org.uk 

This and continuing work is being carried out by 

the RSPB, University of Cape Town, and Tristan 

da Cunha Natural Resources Department, 

funded by the RSPB and the UK government’s 

Overseas Territories Environment Programme. 

Cuthbert R (2004) Breeding biology of the 

Atlantic Petrel, Pterodroma incerta, and a 

population estimate of this and other burrowing 

petrels on Gough Island, South Atlantic Ocean. 

Emu 104: 221–228. 

Cuthbert R, Sommer E, Ryan P, Cooper J and 

Hilton G (2004) Demography and conservation 

of the Tristan albatross Diomedea [exulans] 

dabbenena. Biological Conservation 

117: 471–481. 

Cuthbert R and Hilton G (2004) Introduced 

house mice Mus musculus: a significant 

predator of threatened and endemic birds on 

Gough Island, South Atlantic Ocean? Biological 


See also: 2001: 26; 2005: 36 

Mouse sitting on dead 

Atlantic petrel chick in burrow 

Ross Wanless/Andrea Angel

49 

Underpinning the RSPB’s response to 

the spread of H5N1 avian influenza 

Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian 

influenza is not new; prior to the 

case in Cellardyke, Scotland, in 

April 2006 there were outbreaks in 

poultry in Scotland in 1959 and 

Norfolk in 1991. The virus that is 

currently circulating probably 

evolved in poultry in China a 

decade ago. It is causing concern 

because it is capable of passing 

directly from birds to humans 

without an intermediate host, and 

the mortality rate in reported 

human cases is high. Speculation 

that it could mutate or 

recombine with a human influenza 

virus to become transmissible 

between humans has led to fears 

of a pandemic. 

The rapidity of the global spread of 

H5N1 and the high level of often misinformed 

public concern about the 

disease, has forced governments to 

formulate policies in advance of full 

scientific understanding. Movements 

of poultry have been heavily 

implicated in much of the current 

spread but, because wild birds have 

become infected and have been 

shown to carry the virus across 

international boundaries, much 

attention has focussed on them. An 

RSPB team has been tackling the 

issue and seeking to ensure that 

official policy, action and 

pronouncements are based on 

sound science. 

A key element has been to work with 

BTO, WWT, BASC and the statutory 

conservation agencies on an 

ornithological advisory group convened 

by Defra to advise government on the 

risks of wild birds bringing the disease 

to the UK. The message, that culls of 

wild birds cannot be effective in 

controlling the disease and thus 

should not be attempted, has been 

successfully promoted. The need for a 

natureportfolio.com 

more co-ordinated programme of 

‘die-off’ surveillance has also been 

strongly advocated. 

More specifically, there has been a 

need to highlight the potential 

conservation implications for key 

species at risk from the disease itself 

or from misguided attempts at culls 

or disturbance of breeding birds. The 

RSPB has been playing a major role in 

the Government’s surveillance strategy. 

During winter 2005–06 site-managers 

on 66 RSPB reserves undertook twiceweekly 

flock scans looking out for sick 

or dead birds: 161 dead birds of 31 

species were found of which 17 were 

collected by the veterinary authorities. 

None were infected. 

The risk to public health in the 

developed world from the virus 

currently infecting wild birds is 

extremely small. The main threat is to 

the poultry industry, where wild birds 

could play a role in disease 

transmission; this risk can be managed 

through structured surveillance and 

appropriate bio-security measures. 

We expect to continue to need to be 

involved in helping to maintain the 

balance between action based on 

science and more visceral responses 

to public or other misconceptions on 

the role of wild birds and the 

feasibility of action targeted at them. 

Contact: 

andy.evans@rspb.org.uk 

H5N1 killed more than 10% of the 

world population of bar-headed 

geese in 2005. 

The regularly updated RSPB position on avian 

influenza is available at 

www.rspb.org.uk/policy/avianinfluenza/index.asp 

Feare C (2005) Conservation Implications of 

Avian Influenza. RSPB Research Report No 14. 

RSPB, Sandy.

50 

PhD training 

The RSPB funds and supervises a substantial number of PhD studentships each 

year. This is a valuable mechanism for undertaking important research, and shows 

the RSPB’s commitment to training conservation biologists. 

The following list shows those PhD studentships involving the RSPB that were active at 

some stage during 2005 and 2006. All projects were funded and / or supervised by the 

RSPB to varying extents. In addition, the RSPB helped initiate and fund the annual 

Student Conference on Conservation Science at Cambridge.

51 

Research project Student University Partners 

Bombus distinguendus ecology Tom Charman Cambridge NERC, IoZ 

Stone-curlew disturbance Elisabeth Taylor Cambridge EN 

Agriculture and biodiversity: India Malvika Onial Cambridge DH 

Stone-curlews and conservation management Alison Johnston Cambridge 

Agriculture and biodiversity: Ghana Ben Phalan Cambridge StJC, RG, BOU 

Dartford warblers and disturbance Giselle Murison East Anglia EN, CEH 

Yellow wagtails on arable land James Gilroy East Anglia EN 

Water levels for breeding waders Sarah Eglington East Anglia NERC 

Fire, forest structure and bog development Sandra Pratt Edinburgh NERC 

Disturbance in Caledonian pine forests Mark Hancock Edinburgh 

Corn bunting declines in Scotland Allan Perkins Edinburgh SNH 

Farmyard manure and breeding waders Charlotte Horton Harper Adams 

Controlling ragwort without herbicides Eleanor Seargent Open University Leader+, EN, EA 

Orthoptera and grassland management David Smith Reading EN 

Conservation of Bryozoa Samantha Hill Reading EA 

Breeding ecology of spotted flycatchers Danaë Stevens Reading 

Manipulating vegetation structure for birds Tony Morris Reading 

Managed retreat on the Cromarty Firth Amy Crowther Stirling 

Flora and blanket bog management Lindsey Rendle Wales, Newport 

Kite population dynamics Andrew Simkins Wolverhampton 

Metapopulation dynamics of willow tits Finn Stewart Nottingham NERC 

Population change in European birds 

and bioclimate models Nathalie Doswald Durham NERC 

Gough island birds conservation Ross Wanless Cape Town 

IBA programme in Sri Lanka Chinthaka Kaluthota Colombo 

Farmland birds in the Baltic Republics Irina Herzon Helsinki 

Corncrakes in Latvia Oskars Keiss Riga 

Corncrakes on Shannon callows Anita Donaghy Cork Dúchas 

Remote sensing of African IBAs George Eshiamwata Nairobi BLA, JRC 

Forest management and globally threatened birds Dami Filibus Danjuma Jos, Nigeria APLORI 

Key: 

APLORI – Leventis Ornithological Research Institute (APLORI) at Jos, Nigeria; BOU – British Ornithologists’ Union; 

BLA – BirdLife Africa Secretariat; CEH – Centre for Ecology and Hydrology; DH – Dorothy Hodgkin postgraduate award; 

EA – Environment Agency; EN – English Nature; IoZ – Institute of Zoology; JRC – Joint Research Centre, ISPRA; 

Leader+ – Somerset Moors and Levels Leader+; NERC – Natural Environment Research Council; 

RG – Robert Gardner Memorial Trust; SNH – Scottish Natural Heritage; StJC – St John’s College, Cambridge 

Congratulations to the following former students for being awarded their PhD/DPhils: Fiona Worthy (Aberdeen), Fiona 

Sharpe (Bath), Kate Vincent (De Montfort), Ian Adderton (Queen’s, Belfast), Dave Buckingham (Reading), Alan Gray 

(Edinburgh); Maggie Keegan (Edinburgh), and Crona O’Shea (Stirling).

52 

Publications 

The complete list of all of the RSPB’s scientific publications for 2005 

and the first half of 2006.

53 

Publications in scientific journals, 

proceedings and books 

Allison M and Ausden M (2006) Effects of 

removing the litter and humic layers on 

heathland establishment following plantation 

removal. Biological Conservation 127: 177–182. 

Amar A and Redpath S (2005) Habitat use by 

hen harriers Circus cyaneus on Orkney: 

implications of land use change on this declining 

population. Ibis 147: 37–47. 

Amar A, Picozzi N, Meek ER, Lambin X and 

Redpath SM (2005) Decline of the Orkney Hen 

Harrier Circus cyaneus population: do changes 

to demographic parameters and mating system 

fit a declining food hypothesis? Bird Study 52: 

18–24. 

Anderson G (2005) BOU News: "Wind, Fire and 

Water" – Renewable Energy and Birds 

(conference review). British Birds 98: 365–367. 

Anderson GQA and Fergusson MJ (2006) 

Energy from biomass in the UK: sources, 

processes and biodiversity implications. Ibis 

148: 180–183. 

Aratrakorn S, Thunhikorn S and Donald PF 

(2006) Changes in bird communities following 

conversion of lowland forest to oil palm and 

rubber plantations in southern Thailand. Bird 

Conservation International 16: 71–82. 

Atkinson PW, Austin GE, Rehfisch MM, Baker 

H, Cranswick P, Kershaw M, Robinson J, 

Langston RHW, Stroud DA, Van Turnhout C and 

Maclean IMD (2006) Identifying declines in 

waterbirds: the effects of missing data, 

population variability and count period on the 

interpretation of long-term survey data. 


Ausden M, Allison M and Kemp M (2006) 

Creation of heathland and acid grassland on 

agriculturally improved land. In: Prendergast 

HDV (ed). Heathlands – past, present and 

future. The Proceedings of the 8th National 

Heathland Conference held at the University of 

Sussex, Brighton 7–9 September 2004. East 

Sussex County Council, Lewis, UK: 119–135. 

Ausden M and Drake M (2006) Invertebrates. 

In: Sutherland WJ (Ed) Census Techniques: 

second edition. Cambridge University Press, 

Cambridge: 214–249. 

Ausden M, Hall M, Pearson P and Strudwick T 

(2005) The effects of cattle grazing on tall-herb 

fen vegetation and molluscs. Biological 


Baker H, Stroud DA, Aebischer NJ, Cranswick 

PA, Gregory RD, McSorely CA, Noble DG and 

Rehfisch MM (2006) Population estimates of 

birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. 

British Birds 99: 25–44. 

Balmford A, Bennun L, Ten Brink B, Cooper D, 

Côté IM, Crane P, Dobson A, Dudley N, Dutton 

I, Green RE, Gregory RD, Harrison J, Kennedy 

ET, Kremen C, Leader-Williams N, Lovejoy TE, 

Mace G, May R, Mayaux P, Morling P, Phillips J, 

Redford K, Ricketts TH, Rodriguez JP, Sanjayan 

M, Schei PJ, Van Jaarsverld AS and Walther BA 

(2005) The Convention on Biological Diversity’s 

2010 Target. Science 307: 212–213. 

Balmford A, Crane P, Dobson A, Green RE and 

Mace GM (2005) The 2010 challenge: data 

availability, information needs and 

extraterrestrial insights. Philosophical 

Transactions of the Royal Society 360: 221–228. 

Balmford A, Green RE and Scharlemann JPW 

(2005) Sparing land for nature: exploring the 

potential impact of changes in agricultural yield 

on the area needed for crop production. Global 

Change Biology 11: 1594–1605. 

Beale CM, Burfield IJ, Sim IMW, Rebecca GW, 


Climate change may account for the decline in 

British ring ouzels Turdus torquatus. Journal of 

Animal Ecology 75: 826-835. 

Beale CM, Dodd S, Pearce-Higgins JW (2006) 

Wader recruitment indices suggest nesting 

success is temperature-dependent in Dunlin 

Calidris alpina. Ibis 148: 405–410. 

Beaumont DJ, Amphlett A and Housden SD 

(2005) Abernethy Forest RSPB Nature Reserve: 

managing for birds, biodiversity and people. In: 

Thompson DBA, Price MF and Galbraith CA 

(eds) Mountains of Northern Europe: 

Conservation, Management, People and Nature. 

TSO Scotland, Edinburgh: 239–250. 

Bradbury RB, Hill RA, Mason DC, Balzter H, 

Wilson JD, Hinsley SA, Anderson GQA, 

Whittingham MJ, Davenport IJ, and Bellamy PE 

(2005) Modelling relationships between birds 

and vegetation structure using airborne LiDAR 

data: a review with case studies from 

agricultural and woodland environments. Ibis 

147: 443–452. 

Bradbury RB and Kirby WJ (2006) Farmland 

birds and resource protection in the UK: crosscutting 

solutions for multi-functional farming? 


Buchanan GM, Grant MC, Sanderson RA and 

Pearce-Higgins JW (2006) The contribution of 

invertebrate taxa to moorland bird diets and the 

potential implications of land-use management. 

Ibis doi: 10.1111/j.1474–919x.2006.00578.x 

Buchanan GM, Pearce-Higgins JW and Grant 

MC (2006) Observer variation in estimates of 

Meadow Pipit (Anthus pratensis) and Skylark 

(Alauda arvensis) abundance on moorland. Bird 

Study 53: 92–95. 

Buchanan G, Pearce-Higgins J, Grant M, 

Robertson D and Waterhouse T (2005) 

Characterisation of moorland vegetation and the 

prediction of bird abundance using remote 

sensing. Journal of Biogeography 32: 697–707. 

Buckingham DL and Peach WJ (2005) The 

influence of livestock management on habitat 

quality for farmland birds. Animal Science 

81:199–203. 

Buckingham DL, Peach WJ and Fox DS (2006) 

Effects of agricultural management on the use 

of lowland grassland in the UK by foraging 

birds. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 

112: 21–40. 

Buckland ST, Magurran AE, Green RE and 

Fewster RM (2005) Monitoring change in 

biodiversity through composite indices. 

Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society 

360: 243–254. 

Buckland ST, Summers RW, Borchers DL and 

Thomas L (2006) Point transect sampling with 

traps or lures. Journal of Applied Ecology 43: 

377–384. 

Butler SJ, Bradbury RB and Whittingham MJ 

(2005) Stubble height affects the use of stubble 

fields by farmland birds. Journal of Applied 

Ecology 42: 469-476. 

Butler SJ, Whittingham MJ, Quinn JL and 

Cresswell W (2005) Quantifying the interaction 

between food density and habitat structure in 

determining patch selection. Animal Behaviour 

69: 337–343. 

Cardoso M, Hyatt A, Selleck P, Lowther S, 

Prakash V, Pain D, Cunningham AA and Boyle D 

(2005) Phylogenetic analysis of the DNA 

polymerase gene of a novel alphaherpesvirus 

isolated from an Indian gyps vulture. Virus 

Genes 30: 371–381. 

Cunningham HM, Bradbury RB, Chaney K and 

Wilcox A (2005) Effect of non-inversion tillage 

on field usage by UK farmland birds in winter. 

Bird Study 52: 173–179. 

Cuthbert RJ (2005) Breeding biology, chick 

growth and provisioning of Great Shearwaters 

(Puffinus gravis) at Gough Island, South Atlantic 

Ocean. Emu 105: 305–310. 

Cuthbert RJ, Green RE, Ranade S, Saravanan S, 

Pain DJ, Prakash V and Cunningham AA (2006) 

Rapid populations declines of Egyptian vultures 

(Neophron percnopterus) and red-headed 

vultures (Sarcogyps calvus) in India. Animal 


Cuthbert RJ, Hilton GM, Ryan PG and Tuck G 

(2005) At-sea distribution of breeding Tristan 

Albatrosses Diomedea dabbenena and potential 

interactions with pelagic longline fishing in the 

South Atlantic Ocean. Biological Conservation 

121: 345–355. 

Danielsen F, Burgess ND, Balmford A, Fjeldsa J, 

Andrianandrasana HT, Becker CD, Bennun L, 

Brashares JS, Christiansen S, Donald PF, Eguino 

S, Enghoff M, Funder M, Gray M, Hubertz H, 

Jones JPG, Oetting I, Poulsen MK, van Rijsoort 

J, Stuart-Hill G, Topp-Jorgensen E, Townsend 

WR, Uychiaoco AJ, Whitten T and Yonten D 

(2006) Monitoring matters: evaluating locallybased 

biodiversity monitoring in developing 

countries. Oryx 40: 14–15. 

De León A, Mínguez E, Harvey P, Meek E, 

Crane JE and Furness RW (2006) Factors 

affecting breeding distribution of Storm-petrels 

Hydrobates pelagicus in Orkney and Shetland. 

Bird Study 53: 64–72.

54 

Dmitrenok M, Puglisi L, Demongin L, Gilbert G, 

Polak M and Bretagnolle V (2006) Geographical 

variation, sex and age in Great Bittern Botaurus 

stellaris using coloration and morphometrics. 

Ibis doi: 10.1111/j.1474-91X.2006.00592.x 

Donald PF (2005) Short and variable incubation 

period of the Skylark Alauda arvensis. British 

Birds 98: 607–608. 

Donald PF and Brooke M de L (2006) An 

unlikely survivor: the unusual natural history of 

the Raso Lark. British Birds 99: 420-430. 

Donald PF, Brooke M de L, Bolton MR, Taylor R, 

Wells CE, Marlow T and Hille S (2005) Status of 

Raso Lark Alauda razae in 2003, with further 

notes on sex ratio, behaviour and conservation. 

Bird Conservation International 15: 165-172. 

Donald PF and Evans AD (2006) Habitat 

connectivity and matrix restoration: the wider 

implications of agri-environment schemes. 

Journal of Applied Ecology 43: 209–218. 

Donald PF and Morris AJ (2005) Saving the 

Skylark: new solutions for a declining farmland 

bird. British Birds 98: 570–578. 

Donald PF, Sanderson FJ, Burfield IJ and van 

Bommel FPJ (2006) Further evidence of 

continent-wide impacts of agricultural 

intensification on European farmland birds, 

1990–2000. Agriculture, Ecosystems and 

Environment 116: 189–196. 

Drewitt AL and Langston RHW (2006) 

Assessing the impacts of wind farms on birds. 

Ibis 148: 29-42. 

Eaton MA, Gregory RD, Noble DG, Robinson 

JA, Hughes J, Procter D, Brown AF and 

Gibbons DW (2005) Regional IUCN red listing: 

an investigation of the process as applied to 

birds in the United Kingdom. Conservation 

Biology 19: 1557–1570. 

Etheridge B and Summers RW (2006) 

Movements of British Hen Harriers Circus 

cyaneus outside the breeding season. Ringing & 

Migration 23: 6–14. 

Finney SK, Pearce-Higgins JW and Yalden DW 

(2005) The effect of recreational disturbance on 

an upland breeding bird, the golden plover 

Pluvialis apricaria. Biological Conservation 121: 

53–63. 

Fisher IJ, Pain DJ, Thomas V (2006) A review of 

lead poisoning from ammunition sources in 

terrestrial birds. Biological Conservation 131: 

421-432. 

Fisher S, Holliday K, Howard C, Allen B, Grice P, 

Robertson P, Phillips J and Noble D (2005) The 

Farmland Bird Database. Targeting agrienvironment 

schemes on farmland birds. British 

Wildlife 17(2): 77–81. 

Freckleton RP, Watkinson AR, Green RE and 

Sutherland WJ (2006) Census error and the 

detection of density-dependence. Journal of 

Animal Ecology 75: 837–851. 

Fuller RJ, Atkinson PW, Garnett MC, Conway 

GJ, Bibby CJ and Johnstone IG (2006) Breeding 

bird communities in the upland margins (the 

Ffridd) of central Wales. Bird Study 53: 177–186. 

Fuller RJ, Noble DG, Smith KW and 

Vanhinsbergh D (2005) Recent declines in 

populations of woodland birds in Britain: a 

review of possible causes. British Birds 98: 

116–143. 

Gibbons DW, Bohan DA, Rothery P, Stuart RC, 

Haughton AJ, Scott RJ, Wilson JD, Perry JN, 

Clark SJ, Dawson RJG and Firbank L (2006) 

Weed seed resources for birds in fields with 

contrasting conventional and genetically 

modified herbicide-tolerant crops. Proceedings 

of the Royal Society, B 273: 1921–1928. 

Gibbons DW and Gregory RD (2006) Birds. In: 

Sutherland WJ (Ed), Census Techniques: 

second edition. Cambridge University Press, 

Cambridge: 308–350. 

Gilbert G, Tyler GA, Dunn CJ and Smith KW 

(2005) Nesting habitat selection by Bitterns 

Botaurus stellaris in Britain and the implication 

for wetland management. Biological 

Conservation 124: 547–553 

Gilbert G, Tyler G and Smith KW (2005) 

Behaviour, home-range size and habitat use by 

male Great Bittern Botaurus stellaris in Britain. 

Ibis 147: 533–543. 

Gilbert G, Tyler GA, Dunn CJ, Ratcliffe N and 

Smith KW (2006) The influence of habitat 

management on the breeding success of the 

Great Bittern Botaurus stellaris. Ibis doi: 

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Summers RW (2005) The History and Ecology 

of Abernethy Forest, Strathspey. RSPB, Sandy. 

Summers R (2005) Andean Goose, Magellan 

Goose, Kelp Goose, Ashy-headed Goose, 

Ruddy-headed Goose. In Kear, J. (Ed.). Bird 

Families of the World. Ducks , Geese and 

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Vincent KE (2005) Investigating the causes of 

the decline of the Urban House sparrow 

population in Britain. PhD thesis. De Montford 

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The RSPB 

UK Headquarters 

The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL 

Tel: 01767 680551 

Northern Ireland Headquarters 

Belvoir Park Forest, Belfast BT8 7QT 

Tel: 028 9049 1547 

Scotland Headquarters 

Dunedin House, 25 Ravelston Terrace, Edinburgh EH4 3TP 

Tel: 0131 311 6500 

Wales Headquarters 

Sutherland House, Castlebridge, Cowbridge Road East, Cardiff CF11 9AB 

Tel: 029 2035 3000 

www.rspb.org.uk 

The RSPB is the UK charity working to secure a 

healthy environment for birds 

and wildlife, helping to create a better 

world for us all. We belong to BirdLife 

International, the global partnership of bird 

conservation organisations. 

As a charity, the RSPB is dependent on the goodwill and financial 

support of people like you. Please visit www.rspb.org.uk/supporting 

or call 01767 680551 to find out more. 

Front cover: Cotton grass by Mark Hamblin 

Registered charity no 207076 210-2359-05-06 Printed on environmentally-friendly paper.

Conservation Science in the RSPB 2006

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