Got Food? - the Scientia Review

Got Food?
Recent Advances in
Food Science and Technology
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An e-book co-authored by the Class of 2013
Massachusetts Academy of Math and Science
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Chapter 1 Diet and Nutrition 3
Ann Ming Samborski, Amanda Stevens, and Ingrid Marko
Chapter 2 Vitamins and Minerals 19
Barry Biletch, John deRivera, and Aniket Lachyankar
Chapter 3 Food Supplements 31
Patrick Aoude, Julia Knowles, and Derek Wegener
Chapter 4 Diet and Diabetes 44
Nora Murphy and Jay McCowan
Chapter 5 Diet and Heart Disease 55
Arjun Tanguturi and Rebecca Stolarczyk
Chapter 6 Vegetarian and Vegan Diets 62
Dhroova Aiylam and Cameron Root
Chapter 7 Childhood Obesity 70
Emma Hewett, Sierra Harris, Angelica Heeney, and Divya Satishchandra
Chapter 8 Global Food System 82
Ryan Thibodeau., Thomas Devlin, and Abigail Yu
Chapter 9 Green Revolution 94
Michael Andrews, Alexander Lee, and Sahit Mandala
Chapter 10 Food Preservation 105
Adam Carrier, Tony Trakadas, and Katherine McDonough
Chapter 11 GMO Crops 116
Rachel Maillet, Anish Athalye, George Han, and Osi Van Dessel
Chapter 12 Sustainability and Food 130
Dennis Giaya, Eric Williams, and Rohit Satishchandra
Chapter 13 Agriculture, Irrigation, Fertilization, and Pesticides 140
Ryan Fletcher and Aaron Hammond
Chapter 14 Food Additives 148
Naveena Shanmugam, Jacob Grotton, Daniel Huang, and Jeeva Jacob
Chapter 15 Cooking in Developing Countries 164
John Dymek, Deidre DiLiddo, and Mark Guertin
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Chapter 1
Diet and Nutrition
Ingrid Marko, Ann Ming Samborski, and Amanda Stevens
Diet
Societal values intimidate individuals to obtain the ideal physique. Often in order to achieve this, a
healthy lifestyle must be implemented. Unfortunately, such a simple solution is often taken to the
extreme. In fact, there are numerous diet plans on the market that may become a detriment to the lives of
many. Moreover, a sustainable way of life is without a doubt beneficial, but it is important to keep matters
in perspective.
The ever-changing rules of what defines a ―good diet‖ confuse people to the point that they are
uncertain of what foods to consume. There are so many different meal plans in existence that it is almost
impossible to decide on which one to follow. Yet, with the technology and knowledge of today, it should
be relatively easy for nutritionists to plan out a healthy meal. For instance, Dr. Oz (2011) writes that in
order to be healthy, people must abstain from diet soda and low fat foods because the present processed
sugars are the main contributors to an overweight population. Ultimately, the individual is the greatest
influence because each body works differently due to the dissimilarity among DNA. In fact, protein,
carbohydrates, and lipids satisfy the body enough that it may not require the remaining components to
sustain a healthy state (Liao, 2012).
When it comes to nutrients, the body regulates a certain amount that it needs each day. Skipping
any of these will result in over-consumption of another, which then leads to an unhealthy diet (Liao,
2012). Important substances to consume daily are eggs, nuts, lipids, and similar foods. Even drinking
whole milk and wine are a necessity according to Dr. Oz. It is overindulgence that leads to obesity.
Fats have unfortunately obtained a social stigma; however, in the correct amount, lipids are
actually beneficial to an individual‘s health. Monounsaturated fats, such as canola and olive oil, and
polyunsaturated fats, such as omega-3, have great health benefits. They can reduce the risk of developing
atherosclerosis, heart disease, and inflammation. However, trans fat does in fact cause complications if
consumed too frequently.
In moderation, sodium is a vital part of a good diet. The human heart cannot function without it,
and yet, too much will increase blood pressure (Oz, 2011). An increasing problem with salty foods is that
the sodium (Na) binds to certain elements found in processed food and causes a reaction that leads to a
stimulated appetite, meaning individuals consume more than what is necessary.
Ingesting antioxidants can help increase human health because it can result in rejuvenated skin and
lower dementia and resistance to Parkinson‘s disease and Type 2 diabetes (Oz, 2011). Good sources of
food to induce this prevention are dark chocolate, wine, and coffee.
Nutrigenomics have been linked to how the individual processes food. Certain aspects of the DNA
and the genes present in some people change how food is digested and how it affects the body. Another
important factor to staying healthy is exercise. Dr. Oz claims that there should be a balance between diet
and exercise; in fact, calories consumed must equal calories burned to maintain a perfectly healthy body.
If that scale is tipped so that there is an unequal balance, then the result will either be weight loss or
weight gain. Because the human brain is always looking for nutrients, not calories, eating a moderate
amount from every food group is essential. It is vital to eat in moderation, to ingest a certain amount of
fruits and vegetables, and to exercise (Oz, 2011).
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Nutrition
The most current food pyramid gives a detailed
account of what foods should be consumed.
The body uses nutrients for growth, maintenance, and energy (Wilson, 2007). Carbohydrates
yield the energy that the body requires. Sucrose and glucose are simple carbohydrates, while fiber and
starches are complex ones. Foods such as whole wheat bread, pasta, and rice contain primarily
carbohydrates. Unfortunately, it is easy to overindulge in these foods, but an effective way to avoid this
unhealthy habit is to eat until satisfied, not full.
Another key nutrient is protein because it stimulates growth, repairs cells, and maintains tissue.
These are extremely important for athletes who often induce stress on the bones and muscles. The
proteins are broken down into amino acids and peptides. Because they are so important for the function of
the body, protein levels can become dangerously low if there is an inadequate intake of carbohydrates or
fats. The body often uses protein as a substitute for missing nutrients to produce energy, but a low level of
any nutrient will lead to weakness and disease (Wilson, 2007).
Lipids, another source of energy, help maintain body temperature and are required for tissue
growth and hormone production. Too much of this group will lead to weight gain, as with any other
nutrient. In moderation, everything allows the body to function properly.
Vitamins help the immune system fight infection and regulate bodily functions. Minerals are
similar to vitamins because they aid the daily functions of the body. Water dissolves and carries nutrients;
it is not enough to consume nutrients alone because water is needed for transportation to every part of the
body. When all nutrients are present, their functions weave together in a seamless harmony.
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Economic Uncertainty
It is simply not enough to have a beneficial meal plan if one does not have the means to purchase
the food. Of course those with money have a clear advantage over the lower classes. In general, people
can afford what is required.
Food availability and resulting levels of consumption have increased throughout the years. The
food supply showed that the average American was consuming 3,800 calories per day in 2000; the highest
rate so far (USDA, 2001). The increase in calories directly means that there was a weight gain among the
people. Over 62 percent of the population was considered to be overweight; an increase of 46 percent
since 1980. These shocking statistics are a result of supply and demand, the availability of food. Other
than the calorie intake, another cause of weight gain is lack of exercise
Increase in calories and food intake between 1983 and 2000.
Food expenditures have risen in 2001 to $844.1 billion, a 3.8% increase then the 2001 counterpart
(USDA, 2001). This rise was a result of a 5.5% income expansion from 2000. The cost of processing,
transporting, and distribution from American farms rose to $121 billion. This only represents 20% of the
total food expenses (USDA, 2001).
What a dollar spent for food in 2000.
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Even given the strict diets followed by many consumers, America is on the path to having the
most obese population. The access Americans have to a sustainable food supply should result in a healthy
population. Yet, the opposite is true. Other countries in the world have people that struggle to survive on
what little food they can get. Diseases and malnutrition have spread around the globe due to a lacking
food supply in other countries.
The main problem with access is the need to spend immense amounts of money. Currently here is
national debt, and promoting a healthy diet is often ignored. The FDA is in charge of doing everything
food and drug oriented. Dr. McClellan, a business man and doctor of economics, introduced the idea of
efficient risk management where the FDA would only do things that have the most impact on society,
because it cannot complete every single task available (―Business: Food, drugs and economics; face
value‖ 2003). Challenges include how to inspect imports and medicine. These have to be completed, but
everything has a cost. The amount of money the FDA can spend is limited. After the most important task
has been accounted for, the nutritional problem can be assessed. Focusing on one aspect at a time will
yield better results.
Disease-Preventing Diets
Nutrition is a vital component of a healthy lifestyle, and many people forget how important it
actually is. An unhealthy diet can lower a person‘s life expectancy by decades, while a healthy diet can
extend a person‘s life above the average life expectancy. This in mind, it is crucial that people recognize
the nutrients that they are consuming and maintain a diet that will benefit their bodies.
Low-Carbohydrate Diets
People who have a low intake of carbohydrates are usually slimmer and have less fat. Some foods
containing this nutrient that are usually avoided and maintain body weight are white potatoes, rice, pasta,
and bread. Foods that are high in carbohydrates compel blood sugar levels to rise and, in result, insulin
levels as well. Eating foods that are composed of mainly carbohydrates leads to increased hunger levels,
and the best low-carb diets comprise a variety of whole foods. Although, crushed or refined fruits, beans,
vegetables, or whole grains are healthier than most foods, they have higher Glycemic Load (GL) levels.
Whole foods, such as All-Bran and Cornflakes have low GL‘s. A low-carb diet should also include foods
with healthy fats and protein (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2007)
Besides reducing fat in the body, a diet low in carbohydrates can improve sleep disorders and the
function of blood vessels. People who suffer from sleep apnea can benefit from this type of diet. Sleep
apnea is a disorder that is a result of abnormal pauses in breathing or swallowing while sleeping, and it is
a leading cause in daytime fatigue This disorder is more common in people who are overweight and
several researchers, from the Karolinska Institute, ran experiments which proved that low-carb diets have
a positive effect on sleep apnea (―Diet and sleep apnea‖, 2011.). In a similar way, a diet that is low in
carbohydrates improves blood vessel function by reducing fat, according to a study completed by Johns
Hopkins researchers. Loss of stomach fat allowed arteries to expand and helped the blood flow more
freely. Several overweight participants helped the researchers refine their idea that low-carb diets that
helped burn fat improved the overall health of the patient‘s vascular systems (―Improve blood vessel
function‖,2012).
Heart-Healthy Diets
Not only are fish tasty, but they are also important in lowering cholesterol levels. Oily fish such as
salmon, sardines, tuna, mackerel, and trout have omega-3 fatty acids that are very beneficial, unlike
saturated fats. Because of remarkable evidence from several studies on the subject, The Food and Drug
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Administration announced that Omega-3 fatty acids lower triglycerides and slow down plaque growth in
the bloodstream, as well as reduce inflammation. Although fish are relatively high in calories, eating
reasonable amounts will benefit the health. A four-ounce serving of salmon provides 83% of the omega-3
acids a person needs a day (Griffin, 2005a).
A diet with oatmeal and oat bran also benefits the heart. These two foods contain soluble fiber,
which brings down low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels without reducing high-density
lipoprotein (HDL). The fiber helps absorb cholesterol in the intestines and releases it as waste instead
placing it into the arteries. Research published in 2005 the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
suggests that a diet with oatmeal lowered cholesterol levels almost as much as cholesterol drugs.
Approximately five to ten grams of soluble fiber added to a person‘s diet can increase the strength of his
or her heart (Griffin, 2005b)
Diets containing soy and tofu also assist the heart by lowering blood pressure levels. An
important compound that lowers blood pressure, isoflavone, is present in soymilk, tofu, green tea, and
peanuts. Isoflavones increase the production of enzymes, nitric oxide (NO) that dilates the blood vessels.
The increased amount of NO reduces pressure from blood against the vessel walls. A medical student at
Columbia University, Safiya Richardson, completed research that suggests systolic blood pressure levels
in people with pre-hypertension could decrease as much as 10 mmHg with a diet of soy protein and other
healthy foods. This type of diet could reduce their chances of advancing to hypertension (―Soy reduces
blood pressure‖, 2012).
Components of a diet that strengthen the heart.
Fruits and Vegetables
Although it is important to keep a balanced diet containing each component of nutrition, eating
fruits and vegetables seems to provide the most superior benefits. Consuming an adequate amount of
these foods can prevent certain diseases, according to the United States Department of Health and Human
Services‘ Healthy People 2010 objectives. Fruits and vegetables fill important dietary needs and provide
protection against chronic diseases such as hypertension, certain cancers, and Type Two Diabetes (―Eat
your fruits and vegetables‖, 2011). Research completed by Paolo Boffetta and his colleagues suggests that
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eating proper amounts of these foods can slightly reduce the overall risk of cancer. Boffetta showed that
there was a small inverse between eating many fruits and vegetables and reduced cancer risk, and several
other studies supported this discovery. While vegetables and fruits may have some ability to prevent
cancer, other unhealthy lifestyle choices, such as smoking, can nullify the benefits that a healthy diet
provides (―Cancer protective effects‖, 2010).
Unhealthy Diets
Certain diets can improve health, while other diets cause negative effects. Some factors that cause
disease are out of a person‘s control, such as genetics, but eating well can provide your body with the
proper nutrients to prevent diseases. A diet low in nutrients is not able to protect the body against viruses
that lead to chronic diseases such as the common cold or the influenza. An unhealthy diet is a large factor
in obesity, disease, and decreased life expectancy (McLaughlin, 2011).
Negative Effects of Red Meat
A diet composed of red meat can have lasting negative effects. According to Nicholas Bakalar in
the New York Times, there is a link between red meat and mortality. Research conducted on 121,342 men
and women yielded interesting results; 5,910 people in the group died of cardiovascular disease and 9,464
people died from cancer. Accounting for the people who lived sedentary or dangerous lifestyle, the
researchers still found that a daily increase of three ounces of red meat was connected to a 12 percent
greater risk of dying, a 16 percent increased risk of cardiovascular death, and a 10 percent greater risk of
cancer-related death. Scientists deduced that if the patients had lowered their red meat consumption by a
half, mortality rates would have decreased 9.3 percent in men and 7.6 percent in women. These results
strongly suggest that consuming red meat is not only unhealthy, but can be deadly (Bakalar, 2012).
Another peril of having a diet with too much red meat is that it can increase chances of contracting gout, a
severely painful type of arthritis that causes joint inflammation. Frank Bruni, who is a meat-lover and a
frequent diner, once had a diet that included a surplus of red meat and alcohol. After being diagnosed with
gout, he had to quit eating most red meat and organ meat to avoid the excruciating burning and stabbing
feelings caused by the disease (Bruni, 2012).
White Rice
Research at the Harvard School of Public Health was conducted to determine the connection
between intakes of white rice and Type Two Diabetes. White rice is consumed worldwide and has a high
glycemic index (GI). Increased GI diets are known to heighten chances of becoming diabetic. The
participants of the study were taken from Asian countries, whose population consumes up to 4 servings of
white rice per day, and Western countries whose population eats much smaller amounts of white rice.
None of the participants were diabetic at the beginning of each study. With each additional serving of
rice, the study conducted separately on Asian and Western countries revealed that there is a 10 percent
higher risk of developing Type Two Diabetes. This research suggests that people in certain Asian
countries who eat a large amount of rice will have a higher risk of this type of diabetes (―Diabetes and
white rice‖, 2012).
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An example of nutritional information
printed on a box containing white rice.
Soft Drinks
Certain beverages also have the ability to affect a person‘s health in a detrimental way. Research
on soft drinks suggests that drinking too much can lead to vascular diseases or gout. Hannah Gardener
and her colleagues discovered that diet soft drinks were less healthy than regular ones. Her group studied
2,564 participants by inquiring how many soft drinks, diet and regular, that the people consumed and the
number of vascular problems that they had over a ten year time period. The study yielded surprising
information: people who drank diet soft drinks every day were 43 percent more likely to have a vascular
problem than people who drank none or people who chose regular soft drinks (―Soft drinks and vascular
disease‖, 2012). Research on regular soft drinks that are high in fructose suggests that frequent
consumption leads to an increased risk of gout in men. A study published in the British Medical Journal
investigates men 40 years or older with no previous history of gout. They were assessed on the amount of
regular soft drinks, diet soft drinks, and other fruit drinks high in fructose that they consumed over 12
years. Other health factors were analyzed and after the 12 year period the researchers found that, in the
group of men, 755 cases of gout arose. Among the men, there was an 85 percent increased risk of gout in
men who consumed five to six servings of soda per week. Both of these studies display the effects of
consuming any type of soft drink or drink high in fructose; the results are not desirable (―Sugary soft
drinks and gout‖, 2008).
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Soft drinks are a hazard to good health.
Effect of Diet on Epigenetic Expression
In addition to affecting a person‘s own health, certain nutrition habits have the ability to influence
future generations. Environmental factors, such as diet, are able to alter DNA through epigenetic
markings. These marks reform the ways in which genes are expressed without changing the DNA
sequence permanently by adding or subtracting methyl groups. S-Adenosyl methionine, folic acid, and B
vitamins are well-known nutrients that enter metabolic pathways, and when these nutrients are regularly
consumed, gene expression can easily be altered. The foods that people include in their diets have the
capability to affect their epigenetic expressions either negatively or positively, and in response, these
altered genes are passed on to the offspring (―Nutrition and the epigenome‖, 1969).
Chemicals and additives also have the ability to affect epigenetic marks. Bisphenol A (BPA),
which is a compound in the polycarbonate plastic used in water bottles, causes negative health effects in
offspring. Epigenetic research showed that when pregnant yellow mice were given BPA, some of the
mice gave birth to yellow, unhealthy mice. When the yellow mice that were fed BPA were given a diet
rich in methyl foods, the majority of their offspring were healthy and brown; they seemed to counter the
detrimental effects of the BPA exposure (―Nutrition and the epigenome‖, 1969).
A woman‘s nutrition during pregnancy has a large impact on her children, but a man can also
influence his offspring‘s health. Research by a preventive-health specialist, Dr. Bygren, aimed to discover
how the switch in the amount of food available affected the offspring of that particular generation in both
men and women. This research yielded intriguing information. The results revealed that boys who
switched from famine to feasting in a single season later fathered children and grandchildren whose life
spans were decreased from those who had not overeaten. Further research suggested that changing
nutrition also affected women‘s offspring in the same way (Cloud, 2012).
Knowledge of epigenetics has given scientists many new ideas on how to prevent and treat
diseases and genetic disorders. A study published in the journal Clinical Epigenetics suggests that
vegetables are made up of compounds that might have the ability to prevent and protect people from
diseases such as cancer. The scientists leading the investigation say that this so-called epigenetic diet
includes cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage, soybeans, kale, green tea, fava beans, thenspice turmeric, and
grapes. When mothers tell children to eat their vegetables, they‘re protecting them from fatal diseases.
The compounds in the vegetables that make up an epigenetic diet suppress gene abnormalities that cause
horrible diseases such as cancer and Alzheimer‘s (Blanchard, 2012).
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Malnutrition and Disease
A growing problem with natural disasters and tyrannical rulers has led to a renewed interest in
malnutrition. By its roots, the condition implies a state of poor nourishment (Jackson, 2008). According to
John Saunders and his colleagues, ―the term malnutrition is used to describe a deficiency, excess, or
imbalance of a wide range of nutrients, resulting in measurable adverse effects on body composition,
function, and clinical outcome‖ (Saunders, Smith, & Stroud, 2011). Several recent polls have shown that
approximately one in three people is suffering from malnutrition. In fact, half of the adolescent deaths in
underdeveloped countries are attributed to insufficient nourishment (Jackson, 2008). Malnutrition impacts
the lives of approximately 3.5 million mothers and children, the elderly population, and those with
chronic diseases. It is a common assumption that malnutrition acts as a harbinger of oncoming death;
however, it can also cause life-long effects such as growth stunting. This phenomenon actually affects
roughly 178 million children worldwide (Saunders, Smith, & Stroud, 2011).
The condition is mainly caused by an inadequate diet, difficulty or inability to absorb consumed
nutrients, or particular medical conditions. This is actually a secondary effect of a primary cause, namely
civil circumstance, natural disaster, impoverished conditions (NY Times 4 , 2011), alcoholism, or addiction
(Saunders et al., 2011). Other groups that are likely to develop a state of malnutrition are young children,
pregnant women, those with diseases such as cystic fibrosis and liver disease, those taking appetite
reducing medicine, and those living in low-income housing (Malnutrition, 2011). Additionally, the rise of
malnutrition because of any circumstance is a risk factor for other diseases (Cathleen Samborski, personal
communication, April 7, 2012). In fact, the prime contributor for this condition, in relation to disease, is
neglecting to consume enough calories and nutrients (Saunders et al. 2011).
Malnutrition results from multiple health problems.
As the body begins to deteriorate because of malnutrition, fat, muscle, and organ mass
also depart. This visible change, technically referred to as cachexia, is often not observed in obese
patients because they appear to be healthy rather than malnourished. Nevertheless, if the correct amount
of nutrients is not being consumed, the body will suffer in numerous ways (Saunders et al. 2011).
Common symptoms of malnutrition include irritability, stunt in growth, rapid loss of weight, pain in
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muscles and joints, abnormally colored hair and skin, broken nails, and loss of hair (Malnutrition, 2011).
From an internal view, the muscle function will often deteriorate at a faster rate than the actual muscle
mass. Also, when calcium, magnesium, and vitamin D intake levels decrease, the bones become fragile
and are difficult to strengthen.
Without a proper diet, the digestive tract has difficulty performing its normal functions. Organs
such as the pancreas and intestines suffer, and often processes such as the pancreatic exocrine function or
the intestinal permeability begin to break down. Enzymes used to digest consumed food are less
abundant, and this can even result in secondary lactose intolerance on certain occasions. In addition,
diarrhea is a leading cause in loss of water and electrolytes, which can result in death in severe cases.
The immune response becomes less effective early in a state of malnutrition. This causes the
individual to be highly susceptible to infection especially respiratory tract viruses and bacteria and/or
parasites. Oftentimes, the common symptoms of these pathogens (such as fever) do not occur because of
the suppressed immune system. Also, wounds, particularly those caused by surgery, can take longer to
heal than a normally functioning defense system.
Effects of malnutrition affect every part of the body;
even psychological effects can occur.
The endocrine complex fights to help the body preserve and use what nutrients it has. This leads
to reduced levels of hormones because the materials needed to manufacture them are no longer present.
Hormones begin to disappear from the body, and sometimes, when production of insulin becomes
severely stunted, a form of diabetes can occur.
When the body is forced into pure starvation, with absolutely no sustenance, the membranes that
transport sodium and potassium (which are dependent on energy metabolized by the body) stop
functioning. In a circumstance where nourishment is occasionally ingested, this process takes more time
to occur; however, in the meantime, other bodily functions and processes cease to operate in an attempt to
allow the body to remain alive. It is important to note that after an individual has been without proper
nutrients for an extended period of time or the condition has become severe in a short time span,
providing the afflicted with a balanced diet is complicated. The new amount of food must be introduced
in a meticulous manner because too much can have a negative effect on the overall patient‘s health, even
if it is what he or she technically requires (Saunders et al. 2011).
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Malnutrition Globally
Although a great deal of the world is modern, there still remain large portions that are developing.
In addition, some populations are affected by malnutrition because they must flee their native countries.
For example, poor nutrition has been widely noted in the incoming population of refugee children. It is a
great relief that within 4 to 6 months of arriving in the U.S.A., the children have usually reached normal
weight and growth rate. However, an adverse affect to the dramatic change in culture often results in
obesity. Populations that arrive from low socioeconomic backgrounds tend to experience obesity within a
few months of arriving in the U.S. This is most prevalent in families from Latin America, Central Eastern
Europe, the Caribbean, the Middle East, Northern Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the once-lively Soviet
Union. The condition is common in both adults and children. This new phenomenon is mainly attributed
to the length of stay in the country, different cultures, original cultural beliefs, and low quality of housing.
This new population is now at risk for both malnutrition that affects overall growth and for obesity that
can cause further health problems such as diabetes. Deficiency in vitamin B12, folate, and vitamin A may
also contribute to iron deficiency (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011).
Also, certain situations involving malnutrition occur because of political circumstance. For
instance, a sole leader has ruled North Korea for decades. This form of government has not resulted
favorably for majority of the population; one in three children in North Korea suffers from malnutrition.
Food is hard to obtain because the state stores are not properly stocked, and the remainder of goods is sold
in private markets. In addition, the price of food is drastically inflated so many cannot afford what they
can find (NY Times 1 , 2012). Similarly, Haiti suffers from severe economical and political stress. In fact,
riots occurred earlier in the year because of the inflated food and fuel prices (Klarreich, 2008). Another
instance, Niger, an African country bordering the Sahara desert, is globally one of the poorest territories.
Due to civil unrest, it is not uncommon to find malnourished children in rural areas as well as settled
cities (NY Times 3 , 2010).
In addition, overpopulation plays a large role in the high percentage of malnourished people. Not
only are certain countries struggling to feed its entire people, but also, it is the sudden rise in population
that causes the country distress. According to the latest Global Hunger Index, the levels of hunger in India
have increased over the past two decades. Out of the entire population, 42% of Indian children (who are
five and under) are underweight (NY Times 2 , 2012). Also, approximately 30% of Pakistani children are
malnourished, and 40% have been stunted in their growth; this, in turn, affects their future ability to learn
(Jilani, 2012). One of the most prominent problems currently is the overpopulation of refugee camps,
particularly in Kenya. One of the most severe cases, Dabaad refugee complex contains four times as many
occupants as it was originally intended to hold. Numerous children are malnourished, and since January,
the numbers have risen from 20 malnourished children to more than 130. This affliction accounts for 30%
of all children located in the outskirts of the camp. Children as old as ten are malnourished, which is
incredibly rare. It is this phenomenon that truly displays the severity of the crisis in Kenya (Loewenberg
& Dadaab, 2011).
In short, many of these populations that suffer from malnutrition die because of diarrhea,
pneumonia, or preventable diseases (NY Times 4 , 2011). This can easily be remedied by providing
sufficient diet so that inability to absorb consumed nutrients may be avoided. However, civil
circumstance, natural disasters, and poverty contribute to the worldwide condition of poverty that is
prominent in every nation.
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Diseases Caused as a Result of Malnutrition
As malnutrition becomes widespread across an area, multiple diseases become prominent shortly
after. Without the correct amount of nutrients, conditions develop because of a lack of vitamins, minerals,
and/or amino acids. Malnutrition causes myriad physical detriments; however, the onslaught of disease
results in further complications to the human body.
Vitamin Deficiencies
Vitamin D deficiency is found in all areas of the world. This condition can lead to further damage
such as rickets and osteoporosis. According to Saunders et al. (2011), ―the etiology of vitamin D
deficiency is multifactorial and heavily dependent on non-dietary determinants such as limited sun
exposure (protective or religious clothing, moving to temperate climates, and the tradition of keeping
infants indoors), increased skin pigmentation, reduced in-utero exposure, and reduced capacity to
synthesize vitamin D with increasing age.‖ Those with dark skin, pregnant or nursing women, those
living in mild climates, the elderly, and those with conditions such as celiac disease are particularly at risk
(Saunders et al. 2011).
Rickets is caused by poor diet and lack of fresh air and sunshine. The main cause is a deficiency
in Vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus. Without enough of these minerals in the blood, the body removes
stored minerals from the bone. This, in turn, weakens bone structure. Common symptoms are skeletal
deformities such as bowed legs, bent spin, pelvic deformities, fragile bones, stunted growth, bone pain,
and muscle fatigue. Children usually stop growing, and adults develop osteoporosis. Rickets is still found
in the US. In fact, it seems to be reappearing in many areas. In October 2008, American Academy of
Pediatrics doubled the recommended amount of vitamin D for infants and children. It can be produced
when in direct sunlight; however, it can also be obtained through fish, milk, fortified cereal, and eggs
(Jackson, 2008).
Vitamin A deficiency is not commonly seen in developed countries but is relatively common in
refugee populations. It is the primary cause for blindness in children and approximately 500,000 lose their
sight annually. Vitamin A deficiency creates a myriad of visual changes that can include loss of night
vision, Bitot spots, which according to Saunders, Smith, and Stroud (2011), are ―areas of abnormal
squamous cell proliferation and keratinization of the conjunctiva, xerophthalmia, keratomalacia, corneal
perforation, and permanent blindness.‖ It also retards bone growth as well as produces dry skin, fragile
hair, and weakened humoral and cell-mediated immune response.
Deficiency in Vitamin B12 occurs when animal products cease to be consumed in addition to
inability to absorb the nutrient (i.e. intrinsic factor deficiency) and malabsorption (which may be called by
the presence of Helicobacter pylori). Fatigue, unproductivity, memory loss, irritability, and depression are
often symptoms that are not recognized as official but are associated with it. Essentially, this deficiency
affects neurological functions. Other symptoms include weakness, numb extremities, inability to smell,
imbalance, and in the most severe instances, degeneration of the spinal cord.
Vitamin C or ascorbic acid deficiency occurs in individuals with malnutrition, alcoholism, or
diets that exclude fruits and vegetables. The symptom is also known as scurvy and results in stunted
collagen synthesis. Ecchymoses, petechiae, bleeding gums, hyperkeratosis, and difficulty in healing
wounds may occur as well as fatigue, malaise, pain in the joints, edema, anxiety, and neuropathy.
Thiamine (vitamin B1) assists in energy metabolism and assembling tissues. Deficiency occurs
from lack of intake (such a excessive consumption of milled rice), sudden difference in metabolism
(fever, pregnancy, liver disease, hyperthyroidism), severe diarrhea, or ingestion of food with anti-
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thiamine compounds. Deficiency can result in beriberi (Saunders et al. 2011). The condition originated
because a vitamin B1 was missing from processed rice, and therefore, whole populations were not
receiving the proper dosages. Thiamine is located in the outer layer of rice, which is often removed for
products such as white rice as opposed to brown rice. Also, foods such as tea and fish contain chemicals
that render the thiamine useless to the body (Jackson, 2008). Symptoms include no appetite, constipation,
tiredness, anger, amnesia, peripheral neuropathy, weakness, areflexia, foot drop, tachycardia, and heart
failure. However, there are multiple types of this disease (Saunders et al., 2011). Wet beriberi is caused by
the lack of thiamine in the body (Jackson, 2008) and often leads to cardiac failure (Saunders, Smith, &
Stroud, 2011). Common symptoms of Wet beriberi are swelling of the lower leg, fast heart rate,
congestive heart failure, engorged heart, and shortness of breath (Jackson, 2008). Dry beriberi affects the
multifocal peripheral/nervous system and is caused by the inability of the body to absorb the nutrient
(Saunders et al. 2011). Dry beriberi displays tingling of limbs, lack of feeling in hands and feet, vomiting,
unnatural eye movement, disorientation, coma, and possibly death (Jackson, 2008). More severe cases
occasionally become better diagnosed as Wernicke encephalopathy and Korsakoff syndrome (Saunders et
al., 2011). Wernicke-Korasakoff is commonly seen in Europe; it is another form of beriberi and displays
itself via irritability, confusion, and amnesia. The condition can be easily remedied if a person is given
thiamine via injection or orally within a reasonable amount of time (Jackson, 2008).
Pellagra is a deficiency in niacin or Vitamin B3. This was first observed in 1735 in Spain when a
physician noticed symptoms in peasants eating a heavy corn diet. However, Latin America appears to
have avoided this condition because the tortillas were allowed to soak in lime juice before they were
cooked. The citrus released the niacin that is normally not accessible to the human digestive acids.
Pellagra was discovered to result directly from the lack of niacin or vitamin B1 and even the amino acid
tryptophan. If the body receives enough tryptophan, it can generate niacin. The chemical is used in the
body to release energy from carbs, fats, and proteins. It is also used to make nucleic acids in RNA and
DNA. Symptoms involve diarrhea, dermatitis, and dementia. In the West, this is rarely seen except for
alcoholics because of their tendency to neglect nutrition. India suffers from this especially because
sorghum is consumed as a staple crop. The product contains the amino acid leucine, which interferes with
niacin absorption. This disease is rarely seen in most developed countries because grain is fortified. It
does, however, occur in emergencies such as natural disasters or civil war. Niacin is hard to access by the
body, but if the grain is soaked in alkali, then it is capable of being absorbed. Meat, poultry, yeast, fish,
grain, flour, peanuts, lentils, milk, greens, and coffee/tea contain this vitamin (Jackson, 2008).
Mineral Deficiencies
Iron deficiency is most prevalent in children. This mainly affects infants and toddlers, but
women of childbearing age are also at risk. Iron deficiency anemia occurs from a lack of dietary iron. The
lack of ingestion of meat or frequent ingestion of tannins or phytates causes internal problems that results
in intestinal parasites, hemoglobinopathies, and chronic infections. Lack of iron can lead to stunted
psychomotor abilities in infants and cognitive impairment in youth. Adults who are affected become
fatigued, unproductive, and may lose the ability to reproduce. Severe anemia is categorized once the Hb
level falls below 80.0 g/L.
Iodine deficiency affects approximately 2 billion individuals. It is the greatest cause of thyroid
disease and is found in soil and seafood. It regulates the metabolic process of the body. If Iodine is not
ingested, physical and mental growth can stop. Hypothyroidism, goiter, and other conditions can also
occur. By iodizing salt, this deficiency has drastically dropped, but extremely high amounts of iodine
have been found in refugee populations. This can cause IIH (iodine-induced hyperthyroidism), which
mainly occurs in females over the age of 40 after introduction to iodized salt. The body is so accustomed
to lacking levels that the sudden surge causes further complications.
15

Zinc deficiency is most common in areas where plants are a staple to the diet. Zinc catalyzes
more than 100 enzymes and helps fetus development during pregnancy and growth throughout
adolescence. Stunted growth, lacking appetite, and weakened immune system are all symptoms of the
condition. Hair loss, loose stools, stunted sexual maturation, infertility, hypogonadism, weight-loss, slowhealing
wounds, skin and eye lesions, difficulty tasting, and fatigue are all more severe symptoms
(Saunders, Smith, & Stroud, 2011).
Amino Acid Deficiencies
Pellagra is a deficiency in niacin or tryptophan. It is usually accompanied by a lack of amino
acids and micronutrients. The condition may occur because of severe diarrhea, cirrhosis, or alcoholism.
High-leucine diets are normally seen in cases of Pellagra. Symptoms include photosensitive dermatitis
(i.e. Casal‘s necklace or face rash) in addition to diarrhea, stomatitis, and neurological abnormalities. In
children, symptoms differ and may appear as anorexia, irritability, anxiousness, and apathy.
General Diseases Caused by Malnutrition
Micronutrient deficiencies are also observed due to scarce resources. Rare deficiencies are
commonly seen because of the rapid change in diet that these individuals go through during a stay in
refugee camps, etc. (Saunders et al., 2011).
PEM (protein-energy malnutrition) or protein-calorie nutrition is a deficiency in macronutrients,
proteins, and carbohydrates. Another form of the deficiency, known as Kwashiorkor, refers to a lack of
protein but a sufficient calorie intake. Marasmus is the lack of calories in addition to protein. The liver
becomes enlarged, which makes the individual appear to be gaining weight. Symptoms include edema,
swollen stomach, enlarged liver, peeling, white skin, and reddish pigmentation of the hair. These
symptoms also result in fatigue, apathy, and irritability. This condition occasionally accompanies AIDS
or other traumas. It is most seen in undeveloped countries that suffer from natural disaster or lack of
resources. Majority of the cases are found in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean (Jackson,
2008).
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HRCA&sw=w
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Chapter 2
Vitamins and Minerals
Barry Biletch, John deRivera, and Aniket Lachyankar
Introduction
Organic molecules that are required in small amounts by organisms are called vitamins, and they
can be divided into two groups: water soluble and fat soluble. Water soluble vitamins include the B
vitamins and vitamin C. These vitamins are flushed out of the body through urine on a daily basis. As a
result, there are no known cases of water soluble vitamin toxicity. Water soluble vitamins act largely as
coenzymes in the body, allowing certain important enzymes to function properly. The fat soluble
vitamins, A, D, E, and K, are stored in the body for longer durations of time, and the accumulation of
these vitamins in the body can cause serious side effects. For example, Vitamin A is stored mainly in the
liver. When arctic explorers ate the livers of seals and polar bears, acute toxicity occurred because of the
massive amounts of vitamin A that they were ingesting (Vitamin A, 2007). Not all vitamins need to be
ingested in their final form because the body can synthesize some vitamins from other molecules.
Vitamin A is produced from beta-carotene and other carotenoids (Vitamin A, 2007), vitamin D is
synthesized in the skin when in direct contact with UVB radiation (Vitamin D, 2007), and vitamin K is
made by bacteria living in the intestines when insufficient doses are ingested orally (Vitamin K, 2007).
Vitamins to Combat Malaria
Research being conducted at the University of Southampton might lead to the synthesis of
malaria-combating drugs. Malaria is a disease spread by parasites that affects approximately 250 million
people annually and causes the deaths of approximately 1 million people each year. Scientists hope to
disrupt the production of vitamins in malaria-producing protists. They hope to learn more about the
enzymes that are used to manufacture vitamins in these parasites. By targeting these particular vitaminmaking
enzymes, the production of these essential vitamins can be stopped, leading to deficiencies and
the death of the parasite. Drugs that target B 9 production have been used very successfully in the past, but
resistance to this particular drug in the parasites has increased, stimulating new research for a drug which
is as effective. Scientists at the University of Southampton are currently researching the enzyme complex
that produces vitamin B 6­ in malaria causing parasites. If successful, a new drug to treat malaria could be
made and millions of lives saved (University of Southampton, 2012).
Malaria parasites have become resistant to several types of malaria combating drugs.
19

Vitamin Supplements
In many cases, whether it is due to dietary habit or location, people can have vitamin deficiencies.
Some vitamins, like vitamins C, B 12 , and D, are necessary for very important functions and can cause
devastating effects for deficient individuals. To combat these effects, people usually choose to take
vitamin supplements. There are many different forms of these supplements, the most popular being the
pill. Another difference between different vitamin supplements is the purpose that each one serves.
Today, companies have specifically targeted vitamin supplements to particular groups of people or
deficiencies. For example, One-A-Day Products markets vitamins that are targeted at specific stages of
life and genders ranging from vitamins for teenage girls to vitamins for men over the age of 50. Vitamin
supplements ensure that the consumer lives their life to the fullest without any vitamin deficiencies.
However, the process of accepting a supplement is very intricate and involves many organizations.
One of the most involved parts of the supplement discovery and distribution process is the
specification and regulation of the product itself. Organizations like the United States Pharmacopeial
Convention (USP) and the U.S Food and Drug Administration are highly influential in setting the
standard for vitamin supplements; industrial companies that look to manufacture supplements utilize this
benchmark. The full list of standards can be found in the USP Dietary Supplements Compendium (DSC),
an amalgamation of different monographs that specify identity, strength, quality, and purity of various
dietary supplements. Again, manufacturers that hope to utilize these dietary supplements look to the DSC
to make sure that their product conforms to the standards set by the USP‘s compendium (Dietary
Supplements Compendium, 2009).
Vitamins supplements, as previously stated, come in many different forms. Some come for
singular vitamins; supplements for simply vitamin C can be found on the shelf for those who do not think
they consume enough of this essential vitamin. However, the most popular vitamin supplement has
quickly become the multivitamin. This supplement variant is specifically designed to supply consumers
with enough vitamins such that the consumer does not have any deficiencies. These vitamins cannot
completely substitute for the vitamins in food because they are usually created for the purpose of
accommodating a healthy diet. As noted above, companies like One-A-Day and Centrum are widely
known for supplying multivitamins that serve very specific purposes. Some of the specialized formulae
that do not apply to sex or age include vision, heart, energy, and prenatal support. Each multivitamin is
specially formulated to ensure that the consumer is correctly treated (One-a-day Multivitamins, n.d.;
(Centrum Multivitamins, n.d.).
Vitamin supplements can be beneficial,
but their misuse can cause harm.
20

The Dangers of Multivitamins and Supplements
It was long believed that vitamins were a cure-all supplement to healthy living, but recent studies
have yielded results that contradict this. While it is known that extreme doses of vitamins can have
serious effects on the body, it has only recently been suggested that doses even slightly higher than the
recommended amount (in the form of artificial vitamins present in supplements and multivitamins) can
pose health risks. It was found that men who took excess amounts of vitamin E had a 17% higher risk of
developing prostate cancer than those who did not take the vitamin. The study did not originally conclude
this result when it was ended in 2008, but follow up research revealed this striking result. A second
study, in Iowa, on the effects of the use of multivitamins, folic acid, vitamin B 6 , magnesium, copper, zinc,
and iron concluded that users of these supplements had an increased risk of death. Other studies since
then have yielded similar results (Parker-Pope, 2011).
A New Way to Ingest Vitamins
Vitamins can be harmed by stomach acids, so it is necessary to provide protection to the vitamins
when designing vitamin supplements. Currently, pharmaceutical companies use materials such as
cyclodextrin, which is a sugar molecule in the shape of a torus (see image). Scientists at Penn State did a
series of experiments in which they developed cornstarch pouches which can hold oil soluble vitamins,
such as A and C. The starch protects the vitamins from the acid in the stomach so that it can remain
unharmed when they reach and is absorbed by the small intestine. The type of corn starch used forms
coils with a hydrophilic outer surface and a hydrophobic inner surface. The fat-soluble vitamins are
attracted to the inner surface of the starch coil where they are protected. This technique could lead to
vitamin enriched starch foods, which would be a cheaper and more environmentally friendly way of
manufacturing food supplements (Penn State, 2011).
This is the structure of cyclodextrin molecule.
New technology is emerging to make getting a daily dose of vitamins easier. David Edwards, a
biomedical engineer at Harvard University, has invented a product he calls ―Le Whif.‖ The liver and
intestinal tract can damage vitamins and are also slow to absorb the vitamins into the bloodstream. To
combat this, Le Whif grinds vitamins into aerosol particles that can be packaged into spray cans and then
inhaled. Inhalation provides a more direct route to the bloodstream without the altering effects of the
liver or intestines (Dyer, 2011).
21

Vitamin D and Eyesight
A very recent study on the effects of vitamin D on mouse vision has yielded encouraging results.
Mice that were given vitamin D supplements showed less aging in their eyes, and older mice who were
given the supplement exhibited improved vision. This could lead to future drugs that slow the
deterioration of the human eye and combat age-related macular degeneration. The retina of the human
eyes builds up debris and inflames as it ages, which can lead to a 30% decline in photoreceptor cells. The
study found that older mice which were given vitamin D supplements experienced an improvement in
vision as well as a decrease in inflammation and the removal of some debris from the retina. It is
believed that the vitamin D reduced the number of macrophages, which can cause damage and
inflammation in the retina, and also changed some of the macrophages‘ structure so that the cells actively
decreased inflammation and debris buildup. A second benefit seen in the mice was a decrease in the
amount of amyloid beta present in the eye. It is known that amyloid beta increases the risk of age-related
macular degeneration (Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, 2012).
The history of humans suggests why poor eyesight becomes a problem as we age and why it is
more common now than in human ancestors. Vitamin D is ingested via certain foods, but the quantities
found in most diets are insufficient for the body to function. Human bodies manufacture vitamin D in the
skin when hit by UVB rays from the sun. This alternate form of production makes up the dietary gap in
vitamin D consumption. Human ancestors lived in Africa, where they were exposed to direct sunlight
daily, prompting adequate vitamin D production. Since then, humans have moved to less sunny areas of
the globe and have clothed themselves in an attempt to block out the sun. The changes have occurred so
quickly that the human body has not yet adapted to reduced sunlight exposure, explaining the
degeneration of the retina due to a lack of vital vitamin D (Biotechnology and Biological Sciences
Research Council, 2012).
Vitamin D and Parkinson‘s Disease.
Vitamin D is an essential component of life and its deficiency has very bad effects. Deficiencies
have been linked to various conditions, including asthma, cancer, and multiple sclerosis; these various
effects show that vitamin D affects numerous facets of human life. A study done by Paul Knekt at the
National Institute for Health and Welfare in Finland attempted to connect the levels of vitamin D to
Parkinson‘s disease. This study took a population of Finnish men and women over the age of 50 and
checked the levels of vitamin D in these people over a 29-year period. In the group studied, 50 instances
of Parkinson‘s disease occurred, and with these instances, the vitamin D levels of each subject that
contracted Parkinson‘s were significantly lower than that of those without. The results suggest a peculiar
relationship between the function of vitamin D in the nervous system and Parkinson‘s disease, which
again strengthens the need for a healthy dosage of vitamin D in one‘s daily diet (Knekt et al., 2010).
Parkinson's disease can cause uncontrollable shaking,
muscle stiffness, and movement issues among other things.
22

Vitamin A and Osteoporotic Hip Fractures.
One of the functions that Vitamin A affects is bone metabolism. When taken in normal doses, the
vitamin can promote healthy bone growth; however, excess amounts can cause adverse effects on bone
structure. Research at the Harvard Medical School, conducted by Diane Feskanich and colleagues,
attempted to connect diets with high vitamin A values to osteoporotic hip fractures in older women. The
study consisted of over 30,000 postmenopausal females, some of which had sustained hip fractures with
noticeable trauma. After screening the levels of vitamin A in all of the women, the quartile with the
highest dosage of vitamin A in daily diet had a significantly higher risk of hip fracture than those women
with a normal vitamin intake. With the transition to life after menopause, women will have to be careful
to strike a keen balance between a healthy dosage of vitamin A and a excess (Feskanich et al., 2002).
Increased vitamin A intake has been
linked to increased risk of hip fracture.
The Effects of Antioxidants on Pre-eclampsia
A condition known as pre-eclampsia can develop in women who are pregnant for the first time, causing
hypertension and other negative effects. This condition, which appears in approximately 5% of first-time
pregnancies, is dangerous to both the mother and child. Luckily, research conducted at a Mexico City
hospital has yielded a possible method for preventing pre-eclampsia, thought to be caused by a deficiency
of L-arginine, an amino acid essential in blood circulation. The study consisted of three groups of
pregnant women. The first group was given food bars containing L-arginine and antioxidant vitamins
(Vitamin A, C, and E are all antioxidants). The second group was given bars containing just the vitamin
supplements and the third group was given a placebo, which contained neither L-arginine nor vitamin
supplements. Of first group of women, only 12.7% were diagnosed with preeclampsia compared with the
22.5% of the second group and the 30.2% of the third group. The results show that the best preventative
procedure is to take both L-arginine and vitamins, although simply taking the vitamins can also have
beneficial effects (British Medical Journal, 2011).
23

Antioxidants such as vitamin C and E
neutralize harmful free radicals.
Vitamin B 12 and Cancer
A study of patients in Norway pointed to an interesting pattern that connected vitamin B 12 and
cancer proliferation. Previous studies that involved B 12 and cancer had produced results towards the
conclusion that B 12 deficiencies were instrumental in cancer onset. However, during the study done in
Norway, where the government does not necessitate folic acid and B 12 supplements, there was a
difference between the amounts of people who contracted cancer after treatment with the vitamins when
compared to those who were not treated with the B 12 vitamins and folic acid. There were 53 more B 12
treated patients that were diagnosed with the cancer, a 21 percent increase from those who were not
treated and still diagnosed with cancer. Of those diagnosed with the cancer, 36 more died of that same
cancer, which was a 38 percent increase in risk. Of the forms of cancer that were diagnosed, scientists
noted that lung cancer occurred most frequently in these subjects. This study suggests an interesting
relationship between the levels of B 12 and certain stages of cancer. It may be the case that low doses of
vitamin B 12 may cause early carcinoma onset, while on the other hand, higher doses of B 12 later in life
may cause cancer cells to proliferate.
Minerals in Type II Diabetes
In an experiment done at the Shiraz University in Iran, scientists compared the levels of 4
minerals, zinc, copper, iron, and chromium, between normal children and children with Type II diabetes
mellitus. One characteristic of all of these minerals is that they are mainly found in trace amounts in the
human body and are therefore not widely recognized for importance in nutrition. Results showed that
there was a significant decrease in 3 mineral levels for the diabetes patients: zinc, copper, and chromium.
This shows that each of these three may play a role in the onset of childhood diabetes. Chromium is
known to be a facilitator of insulin function in the human body. This points to a more direct relation
between the functions of the mineral and the onset of diabetes. With more research, chromium may be
used as a treatment for some forms of diabetes (Basaki et al., 2012).
24

Type II diabetes is caused by the inadequate
production of insulin or the inability to use insulin.
Magnesium Treatment for Migraines
Magnesium is a commonly found ion and can be found in a supplemental form because it is an
essential mineral for body functions. In a study done by the New York Headache Center, scientists
observed that magnesium levels of patients with migraine symptoms were significantly higher than those
of the controls. Magnesium plays a part in migraine pathogenesis. With this difference in magnesium
levels, the scientists concluded that magnesium supplements could be used to treat migraine symptoms.
This connections proves to make a much simpler and more available treatment than a manufactured
medicine because it is so accessible and usable (Mauskop & Varughese, 2012).
Migraine headaches are caused when arteries in the brain enlarge,
causing the adjacent nerves to release chemicals that trigger adverse effects.
The vast majority of calcium consumed by humans is distributed to the bones and teeth, but the
1% used by the rest of the body is very important to overall health. Although it is widely accessible,
25

many people do meet the minimum recommended amounts. This is partially due to lactose intolerance,
because dairy is a good source of calcium.
The main forms of calcium supplements are citrate and carbonate; however, the two forms are
absorbed differently into the body. Research conducted at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical
School indicates that calcium citrate is absorbed approximately 25% better than carbonate, despite
carbonate having more raw calcium.
Researchers at the Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging have done
research on the effects of nutrition on cancer rates. They found that the B vitamins, especially vitamin B 9 ,
reduce the risks of colorectal cancer in mice. However, this was not limited to the mice that ate the
vitamins. It also affected the offspring of the females of these mice. Although increased consumption of
these vitamins did not significantly reduce the frequency of cancer, it reduced the frequency of more
severe forms by a factor of 300%. The researchers attributed this phenomenon to the protection of the
Wnt signaling pathway, which is a set of genes that is commonly mutated in patients with cancer. At the
moment, it is unclear whether or not the same conclusions.
26

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Illustration Credits
http://www.electroherbalism.com/images/regimens/malariaMapResistance.gif
http://www.mnn.com/sites/default/files/supplements.jpg
http://www.mn-net.com/Portals/4/images/Redakteure_Chroma/GC/Cyclodextrin-GC.gif
http://parkinsonsymptoms.net/wp- Hip Fractures
http://www.santarosastrength.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/07/hip-fracture.jpg
http://www.amazing-glutathione.com/images/antioxidants.jpg
http://www.diabetes-ok.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/diabetes_type2.jpg
http://migrainerelief.info/images/migraine-causes.jpg
30

Chapter 3
Food Supplements
Patrick Aoude, Julia Knowles, and Derek Wegener
Introduction
The desire to be healthy is the cause of many developments in medical science, chemical
engineering, and the nutritional industry. Both engineered and natural remedies have been labeled as
cures for an unhealthy lifestyle. The most widespread of these remedies belong to a category known as
Food Supplements. These products, also known as dietary supplements, are recognized as foodstuffs
which supplement the normal diet and which are a concentrated source of nutrients or other substances
with a nutritional or physiological effect. Food supplements exist in the form of capsules, pastilles,
tablets, pills and other similar controlled dosages (Eberhardie, 2005). Although these supplements are
similar in purpose and form to prescription drugs, the regulations surrounding them are very loose. In the
United States, a doctor‘s prescription is not necessary for the acquisition of these drugs and informational
labels on their packaging are more similar to those found on food products. With these factors in
consideration, it is necessary to question the safety of Food supplements as alternatives to a typical diet,
and do these so-called supplements provide sufficient nutrition to support human lifestyle.
The intended purpose of food supplements is, for numerous reasons, to replace the need to eat
whole food for nutrition. One benefit of this concept is the provision of nutrients to regions of the world
that have limited availability to specific nutrition. This characteristic benefits people living in extreme
climates which cannot sustain crop production. A lack of fruit and vegetables may result in a deficiency
of A and C vitamins for the population of these regions. In many cases, food supplements carry a lower
cost burden than whole foods. This characteristic benefits impecunious or impoverished populations
where a sufficient diet of whole food is not easily attainable (―The Fight for Food Supplements‖, 2005).
Also, food supplements provide concentrated amounts of nutrients and thereby limit the need to consume
unneeded volumes of nutrients provided by entire foods. For example, a person may either consume one
dietary fiber capsule, or a large bowl of fiber infused breakfast cereal that may contain amounts of
carbohydrates, fat, and sugar as well. This characteristic of food supplements may benefit people who are
affected by obesity. Many arguments can be made regarding the necessity of food supplements. The
benefits of replacing food in the human diet cannot be ignored when considering the viability of food
supplements.
Patients' reasons for taking food supplements and herbal medicines
A lack of faith in the food production, transport and storage system, meaning that nutrients are lost because fruit is
harvested
too early or growth is forced.
A belief that more is better, for example, a large intake of vitamin A in the diet and supplements will prevent blindness.
With old age you do not metabolize vitamins and minerals and therefore you should take more.
Food supplements delay ageing.
Food supplements prevent cancer.
Food supplements are safer and healthier than prescribed medication.
Food supplements replace the deficiencies caused by a poor diet.
Food supplements save you from having to eat vegetables and fruit.
Food supplements are a good standby when waiting for a long time to be seen by a specialist doctor.
Reasons for using food supplements; the most common reasons that a patient
may use to justify taking a food supplement on a routine basis (Eberhardie 2005).
31

The use of dietary supplements is a world-wide trend. In the U.S., dietary supplement use has
steadily increased since the 1970s. However, the loose regulations surrounding these non-prescription
products make it difficult to generate precise statistics. Analyses of a representative population were
conducted between 2003 and 2006 for the purpose estimating dietary supplement use. Results were
collected by means of a questionnaire and they indicated that 49% of the U.S. population (44% of males,
53% of females) employs dietary supplements. Multivitamin and multimineral use was the most
frequently reported and between 28 and 30% of the surveyed population reported using dietary
supplements containing vitamins B-6, B-12, C, A, and E; 18–19% reported using iron, selenium, and
chromium; and 26–27% reported using zinc- and magnesium-containing supplements (Bailey et al.,
2011). Although the safety of dietary supplements is in question, many people seem to be convinced of
their effectiveness. The following image is a graphical representation of food supplement use in the U.S.
Food supplement use in the U.S. An estimated majority of the population
consumes at least on food supplement on a routine basis. (Baily et al,
2011)
Different age groups also produced varying results in this survey. Overall, botanical supplement
use was more common in older than in younger age groups. About one-half of the U.S. population and
70% of adults ≥ 71 y use dietary supplements.
Dietary supplement use in various age groups.
n Age, y Any supplement, % MVMM Botanical
Total
18,758 All ≥ 1 49 ± 0.9 33 ± 0.9 14 ± 0.6
1781 1–3 39 ± 1 26 ± 2 2 ± 0.4 a
1975 4–8 43 ± 2 32 ± 2 4 ± 1 a
2233 9–13 29 ± 2 a 20 ± 1 a 3 ± 1 a
2812 14–18 26 ± 2 a 16 ± 1 a 5 ± 1
2283 19–30 39 ± 1 27 ± 1 13 ± 1
32

3112 31–50 49 ± 1 35 ± 1 18 ± 1 b
2709 51–70 65 ± 2 b 44 ± 2 b 20 ± 1 b
1853 ≥71 71 ± 1 b 46 ± 2 b 17 ± 1 b
Males
9490 All ≥ 1 44 ± 1 31 ± 1 13 ± 1
892 1–3 39 ± 2 27 ± 2 - 2
963 4–8 46 ± 3 35 ± 2 b 4 ± 1 a
1106 9–13 29 ± 2 a 18 ± 2 a 4 ± 1 a
1455 14–18 23 ± 1 a 14 ± 1 a 5 ± 1
1222 19–30 36 ± 2 25 ± 2 14 ± 1 b
1594 31–50 44 ± 1 32 ± 1 16 ± 1 b
1342 51–70 58 ± 2 40 ± 2 b 18 ± 1 b
916 ≥71 66 ± 2 b 43 ± 2 b 18 ± 1 b
Females
9268 All ≥ 1 53 ± 1 36 ± 1 15 ± 1
889 1–3 38 ± 2 25 ± 2 a 3 ± 1 a
1012 4–8 40 ± 3 28 ± 3 3 ± 1 a
1127 9–13 29 ± 3 a 23 ± 3 a 2 ± 0.6 a
1357 14–18 30 ± 2 a 19 ± 2 a 6 ± 1
1061 19–30 43 ± 2 30 ± 1 13 ± 1
1518 31–50 55 ± 2 38 ± 2 21 ± 2 b
1367 51–70 72 ± 2 b 48 ± 2 b 21 ± 2 b
937 ≥71 75 ± 2 b 48 ± 2 b 16 ± 1 b
↵1 All values are percentages ± SE. Superscripts denote sets within age and
within gender and age groupings with prevalence estimates that are
statistically indistinguishable from the lowest ( a ) or highest ( b )
population mean, as determined by Hsu's procedure with = 0.025.
↵2 Relative SE ≥ 40%; this estimate is not stable and is omitted.
33

Food supplements represent a multi-billion dollar industry, which indicates that people
experience positive effects from these so-called food products. Although the form and function of
supplements is similar to pharmaceutical drugs, they are distributed in the same manner as grocery store
items. With public safety in consideration, is it necessary to be concerned with the nearly unregulated
distribution of dietary supplements?
Production of Food Supplements
The production of food supplements in the U.S. is a highly controversial area that faces
opposition from many people. The main issue is lack of regulation in the production industry, which
started in 1994 when the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) was passed. The
DSHEA states that supplements will be regulated as food products rather than drugs. Furthermore, the
safety and effectiveness of supplements are not monitored by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
so the health of consumers is left at risk (Kinariwala, 2003). It is the sole responsibility of manufacturers
to report health issues related to their supplements, and therefore, countless reports are never documented
(Miller & Longtin, 2000). The FDA only interferes with supplement production once an unsafe
supplement has already been marketed, and although the FDA can establish good manufacturing practices
(GMPs), it has yet to do so effectively. Also, companies do not need to ensure their product is safe even
under the recommended conditions (Abebe 2003). Regulations need to change in order to improve the
safety and quality of supplements. Despite opposition, some organizations are working towards change,
and coupled with support from the public and health-care companies, these organizations could persuade
the FDA to change regulation laws for food supplements (Kinariwala, 2003).
The European Union also faces similar difficulties with food supplement regulations. In the EU,
supplements are also regulated as food without the enforcement of GMPs. Once again, the quality and
safety of supplements are in the hands of the manufacturers (Pravst & Žmitek, 2011). However, the EU is
working to make improvements, and in 2002, the EU produced directives regarding the regulation of food
and dietary supplements. The EU 2004/24/EC directive recognizes the proven safety and efficiency of
some herbal medicines. Those that had been in use for over 30 years and at least 15 years within the
European Union were recorded on an approved list, and in general, supplements had to conform to a socalled
positive list of safe supplements and active ingredients. However, companies could apply for
clearance to sell supplements that did not appear on the positive list but were nevertheless approved as
safe supplements. There is still concern among medical and nutritional circles regarding the regulation of
food supplements, and all agree that new directives will result in increased consumer safety (Eberhardie,
2005).
34

An example of a chemically engineered dietary
supplement
The contents of a so-called natural dietary
supplement
Labels from packaging of food supplements.
Contents
The majority of natural health product consumers do not consider the possible risks associated
with botanical supplements. Several recent studies have shown that high doses of the chemical
compounds used in plant-based food supplements can cause liver cancer. Though these processing
compounds are potentially harmful, the journal Food and Nutrition Sciences reported that the
concentration in which these carcinogens appear is harmless (―Some plant-based,‖ 2011).
Knowledge of supplements containing high levels of alkenylbenzenes has become essential in the
push for stricter regulation and quality control. An interest in botanicals and botanical preparations in the
European Union has resulted in an expanding market for herbal and dietary supplements. Researchers of
Wageningen University have extensively monitored and analyzed the safety associated with plant-based
35

food supplements. Thirty potential carcinogens were studied, and it was found that the majority of the
compounds shared something in common. They were part of the alkenylbenzenes group or the
pyrrolizidine alkaloids group. Awareness of the possible risks associated with some botanicals has created
a surge in improved quality control, so much that alkenylbenzenes estragole, methyleugenol and safrole
(see figure below) being used as flavor additives have been prohibited in numerous EU member states
(―Some plant-based,‖ 2011).
Chemical structures of alkenylbenzenes present in several plant-based food supplements.
Although dangerous carcinogens have been found in dietary supplements, they have not been
banned. Even supplements that have basil, fennel, nutmeg, sassafras, cinnamon, or calamus as a main
ingredients are high in alkenylbenzenes. Several recent studies revealing hazardous herbal supplements
have created a surge in risk management actions being taken. Although researchers report the occurrence
of liver cancer in animals after consumption of high concentrations of pure alkenylbenzenes, there are
numerous supplements which contain negligible amounts of potential carcinogens in them. When testing
the effects of alkenylbenzenes, the experimental animals were administered only the pure concentrations
rather than the dietary supplements combined with regular feed. Even if the studies are not indicative of
the level of risk present when consuming plant based supplements, it is appropriate to raise concern over
the lack of regulation and quality control (―Some plant-based,‖ 2011).
36

Step 1
Herbs are checked for pesticides or hazardous chemicals.
Step 2
A microbiological analysis is conducted in order to test for contaminants such as fungi.
Step 3
A phytograph is done in order to ensure that the identity and quality of each herb are
legitimate.
Step 4 Pills are made based on appropriate dosages.
Step 5
The final product is quality tested.
The production process of herbal supplements (based on Barrett, 1999).
Permissible Claims
Several recent studies have focused on the true benefits of certain herbal supplements such as
gingko, Echinacea and Saint John‘s Wort. These herbs have been reported to be cures for several illnesses
while studies have shown that they are ineffective. Despite the negative results from studies done on
herbal remedies, $14.8 billion was spent on herbal supplements in 2007. According to the Government
Accountability Office (GAO), those who market supplements continue to inform consumers incorrectly,
sometimes advising hazardous usage techniques. This was uncovered by incognito GAO employees who
posed questions as if they were elderly clients. Furthermore, it was found that salesmen advised
customers that herbal supplements were capable of preventing and curing Alzheimer‘s disease and that
prescription medication could be replaced with supplements. Gregory Kutz, managing director of
Forensic Audits and Special Investigations at the GAO revealed during a testimony to the U.S. Senate
Special Committee that the FDA and FTC had labeled the marketing approaches to be ―improper and
likely in violation of statutes and regulations.‖ Even though herbal supplements do not require pre-market
testing because they are sold as food, the GAO tested 40 commonly purchased supplements and found
that over 80% contained traces of lead, mercury, cadmium, and/or arsenic.
The FDA and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency considered the results to be hazardous but
stated that the levels of contaminants found were not high enough to put a consumer at risk. In general,
the Americans who purchase herbal supplements are cautious in choosing a reliable brand, and are
advised by the president of the Council for Responsible Nutrition that the GAO research should be of no
―concern to consumers.‖ Consumers buy herbals supplements to improve their health and lifestyle but are
at the mercy of marketers who fail to give valid information. The FDA regulates all dietary supplements
but give the responsibility of determining their benefits and dosages to the manufacturing company. Also,
the marketers are not required to present the means in which they determined the effectiveness and safety
of products to the FDA. The FDA checks to see that all manufacturing processes are valid, but no tests are
done on the claims made by manufacturers. If a faulty claim is revealed, the FDA must show that
consumers are at risk before actions can be made to remove the product from stores. Though it is illegal to
claim that a supplement can cure or prevent illnesses, the manufacturers are allowed to make general
claims about improving everyday bodily functions. A disclaimer is required which says that the claims
37

have not been evaluated by the FDA, but the majority of consumers are still mislead. Although
administrations like the FDA and the FTC are responsible for preventing false advertisements, there is not
enough attention given to inappropriate marketing techniques (Harmon, 2010).
Professor Edzard Ernst at the Department of Complementary Medicine at the University of
Exeter advises that herbal remedies should be sold by pharmacists. He has written before that herbs such
as ginkgo, St. John‘s wort, saw palmetto and horsechestnut seed extracts are viable for use as natural
remedies, but at the moment, they lack quality control because they are sold as food supplements rather
than drugs. Interested consumers are constantly referring to Professor Ernst to answer questions
concerning the efficacy and side effects of food supplements. Information supplied to these consumers is
limited though due to legal restrictions. Despite the regulatory process being inadequate, there is a
growing interest in herbal supplements. Salesmen should be allowed to provide appropriate advice if a
consumer is questioning the accuracy of information present on a label (Freeman, 2000).
Although herbal supplements cannot be claimed to treat disease, recent studies have shown that
there are potential benefits involved in the use of plant-based dietary supplements. The majority of
clinicians consider the use of herbal supplements to be disadvantageous, but people who use herbal
supplements do not need to consult their physician first. It has been tested to see how beneficial herbal
supplements are to the gastrointestinal health of a person. These studies have shown that herbal
supplements do not aid in the treatment of liver disease, but can help in the alleviation of gastrointestinal
symptoms (Lipman, n.d.).
Herbal supplements can benefit a person‘s entire diet but are commonly used for specific
purposes. For example, ginseng has been known to improve the overall health of the body, while
echinacea is used specifically to improve one‘s immune system. Other examples of herbal supplements
that have been used for specific purposes are spirulina, bee pollen, royal jelly, psyllium seed husks, wheat
germ, wheat grass, shiitake mushrooms, and reishi mushrooms (Dupler & Fundukian, 2011).
Side Effects of Food Supplements
The side effects of many food supplements remain unevaluated. The long term side effects are
particularly problematic, and although health reports may provide some insight into more immediate
effects, no major studies have been conducted on the extensive side effects. This is because food
supplements are regulated as food so broad studies are not required (Johnson, Haley, & Ward, 2007).
However, research shows that the side effects of many supplements may be harmful and interfere with
medical drugs.
Many protein supplements are taken as forms of ergogenic aid despite their documented adverse
effects. These supplements make up part of a multi-billion dollar industry that is based on a marketing
strategy that involves using mostly unproved claims. Additionally, many of these protein supplements can
have harmful side effects including decreased liver function, dehydration, and worsening of gout. A more
extensive list of these side effects can be found in table 1, which includes popular protein supplements
such as Creatine Fuel Chews, Muscle Milk, and Hydroxycut (Johnson et al., 2007).For example, studies
conducted on creatine show an increase in body mass and lean body mass. In reality however, this
increase is mainly a result of increased water retention in muscles, which does not actually benefit the
user‘s physical performance. Also, the protein supplements may not provide any additional benefits for
athletes in need of protein because sufficient amounts of protein are already provided in a normal diet
(Clarkson & Rawson, 1999). It is important to consider the costs and benefits of consuming protein
supplements.
38

Agent Active Ingredient(s) Trade Names Documented Adverse
Effects
Creatine Creatine Monohydrate Creatine Fuel Chews
(Twinlab Inc. NY, NY)
Creatine Monohydrate
100% (Higher Power, Boise,
ID)
Cell Tech (MuscleTech,
Mississauga, Canada)
Micronized Creatine
(AST Sports Science, Golden,
CO)
Electrolyte
disturbances29-31
Renal Damage29,32
Transient elevation in
transaminase31,33
Increased post-exercise
compartment
pressures34-35
Amphetamine
Derivatives
Ephedrine
Pseudoephedrine
Phenylpropanolamine
Phenteramine
Ma-Huang
Hydroxycut (MuscleTech,
Mississauga, Canada)
Muscle Milk (CytoSport,
Benicia, CA)
Ripped Fuel (Twinlab Inc. NY,
NY)
ProBURN (Prolab, Chatsworth,
Ca)
Acute Myocardial
Infarction36-37
Arrythmias36-39
Myocarditis36,37
Severe Hypertension36
Stroke40
Hyperthermia41
Rhbdomyolysis41
Documented adverse side effects of top selling dietary
supplements in the U.S. based on (Johnsonet et al., 2007)
Recent studies indicate that food supplements may have negative side effects and interact
negatively with other drugs. The lack of regulation presents safety problems for customers because selfmedication
is associated with many potential dangers and can result in health problems. Even when
supplements or herbal medicines are well manufactured and given at a safe dose, it is important to know
the effects of consuming other medications in combination with these dietary supplements that do not
require a doctor‘s prescription (Eberhardie, 2005). Some evidence shows that herbal supplements in
particular may interfere with good oral health. The information gathered through health reports on
adverse reactions to herbal supplements indicates that many of these products can degrade oral health
(Abebe, 2003).Studies involving garlic, ginseng, ginkgo, St. John's wort, and echinacea have shown that
all of these substances can have a peri or post-operative effect, and garlic, ginseng, and ginkgo can all
increase the risk of bleeding (Eberhardie, 2005).It is essential that the reactions of food supplements with
medical drugs are evaluated in order to protect the safety of customers.
39

Interactions of herbal supplements with dental drugs based on (Abebe, 2003)
Herbal supplements
(common and scientific
names)
Commonly reported uses
Interacting dental
drugs
Effects of
interactions
Cayenne/chile pepper
(Capsicum spp.)
For painful/itchy skin conditions and
circulatory healer
Aspirin
Increased risk of
bleeding
Herb protects gastric
irritation caused by
aspirin
Many drugs taken orally
Increase bioavailability
and effects of drugs
Dong quai(Angelica sinesis)
For painful menstrual cramp; general tonic;
antispasmodic; for cardiovascular health and
liver support
Aspirin
Increased risk of
bleeding
Echinacea (Echinacea
angustifolia)
Immune stimulant; antimicrobial; for colds,
flu, eczema and upper respiratory infections
Ketoconazole, acetaminophen
Increased hepatotoxicity
Ephedra
(Ephedra sinica)
For asthma, weight loss, CNS stimulation and
nasal congestion
Halothane
Epinephrine
Cardiac arrythmias
Cardiac arrythmias and
other cardiovascular
complications
Corticosteroids
Decreased steroid effect
Garlic
(Allium sativum)
Antihypertensive; antioxidant;
antihypercholesterolemia; antimicrobial; for
cancer prevention, colds, flu, and diabetes
Aspirin
General anesthetics
Increased risk of
bleeding
Increased risk of
bleeding
(postoperatively)
Ginkgo
(Ginkgo biloba)
To improve memory and brain function; for
claudication and general cardiovascular
health; antioxidant
Aspirin
Acetaminophen plus caffeine
plus enfotamine
Increased risk of
bleeding
Brain hemorrhage
Ginseng
(Panax spp.)
To enhance endurance, vitality, adaptation
and immune system; for stress
Corticosteroids
Increased steroid
activity/toxicity
Aspirin
Increased drug effect
Kava
(Piper methysticum)
For insomnia, anxiety, stress, muscle tension
and mild pain
CNS depressants (eg.,
benzodiazepines, opioids,
general anesthetics,
barbiturates and sedatives)
Increased CNS
depression
40

St. John‘s wort
(Hypericumperforatum)
For mild to moderate depression, and anxiety
and fatigue-related depression, insomnia, and
for wound healing, bruises and first-degree
burns; anti-inflammatory
Tetracyclines
Benzodiazepines
Increased
photosensitivity
Potentiation of sedative
effect
Valerian
(Valerianaofficinalis)
Sleep aid, spasmolytic; for anxiety, muscle
spasm, and menstrual and intestinal cramps
CNS depressants (e.g.)
benzodiazepines, opioids,
general anesthetics,
barbiturates and sedatives)
Increased CNS
depression
Public Opinion
The demand for food supplements is fueled entirely by consumers whom wish to alter their diet.
In some cases, a different diet is not much of a choice, but rather a necessity. A newspaper article titled
“The Fight for Food Supplements” from the Briarpatch newspaper describes efforts of the Ontario
Coalition Against Poverty, (OCAP), which has been mobilizing poor and homeless people to fight for
their rights since 1990. The goal of this organization was to provide up to $250 for people on social
assistance who are told they need food supplements by a medical professional. Numerous professionals
voiced their opinions on this matter, including Dr. Debbie Honickman of Queen West Community Health
Centre. She commented, “It is appalling that family doctors should have to decide who needs extra money
for special diets when in principle every social assistance recipient deserves the maximum allowance.
This absurd approach will cost the government more in paper and physicians' fees than it would likely
cost to give everyone on social assistance an extra $250 a month. I object to being drawn into such an
inhumane and wasteful system.” An organized march to the Ministry of Community and Social Services
was held in order to demand that the dietary supplement be supplied to everyone on assistance. This
organized movement was extraordinarily successful, although developers of the welfare system never
expected a demand for food supplements to arise (“Fight for Food Supplements”, 2005). This article
depicts a situation in which food supplements are important to public health and economics.
In contrast, food supplements have an undesirable reputation among some circles. The adverse
side effects lead people to question the legality of non-prescribed food supplements. A newspaper article
titled ―Tighter regulation needed for dietary supplements in USA‖, from The Lancet, argues that the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) needs to take initiative by enforcing stricter regulations on supplements.
Several commonly used products, namely Ginkgo biloba, St. John's wort, and ephedrine are known to
have serious adverse effects. Although side effects are normally associated with pharmaceutical drugs, the
FDA does not regard these dietary supplements as such and therefore, they are not distributed under the
same stringent standards which pharmaceutical drugs are subject to (FDA, 2011).
Standards are much less robust for dietary supplements because, under the Dietary Supplement
Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994, supplements are subject to the same regulatory
requirements as food. There are no provisions that require FDA approval for the safety or effectiveness of
supplements which leaves consumers and manufacturers responsible for the risks associated with these
products. Organizations such as Public Citizen and the American Medical Association are taking steps to
amend the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994 in order to classify dietary
supplements as prescription drugs. However, they face immense opposition from groups such as the
National Nutritional Foods Association, the American Herbal Association, and the Council for
Responsible Nutrition (Kinariwala, 2003). Health-care providers and the millions of Americans who
41

consume food supplements should be aware of the associated risks and make informed decisions
regarding their health, possibly with the advice of a medical professional.
Bibliography
Abebe, W. (2003). An overview of herbal supplement utilization with particular emphasis on
possible interactions with dental drugs and oral manifestations. PubMed, 77(1), 37-46.
Bailey, R., Gahche, J., Lentino, C., Dwyer, J., Engel, J., Thomas, P., Betz, J., Sempos, C., and 4
Picciano, M..(2011). Dietary Supplement Use in the United States, 2003–2006.American Society
forNutrition.141 (2), 261-266.http://jn.nutrition.org/content/141/2/261.full
Barrett, S. (1999). Herbal supplements. NCRHI Newsletter,22(1), 3.
Clarkson, P. M., & Rawson, E. S. (1999). Nutritional supplements to increase muscle mass.
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 39(4), 317.
Dupler, D., & Fundukian, L. (2011). Nutritional supplements.Health and Wellness Resource
Center, 6,
Eberhardie, C. (2005). Food Supplements and Herbal Medicines.Nursing Standards 20.3.
FDA releases NDA draft guidance. (2011). Nutraceuticals World, 14(7), 14.
Fight for food supplements: Ocap's fight for food supplements for people on assistance has been
such a success they need help to handle it. (2005). Briarpatch,34(3), 6.
Freeman, M. (2000). Herbal remedies are not food supplements. Chemist and Druggist, 8.
Harmon, K. (2010, May 28). Herbal supplement sellers dispense dangerous advice, false claims.
Scientific American. Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id= herbalsupplement-dangers
Johnson A, Haley CA, Ward CA .(2007). Hazards of Dietary Supplement Use. Journal of
Special Operations Medicine 7(1)(Winter): 30-38.
Kinariwala, N. (2003). Tighter regulation needed for dietary supplements in USA. The
Lancet, 361(9368), 1566-1566. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13207-2
Lipman, T. (n.d.). Herbal supplements. Current Gastroenterology Reports, 7(4), 302-307.
Miller, H. I., &Longtin, D. (2000).Death by dietary supplement. Policy Review, (102), 15-25.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/216442013?accountid=29120
42

Pravst, I., &Žmitek, K. (2011). The coenzyme Q10 content of food supplements. Journal Für
Verbraucherschutz Und Lebensmittelsicherheit, 6(4), 457-463. doi:10.1007/s00003-011-0704-5
Wageningen University and Research Centre (2011, December 12). Some plant-based food
supplements contain high levels of cancer. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/
releases/2011/12/111212123652.htm
Illustration Credits
http://healthwyze.org/images/supplement_label.jpg
http://www.storesonlinepro.com/files/1911564/uploaded/OrganicLifeVitaminsSupplement
FactsAug2011.jpg
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009279710005624
43

Chapter 4
Diet and Diabetes
Nora Murphy and Jay McCowan
Introduction
Diabetes is a disease in which a person either does not naturally produce enough insulin
to lower the body‘s blood sugar level or the cells are resistant to the insulin that is produced.
Diabetes has been recognized as a serious disease for about 2,000 years, but has only become
treatable in the last century. With technology advancing and research continuing, diabetes is
rapidly becoming more and more manageable for the average human. The main afflictions that
make up the whole of diabetes are type 1 and type 2, with type 2 comprising approximately 90%
of all cases.
Diabetes Type 1
Type 1 diabetes is a disease that afflicts victims‘ autoimmune system and destroys their
beta cells. These cells are located in the pancreas and are involved in the body‘s process of
creating insulin. Without insulin, the human body is unable to control blood sugar levels and this
can lead to severe complications such as kidney failure, heart attack, and stroke (Homann, 2011).
The history of diabetes is a long one, and for nearly 2,000 years diabetes went untreated,
which resulted in certain death for any afflicted persons. However, in the last century and a half,
medical breakthroughs have led to the discovery of insulin and of an effective treatment of the
disease. In 1921, a Canadian surgeon named Frederick Banting was able to keep a severely
diabetic dog alive for 70 days through intravenous injection of an extracted pancreatic liquid.
Banting soon refined this extract with the help of his colleagues and was able to use it to drop the
blood sugar levels of a young boy with diabetes. Within one day, the boys blood sugar levels
returned to normal, and news of Banting‘s early form of insulin was heard around the world
(Sattley, 2008).
Shortly after the discovery of insulin, various forms were marketed, including PZI, which
was developed in 1936, NPH (1938), and Lente (1952). Each new form of insulin was longer
lasting than its predecessors, which in turn meant that it would help maintain blood sugar levels
of a diabetic for a longer period of time. However, until the 1960s, there was no easy way to
measure blood sugar, which meant injecting an accurate amount of insulin was a tough thing to
do. The invention of urine strips changed all this, and, along with the invention of the single use
syringe by Becton-Dickinson, the treatment of diabetes was streamlined into something that just
about anyone could handle. New developments in the field since then have only continued to
make living with diabetes easier, such as the introduction of the portable glucose meter, an
instrument that was originally developed in 1969. The original glucose meter weighed over 3
pounds and cost roughly $650. Nowadays, these instruments are smaller than a calculator and
much better live up to their description of being portable.
44

In the late 1970s, the first insulin pump was developed, a device that would automatically
inject insulin into the body over the course of the day. These pumps have become the standard
for diabetes control and assist the body in mimicking the natural release of insulin as best as
possible. Finally, in 1979, the hemoglobin A1c test was developed and became the new standard
for testing blood sugar levels. The A1c test is much more accurate than previous tests and this
helps keep blood sugar levels closer to normal levels (Sattley, 2008). As shown by the Diabetes
Control and Complications Trial, by avoiding the spikes and dips in blood sugar that were so
frequently experienced, a diabetic could avoid developing long term complications such as eye,
kidney, and nerve disease (Crandall, 2010). All of these inventions, in conjunction with the
various studies that have been done, have changed diabetes from a disease that would turn deadly
within a year to a condition that can be treated for without severely limiting daily life.
Statistics and Trends
Of the 25.8 million people living in the United States with diabetes, only approximately
5% of them have type 1. The highest ranking ethnicity in relation to the prevalence of diabetes
was non-Hispanic blacks, accounting for 12.6% of the diagnosed diabetics. However, studies
seem to point towards Caucasians as having the highest chance of developing type 1 specifically
(―National diabetes fact sheet‖, 2011).
In general, the chances of developing type 1 diabetes by 70 years of age is 1%, although
this number is roughly 10 times higher if an immediate relative has type 1 diabetes. This is true
unless that relative is the mother, in which case the chances drop to 4% if the mother is 25 years
or younger and 1% if she is older than 25 (roughly the same chance as the average American)
(―Genetics & diabetes: what‘s your risk?‖, n.d.). Despite all these statistics, scientists are still
trying to determine just how genetics play a part in the development of type 1 diabetes, although
there may be more to it than just hereditary factors. New studies suggest that environmental
factors actually play a larger role in the development of type 1 than was previously thought
(―Frequently asked questions (faqs)‖, n.d.).
What Happens in the Body?
When a person develops type 1 diabetes, the immune cells have begun to destroy the
insulin-producing beta cells (―Fact sheets: type 1 diabetes facts‖, n.d.). Symptoms of the
development of type 1 diabetes include extreme thirst, frequent urination, blurry eyesight, and
sudden weight loss. These indicators are all signs that beta cells are being destroyed. In some
people, this induces a so-called honeymoon phase, in which the existing beta cells still function.
It is during this period that the most promise has been shown for halting the progression of type 1
diabetes and because of this, many studies are being done that involve the honeymoon phase.
After all of the beta cells have been destroyed, however, the person enters a complete
dependence on an outside source of insulin in order to maintain proper blood glucose levels. On
average, the body‘s blood sugar levels should be within the 70 to 140 mg/dL range, with that
number being near the lower end before meals and the higher end before bedtime. In order to
maintain these levels, proper diet and blood sugar management are required (Cihakova, 2001).
45

The glucose and insulin blood levels throughout a normal day. Blood glucose
levels rise and fall throughout the day, and are closely matched by the body‘s
insulin levels. These levels tend to peak during the mealtime hours and
sink down during the nighttime. Generally blood glucose levels stay within
70-140 mg/dL at all times
Processes in the pancreas of a person with type 1 diabetes.
46

New Developments
Researchers are constantly searching for a cure and attempting to make life easier for
those who live with diabetes. One such case can be found at Bristol University, where scientists
are studying the effects of an enterotoxin of E. coli and how it protects the islet cells in rats. The
enterotoxin does this by inhibiting the immune system and not letting it attack the insulin
producing cells. So far the experimental enterotoxin has prevented the progression of type 1
diabetes in test animals. The therapy is administered in the form of a nasal spray and will
hopefully soon be used in human clinical trials. The scientists at Bristol hope that by catching
type 1 diabetes early, the enterotoxin would then be able to be used to stop the immune system
before it completely destroyed all the islet cells (―Can diabetes type 1 be prevented?‖ 2001).
Diabetes population density map.
Diabetes Type 2
Insulin is a hormone released by the pancreas that controls the amount of sugar in the
blood. Insulin allows sugar to move from the blood to the cells to be used as energy or converted
into fat. In a normal body, blood glucose levels vary though out the day but stay in the range of
approximately 70 to 110 milligrams per deciliter. Diabetes is the condition in which not enough
insulin is produced to meet the body‘s needs. In patients with type 2 diabetes, the pancreas still
produces insulin but the body becomes resistance to its effects. Because of this patients have
abnormally and often dangerously high blood glucose levels and low amounts of sugar in the
cells.
Diabetes has been recognized as condition for 2,000 years but there was no distinction
between the different types until 1935. Shortly after the discovery of insulin in 1921, doctors
began to notice that insulin injections were having less of an effect on some diabetes patients
(Ramlo & Edelam, 2000). As of 2010, 25.8 million people or 8.3% of U.S. population had type 2
47

diabetes and 27% of Americans over age 65 had diabetes (National diabetes fact sheet, 2010).
Type 2 diabetes patients gradually lose sensitivity to insulin in adulthood, and the condition is
strongly linked with poor diet and obesity. An obese person develops an insulin resistance
because he or she requires very high levels of insulin to maintain a normal blood glucose level.
Due to the gradual onset of symptoms, the conditions often goes undiagnosed for years or
even decades. The symptoms are very similar to type 1 diabetes, the only difference being the
rapidity of commencement. Often the distinguishing symptoms of diabetes are large volumes of
urine or excessive thirst. When the blood has high glucose levels, the kidneys excrete this excess
sugar out of the body in urine. The deluge of urine is often sweet as well; the primitive test for
diabetes was to taste the urine. Other symptoms of type 2 diabetes include blurred vision,
drowsiness, nausea, and decreased endurance during exercise. People with type 2 diabetes may
not have any symptoms for years or decades before diagnosis. The onset of symptoms is much
more gradual compared to type 1, and therefore people may not notice the warning signs
(Crandall, 2010).
Paula Deen, a 64 year old TV chef who is famous for her southern comfort food,
announced in January 2012 that she was diagnosed with type 2 diabetes three years earlier. Her
deep fried lasagna and Twinkie pie had prompted some nutritionists to label her as the most
dangerous person to America. The deep fried, butter drenched, and sickeningly sweet recipes she
is known for has led to her type 2 diabetes; 8.3 percent of Americans currently share the same
diagnoses, and the majority of cases are due to poor diet. There is an extreme amount of research
being done for prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes because it affects so many Americans
and the numbers are only rising (Carbone, 2012).
Processes of glucose absorption (left) vs.processes of glucose maintenance (right).
48

Prevention and Treatment
Pre-diabetes is a condition in which blood glucose levels are high but not high enough to
be considered diabetes. The fasting glucose levels of pre-diabetes are between 100 mg/dL and
126 mg/dL. Identification in this stage is crucial from taking preventative measures (Crandall,
2010). It is estimated that 35% of American adults have pre-diabetes, and 50% of Americans 65
or older are pre-diabetic (National diabetes fact sheet, 2010). Patients with impaired glucose
tolerance, or pre-diabetic, should participate in 30 minutes of exercise 5 days a week, lose
weight, and limit dietary fat. Studies have shown that by following these guild line adults age
40-65 years old that are in risk of developing type 2 diabetes can reduce their chance of
developing the disease by 56%. By exercising for 2.5 hours a week and loosing approximately
6% of body weight, adults can cut their risk of developing diabetes in half (Vijan, 2008).
Screening by physicians is crucial in diagnosing type 2 diabetes. Early recognition of
type 2 diabetes or pre-diabetes can significantly reduce the complications associated with the
disease. Type 2 diabetes often goes undiagnosed for 4 to 7 years. It would not be cost effective to
routine screen every person for plasma glucose level but for patients demonstrating risk factors it
is fiscally beneficial to test for the disease. The table below displays the major risk factors that
would justify a test for high blood glucose levels.
The risk factors for developing type 2 diabetes.
Once the condition has been diagnosed a treatment method has to be implemented that
will adequately control blood sugar levels. Type 2 diabetes can be managed by diet and exercise,
unlike type 1. If a change is not sufficient in moderating blood glucose levels, then a patient can
take oral medications or inject insulin for treatment. The method of treatment often is dependent
upon the severity of the situation; 16% of patients use no medication to manage their conditions,
58% use only oral medication, 14% use a combination of oral pharmaceuticals and insulin, and
12% use only insulin (―National diabetes fact sheet‖, 2010).
49

Diet and exercise can help manage glucose levels and can provide patients with other
long term benefits. Studies have shown that exercise can increase insulin sensitivity and
improves glycemic control. Diet and exercise are not effective in the long term but are good first
line interventions. Before beginning a new diet or exercise regimen, patients should undergo a
detailed medical evaluation, especially if they may have other physical ailments. Most patients
can moderate their symptoms for a period of time with diet and exercise before beginning a
pharmaceutical regiment but patients with serve hyperglycemia should begin pharmacologic
therapy at the time of diagnosis (Vijan, 2008).
Patients with type 2 diabetes should seek help from a nutritionist for a specific diet plan
that will assist them in controlling their diabetes. Generally the diet should focus on moderation
with a restricted calorie intake. The patient should avoid consumption of saturated fats and
simple sugars. Individualized exercise plans should be implemented, but patients need to be wary
because exercise lowers blood glucose levels. The level of exercise should be about 30 to 45
minutes of moderate aerobic exercise 3 to 5 days a week (Vijan, 2008).
Oral antihyperglycemic drugs can often lower blood sugar levels adequately in people
with type 2 diabetes. There are many different varieties; some increase the production of insulin
while others increase the body‘s response to it and other can delay the absorption of glucose into
the intestine. These oral medications are often prescribed to people who fail to lower blood sugar
levels adequately enough with diet or exercise alone. These pharmaceuticals can be taken once
or multiply times a day depending upon the condition. Patients with type 2 diabetes who cannot
control their disease with oral drugs may need to take insulin injects alone or combine them with
the oral antihyperglycemic (Crandall, 2010).
Insulin is often required as a final result for patients who cannot control their type 2
diabetes with diet and exercise or oral antihyperglycemic drugs. Patients with type 2 diabetes
must take modified insulin in order for their body to respond to it. Currently insulin must be
injected into a fat layer or new forms of insulin can be taken as a nasal spray. Some patients wear
a pump which pumps insulin into the body through a needle left in the skin. The pumps adds
insulin to the body either at pre-determined times or when needed. The pumps administer inulin
to the body similarly to the way that the pancreas releases insulin (Crandall, 2010).
Common insulin injection used by diabetic patients every day.
50

There are three forms of insulin available, which are categorized by duration of
effectiveness and speed of action. The three types are: rapid acting insulin, intermediate acting
insulin, and long acting insulin. Choosing the correct type of insulin differs from person to
person and often depends on their daily activities, their willingness to monitor blood sugar levels,
and how stable their blood sugar levels are. The amount, times, and type of insulin injects are
chosen to best control the blood glucose levels (Crandall, 2010).
Many prevention methods focus on lowering blood glucose levels in order to avoid the
onset of insulin resistance. Some suggest the most effective plan of prevention would be to
increase insulin sensitivity through diet and exercise along with oral antidiabetic agents such as
metformin, acarbose, troglitazone, orlistat. Patients treat with certain antihypertensives,
particularly angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors mainly trandolapril and perindopril, and
angiotensin receptor blockers such as candesartan valsartan have seen significant decrease in the
onset of type two diabetes symptoms. Other antihypertensives can actually increase the risk of
developing type 2 diabetes. More research is being done to clarify an exact set of medications
that would delay and prevent the onset of diabetes (Mathews & Levy, 2009).
Complications
Along with the difficulties associated with testing and monitoring blood sugar levels,
type 2 diabetes can result in severe complications, high medical costs, and premature death. Type
2 diabetes negatively affects many different parts of the body. Statistically speaking, adults with
type 2 diabetes have rates of heart disease and risks of strokes 2 to 4 times higher than adults
without diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is the leading cause of new blindness in adults and 28.5% of
people with diabetes experience retinopathy. The condition is the leading cause of kidney failure
accounting for nearly 50% of all cases. Approximately 60-70% of people with diabetes have
mild to serve nervous system damage which often leads to amputation. The table below displays
long term complications from type 2 diabetes (―National diabetes fact sheet‖, 2010).
Due to the daily treatment and monitoring required, as well as the many complications,
diabetes cost American 174 billion dollars a year in direct and indirect costs. The average
diabetic has medical costs 2.3 times higher than a person without type 2 diabetes. 116 billion
dollars in direct costs are for things such as treatment and medical expenses and the 58 billion
dollars in indirect cost are for disability, work loss, and premature mortality. Type 2 diabetes
played a role in 160,022 deaths in 2010 and was the leading cause of 71,382 American deaths.
The risk of death for people with diabetes is twice the risk of death for people the same age
without diabetes (―National diabetes fact sheet‖, 2010).
51

Tissue or Organ
Affected
Blood vessels
Eyes
Kidneys
Nerves
Autonomic
system
Skin
nervous
Effects
Long-Term Complications of Diabetes
Fatty material (atherosclerotic plaque) builds up
and blocks large or medium-sized arteries in the
heart, brain, legs, and penis.
The walls of small blood vessels are damaged
so that the vessels do not transfer oxygen to
tissues normally, and the vessels may leak.
The small blood vessels of the retina are
damaged.
Blood vessels in the kidneys thicken.
Protein leaks into urine.
Blood is not filtered normally.
Nerves are damaged because glucose is not
metabolized normally and because the blood
supply is inadequate.
The nerves that control blood pressure and
digestive processes are damaged.
Blood flow to the skin is reduced, and sensation
is decreased, resulting in repeated injury.
Complications
Poor circulation causes wounds to heal poorly and
can lead to heart disorders, strokes, gangrene of
the feet and hands, erectile dysfunction
(impotence), and infections.
Decreased vision and, ultimately, blindness occur.
The kidneys malfunction, and ultimately, kidney
failure occurs.
Legs suddenly or gradually weaken.
People have reduced sensation, tingling, and pain
in their hands and feet.
Swings in blood pressure occur.
Swallowing becomes difficult.
Digestive function is altered, and sometimes bouts
of diarrhea occur.
Erectile dysfunction develops.
Sores and deep infections (diabetic ulcers)
develop.
Healing is poor.
Blood White blood cell function is impaired. People become more susceptible to infections,
especially of the urinary tract and skin.
Connective tissue
Glucose is not metabolized normally, causing
tissues to thicken or contract.
Carpal tunnel syndrome and Dupuytren's
contracture develop.
The table above describes complications with diabetes (Crandall, 2010).
Literature Cited
Can diabetes type 1 be prevented?. (2001, March 1). British Journal of Ophthalmology (0007-
1161), 85. Retrieved from http://bjo.bmj.com/
Carbone, N. (2012, January 17). Butter connoisseur Paula Deen admits type 2 diabetes
battle. Time Magazine, Retrieved from http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/01/17/butterconnoisseur-paula-deen-admits-type-2-diabetes-battle
Centers For Disease Control, (2011). National diabetes fact sheet. Retrieved from website:
http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/ndfs_2011.pdf
Cihakova, D. (2001, September 10). Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Retrieved from
http://autoimmune.pathology.jhmi.edu
52

Crandall, J. P. (2010, April). Diabetes mellitus (dm). Retrieved from
http://www.merkmanuals.com
Eckman, A. (2011). Hypoglycemia. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed
health/PMH0001423/
Fact sheets: type 1 diabetes facts, (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.jdrf.org/
Ferry, R. F. (2011). Emedicine health. Retrieved from http://www.emedicinehealth.com/low_
blood_sugar_hypoglycemia/article_em.htm
Fowler, M. (2008, October). Hypoglycemia. American Diabetes Association. Retrieved on
March 22nd, 2012, from http:// http://clinical.diabetesjournals.org/.
Frequently asked questions (faqs), (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.jdrf.org/
Genetics & diabetes: what’s your risk?, (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.joslin.org/
Homann, Dirk, (2011). Type 1 diabetes. Retrieved from http://www.accessscience.com/
Hypoglycemia. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/hypoglycemia-
000090.htm
Hypoglycemia coma. (2012). Reactive hypoglycemia. Retrieved from http://www.reactive
hypoglycemia.net/hypoglycemia-coma.html.
Hypoglycemia diet. (2012). Reactive hypoglycemia. Retrieved from http://www.reactivehypogl
ycemia.net/hypoglycemia-diet.html.
Hypoglycemia effects. (2012). Reactive hypoglycemia. Retrieved from http://www.reactive
hypoglycemia.net/hypoglycemia-effects.html.
Hypoglycemia foods. (2012). Reactive hypoglycemia. Retrieved from http://www.reactivehypo
glycemia.net/hypoglycemia-foods.html.
Long-term effects of neonatal hypoglycemia on brain growth and psychomotor development in
small-for-gestational-age preterm infants. (1999). National Institute of Health. Retrieved
from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10190926.
Low blood sugar. (2012). Reactive hypoglycemia. Retrieved from http://www.reactivehypogly
cemia.net/low-blood-sugar.html
Mathews, D. R., & Levy, J. C. (2009). Impending type 2 diabetes. The Lancet, 373(9682), 2178–
2179.
Mayo Clinic. (2010, January 12). Hypoglycemia Treatment. Retrieved from
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hypoglycemia/DS00198/DSECTION=treatmentsand-drugs.
National diabetes fact sheet, (2011). Centers for Disease Control. Retrieved from
http://www.cdc.gov/
53

Ramlo, B., & Edelam, S. (2000). The natural history of type 2 diabetes: practical points to
consider in developing prevention and treatment strategies. American Diabetes
Association, 18(2), 80-85. Retrieved from http://journal.diabetes.org/clinicaldiabetes/
v18n22000/pg80.htm
Sattley, Melissa, (2008, December 17). The history of diabetes. Retrieved from
http://www.diabeteshealth.com/
Symptoms of hypoglycemia. (2012). Reactive hypoglycemia. Retrieved from http://www.
reactivehypoglycemia.net/symptoms-of-hypoglycemia.html
Treatment of hypoglycemia. (2012). Reactive hypoglycemia. Retrieved from http://www.reactive
hypoglycemia.net/treatment-of-hypoglycemia.html.
Vijan, S. (2008). Diabetes mellitus type 2. Philadelphia, PA: PIER. Retrieved from
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http://en.wikipedia.org/
www.mindthesciencegap.org)
www.leighagombardiabetes.blogspot.com)
www.webmd.com)
http://pier.acponline.org/mcpp/pdf/d296.pdf
https://wiki.engr.illinois.edu/)
Illustration Credits
54

Chapter 5
Diet and Heart Disease
Rebecca Stolarczyk and Arjun Tanguturi
Introduction
A diet, which is the sum of the food eaten, is not only necessary to a human being, but also
potentially beneficial. By keeping a healthy diet, an average human being sustains his body and keeps
diseases at bay. Recent studies have shown that healthy dieting can prevent heart disease. Heart disease is
the leading cause of death in the United States of America. Here are some essential facts:
Every year about 785,000 Americans have a first coronary attack. Another 470,000 who have
already had one or more coronary attacks have another attack (Yetley & Park, 1995).
An estimated 7.2 million people die every year because of heart disease (Sherman, 2009).
In 2010, coronary heart disease alone was projected to cost the United States $108.9 billion
(Yetley, & Park, 1995).
For people with heart disease, studies have shown that lowering cholesterol and blood
pressure levels can reduce the risk of dying from heart disease, having a nonfatal heart attack,
or needing heart bypass surgery or angioplasty.
·
In developing regions including India, Russia, and the majority of southern Asia, the disability –
adjusted life years (DALY) lost is close to 30 years per 1000. Not only is this extremely high, but it also
reflects upon the diet and exercise that people in these regions obtain.
Death rates from heart disease in the USA
55

Arrhythmia
In a healthy human heart, all of the signals coordinate in a way that maintains the synchronous
beating of muscle cells. However, occasionally problems develop with the electrical activity in the heart
as the result of certain diseases or genetics. Personal lifestyle choices such as diet and exercise also play a
critical role in the development of cardiac issues (Berry et al., 2012).
Over 600,000 people are hospitalized every year for cardiac dysrhythmias, also known as
arrhythmias or irregular heartbeat. A person with an arrhythmia has abnormal electrical activity in the
heart, and therefore an unnatural heart rhythm. There are two main types of arrhythmias: bradycardia, in
which the heart has less than 60 beats per minute; and tachycardia, in which the heart has more than 100
beats per minute. The first step in diagnosing an arrhythmia is determining where in the heart it
originates. Once this is determined, specific treatment can be given to that region of the heart, if possible.
There are several treatment options available to patients with arrhythmias including medicine,
implantation of a pacemaker, anticoagulants (to reduce the risk of blood clots), cardiac defibrillation, and
cardiac ablation (―Your heart's electrical system‖, 2008).
The sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes
control pacing and beating of the heart.
Cardiomyopathy
The term cardiomyopathy refers to disease of the heart muscle, which results in damage to muscle
tone and reduction in ability to pump blood. This disease is not only the leading cause of heart failure in
the US but also the most common reason for heart failure. Of the 500,000 Americans living with
cardiomyopathy, a large number are not aware that they have this condition. For this reason,
cardiomyopathy is particularly dangerous because it often goes unrecognized and untreated. In contrast to
other types of heart conditions, cardiomyopathy often affects younger people.
There are four distinct types of cardiomyopathy: dilated, hypertrophic, restrictive, and ischemic.
Dilated cardiomyopathy, also called congestive cardiomyopathy, the most common form of this disease.
It is characterized by weakening of the chamber walls of the heart. Dilated cardiomyopathy is usually
idiopathic because in most cases, doctors are not able to identify the cause.
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Dilated cardiomyopathy condition is characterized
by weakening of the chamber walls of the heart.
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, the second most common form of the disease, is described as the
thickening of the heart‘s walls. This form is primarily genetic, but in some cases the cause is not clear.
A heart with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
has thickened chamber walls.
The third type, restrictive cardiomyopathy, is rare in the United States. This condition does not
allow for proper stretching of the heart, thus limiting the amount of blood that is able to fill the chambers.
The fourth and final form of cardiomyopathy is ischemic. This occurs as a direct result of cardiac
ischemia, which in turn usually results from coronary artery disease or heart attacks. In this case, ischemia
refers to the narrowing or blocking of an artery so that oxygen-rich blood is unable to reach the heart.
This often leads to angina pectoris, or heart pain. Ischemia cardiomyopathy directly describes the
weakening of the heart muscle tissue as a result of cardiac ischemia.
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Myocardial Infarction
Myocardial infarction, also known simply as a heart attack, is the necrosis of heart muscle as a
result of prolonged and untreated ischemia. This most often results from the lack of oxygen-rich blood
flow to the heart caused by the development of thrombus in a coronary vessel. In some of the most fatal
instances, myocardial infarction goes unnoticed and therefore untreated because the patient does not
recognize the symptoms.
This condition is part of a larger spectrum called acute coronary syndrome (ACS). This
continuum includes unstable angina (chest pain), non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction
(NSTEMI), and ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). The ST-segment refers to changes
identified on an electrocardiogram (ECG) which reflect active and continuous myocardial injury.
Myocardial infarction results from the
blockage or rupture of a vessel of the heart.
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a term that refers to the condition in which plaque builds up within arteries. It
has recently been discovered that inflammation plays a key role in the severity of this disease. Although
inflammation—the reaction that causes redness, swelling, and pain—is actually one of the body‘s defense
mechanisms, it proves instead to be harmful in the development of atherosclerosis. This view suggests
that incidents occurring from atherosclerosis such as stroke and heart attack arise from the blockage of
arteries by blood clots rather than plaque. These blood clots develop from the rupture of obtrusive plaques
located within the arteries.
These new ideas answer many longstanding medical mysteries, for example, why some heart
attacks occur without any initial symptoms. This new view of atherosclerosis also explains why some
therapies aimed to prevent heart attacks are often unsuccessful (Libby, 2012).
This inflammatory response does more harm than good in this case. Rather than returning to their
original state, artery walls become altered. Some of the original characteristics of the vessels are no longer
present, and a larger, more complex plaque is developed (Libby, 2012).
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The buildup of plaque within the arteries
restricts blood flow to and from the heart.
Periodontal Disease
Periodontitis is a destructive dental disease that is primarily caused by microorganisms. It
generally results in deterioration of periodontal ligament and alveolar bone in concurrence with gingival
recession. Recent research has shown that localized infections characteristic of periodontitis can have a
prodigious effect on the overall health of both animals and humans (Saini, R., Saini, S., & Saini, S.R.,
2010). Statistical analysis of the research has helped conclude that elevated levels of a number of
inflammatory molecules may be accurate indicators of cardiovascular disease.
It is estimated that more than 500 distinct bacterial species are capable of colonizing in the
mouth. Poor dental hygiene and oral infections are the main roots of bacteria, even in the absence of
dental procedures. In patients with complex advanced diseases, lesions in the oral cavity can severely
impact their quality of life. Generally bacteria collect in patients‘ mouths after dental procedures.
However, there is a wide variation in reported frequencies of transient bacteria in patients resulting from
dental procedures (Saini, R., Saini, S., & Saini, S.R., 2010).
Tooth deterioration resulting from periodontitis.
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The mouth is a reflection of a patient‘s overall health, adverse habits, and nutritional status. It acts
as an entry point for microbial infections that affect general health. Many theories have been presented
explaining the link between periodontal disease and heart disease. For instance, some scientists infer that
oral bacteria can affect the heart when it enters the bloodstream by attaching to plaques in the arterial
region. Streptococcus viridian is the main infective agent that is able to enter the bloodstream from areas
with great wounds or bleeding such as the oral cavity and it can lodge on the muscles of the heart and
cause ulcerations (Saini, R., Saini, S., & Saini, S.R., 2010). Other scientists believe that inflammation
caused by periodontal disease increases plaque buildup, which might be the cause of swelling of the
arteries, which in turn leads to atherosclerosis and other possible heart complications.
Possible Solutions and Treatment
Dietary changes must be made in order to ensure prevention of heart disease. The low-fat Dean
Ornish diet and the low-carb Atkins diet both lead to weight loss; moreover, they also help decrease
cardiovascular ailments, and help to improve lipid profiles (Sherman, 2009). Recent research in the field
of nutritional science has confirmed that long term adherence to such diets may help prevent future
cardiovascular misgivings. Alternate studies have also shown that patients consuming a Mediterranean
diet, one that comprises low saturated fat, high monounsaturated fat and high dietary fiber, have generally
shown far lower rates of cardiovascular disease than people with different diets (―Heart disease and diet
pills‖, 2000).
Exercise is also a must; a diet without exercise, or vice versa, could lead to various consequences
including heightened risk of cardiovascular disease (Sherman, 2009). High-intensity interval training has
been shown to increase weight loss, and has also been shown, in concurrence with a regular 2000 kcal
diet, to help prevent cardiovascular disease (Van Horn, 2008). In order to maintain a healthy body, diet
and exercise must be balanced because they are interdependent components of a healthy lifestyle.
Conclusion
Heart disease has a huge impact on the mortality rate every year. However, with a moderate of
diet and exercise, it can be prevented. A healthy diet is critical to maintain a healthy body and can help
prevent life threatening conditions such as cardiomyopathy, atherosclerosis, and myocardial infarction.
Unhealthy diets can also lead to oral issues such as periodontal disease, which in turn can lead to heart
disease, and thereby cause long term harm. A healthy diet is an essential component towards battle
against heart disease.
Bibliography
Berry, J., Dyer, Alan., Harris, M., et al. (2012). Lifetime Risks of Cardiovascular Disease. New England
Journal of Medicine, 336, p321-329. Retrieved March 23, 2012 from the New England Journal of
Medicine: http://www.nejm.org/
Cardiomyopathy. (2011). Retrieved March 29, 2012 from Texas Heart Institute:
http://www.texasheartinstitute.org/
Coronary heart disease. (2012, January). In Encyclopedia Brittanica. Retrieved March 22, 2012, from
Encyclopedia Brittanica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ topic/138261/coronaryheart-disease
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Heart disease death rates, total population. (2010, December 20) Retrieved April 7, 2012, from
http://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/maps/national_maps/hd_all.htm
Isenberg, B. , Williams, C. , and Tranquillo, R. (2006). Small-Diameter Artificial Arteries Engineered In
Vitro. Circulation Research 98, 25-35. Retrieved October 6, 2011, from Highwire Press
Kritchevsky, D. (1994, July). Diet and Heart Disease. South African Medical Journal. 26
Libby, P. (2008). Atherosclerosis: The New View. Retrieved March 23, 2012 from Scientific American:
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=atherosclerosis-the-new-view
More on heart disease and diet pills. (2000, July). Harvard Heart Letter, 10(11), 5.
Saini, R., Saini, S., and Saini, S.R. (2010). Periodontal disease: A risk factor to cardiac disease. Annals of
Cardiac Anesthesia, 13(2), 159-161.
Sherman, L. (2009, October). Diet and Heart Disease. The Journal of Chinese Medicine, 91, 81.
Van Horn, L. (2008). Diet and Heart Disease. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 108(2), 203.
Your heart‘s electrical system. (2008). Yardley, PA: The StayWell Company
Zafari, A. (2012). Myocardial Infarction. Retrieved March 29, 2012 from Medscape:
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/155919-overview
Illustration Credits
http://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/maps/national_maps/hd_all.htm
http://www.texasheartinstitute.org/HIC/Anatomy/images/fig9_conduct.jpg
http://www.genedx.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/dcm_fig1.jpg
http://www.riversideonline.com/source/images/image_popup/hb7_hypertrophicpopup.jpg
www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/heartattack/
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/atherosclerosis/
http://img.webmd.com/dtmcms/live/webmd/consumer_assets/site_images/
media/medical/hw/h9999145_001.jpg
61

Chapter 6
Vegetarian and Vegan Diets
Dhroova Aiylam and Cameron Root
Vegetarianism is broadly defined as the practice of eating foods entirely based on plants or the
practice of a diet containing no meat. Multiple studies in recent years show an increase in the number and
proportion of vegetarians relative to total population; for example, a study by the United States
Department of Agriculture found that the number of self-classified vegetarians had increased fivefold
after a span of fifteen years. Studies also show a growth in the number of vegetarians under the age of 18;
one also states that those with meat in their diets are also shifting towards a greater vegetarian orientation,
consciously consuming less meat and more plant-based foods. Because of these changes, some large
producers of food products and retailers have diversified their vegetarian alternatives to meat or meatbased
foods (Janda & Trocchia, 2001).
There are four subgroups of vegetarians categorized by the additional foods they restrict (apart
from meat). Lacto-ovo-vegetarians apply no further restriction and simply avoid meat products. Lactovegetarians
refrain from eating eggs or any food containing eggs; ovo-vegetarians eat eggs but avoid
dairy. Lastly, vegans avoid all animal products including, in most cases, honey and animal-based material
(Rubin, 2002).
Four motives behind individuals' becoming vegetarian are easily identifiable, although many
other reasons for adopting the practice exist. These four, which can be reasonably asserted as the principal
motives behind vegetarianism, are ethics, health, sensory effects, and influence; there is substantial
overlap between them. Less prevalent reasons for vegetarianism include ecology, economy, concern for
world hunger, and religion (Janda &Trocchia, 2001; Rubin, 2002).
Ethics are the most common reason behind a vegetarian diet. Most vegetarians have two types of
ethical concerns: care for the welfare of animals and a guilty conscience related to killing animals. As for
the first, many vegetarians empathize with animals and cite numerous reasons why they oppose standard
practices of treating animals raised for food; among these are the location and manner in which the
animals are treated, the use of substances such as hormones to cause unnatural effects on animals' bodies,
and the objectification of animals. Other ethical vegetarians may have chosen their diet because they had
owned pets earlier in life, particularly in childhood. However, the larger concern of many ethical
vegetarians is the inability to condone the killing of another living creature. This is reflected in multiple
religious beliefs, such as Buddhism, which holds as a principle the aversion of unnecessary harm wrought
on anything alive. Even those without religious considerations, however, typically believe that animals
cannot be senselessly destroyed or eaten with a clean conscience. Yet many vegetarians consume milk,
honey, or eggs without guilt, because the production of these foods does not require the death of an
animal (Janda & Trocchia, 2001).
The next-greatest motivation is the factor of health and the commonly held belief that a
vegetarian diet is healthier than an omnivorous one. Studies indicate that vegetarian diets contain little
saturated fat, animal protein, and cholesterol, if any, and they typically contain elevated levels of
phytochemicals, carotenoids, folates, and antioxidants. As a result, vegetarian diets are associated with
lowered risks of many major diseases. The number of health-motivated vegetarians has risen in the past
century from nearly zero to a large population, especially in the United States. As an effect, many foods
labeled as organic and natural have increased in tandem. Other sources for health-motivated
vegetarianism include the negative health effects of eating meat, especially those concerning hormones
and chemicals administered to animals, which are subsequently consumed by humans (Janda & Trocchia,
2001).
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Sensory vegetarians avoid meat because they have a conscious dislike for its taste, smell, texture,
or sight. This may originate from an imagination of the animal when it was alive or upon reflection on the
death of the animal. Many ethical or health-based vegetarians perceive some or all of these sensory
perceptions as negative. There is an entire range of ways in which vegetarians display an aversion to the
sensory impact of meat. Some may view public displays of meat (e.g. in a butcher's shop) or even the
sight of vegetarian foods made to imitate meat as repulsive. Others may dislike the sight of blood in meat
or meat-based foods. However, a substantial number of sensory vegetarians consciously see others eating
meat and regard it as cannibalistic and therefore a source of negative reinforcement.
The last major motivation for vegetarianism in general is a vegetarian influence on a previously
non-vegetarian person, which then causes latter to feel a need to emulate this influential other. This
person can be a parent, a friend, or anyone else with a substantial amount of influence on the person. Of
course, one may become a vegetarian for solely societal reasons: vegetarians are typically viewed as more
health-conscious and self-disciplined than non-vegetarians. This is an important factor in a cultural
phenomenon that has been occurring in recent decades, in which the state of being a vegetarian becomes
viewed as trendy and special. This results in many meat-eaters' experiencing a societal aspiration to be
classified as vegetarian; because the definition of vegetarian is subjective, some meat-eaters, especially
those who consumed only fish, poultry, and plant products, then fulfill their social need and call
themselves vegetarians, either by actually giving up all meat or by giving up only red meat. Any people of
this type generally have little motivation to remain vegetarian, and they are the most likely to give up and
return to an omnivorous diet. Those who truly do not consume any animal products may react with
indignation to these individuals and become defensive of their own status as vegetarians (Janda &
Trocchia, 2001).
History of Vegetarianism and Veganism
The first recorded individual to live with a diet of no meat was Pythagoras of Samos. Shortly
thereafter, other Greek philosophers such as Plutarch, Epicurus, and Plato took on this lifestyle choice as
well. This practice continued through the centuries with relatively small followings, and in the midnineteenth
century, the Vegetarian Society in England was popularizing the term vegetarian. Gradually,
the global number of vegetarians increased. It was in the year 1944 when Donald Watson invented a new
and stricter lifestyle, that of total abstinence from animal products. This would become veganism, the first
offshoot of vegetarianism. Watson proposed that his newsletter on the subject would be called the Vegan
News, and defined veganism as a diet of solely fruits, vegetables, nuts, grains, and other beneficial nonanimal
products. Vegans thus became a discrete group, living more rigorously than vegetarians, who
typically allow the consumption of dairy, eggs, or honey, and the use of leather, wool, and other such
material. Indeed, if a vegetarian were to eschew all animal products, he or she would be generally
considered a vegan (Safire, 2005).
Other side branches exist in the world of vegetarianism: pescetarian or pesco-vegetarian is used
for persons who eat seafood, but no meat or fowl; rawism describes a person who consumes only raw
fruits and vegetables; a flexitarianist is anyone who eats like a vegetarian at home but consumes meat
when dining out. All of these evolved from vegetarianism after veganism was established (Safire, 2005).
Protein in Vegetarian Diets
Constructing a nutritionally complete vegetarian or vegan diet is a challenge of its own. Because
they restrict if not abandon several of the food groups, vegetarian and vegan diets are predisposed towards
nutritional imbalance. Specifically, fruits and vegetables are consumed in excess, yet there is a deficiency
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of those nutrients that are generally obtained from animal meat or by-products. However, it is possible to
tailor what one eats to address this discrepancy. Protein, vitamin B12, zinc, and selenium, the nutrients
most lacking in a vegetarian or vegan diet, can be obtained from vegetarian and vegan sources. To do this
is, of course, no small feat; it is difficult to consume them in adequate amounts unless one makes an
explicit attempt to include rich sources in his or her diet.
Most people believe protein is the primary concern of vegans and vegetarians. Though it may be,
that concern is in fact misguided. Many people, especially athletes, consume far too much protein. In
reality, only 1 of every 10 calories consumed should be protein. Athletes actually do not need more
protein than non-athletes (Campbell & Venderly, 2006), and store-bought protein supplements are
unnecessary and potentially harmful. Unlikely as it may seem, the average person gets more protein than
he or she should be getting.
It is especially important for the vegan, who does not eat animal flesh or by-products, to consume
a healthy amount of protein. The recommended daily allowance is 0.8 g of protein for every kilogram of
body mass. Interestingly, the average vegan consumes 10 – 12 percent of their calories as protein, as
opposed to the 14 – 18 percent of non-vegetarians. While it is clear that vegan diets are considerably
lower in protein, it is also clear that vegans are, in fact, consuming as much protein as they should (Vegan
Nutrition, n.d.). In fact, excess protein can increase risk of osteoporosis and even result in kidney failure.
For those who feel they are not consuming an adequate amount of protein, the following is a list
of suggestions of foods they can add to their diet to remedy this (Protein in Vegetarian Diets, n.d.)
Breakfast Foods:
Oatmeal, soymilk, whole grain cereals
Snacks:
Peanut butter, nuts, soy yogurt
Main Course:
Brown rice, soybeans, lentils, beans, peas, tofu
(Tempeh and seitan are also very high in protein, but are less popular)
For those vegetarians who are comfortable consuming eggs and dairy products, foods like milk,
eggs, cheese, and butter are additional sources of protein that are easy to incorporate into the diet.
Proteins are required for healthy function because of what the body does with the amino acids of
which they are made. The human body uses the standard 22 amino acids either as a means to build
proteins and other bio-molecules or as a source of energy. Of these 22 amino acids, 9 are essential
because the body cannot synthesize them on its own, and the rest are nonessential. Four of these thirteen
are considered semi-essential amino acids because the body‘s production of these amino acids is not fully
established (Ornish, 1995).
The nine essential amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, serine,
threonine, tryptophan, and valine) are very easy to find in natural vegetarian sources. They can be found
in most vegetarian protein options, including nuts, seeds, beans, whole soy, whole grains, and vegetables
(Vegetarian Diet, n.d. ).
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This table documents the relative levels of amino acids in popular vegetarian foods:
Vitamin B12
While they may not always be comparable to omnivorous diets in terms of protein, vegetarian
diets usually have no problem supplying adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals for good health. One
important exception to this trend, however, is Vitamin B12. Ovo- and lacto-vegetarians (who consume
some kind of animal by-product), while predisposed to a B12 deficiency, can find ways to make up for it.
For vegans, however, it is almost impossible to include a source of Vitamin B12 in their diets, so this
vitamin must come from a source other than food (Weil, 2004).
The amount of B12 the body needs is very small – between 1 and 6 micrograms a day (Vitamin
B12, retrieved March 22nd, 2012). However, not getting this small but required dosage can cause serious
problems. Also, the act of simply ingesting it is not enough – it must be absorbed in order to have
nutritional value. Again, the consequences can be serious.
Vitamin B12 stimulates the body‘s use of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates; it also boosts energy.
It is necessary for cell division and critical for the well-being of the heart and nervous system. The major
risk associated with a B12 deficiency is pernicious anemia. This dangerous disease affects many of the
body‘s organ systems, particularly the vascular and the nervous. Sufferers not only contract regular
anemia, but they also lose coordination, sensation in their appendages, and immune system strength.
Memory loss, dizziness, and depression are other common symptoms. Worst of all, it is very difficult to
recover after the disease has been contracted (Vitamin B12, n.d.).
How, then, can vegetarians and vegans avoid this undesirable fate? Of these two, the former are
at a lesser risk – they can usually obtain B12 from eggs, dairy, or other animal by-products. Vegans, on
the other hand, are forced to obtain the vitamin from less natural sources. Fortified foods, like cereals and
soy milk, are usually the most accessible and reliable way to ingest a healthy amount (Vitamin B12,
retrieved March 22nd, 2012). As a last resort, most multivitamins contain the RDA of vitamin B12.
It should be noted that B12 is a cofactor, because it is not directly consumed. Rather, it is reused
by the body. Eventually though, it runs out, and because it is of paramount importance, it must be reingested
(Ornish, 1990). For people who are in particular need of vitamin B12, alternatives include
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supplements and, in more serious cases, shots. Generally, however, it is possible and better to obtain B12
from a natural or semi-natural source.
The following table shows vitamin B12 content as a percentage of the RDA (only the bottom few
foods are vegetarian):
Trace Minerals in Vegetarian Diets
Aside from proteins and vitamins, trace metals, such as nickel, copper, and manganese, are also
an essential part of a complete diet. The nature of the vegetarian diet makes it easier to obtain certain
metals than others; for example, the adult vegetarian diet generally lacks zinc and selenium, whereas it
has a higher concentration of copper and manganese. In most diets, cereals are the primary source of
copper, manganese, and selenium (Gibson, 1994). However, the cereal also takes on the job of providing
zinc in a vegetarian diet, which is often inadequate by itself. While multivitamins generally contain
adequate amounts of the metals, there are many natural vegetarian sources for this missing zinc and
selenium that can be incorporated into the diet.
In most omnivorous diets, the principal sources of zinc are oysters, shellfish, liver, and muscle
meats (Weil, 2004). Selenium is generally found in fish, liver, kidney, and Brazil nuts. None of these are
vegetarian sources, with the exception of the Brazil nuts, and most of the food items that vegetarians
replace these with, fruits and vegetables, have high water contents (Gibson, 1994). Although traditional
meat substitutes like soy and tofu make up for the protein deficiency in the vegetarian diet, they do not
carry with them the minerals that animal protein sources do.
Nonetheless, meat substitutes like eggs and legumes are generally the secondary sources of zinc
in the vegetarian diet, followed by milk and dairy products. Selenium is quite different. It is rather
difficult to obtain selenium in a vegetarian diet from a source other than the Brazil nut because its other
primary source is seafood. Luckily, Brazil nuts are extremely rich in selenium and thus offer a suitable
substitute for their flesh food counterparts.
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However, vegetarian diets do receive an advantage in some trace metals. Copper and manganese
are present in abundance because they are found in large quantities in cereals, legumes, nuts, and leafy
green vegetables (Gibson, 1994). The second and third of these, being meat substitutes, are much more
likely to be consumed as part of a vegetarian diet. Diets that include unrefined cereals, like brown rice,
are still better sources of these two trace metals.
The table below provides a general evaluation of the vitamin and mineral content of fruits and vegetables:
Effects of Vegetarianism
A commonly held belief is that a vegetarian diet results in a multitude of positive health benefits,
a result that has been substantiated by several studies. Vegetarians have typically displayed a lower bodymass
index and risk of certain chronic diseases. However, vegetarians also take certain risks by omitting
meat from their diet; vegetarians must be careful and vigilant in order for their diets to be nutritionally
adequate. Some types of vegetarian diets, despite their avoiding meat products, remain high in saturated
67

fat and cholesterol, and sparse diets such as those poor in grain or protein products are insufficient for the
body's required amount of vitamins and minerals (Rubin, 2002).
All vegetarians, especially vegans, risk becoming deficient in their protein, zinc, calcium, iron,
vitamin B12, and vitamin D. Riboflavin (vitamin B2) and linoleic acid may also be missing from an
unstructured vegetarian diet. Child vegetarians must also obtain a sufficient amount of energy from a diet
largely composed of fiber, which fills the stomach but provides few calories. Additionally, most plantbased
foods lack some portion of essential nutrients found mostly in meat. However, over the course of a
day, a balanced vegetarian diet will complement itself and complete the necessary vitamin and mineral
intake; this will even make it unnecessary to ingest vitamin supplements (Rubin, 2002).
One study suggested that vegetarian diets are one of the most important factors in mortality rates,
second only to smoking. It compared vegetarians with non-vegetarians of similar lifestyles, and its
intention was to test the hypothesis that vegetarians have reduced rates of mortality from several types of
cancer and ischemic heart disease. The primary subjects analyzed were those for whom full information
was known on dietary and smoking habits (Key et al., 1999).
Although the proportion of smokers was found to differ between studies, all results showed that a
group of vegetarians contained fewer smokers and alcohol consumers than an equal group of nonvegetarians.
In addition, the former group was also shown to have a lower body-mass index and higher
frequency of exercise than non-vegetarians. After being adjusted for age, smoking status, and gender,
death rates for long-term vegetarians (t > 5 yr.) from the causes above were found to be significantly
lower than those for short-term vegetarians (0 yr. < t < 5 yr.) (Key et al., 1999).
Bibiography
Campbell, Wayne W., and Angela M. Venderley. "Vegetarian diets: nutritional considerations for
athletes." Sports Medicine 36.4 (2006): 293+. Academic OneFile. Web. 22 Mar. 2012.
Gibson, R. (1994). Content and bioavailability of trace elements in vegetarian diets. American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1223S – 32S .
Helman, A. and Darnton-Hill, I. (1987.) Vitamin and iron status in new vegetarians. The American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 45, pp. 785-789.
Key, T., Fraser, G., Thorogood, M., Appleby, P., Beral, V., Reeves, G., Burr, M., Chang-Claude, J.,
Frentzel-Beyme, R., Kuzma, J., Mann, J., and McPherson, K. (1996.) Mortality in vegetarians
and nonvegetarians. The American Journal of Clinical Medicine, 70, pp. 516-524.
Ornish, D. (1990). Dr. Dean Ornish's Program for Reversing Heart Disease. New York: Random House.
Ornish, D. (1995). Everyday Cooking with Dr. Dean Ornish. New York: Harper Collins.
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Safire, W. Vegan. (2005, Jan 30.) The New York Times Magazine. 24.
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Turner-McGrievy, G. (2010.) Nutrient adequacy of vegetarian diets. Journal of the American Dietetic
Association, 110
Vegan Nutrition. Retrieved March 22 nd , 2012 from http://www.vegansociety.com/lifestyle/nutrition/
"Vegetarian diet." CareNotes. Thomson Healthcare, Inc., 2011. Health Reference Center Academic. Web.
22 Mar. 2012.
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http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/vegetarian-diet/HQ01596
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Weil, A. (2004). Natural health, Natural Medicine. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
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http://www.healthy-soul.com/images/vegan-protein-graph.png
http://www.happycow.net/images/table_fruits_vegetables.jpg
http://www.revobiolabs.com/clientuploads/directory/nutritiondirectory/vitaminb12_chart.gif
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Chapter 7
Childhood Obesity
Emma Hewett, Sierra Harris, Angelica Heeney, and Divya Satishchandra
Introduction
Childhood obesity, which has tripled in the last thirty years, has become one of the most
threatening health crises in the last decade. In fact, more than one third of children and adolescents were
overweight or obese in 2008.
Obesity has several immediate health effects. For example, obese youth are at greater risk of
developing contributors to cardiovascular disease such as high cholesterol and hypertension. In addition,
children are more likely to acquire pre diabetes, joint problems, and sleep apnea. Other psychological
concerns are stigmatization and poor self-esteem.
Perhaps more harmful are the long term effects of adolescent obesity, known as co morbidities,
which comprise the risks of developing type 2 diabetes, stroke, and osteoarthritis. Furthermore, obese
infants are at greater risk of becoming obese adults. Childhood obesity also increases the probability of
acquiring cancer of various forms such as the breast, colon, endometrium, esophagus, kidney, pancreas,
gall bladder, thyroid, ovary, cervix, and prostrate (―Childhood Obesity Facts,‖ 2011).
The best method of preventing childhood obesity and its many harmful effects is to maintain
healthy eating habits and to engage in sufficient physical activity. Along with this, establishing safe and
healthy domestic and school environments is crucial in preventing adolescent obesity.
Overweight vs. Obesity
Medical professionals use the BMI, or body mass index, to determine whether a child is
overweight or obese. Doctors consider the height, weight, and specific gender and sex percentiles in order
to calculate the BMI. A person is overweight when he has a BMI above the 85th percentile and below the
95th percentile of children with the same gender and sex, which essentially translates into having an
excess body weight for a particular height arising from fat, muscle, bone, water, or a combination of these
factors. Obesity is defined as having a BMI above the 95th percentile of children with the same gender
and sex, which corresponds to having dangerously excessive amounts of body fat. However, both are
result of a caloric imbalance: when the calories consumed is greater than the calories burned. The final
stage of obesity is morbid obesity, in which a person is 50-100%, or 100 lbs. above their normal body
weight (―Basics about Childhood Obesity,‖ 2011).
Physical Activity
Environmental Influences on Childhood Obesity
Researchers agree that environment plays a critical role in the likelihood of developing obesity.
The built environment comprises the buildings, institutions, infrastructure and social norms that affect a
person‘s environment. The two primary causes of adolescent obesity that arise from a child‘s environment
are lack of physical activity and dietary habits.
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Scientists are aware that physical activity vital to the caloric balance, and now they are trying to
determine its relationship to the environment and how the lack of exercise contributes to obesity. Many
findings suggest that adolescents with more access to recreational facilities are more fit than children who
do not have access to such locations. Also, other studies have reported that spending time outdoors has a
strong correlation to physical fitness in pre-schoolers. Accessibility to recreational facilities is another
matter entirely. Other studies have shown that low income neighborhoods have fewer areas designated for
physical activity, which puts kids living in these regions at a disadvantage. While these studies indicate a
definite relationship between obesity and physical activity in the built environment, the research is not
entirely accurate because the data was based on information provided by the parents, as opposed to direct
observation.
Nutrition
Nutrition and dietary patterns are also a major component of the obesity equation; however, less
research has been conducted to determine its connection to the built environment. Nonetheless, a few
sources have demonstrated that the availability of nutritious foods such as fruits and vegetables in schools
is related to children‘s overall consumption of fruits and vegetables. Such findings suggest that the dietary
practices at home are in need of improvement. One growing trend is the routine occurrence of dining out
as a result of time or financial constraints. Restaurant food is higher in calories and lower in nutritional
value, and habitual consumption could potentially lead to overweight and obesity.
Many studies have also been performed with the goal of determining trends with the availability of
healthful food options in neighborhoods that vary by income. Researchers were able to conclude that
people living in low income neighborhoods have limited access to nutritious food options, and the
resources that do exist are available at a much higher cost than those obtainable by families living in
more affluent communities (Sallis & Glanz, 2006).
Influence of Obese Parents
Scientists have also studied the effects of having overweight or obese parents on the development
of adolescent obesity. Research demonstrated that having an overweight parent increased the probability
of developing unhealthy practices and subsequent weight gain. More specifically, having two obese
parents increased the risk of adolescent obesity when compared to the risk associated with having two
parents of normal weights. Having two severely obese parents further amplified these risks. Scientists also
discovered that an obese maternal figure has greater influence than an obese paternal figure (Whitaker,
Jarvis, Beeken, Boniface & Wardle, 2006).
School Environment and Other Factors
Public schools tend not to have time devoted to exercise either, and this lack of mandatory physical
activity compounds the issue of children not exercising in their free time. Not only do public schools lack
the recommended one hour of physical activity per day recommended by the center for disease control,
they also tend to carry unhealthy alternatives to wholesome meals on their cafeteria menus. Alongside the
turkey sandwiches and fruit salad, excessively large slices of pizza and bags of crisps, chips, and cookies
are found in the cafeteria. As far as options for drinks are concerned, many schools make sugary sodas
and pops easily available for purchase via vending machines, although most schools do carry both two
percent and whole milk. The situation is worse in alternative childcare facilities, for which very many
states do not carry legislature requiring the programs to provide nutritious meals.
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A typical school lunch.
Other environmental factors have also been examined for their impact on the development of
childhood obesity. These include social factors, birth weight, and family size. For example, although the
subject has not been thoroughly investigated, experts have established a relationship between socio
economic status and obesity. According to recent studies, people with low socio economic status early in
life, were more common to develop obesity in late adolescents and adulthood. In addition, not to their
surprise, researchers also discovered a relationship between higher birth weight and childhood obesity.
However, the potential social causes of obesity have not been explored extensively, and more research is
necessary to make generalizations about the other potential environmental triggers of obesity (Parsons,
Power, Logan, & Summerbell, 1999).
The Role of Genetics in Childhood Obesity
Recent studies have shown that genetics may play a role in the development of childhood obesity.
Researchers continue to add to the human gene map, and the number of locations associated with obesity
is increasing. Currently, there are more than 430 regions which indicate a relation with obesity
phenotypes; however, most specific genes are still unknown. In fact, genetic factors explain between 60
and 80% of the variance of body mass index and body weight (Burrage & McCandless, 2007). Scientists
are becoming increasingly more certain that weight is in fact a heritable trait; however, the dramatic
increase in instances of childhood obesity is more likely a result of environmental changes (Anderson &
Butcher, 2006).
Monogenic Obesity and Hormonal Abnormalities
The genetics of obesity fall into two separate categories: syndromic obesity and monogenic
obesity. Syndromic obesity is characterized by the presence of other conditions such as hypotonia, mental
retardation, short stature, and other abnormalities. Monogenic obesity, in contrast, is distinguished by
extreme body weights. The first gene recognized as having a critical impact on human body weight
control was leptin, an adipocyte hormone. Leptin is released by the pituitary gland, and incites neurons in
the hypothalamus which produce proteins that stimulate physical activity. In addition, leptin controls the
hypothalamic neurons that instigate feeding. As a result, a leptin deficiency causes hyperphagia and
increased energy intake, subsequently increasing the sedimentation of fat (Anderson & Butcher, 2006). In
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one study, research examined two children of Pakistani origin who were severely obese. Both had
extremely low levels of leptin in their bloodstreams. In fact, both children had a homozygous mutation of
the leptin and melanocortin receptor gene, which, scientists now know, is associated with cases of morbid
obesity (Farooqi, 2005). In a later study, however, researchers ascertained that heterozygous combinations
of the leptin gene and its receptors have shown had minimal impact on body weight control. In order to
fight childhood obesity resulting from leptin deficiencies, scientists have attempted leptin therapy, in
which the hormone is regularly injected into the bloodstream. Three children were administered leptin
doses for 48 months, and all three showed significant reductions of body weight, of which 98% was body
fat.
Other hormonal abnormalities arising from genetic mutations associated with adolescent obesity
include deficiencies in the melanocortin 4 receptor and prohormone convertase 1. Since the late 20th
century, mutations, in the melanocortin 4 receptor have been linked to adolescent obesity. Experts suspect
that receptor trait is dominant because some studies have shown that 100% of the subjects who posessed
heterozygous mutations also demonstrated obese phenotypes. However, further investigation is necessary
because other analysis has shown that homozygous carriers of the trait were reported to be more obese
than carriers with heterozygous combinations. MC4R deficiencies causes hyperphagia and an increased
amount of fat mass. In addition, scientists have noted an accumulation of lean mass and noteworthy
heightened levels of bone mineral density (Farooqi, 2005).
Hormonal levels play a significant
role in childhood obesity.
Other Hormonal Causes of Obesity
In addition to leptin, and melanocortin, other hormones have been examined for their role in the
development of childhood obesity. One such hormone is adiponectin, a protein hormone which controls
many metabolic processes including, glucose regulation and fatty acid catabolism. Adiponectin is released
from the adipose tissue, and its levels in the bloodstream are inversely proportional to the body fat
percentage. The hormone promotes energy expenditure, and as a result has been analyzed in studies
pertaining to obese children. In one report, researchers observed the levels of adiponectin in obese and
non-obese children of Greek descent. The adiponectin levels in the obese subjects were significantly
lower than the levels of the non-obese subjects. In addition, the adiponectin levels steadily decreased as
the subjects went through puberty, which further exascerbated the obesity issue. Further, male adolescents
had the lowest levels of adiponectin, and later studies revealed a relationship between the adiponectin
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levels and increased levels of testosterone. Adiponectin also played a role in the resistance of another
hormone: insulin.
Insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas, is the most important hormone in monitoring the
sugar levels and fat expenditure in the body. The hormone causes liver, muscle, and fat tissue cells to
absorb glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen for future use. In addition, insulin prevents body
from using fat as an energy source by hindering the release of glucagon, another hormone.
Insulin resistance occurs when the hormone is defective in regulating the amounts of blood sugars.
When the glucose levels increase, other health complications, such as obesity, can arise. As previously
mentioned, adiponectin deficiencies have been correlated with insulin resistance in boys and girls.
According to this study, children with adiponectin deficiencies also demonstrated insulin resistance, and
subsequent obesity. These results suggest that adiponectin levels are a reliable source for information
regarding a child‘s likelihood of developing obesity because it inversely affects another critical condition,
that is, insulin resistance (Panagopoulou, et al., 2008).
Biological Changes Associated with Obesity
Gout is the most common form of inflammatory arthritis and results from uric acid crystal
deposits throughout the body. Having a protein-rich diet and being obese are among the common causes
of this joint condition. Back and knee pain are prevalent in overweight and obese populations and can
lead to forms of arthritis. Osteoarthritis (OA) is common among individuals over the age of 55. Before
age 55, obesity is a major cause of OA. The added weight increases the amount of wear on joints such as
the hip, knee, ankle, and foot.
Liver cirrhosis is a scarring of the liver tissue caused by liver disease. Liver disease relating to
obesity is called nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (Erickson, 2008). Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
(NAFLD) is the inflammation of the liver not associated with alcohol consumption. NAFLD is
dangerously common in the United States population. About 20% of all Americans, 75-92% of obese
Americans, and 13-14% of pediatric Americans have the disease. A sedentary lifestyle, a saturated fat rich
diet, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and genetic predisposition are among nonalcoholic fatty liver disease risk
factors. Adipose tissue releases hormones as an endocrine organ. Some of these cytokines and
chemokines also cause the progression of NAFLD (Erickson, 2008).
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is associated with the amount of visceral fat. A chronic elevation
of inflammatory mediators in the body is related to the amount of fat mass in the splanchnic region. In a
healthy body, the liver is the largest location of these inflammatory mediators; however, in an obese body,
the adipose tissue can produce inflammatory mediators (Tordjman, Guerre-Millo, & Clément, 2008).
Adipose tissue is converted into pro-inflammatory molecules in the liver and lymphoid organs,
leading to other disease and complications of the liver. Adipose tissue macrophages, which are a large
source of inflammatory effects, are linked with obesity complications. For instance, accumulation of these
adipose macrophages in the liver can cause an increase in free fatty acid and increase in pro-inflammatory
factors. Together, these factors cause liver damage leading to disease (Tordjman, Guerre-Millo, &
Clément, 2008).
Metabolic Syndrome and Other Complications
The metabolic syndrome is defined as the combination of conditions that cause a greater risk
factor for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Obesity is often considered the most prominent factor
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contributing to the metabolic syndrome. A high fat diet especially in obese patients strains the
endoplasmic reticulum and causes excess glucose production. This is a natural, healthy response to
fasting; however, the reaction is harmful and falsely activated because of obesity. This overproduction of
glucose can often cause insulin-resistance ("How obesity increases," 2009).
Hypertriglyceridemia (high blood level of triglycerides) is generally considered an element of the
metabolic syndrome, and the a major cause of the condition is obesity. When combined with other
conditions, the risk of colon and rectal cancers, pancreatitis, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes
increases dramatically. Hypertriglyceridemia may also be associated with atheroma and plaque build-up
(Giovannucci & Michaud, 2007).
Diabetes
Adult-onset diabetes, or type 2 is greatly influenced by physical inactivity and obesity. Insulin
production is depleted because of the loss of pancreatic beta cells, which store and release insulin to
control the level of glucose in the blood. Although obesity originally is a strong risk factor for
hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) and hyperinsulinemia (high blood level of insulin), the depletion of
beta cells will eventually cause insulin levels to drop. The risk of pancreatic cancer for an obese
individual ranges from 1.5 to 3.0 times the risk of a healthy weight individual (Giovannucci & Michaud,
2007). In addition to obesity, a major contributing factor of hyperinsulinemia is physical inactivity.
Insulin sensitivity is increased by and circulating insulin is decreased by physical activity (Giovannucci &
Michaud, 2007).
Skin Defects
Obesity has a strong effect on skin as well. The function of the skin as a barrier is impaired in an
obese individual. These patients experience a greater water loss through the skin, and this data suggests
that there is a fundamental change in the epidermis. Other problems include increased skin dryness and a
significantly impaired skin repair. It has also been suggested that obesity has caused an increase in sweat
gland activity. The surface of the skin in the skin folds of obese individuals has been shown to have a
higher pH (Yosipovitch, DeVore, & Dawn, 2007).
Because lymphatic flow is reduced by obesity, there is a build-up of protein-rich under the skin.
This collection causes reduced tissue oxygenation and a dilatation of tissue channels. Lab tests with mice
show that obesity decreases the ability to heal wounds. This depleted skin strength is caused by the lack
of sufficient collagen to equal the increased surface area (Yosipovitch, DeVore, & Dawn, 2007).
Hormonal Abnormalities As a Result of Obesity
Adipose tissue has a strong effect on the hormone production and secretion in the endocrine
system. Studies are now suggesting that adiponectin, one of the major hormones associated with obesity,
can cause osteoporosis. In these studies, patients with higher levels of the hormone had weaker skeletons
and more bone fractures on average. Higher adiponectin individuals also tended to have weaker muscles,
making these patients more susceptible to bone damage ("Obesity hormone adiponectin," 2011).
There is a change in the sex hormones in the body associated with obesity. These changes cause a
risk of prostate cancer, as well as other changes. Obesity has been shown to reduce the production of
testosterone and an increased level of estradiol. Leptin is a hormone that manipulates body weight by
controlling the use of energy. The body of an obese patient has become resistant to leptin. These hormone
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problems are not only associated with obesity, but any higher BMI (Giovannucci & Michaud, 2007).
Childhood obesity has an effect on the pubertal development. Leptin and insulin levels are the proposed
cause of this altered process as well. Obesity tends to cause earlier development in girls, while it causes a
delay in boys (Giovannucci & Michaud, 2007). Successful pregnancy rates are depleted by obesity and
are only partially restored after weight loss. There are several factors linking the two. High insulin levels
are one because high insulin can cause will reduce the level of sex hormone-binding hemoglobin and raise
the levels of growth-factor 1. High insulin levels in the body can also lead to hyperandrogenaemia, the
excessive production of androgens. Unhealthy levels of leptin and antiponectin are also likely causes of
reduced ovulation and conception rates (Norman, 2010).
Whereas female reproductive success is invariably reduced by obesity, there is much less
evidence to suggest a similar problem with males. High insulin levels in the female frequently cause poor
quality oocytes and a poor quality endometrium. Because of these issues, many assisted fertility
organizations will not give treatment to obese patients until they lose weight. In males, obesity can cause
overall lower testosterone levels, there is not enough evidence to suggest that there is an effect on semen
production (Norman, 2010).
The troubles do not stop once pregnancy is achieved. Dangerous complications may arise for the
mother, and the effect on the unborn child is negative. An obese mother leads to growth issues in the
developing baby. The baby will have a disproportionally greater fat mass and will be overweight.
Overweight babies are more likely to have metabolism disorders, to have vascular issues, and to grow up
to be overweight adults (Norman, 2010).
A child with ROHHAD, a rare
overgrowth syndrome.
Co-morbidities Associated with Childhood Obesity
Obesity is almost guaranteed to give way to medical complications. Some complications are
common, some are infrequent, and others are more or less severe. But that so many of our children today
suffer from obesity and will continue to suffer well into their adult life is concerning, to say the least.
Some of the more effects that overweight youth can suffer from include heart disease, diabetes, and early
death, but data on the very young is generally lacking.
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In 2011, an Australian study concerning the co-morbidities of grade school children found that
similarly to adults, the obese and overweight were more likely to suffer from musculoskeletal joint pain,
especially in the knees. Also as in adults, the overweight children selected for the study suffered from
high blood pressure, although only one suffered liver damage from their condition
But joint pain and liver damage are not the only conditions that the overweight youth experience.
In Alabama, nearly a third of all obese children between the ages of five and eleven suffer from
pulmonary hypertension, a disease that leads to swelling of the heart and eventually death. A child might
also suffer from high cholesterol, which greatly increases the likelihood of a heart attack.
A photomicrograph of nephron tissue that is clogged with cholesterol.
In addition to the more obvious physical pressure that obese and overweight youth suffer from
comes a psychological pressure from their peers. Children with high levels of adiposity are more likely to
be bullied or taunted because of their weight, and this social stress leads to higher rates of depression
among the obese.
Despite no correlation being found between eyes, nose, and throat conditions in the Australian
study, it is thought that asthma is a co-morbidity of obesity, or at least that obesity changes the expression
of asthma in children. It is already known that excess adipose tissue may cause breathing to become more
labored and more difficult, especially during sleep.
Treatments and Prevention
As a growing problem, childhood obesity is the subject of research worldwide. In particular,
researchers are striving to find better therapies as well as to improve the treatments already in place. This
research has included diet studies, experimental surgeries, clinical trials, pharmaceutical trials, and long
term patient follow-up. This section will cover diet studies, surgical treatments, and prevention measures.
Diet indeed has an effect on obesity, but not nearly as much as hormonal activity and biological
factors. Diet studies were originally centered on a low calorie intake with a high calorie output lifestyle.
However, in recent years, doctors have found this approach to be rudimentary and ineffective. The focus
has shifted to the type of foods involved in the patients‘ diets. The two main types of diets being explored
are a low-fat, calorie-restrained diet and a low-carbohydrate, unrestricted calorie diet.
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The surgical treatment of childhood obesity has been under scrutiny and has undergone much
development in the past years. Originally the only surgical option was the gastric bypass, which changes
the digestive tract to bypass the stomach. However, research has presented two additional options which
are biologically safer as they maintain the natural digestive process of the body. These options are gastric
banding and the vertical sleeve procedures.
Diet
Investigation into childhood obesity has shown that the correlation between diet and obesity is not
as strong as once was believed. However, it is still an important aspect in the treatment and prevention of
the disease. Two main focuses of this section are the low-fat, calorie restricted diet and the lowcarbohydrate,
unrestricted calorie diet. The low-fat, calorie restricted diet does just as it sounds. It centers
on eating low fat foods and restricting the calories consumed. The low-carbohydrate, unrestricted calorie
diet limits the consumption of carbohydrates but does not restrict the amount of calories consumed. Low
carbohydrate foods are meats, vegetables, and cheeses.
A low-carbohydrate meal
A study involved participants separated into two groups, each on either the low fat diet or the
low-carbohydrate diet. After six months, weight loss in the low-carbohydrate group was significantly
lower than in the low-fat group. Triglyceride levels, or fats in the blood, were analyzed before and after
the study and the low-carbohydrate group showed a substantial decrease in levels as compared to that of
the low-fat group. Additionally, the low-carbohydrate group showed a greater decrease in glycemic index
(a measure of the sugar in blood) and a greater increase in sensitivity to insulin. This shows a decrease in
severity of diabetes and a step towards resolution of metabolic syndrome (Samaha et al., 2003). Both diets
showed an improvement in biological systems and a weight loss. However, the low-carbohydrate group
showed a significantly greater improvement in overall health and bodily function.
Surgery
Surgical treatments of obesity have been involved in a typical plan of care for many decades.
However, these treatments have not been applied to children or adolescents for fear of harming the child.
Recent studies have extended these treatments to adolescents on an experimental basis and have proved
effective. The two major surgical interventions are the gastric bypass and gastric banding.
The Roux-en-Y gastric bypass reroutes the normal digestive tract. It detaches a section of the
duodenum from the bottom of the stomach and reattaches it at the top of the stomach. Instead of letting
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the food pass through the stomach, it goes directly to the small intestine. Because this is a small pathway
for food, the patient feels full sooner and therefore cannot eat as much. Although effective in causing
weight loss, it prevents proper absorption of nutrients and can cause dumping syndrome, where the
patient cannot properly excrete (Han, 2010).
The gastric banding procedure uses an inflatable ring and places it around the upper part of the
stomach. This inflatable bladder contains saline, which is inserted and inflated to create a small pouch of
stomach above the band. This pouch fills quickly and slowly drains into the main portion of the stomach,
which creates the sensation of being full. The patient will stop eating at this point, allowing for smaller
portions, proper digestion, and good eating habits (Han, 2010).
Both of these procedures are effective in aiding the patient to lose weight. They have recently
been applied to adolescents and have shown promising results. Dr. Robert Cywes (2011) conducted a trial
and placed the gastric band in adolescents. He did a 48 week follow up and observed a substantial
decrease in BMI across the time after the procedure. Coupled with a successful diet, these procedures can
help begin and maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Diagram of the surgical lap band procedure
BMI decrease 48 week following placement of lap band (Cywes, 2011).
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Prevention
Perhaps one of the most important aspects in treatment of obesity is recognizing the cultural
environment of the patient. Certain cultures have limitations and expectations such as diet, activity, and
medical intervention. A patient may not have had any control over their diet due to the cultural
requirement. This is also applicable to the activity level available. One other factor to consider is physical
environment. If the patient is in an unsafe environment, physical activity is limited. If the patient is
responsible for providing for members of the family (for instance, low-income families), they cannot be
active and may need to eat whatever they can afford. As a conclusion, this all points to the need for a
doctor to understand the cause of the patient‘s obesity and that it may not have been preventable.
Prevention of childhood obesity is multi-faceted, but crucial. First, it needs to be an effort of
society. It needs to appear in every aspect of society and start early, because studies have shown that
childhood obesity, if not treated, will continue into adulthood. Second, communication needs to be patient
centered. Bringing the issue to the public isn‘t enough. Families need to understand childhood obesity
from the child‘s perspective because without that, families cannot help to prevent it (Barlow, 2007).
Along with familial and cultural changes, necessary diet precautions need to be taken. Refrain
from high-carbohydrate foods, high-fat foods, and increase physical activity. Hormones should be
monitored closely as incorrect levels can contribute to obesity. Prevention is possible and should become
a societal effort.
Bibliography
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Illustration Credits
www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)
www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Haven_ROHHAD.jpg
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wafu_steak.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Adjustable_gastric_banding.svg/300px-
Adjustable_gastric_banding.svg.png
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Chapter 8
Global Food Systems
Thomas Devlin, Ryan Thibodeau, and Abigail Yu
Introduction
Food is one of the few universal constants; it is a resource that all humans need to survive. This
continuous need for food causes many problems across the globe because of the issue of feeding everyone
healthily. At the moment, malnutrition and starvation plague the planet; the growing population will only
exacerbate both of these issues. These quandaries also stem from the discrepancies between developed
and developing countries. Eight hundred million currently live without food security and every minute
twelve preschool-aged children die from hunger/malnutrition (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2008). Organizations
and scientists across the world are working on improving the situation for everyone; one of the methods
for doing this involves creating a global food system.
A rural farmer waters his crops.
Before delving into global food systems, it is best to understand food systems in a general sense.
Food systems cover the following processes: growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting,
marketing, consuming, and disposing of food. It is no wonder this topic arises whenever nutrition and
agriculture are being debated. The systems of food are strongly influenced by politics, economics, and
nature. The overall goal is to provide food security, meaning all households have access to food, to as
many people as possible ("A primer on community", 2002). This causes sustainability to be one of the
main priorities of all organizations and companies that produce food. Food systems encompass all matters
that involve food.
Community food systems are the most popular method of dispersing crops and meat in both
developing countries and the more rural areas of developed countries. The goals of a community food
system are: optimized health, better diet, stable base of family farms, marketing channels, and increased
participation in food and agriculture policies. The participants in this system are small scale, and retail
farms that both have small amounts of land and sell them directly to a consumer or a farmers' market. The
market types that primarily serve a community are roadside stands and farmers' markets ("Lesson three",
2002). Local food systems are often successful but are strongly influenced by weather, climate, and
amount of arable land ("A primer on community", 2002). These three variables can make it difficult for
people in certain areas, such as cities and deserts, to obtain food, which explains why the global food
system infrastructure is being designed to solve this problem.
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There is already a basic infrastructure for global food in place around the world. The United
States is a prime example of this. The United States imports eighty percent of fish and shellfish, forty five
percent of fruits, fifty percent of nuts, and twenty percent of vegetables ("Food safety goes global", 2011).
These trends clearly show that the foods that last longer while refrigerated are the best to import and
export. This brings up the issue of sustainable food and food preservation techniques. Without even
examining these two problems, however, there are a number of other items that will soon present
themselves to be major dilemmas in light of pending climate change.
As time passes, it is becoming apparent that a complete, working global food system will be
necessary to maintain life on earth. By the year 2050, the global population will exceed nine billion
people, much of that growth springing from developing countries. Also by 2050, the demand for food and
water irrigation is expected to double. Because of this demand and climate change, there will be stress on
many staple crops including rice, wheat, corn, and soybeans (Dooley, 2011). In the time period from 2005
to 2008 alone, prices for food surged, which is sure to continue. The main problem is that there is enough
food to feed the world, yet poverty prevents some from being able to access it (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2008).
The world needs a global food system in order sustain human life on earth.
One of the steps taken to further the progress of a global food system was to do a full assessment
of the conditions of all the major ecosystems on earth. The last time this was done was by the United
Nations in the year 2000. The ecosystems were broken down into: forests, freshwater systems,
coastal/marine habitats, grasslands, and agricultural lands. This altogether created PAGE, or the pilot
assessment of global ecosystems and it showed the true impact of environmental change. In sobering
results, all five groups of ecosystems were and are worsening, primarily a byproduct of mankind. Some of
the causes for this are overfishing the oceans and disturbing the carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles on
earth (Linden, 2000). Using this information, humans need to take action to develop a global food system
that feeds people and ensures that the universal ecosystems do not collapse.
One organization that is working to reform the global food system so that it is more effective in
helping all people is the Slow Food Movement. Slow Food, its name a wordplay on "fast food", is an antiindustrialist-agriculture
movement. They claim that the agro-industry is failing and targets politics as a
source of this failure. Slow Food is working towards creating better tasting food for more people
peacefully (Walsh, 2008). However, it will take much more than one movement to make a major change;
the UN reported that 50 million more people went hungry in 2007 when compared to 2006.
In recent years, food studies have become a mainstream discipline in the science world. There are
conflicting views on the best kind of food system, yet the majority consensus is that an international level
of food control is necessary to be having the most effective method of feeding people. The primary reason
for this is the governance over the food system would be fairer if controlled by a non-partisan global
organization as opposed to a series of self-interested companies. The global food debate also deals much
with methods of producing food. Strategies which were once considered taboo are being used regularly,
including using genetically modified organisms (Nicholson, 2011). As the situation progressively
worsens, it is likely that people will be more open to new ideas in order to provide food for the global
population.
The rest of this chapter will cover a variety of topics dealing with global food. First, there will be
an in-depth look at developing and developed countries. The later sections will deal with the problems the
world is facing in creating a global food system. Following that will be some of the solutions both
proposed and currently in place to solve some of these problems. Mankind is entering a tumultuous time
in which sustainability of people and nature will be of major importance. Food is a universal constant, and
we must do all in our power to ensure it is there for everyone.
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Developed and Developing Countries
The problems facing global food systems can be as difficult as they are important to understand;
an key distinction, then, must first be made between developing and developed countries. The two terms
are both colloquial expressions which are used with an increasing frequency to identify different
statistical extremes of countries classified by the United Nations‘ Human Development Index (HDI).
According to the UN:
―The designations ‗developed‘ and ‗developing‘ are intended for statistical convenience and do
not necessarily express a judgment about the stage reached by a particular country or area in the
development process,‖ (―Standard Country or Area Codes,‖ 2010).
The HDI was developed to provide a more accurate representation of the quality of life in a given
country than what could be provided by considering only the gross domestic product of a nation. To do
this, the index accounts for a number of indicators present in a country, such as average years of
schooling for adults over 25, percent of total land area that is forested, the female to male ratio of
members in a nation‘s parliament, and the age expectancy of citizens at birth (―HDI Indicator Selector‖,
2011). Countries with a low HDI are considered to have a lower standard of living than those with a
higher HDI and because of this are frequently known as developing countries, their counterpart then being
developed countries. The UN Human Development Report 2011 makes the following distinctions
between classified nations: very high human development, high human development, medium human
development, and low human development. The highest rated nation in each category was Norway,
Uruguay, Jordan, and the Solomon Islands, respectively (United Nations Development Programme,
2011).
Field workers in Ghana, ranked number 135 out of 187
countries by the UN human development index in 2011.
Although each country is largely unique and has its own mix of political, social, and economic
problems that must be dealt with on a per country basis, agriculture is such a globally connected
enterprise that several common issues persist in many developing nations. Many of these problems
originate in the process of food production. Although it may be tempting to respond to the problem of
feeding more people simply by growing more food, this solution would be irresponsible at best, and it
could be a logistical catastrophe if poorly executed.
As the number of people in the world increases, so too does the amount of food needed to feed
them all; if coming generations are to be fed as well as present ones, then sustainability must be a focus of
whatever food production methods employed. It is important to avoid soil exhaustion, which places
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estrictions on how much can be grown on any particular plot of land. Using land more efficiently by
growing more nutrient rich foods and increasing harvesting yields is an important technique used to keep
soil from being depleted. Water sources must also be monitored and maintained in an effort to preserve
the resources of the local communities that require water for both agriculture and general civilian use,
such as hygiene. Maintaining ecological diversity is also essential to preserving the health of farmed land,
and so it must also be considered.
Genetically modified soybean crops being tested by Monsanto.
On a global scale, changes in societal values with regards to such topics as genetic modification,
cloning, and synthetic biology will be necessary because those techniques are only some of the methods
that may have to be employed if maintaining a stable global food supply is to be achieved. Political
priorities may need to change to become more focused on feeding people than maximizing profits
(―Foresight. The Future of Food and Farming‖, 2011). In addition to attempting to achieve ecological
sustainability, it is vital that the people dwelling on a land must be capable of maintaining whatever
agricultural techniques that may be brought to their land. While external organizations that focus on
providing aid to countries that need it may provide a temporary boost in the quality of life for those they
help, a permanent system must be implemented if a region is to succeed in improving itself (Mintzberg,
2006).
In March 2010, the International Technical Conference on Agricultural Biotechnologies in
Developing Countries met in Mexico to discuss the topic reflected its title: ―Agricultural biotechnologies
in developing countries: options and opportunities in crops, forestry, livestock, fisheries and agro-industry
to face the challenges of food insecurity and climate change.‖ After four days of discussions and debates
about topics focused on the use of a scientifically-based agriculture that heavily promoted the usage of
genetically modified crops, the conference was adjourned. One of the central themes of the various
meetings of the conference was incorporating indigenous peoples into the agricultural systems employed
by governments of developing countries. It was suggested that making the local people of a particular
country informed and active members of the national agricultural community would encourage them to
aid in the food production system, a suggestion that has found support from multiple researchers. An
initial boost in assistance may be particularly useful in regions already struck by poor food reserves,
however, as research has shown that another difficulty plaguing developing nations in their attempts to
develop is the considerable role that under-nutrition plays in hindering education in populations (Walton
& Allen, 2011).
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Global Food Systems
In an effort to promote a successful continuation of reliable food production, many countries have
instituted programs to track, foresee, and manage national and international agriculture. As mentioned
above, the United Nations tracks the calculated HDI of various countries, which includes information on
how those nations manage their food. Despite this, attempts at addressing the looming challenge of
adjusting global agricultural systems have long been undermined by the lack of comprehensive scientific
research and statistics to support the conclusions reached. In 2011, an international team of researchers
conducted a thorough examination of available statistics and research data, which provided potential
solutions to the problem of feeding the global community that were all supported by corroborating data.
Their examinations of farm data and satellite images suggested, perhaps predictably, that using less land,
eating less meat, and wasting less food can significantly increase the chances of successfully feeding the
increasing global population over the next four decades.
More specifically, their work suggested that the state of international agriculture could be
improved drastically if land clearing for agricultural purposes were halted, food production yields in
developing countries were raised to 60%, agrochemicals were used more strategically in farming, global
diets shifted towards being primarily plant based, fewer crops were used for animal feed and biofuel, and
the waste of food production were decreased. Such changes would result in the ability to feed successive
generations without the need to destroy a large amount of all remaining tropical forests and topsoil,
although practical integration of the suggestions could prove challenging. If it is to work, the changes
must be adopted in the manner discussed in the second paragraph of the prior section, namely, through
increased collaboration between governments and their people (Coren, 2011).
Globalization, the current method commonly employed to improve worldwide food conditions,
has both solved and raised problems. By linking developing and developed countries to one another
through agricultural based interactions, the challenges facing one region can affect many external areas.
Even the farming practices of one nation can have an impact on others. Different standards of food
production can be blamed for some of these problems: historically, the United States has imported foods
that do not meet its standards of quality, but are approved for export by a foreign power (―Unsanitary
Practices‖, 2011). While many of these foods are prevented from entering into sale in markets, it is
unreasonable for the regulatory boards in charge of filtering under-qualified foods off consumers‘ plates
to do so with complete success.
Increased quality of food, however, has been shown to come from increased globalization of
consumables, encouraged both by health benefits and consumer demand. Through importations, it is
possible for developing countries to acquire nutrient giving foods that would have been unrealistic or
impossible to grow locally. Foreign grown genetically modified crops, although at times controversial,
have had some documented benefits for the developing nations that import them (Rosado, Cassís, Solano,
& Duarte-Vázquez, 2005). Developed nations, on the other hand, can experience a growth in demand for
more particular foods once they become more globally available through trade, which has the potential to
benefit the economies of both the buyer and the seller (―Food Value Chains‖, 2011).
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A fisherman prepares to sift through
a recent shrimp harvest
Problems in the Global Food System
Throughout the recent century, the global food system has been relatively stable. Populations
were lower than they are today, there was more food that could be given to the needy, and the world was
not in an economic crisis. Now problems with the system arise unexpectedly, and more and more people
are dying from these problems. These problems include health concerns such as: malnutrition, starvation,
an uneven distribution of food, and climate change.
Due to the growing problem of malnutrition and starvation, governments around the world are
paying increasing attention to nutrition. The focus of food aid organizations is shifting from providing
more and more calories and food for the malnourished to providing macro-nutrients like iron and
vitamins. Statistics show that one billion people in the world do not have enough calories, while another
billion are deprived of micro-nutrients. Over time more effects of malnutrition are becoming evident:
bloated bellies, wasted limbs (Sao & Rome, 2012).
A circle graph displaying the causes of death
from malnutrition in children in the year 2008.
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As shown in the graph, malnutrition kills at least 8.8 million children per year. Additional problems
caused by malnutrition include: anemia, weak immune systems, and mental impairments. According to
research published in The Lancet, malnourished children are less likely to: go to school, stay in school,
excel academically, earn high income jobs, marry rich spouses, or die a late death. In the womb, the child
develops a certain metabolism that does not change throughout a person‘s life. However, when that
person starts to eat more processed foods this can lead to obesity. In countries like India and Egypt, the
average income per head has doubled, yet the number of children dying from malnutrition has only
dropped by a quarter (Sao & Rome, 2012).
Another problem is the uneven distribution of food to developing countries. Two weeks after the
earthquake that struck Haiti, food distribution in the country remained unstable and limited. One food
distributor tells of a distribution center where rice and bottles of oil were distributed, and how the line of
people stretched at least half a mile. Eventually, after a long wait, the people got restless and forcefully
broke into the center, despite the attempts of the police to hold them back. According to the author, even
well-established aid groups struggle to distribute food evenly. A picture in the article depicts the World
Food Program putting boxes of food back into a truck after the people refuse to sign forms for the food.
Another example shows the United Nations peacekeepers helplessly standing by as crowds of starving
Haitians fight for food. The peacekeepers had to resort to tear gas to calm the crowd. Brazilian army
Colonel Fernando Soares says that ―They‘re not violent, just desperate. They just want to eat. The
problem is, there is not enough food for everyone,‖ (Robert & Fisher, 2010). The problem of uneven food
distribution can be seen in the aftermath of almost every disaster, whether they are man-made or natural.
Agriculture is the greatest global consumer of water. A shortage of water has a major effect on
food production. Water is required to maintain functioning ecosystems and environmental flow. However,
the future water supply of the world will be strongly influenced by climate change, especially since
evaporation occurs more quickly in a warmer climate than in a colder one. Another factor to come into
play is higher precipitation in some regions of the world because when this happens, the excess water
causes flooding and run-offs. The rapid use of groundwater has also been a recent topic of discussion. The
world has been using its ground water at a rate far higher than the replenishment rate, which could lead to
droughts in many parts of the world. Water dynamics is more difficult to manipulate than carbon dioxide
dynamics because each region of the world has a different water system. Until the second half of the
century, water supply was more affected by competition from other regions than climate change.
As populations grow and urbanization increases, more land is needed to build cities. Additionally,
materials such as wood and fiber are more in demand. As forest lands keep on disappearing, any more
encroachment of agriculture would result in a major threat to biodiversity. Limiting deforestation is a key
in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Though Europe and Asia have no room for more agriculture, sub-Africa and South America
certainly have plenty of grounds for agriculture. This, however, comes at a cost. The deforestation of
rainforests and such for the use of farm land greatly changes the environment and the culture of that
region. More global climate change issues include: high extreme temperatures, rises in sea levels, tropical
storms, and greenhouse gases (Godfray et al., 2010).
Solutions to the Problems with the Global Food System
There has been much controversy lately between countries on how to fix the global food system.
Many solutions have been proposed. Some of these solutions include: Slow Food; the Blue Food
revolution; organizations (such as World Food Program); and genetically modified organisms, or GMOs.
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Slow Food is an international organization that focuses on giving luxury foods such as cheddar
cheese and sun dried tomatoes to the underprivileged. However, recently the company has been facing
recent controversy. Slow Food has been accused of focusing more on its food aspect than the actual
problem of public-health issues. The company has responded by trying to put politics back as its center of
focus, and calls for a reform of the global industry. Slow Food and its critics both agree that the current
global food system is faulty and needs to be amended. According to the U.N. Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), in 2007, 50 million more people were hungry than in 2006. Slow Food works to
attempt to rid the U.S. of the inconvenient fast food system we currently have and work towards a country
containing ―good, clean, fair‖ food, hence the name ―Slow Food.‖ Although this type of food is certainly
better-tasting, agribusiness has long stated that industrial farming is the only way to feed a growing nation
of 7 billion (and growing). Organic farming is less convenient than industrial farming and often yields
fewer crops. This would lead to forestation of many acres of land to be turned into farm land. The FAO
director-general claims that food production needs to double by 2050, and that the organic way of farming
is ―dangerously irresponsible.‖ Towards the end of the article, the author claims that so-called Slow
Foodies are not advocating eating pure organic food, but, instead, that people should realize what is on
their plate and how it got there. In the end, the author says that Slow Food is out to give better food to
people, not just condemning the chemical fertilizers of industrial farming (Walsh, 2008).
As meat consumption keeps on rising, there becomes less and less land to ―farm‖ livestock.
Aquaculture could be the solution to this problem. Fish farming already makes up half of the global
seafood production. Additionally, many scientists fear that in the coming century, with the constantly
growing world population, more cities will grow. This will lead to less room for farmers to raise
livestock. However, as the earth is three-fourths water, there is plenty of room to ―farm‖ fish, so to speak.
A major problem, nonetheless, is that with so much fish farming occurring, there is a fear that the fish
population will die out, lead to no food source for humans. Therefore, fishermen and scientists have
developed a way in which to grow feed in pens, and then slaughter them when they are big enough to eat.
Though aquaculture will certainly be a part of the future, many people wonder whether this program
would actually be sustainable, or even cost-effective (Simpson, 2011).
Food being distributed by the World Food Program in Uganda.
Extreme hunger is quite common in this Uganda. However, the World Food Program has claimed
to have been reaching more people in the world than any other organization. According to this United
Nations food-aid agency, they had planned to feed approximately 90 million people in 73 countries in
2008, most of which are on the brink of starvation. WFP, which has been ongoing for 45 years, has
handled war, famine, and other disasters, man-made or natural. In 2007, $2.9 billion from rich-world
governments was set aside for the year 2008. However, due to the constantly rising price of food, that
amount because $755 million short. With new demands and rising food prices, the WFP is struggling to
meet the needs of people around the world. Uganda is the country that is given the most food by WFP.
Even though the land is lush and fertile, and the government is stable, most of Uganda is facing extreme
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poverty. With factors such as a long-running guerrilla war and HIV/AIDS also plaguing the country,
Uganda needs the WFP more than ever. With rising food prices, rations from the organization are
becoming more and more difficult to attain (Blue, 2008).
There is much controversy on whether organizations should distribute food to developing
countries. On one hand, no one wants to see people starve and many nations are in desperate need of the
help. On the other hand, long-term food aid encourages the people to stay on a land that can no longer
sustain them. While the WFP is not designed to fight the deep roots of hunger, but it can help. On
average, WFP feeds approximately 20 million schoolchildren each year and encourages the children to go
to school. As of now, the organization is working towards a system where the world no longer needs to
rely on food aid. However, the author predicts that, with the rising food prices, she predicts that programs
like these will be the first to be cut from budgets (Blue, 2008).
Genetically Modified Organism (GMOs) is a delicate topic in society nowadays. On one hand,
GMOs increase yields, reduce pesticides, save costs and help the environment (Kalaitzandonakes, 2006).
However, on the other hand, GMOs are so cost inefficient that they restrain society from advancing
(Fedoroff 2011). There is more on the topic of GMOs in a later chapter.
Conclusion
Humans have survived on earth because of their ability to work together for a common goal. The
new goal that man must aim for is a food system, and he must work for it on a truly global scale. The
current terrain of climate change, population growth, and the difference between developing and
developed countries provide an array of obstacles that need to be overcome. Solutions have been
proposed as seen in the previous sections, but there is not a conclusive method of solving world hunger.
Despite this, humans continue to make bounds.
One example of people dealing with issues is the outbreak of melamine in dairy products.
Melamine is an organic base that can cause health issues. In 2008 there was an outbreak of melamine
which contaminated dairy products in China. To eliminate the melamine, the whole system of dealing
with milk and milk products had to be restructured (―Food safety goes global‖, 2011). This alone is a
microcosm of how drastic change can cause large differences. If this can be extended, major change will
happen.
A cartogram using 2003 data that represents
the distribution of food consumption
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It is a sad fact that the food system currently in place across the globe is a failure. People across
the globe, especially in developing countries, simply do not have the food security they need. This itself is
enough for someone in a developed country to feel guilty for their indulgence. Many kids in America
have heard their parents utter the phrase, ―There are starving kids who would be happy to get this much
food.‖ But, in reality, this is no laughing matter. Man has come so far in developing agriculture and
working to feed themselves and others. Now is the time to make the final push to spread this to all
peoples. A policy of self-reliance has worked in some areas, but it does not cover the entire planet. The
need of food is a global problem so thus it needs a global solution, and that solution is a well-organized
international food system.
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Illustration Credits
http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/ pictures/2008/09/24/malawi460.jpg
http://www.geois.de/wp-content/uploads/2008/02/cartogram.png
http://www.flickr.com/photos/theonecampaign/5075023349/in/set-72157624565345305/
http://www.flickr.com/photos/10284369@N07/4493402419/
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-08-12/crude-marred-gulf-of-mexico-s-dead-zone-grows -as-spill-I
mpact-is-studied.ht
www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1814302_1723554,00.html
http://www.economist.com/node/21547771
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Chapter 9
Green Revolution
Michael Andrews, Alexander Lee, and Sahit Mandala
Introduction
The Green Revolution is mostly credited to the works of plant scientist Norman E. Borlaug. His
innovations in the production of food helped to eradicate hunger from many developing countries around
the world. His early life as a farm boy was conducive to his works as a plant scientist. Borlaug‘s
grandfather was essential to his success, pushing him to leave the family farm and continue in his
education. A humble and modest man, Borlaug diligently pursued the issue and thanks to his work,
countries such as India and Mexico were able to become self -sufficient with abundant cereal stores
(Gillis, 2009)
Borlaug‘s career in plant science began shortly after the Second World War in an odd fashion
after he declined a lucrative job offer at DuPont chemicals in favor of an opportunity to assist Mexican
farmers with food production in Mexico. The project began in the States with the support of the
Rockefeller foundation as well as some political help from Washington D.C. Borlaug himself began
designing and testing innovative solutions in the soils of Mexico. Depleted nutrient levels, disease, and
low crop yield were a constant adversity, but Borlaug persisted in every aspect of helping the Mexican
people until a solution was eventually devised and crop yields became healthy again.
His plant varieties came to heated debate when negative effects on the environment were
observed in areas that utilized his techniques and methods of farming. It was claimed that his work
brought about more issues than it did solutions to world hunger. Norman, confident in his work,
responded with his own views that an increase in world population due to increased food production had
brought unforeseen issues into play (―Norman Borlaug‖, 1970).
Norman Borlaug with a HYV wheat variety;
note the thick, stout stems and engorged wheat heads.
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One of Borlaug‘s most important contributions was a dwarf wheat breed that prevented a crop
destroying effect of fertilizer use. The swelling of the wheat grain head as a result of responsible
fertilization caused the stalk to bend and fall, killing the plant and severely mitigating the effects of a crop
producing chemical. The dwarf strain prevented this from happening with strong and compact bodies, yet
full sized heads to continue the increased crop yield. He then incorporated these strains into other wheat
varieties, creating an entirely new species of this essential grain that could be grown in a large variety of
areas around the world (Miller, 2012).
The Green Revolution in India
India, perhaps the most notable of Borlaug‘s successes, suffered from a lack of grain and cereal
production in the 1960s and 70s. Two year long consecutive droughts destroyed crop production in the
mid 1960‘s, and left India in a severe shortage of food stores and exports. The situation was improved in
1980 under the Rajiv Ghandi administration and a liberalization of the government, but India continued to
suffer from a lack of food stores. Because the agriculture of India relies almost entirely on the monsoon
season, the slightest discrepancy from year to year was extremely detrimental to crop yield (University of
Michigan, n.d.).
A graph of the population and net cereal production and
trade in India A graph from of 1951 the to population 2005.
High yield variety crops virtually eliminated the uncertainty of grain production for India. Wheat,
a previously non-important food crop, began to grow as a staple in much of the country. It continued to
surpass even cereal grain in net production well into and beyond the 1970‘s when the semi dwarf hybrid
wheat plants along with chemical fertilizers and irrigation were introduced to the northern provinces of
India (Everson, 2003). These new hybrid wheat plants were able to produce almost 50% more crop than
the previous traditional crops, yet required a significantly larger amount of water to grow (Zwerdling,
2009). This led to an influx of new irrigation methods and technology. Punjab profited greatly from the
Green Revolution technology, boosting its economy and the general health of people as the shortage of
food dwindled at an increasing rate throughout the next few decades. Due to the focus on the wheat crop;
however, rural poor areas continued to suffer from lack of money and growth in the agricultural sector.
The 1980s were a turning point in the development of the more rural areas in India. The
availability of tube wells became more widespread throughout the country, allowing small farmers to
access much needed water in order to irrigate their fields. Prior to these years, it is speculated that the cost
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of drilling and operating a tube well was well beyond the grasp of a small private farmer, putting them at
a severe disadvantage in the agrarian society. With the implementation of these wells, the eastern sectors
of India exploded into the market for high yield varieties of wheat and fertilizers. Because of the
implementation of the new revolutionary farming techniques, rural India was able to mitigate many of the
effects of starvation with an increased production of staple crops (Fujita, n.d.).
A diagram of a simple tube well similar
to those used to irrigate fields in India.
Pesticides
Methods of the Green Revolution
Possibly the most controversial point of the green revolution were the new pesticides used on
crops. Pesticides have been used for millennia; before the green revolution they were largely used in
developed areas. Improved pesticides significantly decreased the amount of lost crop due to insects and
small animals, saving large quantities of food. Pesticides were often distributed to the crops through
methods similar to the water distribution system in a farm.
Improved Farming Methods
Farming techniques have been fine tuned for centuries by millions of farmers. Methods for
irrigation have improved over the centuries, hitting high points with river based empires and modern
infrastructures. Modern industry often uses circular water distribution systems, allowing for the efficient
distribution of water to crops. Other than water distribution, efficient layouts for farms have been
important along with fertilizer and tilled soil.
An aerial photograph of crop fields in Kansas
with rotating water systems.
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Different crops use different resources in the soil. Growing one crop on a single plot of land over
years will result in soil decay and the eventual decline in farm productivity. In order to rejuvenate the soil
in a field, farmers will rotate crops by switching what crop grows in which field every season. This keeps
the soil well-kept and more able to sustain the crop load. This practice was well spread throughout
developed and undeveloped areas at the start of the green revolution. The green revolution encouraged
subsistence farmers to use fertilizers instead of this traditional rotation method, allowing for greater yields
in crop assuming sufficient fertilization (Tilma, 1998). This method is still used in modern times with
industrial farms.
High Yield Crops
The scientists of the Green Revolution were focused on creating the optimal conditions for low
resource farming. Concerns included water, fertilizer, seed, and sunlight availability along with
maintenance and weeding necessities. Studies were made as to the optimal crop to grow- factoring in each
of the said limitations. High Yielding Crops are efficient plants to farm, having a high output to input
ratio. Combined with genetic engineering, High Yielding Crops significantly improved the amount of
grain produced on each acre of land (Evenson & Gollin, 2003). Wheat and rice varieties were found to be
very efficient for farming, allowing for large gains when supplied with a sufficient amount of fertilizer,
water, and sunlight. Though wheat and rice are efficient, different crops were engineered for different
regions where the environment was unfit for their production.
Genetic Engineering
An important point of the Green Revolution was the modification and spread of high yielding crops
such as wheat and rice. Genetic modification, specifically the process of selective breeding, allowed
farmers to engineer crops with more desirable traits such as more nutritious fruit or thicker stems.
Spearheaded by scientists such as Norma Borlaug, the modification and customization of crops combined
with developed agricultural techniques lead to a significant increase in the productivity of farmland,
allowing for a higher population density in both developed and developing areas (Khush, 1999).
Similar to how Mendel engineered peas through breeding to express different traits and qualities,
engineers of the Green Revolution used pollination and selective breeding to bring forth desirable traits.
For corn, dwarfism, thicker stems, and energy expensive grains were breed into plants to allow for
maximum crop production. Thicker stems kept corn stalks from failing structurally, short height allowed
for less energy consumption, and focusing more energy on pods gave more energy for human
consumption (Robbins, 2007).
For other plants, such as rice, similar methods were employed. Samples with the desired qualities
were bred together to produce more profitable crops. These high yield crops were a significant part of the
improved food availability during the 1960s; they optimized energy consumption for the farm as a whole.
Pesticides
Environmental Impacts
Pesticides are chemicals that are used to kill or control pests. A fundamental contributor to farm
efficiency in the Green Revolution, pesticides killed any plants, insects, animals, or fungi that reduced the
yield of a certain crop (Rodriguez, 2010).
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An example of pest invasion.
Although intended to improve food quality and quantity, pesticides have had a variety of
environmental impacts. Although not by design, 95% of all pesticides move to unintended destinations,
killing species unrelated to farming (Sustaining the earth, 2004). Pesticides reduce biodiversity by killing
a large number of soil-borne organisms as well as miscellaneous plants and animals. During the Green
Revolution, pesticides were spread throughout developing countries. This widespread use of poisonous
chemicals severely impacted the local environment around farms, affecting plant and animal life and
bringing multiple species closer to extinction.
Fertilizer Production and Soil Depletion
A fertilizer is a substance that is added to soil to provide nutrients for crops. These nutrients were
often used to replace nutrients used up by previous crops, often due to the over farming of farmland. A
main part of fertilizer is fixed nitrogen (usually in the form of ammonia.) In the natural nitrogen cycle,
bacteria fix the nitrogen that is used by plants.. The industrial fertilization process fixes unnatural
amounts of nitrogen from the atmosphere into soil, allowing for more crops to be grown using rich soil.
Fixing large quantities of nitrogen from the atmosphere has had a number of less predictable
environmental effects, including low oxygen levels in water, heavy metal and radioactive element
accumulation, and an increase in the quantity of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere (Bodelier, 2000).
Fertilizers also can cause chemical burns on nearby animals and plants.
Chemical symbol for urea, a less potentially harmful
form of ammonia produced by animals
Political Involvement
The Green Revolution was riddled with political and socioeconomic strife due to various
unforeseen effects of the new agricultural production. The most brought up and extremely detrimental
effect was the destruction of much of the supplemental diet of poor peasants and farmers. The promoted
use of pesticides destroyed weedy vegetables present throughout the fields, in turn destroying the main
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source of Vitamin A for the poor population. In rice paddies in the more tropical areas of Asia, small fish
that lived in the marshy waters were killed by the chemical pesticides, creating a protein deficiency in
local farmers‘ diets. These disadvantages to the technologically advanced farming techniques caused
dissent in some areas of the world because of impact they created.
The Green Revolution was also very much a play by the United States to gain favor and power in
areas of the world they had lost footholds in. The government of the US was challenged by the
communist regime in China, and placed under even more pressure following their failure to secure a
decisive military victory in the Korean War. They decided to attempt to counteract this growing loss of
control by helping India feed its population, which was growing rapidly despite a severe shortage of food.
The entirety of the US goal was to set in motion an effort that would place them in an alliance with one of
the fastest growing and potentially influential nations in the world by helping them to eradicate a
persistent problem (Reiff, 2011).
The main ideology behind the United States‘ push into the developing world was the phrase
―where hunger goes, communism follows‖. The administrations of Truman, Kennedy, Eisenhower, and
Johnson all became heavily invested in the fight against poverty in the southeast regions of Asia.
Widespread use of new pesticides, fertilizers, and high yield crops became the standard response, and
funds from philanthropist sources as well as government tasked teams were thrown at this ever growing
problem. India‘s problems were nearly resolved only a few decades after the onset of this program,
indicating a major success by the United States in accomplishing their goal (Reiff, 2011).
Food Quantities
The underlying product of the Green Revolution was the increase in crop yields worldwide. With
heightened efficiency and productivity, farms were able to better meet the demand of locals, curtailing
previous deficits which plagued the respective regions. Mexico, India, Malaysia, and other developing
countries increased their output through the Green Revolution in crop such as maize and wheat, and world
production increased overall. Even in the post-Revolution decades, the techniques and innovations of the
Green Revolution were spread naturally throughout Asia and South America, resulting in increasing
global output well into the 21 st century.
Wheat yields in developing countries from 1950 to 2004.
Yield values are given in kilograms per hectare of land.
Data for the plot was compiled from FAO database.
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Statistically, throughout the Green Revolution from 1950 to 1992, the amount of grain grown per
billions of acres rose by more than 150%, reflecting the heightened efficiency of modernized farms.
Overall, global yields increased from 682 million tons of grain per 1.70 billion acres to 1.9 billion tons of
grain per 1.73 billion acres.
Considering India as a case study, rust disease, sparse crops, and irregular methods of harvest in
India led to low grain yields, at around 800 pounds per acre, in 1963. However, within 5 years, more
robust crops allowed for wheat which densely grew and resisted rust, increasing yields to 6000 pounds
per acre. In Latin America, there were 16 million peasant production units as of late 1980s, occupying
close to 60.5 million hectares. Two thirds of the Latin American rural population was the 75 million
peasants. Each farm had an average of 1.8 hectares of cultivated space. From these small units came 55
percent of the maize, 77 percent of the beans, and 61 percent of the potatoes.
Population
One of the ultimate goals for the Green Revolution was to meet the demand of a growing
population. Developing nations lacked the resources to maintain the local populace, commonly resulting
in famine and hunger. Also, without a consistent economic system, many people remained in poverty. In
theory, developing agriculture in the regions would provide a source of food and bolster the wavering
economy. The result was a self-sustaining solution to famine and poverty, which was beneficial to
individual living conditions.
Plot of global population growth from 1950 to 2010. Data
reflects the consistent growth which population sustained
over and beyond the Green Revolution. Compiled from
US Census International Database.
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Plot of world grain production per capita.
Data is plotted by kilograms of wheat per person.
The crop yields were able to better meet increasing global demands. In fact, in the late and post
Revolution period, grain production exceeded general population demands (Hughes, 2000). From the
above figures, population growth is seen to have increased from the early 1950s to early 1960s, when the
Green Revolution was beginning to take hold. Food production per capita increased by approximately 75
kg per person by late Revolution, which highlighted the surprising differential between population growth
and crop yields. After the Green Revolution, growth waned due to an increasing population, and it
remained at around 325 kg per person by the 1990s. The nutritional value of the Green Revolution was
also important. The increase in grain production grew into the global diet, and contributed to 50 percent
of all calories consumed by the late 20 st century (“The Quiet Revolution of the Sixties”, 2006).
Although the initial goal for the Green Revolution was to sustain the population, there were many
detrimental effects on population dynamics. Overpopulation, for example, remained a underlying issue. In
the post-Revolution years, with agricultural growth slowing down, per capita production began to
decrease as population growth continued consistently, as seen in the graph above. The growth of the
global population has only within the last decade begun to taper off. Some considered the need for a
second Green Revolution to meet the demands of a population which grew by 85 million people per year
by early 21 st century (“The Quiet Revolution of the Sixties”, 2006). Many consider the modern situation
to be the result of unsustainable growth and dependence on increasing crop yields.
Development Issues
Although the Green Revolution did have a relatively positive effect on the general population,
specific aspects of the movement are shown to have been more detrimental. Economically, although many
farmers benefited from the modernization which was fueled through US funds and innovation, the long
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term costs of these modern techniques resulted in mainly rich farmers benefiting. The costs of patented
plant varieties and dependence of fertilizer would hurt the poor and put many into debt (Miller, 2012).
Pesticides and fertilizers were expensive investments for farmers. Also, farmers who followed fertilizeroriented
techniques drained the soil of natural fertility, resulting in the increasing amounts of fertilizer
used over time. A similar trend was seen with pesticides, which resulted in resistant pests which required
other pesticides in order to be eradicated. Over time, the costs would build up for these products. Further,
rich farmers could afford tractors and other technologies which allowed them to greatly increase
productivity on their larger plots of land, resulting in a more industrialized system of farming. (“The
Quiet Revolution of the Sixties”, 2006)
Also, despite the efforts to bring crops to famine-stricken areas of poverty, many people still
suffered from hunger. As a movement, the Green Revolution was not a charitable solution as much as a
profitable investment. The fact remained that those who could not afford the new crops, even despite
some cost reductions, starved. Also, the costs commonly increased over time due to the expensive nature
of maintaining pesticide and fertilizer techniques. Also, poor peasants who depended on special weeds as
a primary source of vitamin A suffered when these weeds were extinguished (Reiff, 2011). As a result,
even though the grain production yields surpassed population counts, the actual food consumption among
lower class families was relatively low. For example, analysis of hunger shows that from 1970 to 1990,
excluding China from the calculations, there was a 11 percent increase in poverty. (“The Quiet
Revolution of the Sixties”, 2006)
The Green Revolution also led to the degradation of society and living conditions. The
introduction of new technologies and chemicals ultimately led to heavy pollution, such as pesticides
found in the water supply or the fumes of tractors and other machinery. The development of irrigation
systems contributed to the spread of malaria due to an increasing number of stagnant water sources as
mosquito breeding grounds. Also, the modernized techniques depleted groundwater sources and degraded
the land, resulting in looming problerms for many villages (“The Quiet Revolution of the Sixties”, 2006).
In meeting the demand of crops, new irrigation systems were continuously being built. Approximately 70
percent of fresh water was used for irrigation purposes. However, growing fears arise due to the kinds of
water sources which were tapped. In south Asia, for example, many of the ground water sources used
have tested positive for arsenic concentrations (University of Michigan, n.d.). These water sources are
still used as irrigation sources as well as drinking water wells.
Pesticides and Health
Pesticides provided a powerful solution to pests which devastated crops in Asia. Pesticides,
alongside fertilizers, have far reaching implications on ecological destruction. However, as a potent
chemical, usage of pesticides has had a negative effect on humans as well. Due to their streamlined,
common usage, diseases due to pesticides have been a major health hazard of the Green Revolution, and
their effects have been documented over the years.
A large portion of exposure comes from the application of the chemicals onto the land. Farmers
who must apply the chemical and further cultivate the chemical-ridden fields receive long term exposure.
Also, many farming areas are subject to poor regulation and safety. Protective equipment is rarely
available, let alone used, by farmers. In India, for example, people have used the containers which would
hold pesticides as kitchen storage tools. Overuse due to misunderstanding of guidelines also has caused
considerable poisoning of water supplies (Pepper, 2008).
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Recent studies also highlight the health effects of pesticides. In one study, in a group of 210
Indian farmer who used pesticides, 70 had signs of DNA damage. DNA damage is a key culprit in
diseases such as cancer. Also, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences has also attributed
neurological problems such as headaches and tremors in farmers to pesticide (Pepper, 2008).
One major study by the WWF-UK describes the effects of pesticides as endocrine disruptors. As
endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), pesticides can act as artificial hormones in the human body,
altering the cellular development within the body. The effects of the pesticide vary from type to type, but
the effects are greater if exposure occurs in children and in babies in the womb, as the pesticide interferes
with development. Also of concern, persistent pesticides have tendency to remain in an organism over
time due to their lipophilic properties and resistance to metabolism. As a result, some pesticides have the
ability to build up a the higher end of the food chain, and make their way into environmental and human
diets. The danger of these persistent pesticides demanded regulation in 2001 by the UN environmental
program (Lyons, 1999).
As EDC, pesticides can have a variety of effects. Some pesticides emulate the effects of estrogen
and testosterone in the human body, and while also disrupting the synthesis and decomposition of these
natural hormones in the body. Sex hormone disruptors can cause the reproductive system to be deformed
or cause irregularity in reproductive processes. Amitrole and dithiocarbamates pesticides have been
linked to thyroid disruption, which affects the intelligence and growth. Organophosphates and carbamate
insecticides can interrupt enzymes activity, which is tied to the blockage of nerve impulses. Further,
pesticides can alter natural hormone synthesis, causing many other hormone related problems to occur
(Lyons, 1999).
Understanding of pesticide related diseases has arisen in the past few years. Mental diseases in
children such as ADHD and autism have been tied to pesticide exposure. Exposed children may develop
brain disorders should exposure occur prior to key development stages for the brain. Also, a special type
of cancer, known as acute lymphoblastic leukemia, was tied to pesticide exposure beyond the farms.
(Jackson-Michel, 2010)
Bibliography
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soild around rice roots. Retrieved from
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6768/abs/403421a0.html
Everson, R. E. (2003). Assessing the impact of the Green Revolution, 1960 to 2000. Science, 300,
758-762.
Fujita, K. (n.d.). Green Revolution in India and Its Significance in Economic Development:
Implications for Sub-Saharan Africa. Retrieved April 10, 2012, from
http://policydialogue.org/files/events/Fujita_green_rev_in_india.pdf
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http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/14/business/energy-environment/14borlaug.html?
pagewanted=all
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from http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/g99-044
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greenrevolution_sp2006.htm
Jackson-Michel, S. (2010). The effects of herbicides and pesticides on humans. Retrieved from
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Lyons, G. (1999). Endocrine disrupting pesticides. Retrieved from
http://www.pan- uk.org/pestnews/Actives/endocrin.htm
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defining-ideas/article/108641
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prizes/peace/laureates/1970/borlaug-bio.html#
Pepper, D. (2008). The Toxic Consequences of the Green Revolution. Retrieved from
http://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2008/07/07/the-toxic-consequences-of-the- greenrevolution
Reiff, D. (2011). Where the hunger goes: on the green revolution. Retrieved from
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Illustration Credits
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http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_population_history.svg
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http://0.tqn.com/d/chemistry/1/0/x/E/1/Urea.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6f/Rizwan_tubewell.jpeg
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Chapter 10
Food Preservation
Adam Carrier, Katherine McDonough, and Tony Trakadas
Introduction
Preservation can be defined as, the act of maintaining something in its original or existing state
(―Preserve‖, 2012). According to this definition, preservation is not limited to food, but rather any
material that is degradable. Books, artifacts, environments, relationships, and even human bodies can be
preserved in some way. In particular, the methods of food preservation have progressed even more in the
past decade as to allow humans to store foodstuffs more easily and for longer periods of time. Genetic
modifications of the most resilient and fruitful plants have made modern plants more suitable for long
distance travel so the entire world can enjoy the produce. The history of preservation has no definitive
starting point, but human embalming, or preservation, can date back to the early Egyptians.
History
Spices have been used in preservation in the past for the embalming of humans. Egyptians used a
variety of organic materials ranging from beeswax to exotic resins that preserved the dead so that their
body would be suitable for the afterlife (Graham, 2001). The ancient Egyptians were experts in the art of
human embalming especially in around 1000 B.C.
One popular spice used by the Egyptians was cinnamon. Recent discoveries in the field of spice
have revealed that cinnamon can be used as more than just a food flavoring. The additive form of
cinnamon has shown to affect blood sugar in a positive way and in turn could be used to combat diabetes
and even obesity. Janelle Glick, a Lancaster General Hospital registered dietitian, says that cinnamon
may not work for all people who desire to lose weight, but it does help to maintain a reasonable blood
sugar level (Jurgelski, 2010).
There are many different methods of preserving food, but perhaps the most well-known method is
canning. The origins of canning foods date back to France in the 18th century when Napoleon Bonaparte
offered the challenge for a man to develop a method of food preservation so his armies would not starve
on long journeys. The work of Nicholas Appert culminated fifteen years of work into the invention of the
canning process. Food would be placed into a can, would be heated to a certain temperature, and then
would be sealed without any air within the can. This would allow food to be stored for long periods of
time, while still being easily transportable.
The process of embalming used many exotic spices and
preserved the bodies of the dead for hundreds of years.
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Causes of Spoilage
For millennia, humans have been attempting to protect food from spoilage, or deterioration. The
goal of food preservation is to slow down the process of spoilage, allowing food to remain edible for
longer periods of time. Up until the modern age, how the food became spoiled was unknown, and the
ways of preventing it were discovered by chance. Now the factors that cause the degradation of food have
been identified, which has allowed the development of modern food preservation techniques. Foods can
be spoiled by a myriad of factors including, harmful organisms, enzyme activities, and other chemical
reactions.
Bacteria are the simplest of organisms comprising a single cell and a few organelles. Despite their
simplicity, bacteria can be incredibly detrimental to food. Under optimal conditions bacteria reproduce at
astounding rates, a single cell can produce billions with an hour. Bacteria growth is regulated by several
key factors including temperature, ph levels, nutrient availability, moisture, and oxygen levels (―Food
Preservation‖, 2012). Typically, if food is left unpreserved, then it has all the right qualities to promote
bacterial growth. Bacteria are not the only organisms that are harmful to food. Certain fungi, such as
molds, and plants thrive under similar conditions to bacteria, and break down food to obtain energy.
Animals such as insects and rodents often feed on unprotected food and nonfood items such as adhesives
and packaging. Along with consuming foodstuffs, insects can cause contamination as vectors for
microbes (Tucker, 2008).
Strawberries with mold (fungi) growing on them; fungi
and bacteria are the most common causes of spoiling.
These microorganisms feed on the food, breaking down key components such as proteins into
waste products. In fact, there are two ways an organism might cause the deterioration of a substance:
chemically and physically. In chemical deterioration, an organism consumes the food as a source of
energy or its waste products can damage the food, and in physical deterioration, an organism can affect
the growth or activity of the food product. Both of these are factors in spoilage because they render food
unsafe for consumption. (Tucker, 2008)
Organisms are not the only spoiling agents; certain enzymes can cause chemical reactions
resulting in spoilage. In plants and animals, enzyme activity is moderated, but this balance is disturbed
upon the death of the organism. Many enzymes remain active and, while unregulated, start breaking down
the cells of the foodstuff. For example, in fruits the enzymes continue the processes of ripening and
cellular respiration after harvest. However, eventually these processes lead to rotting. This uncontrolled
enzyme activity is not just found in fruits; many meats contain pepsin that post-slaughter break down
tissue. Enzymes can cause various problems, which are shown in the table below. In addition, these
processes can have other side effects; enzyme activity can increase the odds of infection from bacteria.
(―Food Preservation‖, 2012).
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Common spoiling enzymes and their effect on various foods [based on ―Food Preservation‖, 2012].
Enzyme Food Spoilage Action
Ascorbic Acid Oxidase Vegetables Destroys Vitamin C
Lipase Cereal Discolors
Lipoxygenase Vegetables Destroys Vitamin A
Peroxidase Fruits Browns
Thiaminase Meats Destroys Thiamine
There are also several non-enzymatic chemical reactions that cause the deterioration of foods,
such as oxygen and light-induced reactions. Most food contains unsaturated fatty acids that will react
when exposed to oxygen (Dalton, 2002). This reaction will start a chain of events leading to the spoilage
of a food product. The effects of oxidation include the production of rancid flavors, discoloration, and the
destruction of vitamins. Exposure to light can also cause spoilage in foods, discoloration in vegetables
and meats, and the destruction of riboflavin in dairy products (―Food Preservation‖, 2012).
Preservation Methods
Through the understanding of spoilage causing factors, deterioration of food can be prevented
more effectively. Food vary, but all food items will be spoiled when exposed to one or more of the same
factors. In order to ensure the longest shelf life possible, several of the factors that cause deterioration
must be properly addressed. The most destructive processes are caused by bacteria and other organisms
and often by preventing their growth, food can become sufficiently preserved. Still enzymatic and
chemical reactions must be accounted for, in order to preserve the quality of the foodstuff. For example, if
a particle food item is photosensitive, it must be kept away from direct sunlight. Although all food will
eventually break down, the process can be slowed. The key to preservation is controlling the environment
surrounding the food; this can be done by regulating moisture content, atmospheric makeup, oxygen and
light exposure, and microbial growth (Blum, 2012).
Preservatives are most often used in foods to prevent spoilage, as well as to exterminate bacteria.
While preservatives are typically less effective than processes such as freezing, pickling, and canning,
they can effectively slow microbial growth, thus extending shelf life. There are three different ways
preservatives can fight off spoilage: by inhibiting microbial growth, by slowing oxidation and other
harmful reactions, and by blocking natural enzymatic processes. A wide range of preservatives, both
natural and artificial, are used to achieve one or more of these prevention techniques. While most only
target one cause of spoilage, some, such as sulfites, target all three (Dalton, 2002).
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Food preservatives can be broken down into three basic categories: antimicrobials, antioxidants,
and enzymes inhibitors. Sulphites, one type that can be placed into any of the three categories, interrupt
normal functions of cells as a way to kill the organism. Propionates (antimicrobial compounds that occur
naturally in certain fruits) and benzoates fight fungi. Common meat preservatives that block deadly
bacteria are nitrates and nitrites. Chemical breakdown of food is often stopped with antioxidants.
Preservatives in natural products are a major current search for food scientists (―The Future‖, 2002).
Because bacteria are one of the largest contributors to spoilage, food is typically fortified against
them. Bacteria need specific conditions to flourish, and changing the environment around them can inhibit
their growth. By changing the temperature, moisture, pH levels, or oxygen, levels of a bacteria‘s
environment spoilage can be stopped. For example, in the process of drying, water is removed from a
foodstuff, and without any water, bacteria on the surface of the food quickly die out. This does not ensure
that food will never spoil, however. All bacteria require different conditions to thrive, and just because
some cannot survive below freezing temperature does not mean all bacteria don‘t. Some bacteria also can
survive unfavorable circumstances, essentially hibernating until the conditions improved to levels, which
allow them to thrive. If a bacteria colony is frozen, then when they are thawed the cells may enter stasis
and start growing again (―Food Preservation‖ n.d.).
An ancient method of preservation, referred to as coning or curing, involves the use of salt and
sugar to prevent microbial spoilage. These compounds can prevent or inhibit the growth of food-borne
pathogens and protect against some microbial spoilage. The most common way they fight bacteria is
through dehydration. Sugar and salt induce osmosis by affecting the equilibrium in and outside of cells.
Because the outside of the cell has a lower concentration of water than within, water osmoses out of the
cell to compensate. This loss of water leaves the moisture content of the cell diminished. This lack of
water inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi, which rely on an excess of cellular water to thrive (Parish,
2006). Preservatives do not just limit bacterial growth. Antioxidants are used to stop oxygen related
spoilage; it can cause foods to break down by reacting with lipids and fats. Other preservatives prevent
spoilage by targeting enzymes. Citric acids are commonly used to change the pH levels of fruit, inhibiting
rotting (Dalton, 2002).
The use of preservatives is not the only way foods are protected from bacteria. Microbial growth
can be stopped, or slowed down, by removing the water from a given food item. This process is known as
drying and has been used to preserve foods for tens of thousands of years. While salting is one way to
cause dehydration, the very earliest drying technique used the heat from sun to evaporate the water in a
given food item. This simple technique worked well for preserving plants, but did not work for meats.
Because of this, other drying methods were developed, and by about 8,000 BC, smoking and salting were
first used to preserve meats. These methods are still used along with more advanced techniques such as
freeze drying (Zeuthen and Bogh-Sorensen, 2003).
Drying is one of the most effect preservation techniques;
however, the food loses valuable nutrients through the process.
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Freezing, along with drying, is used to slow down bacterial growth, as well as enzymatic
processes. Not only if food able to remain fresh, but also maintains the texture and taste is the most
popular method for long time food preservation and storage. Microbial growth is prohibited and internal
chemical reactions are slowed during the freezing process. The lower temperature decreases the rate at
which the reactions occur. Lowering the temperature also decreases the water levels necessary for
microbiological deterioration. The rate at which heat should be removed from food is dependent on the
composition and nature of the specific food material and the temperature and surface heat transfer of the
cooling device. The success of the process is dependent on proper freezing. However, as the food is
frozen and preserved, so are the microorganisms already in the food. The microbial deterioration will
resume when the food is thawed (Tucker, 2008).
The process of chilling, much like freezing, consist of storing foods at below room temperature.
As opposed to freezing, chilling does not bring the temperature below freezing, and as a result, it does not
deteriorate the quality of the food. Chilling decreases multiple processes that would spoil the food by
decreasing the rate of motion of the molecules in the food. Decreasing the rate of motion decreases the
both physical and physiological processes, chemical and enzymatic reactions, and microorganism growth.
Bacteria and mesophilic microorganisms, however, are capable of growing at chilled temperatures. The
rate at which the foods are chilled is important. Increased rates can have both negative and positive effects
on the food based on the food being chilled. The amount of fluids in pre-packaged meat can be decreased
with a faster cooling rate. Peaches, however, can gain a rough texture if chilled too quickly. As the
temperature is chilled, the evaporation rate decreases; this allows for more profitable food when the food
is sold by weight because of the extra water weight. Fruit also are able to remain hydrated longer, which
prevents wilting from occurring early. The respiration and ripening rate of fruit is also decreasing with
temperature, and the life cycle of the fruit is therefore being extended (Tucker, 2008).
The refrigerator is most common device in
homes used to chill and freeze foods.
Canning is another well developed and established technique of preserving foods, and most
people encounter foods that have undergone this process on a regular basis. This method, known as
thermal processing, can be performed in one of two different ways. Separate sterilization sterilizes the
food and can separately and places the food in the can in an aseptic zone. In-container sterilization heats
the unit of food placed in container until both are sterilized. To sterilize the food, time and temperature
conditions must be maintained because it is under these conditions that bacteria are killed. The cooling
process is equally important in order to prevent large amounts of spoilage after processing. These steps
have been improved throughout the last century when the underlying principles of food preservation were
understood (Tucker, 2008).
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Organic Food Debate
While the various types of preservatives used in foods can enhance the shelf life and flavor of
many types of foods, there has been a resurgence of organic foods. Foods without preservatives or
additive chemicals are known as organic, or natural, foods. The controversies surrounding the uses of
chemical preservative in food have led 23% of the population of the United States to consistently
purchase organically grown food. The spending on natural foods and nutritional supplements by
consumers across the U.S.A increased from $55.1 billion in 2001 to $68 billion in 2004 (―Organic
Consumers Association‖, 2005).
Organic foods use preservation techniques that humans have been using for centuries, such as
salting, smoking, and drying. Organic food enthusiast argue that the chemical preservatives are harmful to
the human body, but non-organic food enthusiasts say that the chemicals have no negative effects on the
human body. Those who favor organic foods argue that chemical preservatives are bad with their proof
being that human bodies are taking longer and longer to decompose due to excess preservatives from
food. People who accept the use of chemical preservatives in everyday foods reason that the chemicals
are necessary for long distance shipping.
Most of the produce consumed in industrialized countries is indigenous to other areas. Produce is
shipped over hundreds of miles without preservatives would be vulnerable to premature spoilage and
would be unacceptable for the consumer. The availability of seasonal produce in the everyday lives of
Americans introduces a dependency on foreign produce. Organic foods enthusiasts say that eating organic
foods decreases foreign control over the American food supply. This organic food resurgence brings up a
moral question. Is it better to eliminate the availability of exotic produce to the majority of the population,
or just have the minority group suffer and adapt or accept and reform (Donaldson-Briggs, 2001)?
Natural Preservative Alternatives
With the organic food market on the rise, more and more people desire less synthetic chemical
preservatives in food. One example of a natural preservative that may or may not be considered a spice is
garlic. Researchers at Washington University recently published a paper outlining how garlic can be used
as a safe and natural preservative. According to the American Society for Microbiology (2011), past
studies have found proof that thiosulfates, a group of unstable and volatile sulfur-containing compounds,
have antimicrobial behavior, but this new study demonstrated that organ sulfur compounds derived from
garlic also possess similar antimicrobial behaviors.
Limitations on Calcium Disodium EDTA on various foods.
Food Limitation (parts per million) Use
Cabbage, pickled 220 Promote color, flavor, and texture retention.
Canned carbonated soft drinks 33 Promote flavor retention.
Canned white potatoes 110 Promote color retention.
Clams (cooked canned) 340 Promote color retention.
Crabmeat (cooked canned) 275 Retard struvite formation; promote color retention.
Cucumbers (pickled) 220 Promote color, flavor, and texture retention.
Distilled alcoholic beverages 25 Promote stability of color, flavor, and/or product
clarity.
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With these new developments in preservatives, people that choose organic foods over foods with
artificial preservatives will be able to use this natural chemical to enhance the shelf life of organic food
rather than using manmade chemicals. The amount of a given preservative that can be added to a product
is limited by part 172 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Some examples of food preservatives with
restrictions include Anoxomer, BHA, BHT, dehydroacetic acid, and calcium didsodium EDTA.
Spices in Preservation
Preservatives are characterized as food additives because they are added to food and act to resist
spoilage. Under the category of additives, preservatives can be divided into two major categories.
Antioxidants prevent fruit from spoiling and prevent oils and fats from turning rancid, and antimicrobial
agents impede the development of bacteria and mold (―Food additives‖, 2011). Spices can be both
antioxidants and antimicrobial agents because they can act to prevent the spread of bacteria and also
prevent, or prolong, the spoilage of fruits and fats.
Spices can come from shrubs, vines, lichens, seeds, flowers, roots, vines, and the fruits of
herbaceous plants. The spices derive from compounds known as phytochemicals and cause the aroma and
flavor of spice. In nature, the spices know evolved as defenses of plants against predatory animals and
insects. A recent study on spices entitled ―Darwinian Gastronomy‖ attempted to quantify the amount of
spice in region of the world. In one test, they concluded that India had the most spices used in a meatbased
dish out of a sample size of 36 countries. While the amount of spices per recipe was informative,
the other research enacted in this study proved to reveal the preservative qualities of spices.
Of the 30 tested spices, all of the spices were able to kill 25% of the bacteria for which they had
been tested. Not only did each spice have antimicrobial behavior, 50% of the 30 spices tested were able
to prevent 75% of bacterial growth. The most efficient spices were garlic, onion, allspice, and oregano.
The regions of the world nearest to the equator of Earth have a higher spice usage seemingly because food
spoilage rates are higher in areas of a higher climate. When a spice is cooked, the phytochemicals are not
affected and retain the aroma and flavor. Spices are not the only factor in antimicrobial behavior because
there are other chemicals called synergist: lemon juice, peppers, and other similar citric acids act as
disruptors to the membranes of bacterial cells. The low pH attributed to synergists allows spices to more
actively kill and prevent bacterial growth and bacteria.
A spice shop where people are able to purchase
multiple preservatives.
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Future of Food Preservation
Although techniques for food preservation have been established, scientists are still searching for
more efficient methods. Many different techniques have been invented and tested in the recent years.
Different technologies focus on improving different problems that are current in common techniques. The
main focuses include environment, cost, efficiency, and quality. New procedures include combining
previous techniques, manipulating internal processes, using ultraviolet waves, and inventing original
processes.
Hurdle technology is a broad approach to food preservation. Many different forms of emerging
technology in food preservation are based on hurdle technology, which is a combination of techniques.
Each preservative factor is referred to as a hurdle, and they can be both natural hurdles and applied
hurdles. Even though the most important hurdles can be included into six different categories, water
activity, temperature, acidity, redox potential, preservatives and microorganisms, the entire list of hurdles
is quite extensive. The effect on food, which can be either positive or negative, differs based on the hurdle
and the food, but all hurdles should be kept in their specific optimal range. Each food is unique and
differs in intensity and quality of hurdles (Leistner, 2000).
The deliberate combination of hurdles can yield many diverse yet desirable effects, including
microbial stability and sensory quality of food. Some hurdles in combinations of hurdles are used to
counteract the negative effects other hurdles may have on the foods. The desired effect is based on the
need of different cultural settings. Industrialized countries focus on minimally processed foods, minimally
packaged foods, and future food lines when developing hurdle technology. However developing countries
focus differently, storage without refrigeration and high-moisture foods are their main focuses (Leistner,
2000).
All of different types of hurdle technology manipulate organisms‘ physiological reactions to
inhibit growth, shorten survival, or kill organisms. A basic approach is to use preservative factors to
disturb the homeostasis of the organisms, and as a result the disturbance would prevent the organism from
further development or kill it. By straining all of an organism‘s repair mechanisms, metabolic exhaustion
is used to achieve a process known as auto sterilization, and the increasing the number of hurdles is able
to increase the rate of exhaustion. Metabolic exhaustion can also be achieved by manipulating the stress
shock protein synthesis. Subjecting an organism to multiple and diverse stresses will cause the organism
to attempt to produce multiple proteins, which will exhaust the organism. Multi-target preservation would
disturb homeostasis by targeting different parts of an organism at the same time. The process would
require careful selection and combination of hurdles to create a proper synergistic effect (Leistner, 2000).
Ultraviolet radiation is currently being developed and tested as a food preservation technology.
The latest results have shown high dosages cannot achieve sterilized foods before the quality of food is
diminished. However, low doses have been shown to increase the shelf life. Ultraviolet fraction of
sunlight is used to kill the bacteria living in water. Other types of radiation are being used to defend
against fungi and bacteria in other parts of the food as well. Opaque materials and rough surfaces do not
gain a great benefit from the new technology (Prokopov & Tanchev, 2007).
Ultrasonification, the use of sending ultrasound waves through food, is also being tested as a food
preservation technique, but high resistance has been found in bacteria and spores. Even though bacteria
have been found to have a high resistivity, the ultrasounds have been found effective in freeing bacteria
attached to surfaces. Salmonellae have been found less frequently in food treated by ultrasonification.
Damage can be caused to strains of the staph infection-causing agent when using ultrasound (Prokopov &
Tanchev, 2007).
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An area of future research is bacteriocins, toxins produced by bacteria, for food preservation.
Even though those formed by pathogenic bacteria are not suitable for processes dealing with foods,
bacteriocins produced from lactic acid bacteria have been deemed safe. Scientists have already identified
30 different bacteriocins, and these may provide a food preservation process, which would be a natural
method (Prokopov & Tanchev, 2007).
Although preservation by heating technologies is well developed, other preservation technologies
are still being developed and tested. One example is high pressure processing (HPP), but the aim of this
method is not to replace heat techniques but advance a possible alternative. High hydrostatic pressure is
an emerging technology that has the potential of improving the quality of processed foods and preserving
modern food products. Meat and seafood are more frequently subjected to HPP, but plants have
undergone HPP. The effects on shelf life and safety of specific food still need to be examined more
closely (Heinz, 2010).
The original discovery of successful HPP occurred over a century ago, but the process has been
made more accessible and popular in the most recent decades. Three variables, temperature, pressure, and
time exposed to pressure, alter the exact process of HPP. This differs from the more common two variable
processes, and it allows for a more varied outcome using the same technique. After the food is subjected
to pressure over 350 megapascals for a time period ranging from seconds to minutes, the microorganisms,
viruses, and spores in the food are inactive. However, the vitamins, flavors, and color are virtually
unaffected (Heinz, 2010).
High pressure processing, a possible technology
used to complete high pressure processing.
Growing food, which is less susceptible to spoilage than other foods, is another focus of food
scientists. Techniques for growing foods using LED lights in urban settings have recently shown to be
successful. These plants have been shown to have a higher sustainability than other foods grown using
traditional methods (Wogan, 2011).
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div5&view=text&node=21:3.0.1.1.3&idno=21#21:3.0.1.1.3.2
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http://www.avure.com/archive/images/food-processing/high_pressure_food_processing.jpg
115

Chapter 11
GMO Crops
Rachel Maillet, Anish Athalye, George Han, and Osi Van Dessel
History
The first genetically modified food granted a license for human consumption was a tomato known
as Flavr Savr. A Californian company known as Calgene produced the transgenic crop and submitted it to
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for approval in 1992. The FDA concluded that Flavr Savr was
safe for human consumption and posed no more risks than a genetically unmodified tomato. In 1994, the
company began selling the modified tomato, but production stopped in 1997 because it was unprofitable.
This financial setback resulted in its sale to Monsanto Company.
Through genetic engineering, Calgene hoped to slow the ripening process of a tomato while still
retaining the natural taste and color. The plant was made more resistant to rotting through the addition of
an antisense gene (APH(3‘)II), which interfered with the production of an enzyme that contributes to the
breakdown of cell walls. However, the tomato disappointed researchers because the inserted gene did not
increase the firmness of the fruit. Therefore, the modified tomato still had to be harvested the old
fashioned way like any unmodified vine-ripe tomato. As a result, the project was considered a failure
because the costs did not exceed the profits, eventually ceasing the production of Flavr Savr
(Redenbaugh, 1992).
The Science of Genetic Modification
Knowledge of genetics has become essential in genetically modifying organisms. Genetic
modification is defined as manipulating the development of the organism through the insertion of special
DNA sequences. However, genetic modification differs from plant breeding because of the precision of
gene transfer. In conventional breeding, desired genes in two parents are bred over generations to produce
offspring that have the desired trait. However, in transgenic organisms, genes can be inserted from a
completely different organism without the issue of fertility (Halford, 2000). In both plants and animals,
desirable traits are introduced into the organism using rDNA technology (―Genetically Engineered
Animals‖, 2012).
At Monsanto, the company that produces 90% of all transgenic crops, scientists follow a special
procedure to produce genetically modified plants. Scientists first select the trait they want a plant to have
and where they can obtain this trait. Next, scientists acquire the desired gene from an organism by using
genome-mapping technology. After they have the genes, they must insert it into the plant, which can be
accomplished through several techniques. One procedure uses a gene gun that literally shoots pieces of
DNA into plant tissue. Another method uses a bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, to insert genes into
plant seedlings. This organism specializes in invading plant DNA, so scientists at Monsanto have used
this bacterium to insert new proteins in plant chromosomes. After many years of testing in growth
chambers that monitor disease resistance, drought tolerance, and other factors, the company will finally
narrow down the seedlings to the one that is best genetically modified. This seed will be reproduced and
sold to farmers around the world (Boyle, 2011).
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Applications
Recently, scientists have expressed interests in the applications of GMOs. In food technology,
plants and livestock are modified with desired traits. Often times, production costs are lowered as well,
resulting in cost savings passed on to the consumer. Although there are many benefits from GMOs, the
application of the technology is dependent on the profitability, costs of transition, certainty of outcome,
and consumer preference (Bremmers, 2004).
There are many applications and current uses of modified plants. Over the last decade, transgenic
crops have been planted on more than a billion acres in the world. In the coming years, scientists predict
that 10.3 million farmers will plant biotech corn, canola, cotton, soybeans, and other genetically modified
crops (Chassy, 2007). The use of transgenic plants is growing as well. In 2010 alone, the amount of land
planted with transgenic crops grew by 10% to 366m acres (―Genetically modified crops‖, 2011).
Genetically modified crops. This bar chart
shows the increase of genetically modified
crops in certain countries from 2009 to 2010 in
hectares (―Genetically modified crops‖, 2011).
This occurs because farmers are willing to pay more for modified seeds that will result in higher
yields, greater pest resistance, and lower labor demand. This is not surprising given that the quantitative
impacts of genetically modified crops have been truly remarkable. They have brought farmers $27 billion
in additional profits, reduced pesticide use by 224 million kg, and cut greenhouse gases by amount
equivalent to removing 4 million cars off the road (Chassy, 2007).
Currently, genetically modified crops are extremely successful and have been adopted faster than
any type of technology in agriculture in the United States. The most accepted modified crop is the
soybean. In the United States, 94% of all soybeans are modified with a gene that makes the plant resistant
to herbicides. Corn has also been modified, with 72% of all corn herbicide resistant, insect resistant, and
vitamin enriched. Many of the genes for insect resistance were required from the bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis. Lastly, 73% of all cotton has been modified so that it is pest resistant (―Adoption Crops‖,
n.d.).
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Adoption of genetically engineered crops. This graph shows the growth rate of adopted
modified crops in the US. HT represents herbicide resistant and Bt represents insect
resistant (―Adoption of Genetically Engineered Crops in the US‖, n.d.).
Scientists are constantly modifying and altering crops in new ways. In Britain, scientists are now
testing modified wheat that contains a peppermint gene that not only frightens aphids, but also attracts
predators that eat them. The wheat is designed to release a pheromone when under attack from aphids,
which creates panic and causes the insect to flee. Scents are also released to attract parasitoid wasps as a
second layer of defense, which preys on aphids. This has become an alternative to chemical insecticides
that are used to control crop pest. Although tests are still being conducted, this new approach could
eventually help protect crops and flowers from aphids without the use of toxins (―Genetically terrify
aphids‖, 2012).
In livestock, genetic modifications have been applied to three main categories: animal production,
human nutrition, and healthcare. In the livestock chain, applications of transgenic technology are possible
in animal breeding, growing (genetically modified food, vaccinations, and supplements), and processing.
An example of transgenic animal breeding is the genetic modification of pigs. A main issue that
researchers have aimed to fix is the excess fat on pigs. In Japan, through implanting a spinach gene,
scientists have created pigs that produce less fat and healthier meat. Others have modified the IGF-1 gene
in pigs because studies have shown that the transgene can help reduce carcass fat by up to 20% and
increase lean body mass. Another application has increased the milk production in baby pigs, leading to
an increase in the growth of transgenic pigs. This in turn has resulted in lower food costs, lower use of
antibiotics, and less pollution. Lastly, there has been a growing problem with pollution from the
phosphorous contained in the manure of monogastic animals. This has led Canadian scientists to alter
pigs that have 75% less phosphorous in their manure, resulting in a healthier environment.
Although it is still being developed, there are many applications of genetically modified feed,
feed additives, hormones, and vaccines for livestock as well. A large number of crops used to feed
animals are already modified for greater benefits. New crops have improved feeding value through the
addition of phytase, which is beneficial for the welfare of the animal and the environment. Currently,
there are studies done on genetically adding edible vaccines, antibodies, enzymes, and hormones in
animal feed as well. This is expected to reduce costs, increase growth rates, and increase animal health.
Lastly, genetically added feed additives, such as nutrients and supplements, play a large role in enhancing
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livestock nutrition as well. Through these feed additives, animals will be able to digest more efficiently,
resulting in healthier and more productive animals (Bremmers, 2004).
The types of genetic modifications are endless. To this day, there are thousands of different
modifications, ranging from birds that cannot transmit avian flu to humans, corn that is pest repellant, and
dogs with sharper hearing abilities. As we progress into the future, new ideas for modifications will
spawn, and new transgenic organisms will be born.
Controversy and Possible Risks
The risks that result in the greatest controversy are the harmful effects on human health and the
environment. There are many other risks that pose as a threat to the continuance of GM crops. The
engineering of herbicides for weed control results in the harm to wildlife. These plants, that have various
toxicities, can enter into a water supply and remain in a particular environment for a very long time. The
possibility that certain genes from genetically engineered crops will come in contact with other plants
produces the risk of large weed populations that are difficult to control with plants or insects.
Certain types of crops harm specific organisms. The mortality of the monarch caterpillar
increases with each feeding on milkweed covered with the pollen from Bt corn, which produces a
dangerous toxin. If this species was affected, several other species farther down the food chain may also
be affected. In 1985, scientists transferred the certain genes into a tobacco plant that resulted in the
production of a crystalline material toxic to butterflies, moths, and other insect pests. Bt corn and cotton
have been designed to diminish the pest population, but experiments have shown that fields with Bt corn
have an increased amount of insects and other pests than those fields with insecticides; however,
insecticides are harmful to non-target insects while the toxin produced from Bt products is harmless to
non-target insects, animals, and humans. If insecticides are commonly used and kill thousands of
innocent insects, than Bt crops are useful, but if insecticides are rarely used, than Bt crops are simply
useless (Biello, 2007). Also, if the weed population increases by genetically engineering these organisms,
diverse bird populations may become scarce (Marvier, 2002).
Issues have risen, and sides have been chosen about whether or not genetically engineered
organisms should exist. The only genetically modified crop grown in Europe is a type of corn. Because
of the withdrawal of the potato as a GM crop, approximately 140 jobs were cut from the company which
developed the Amflora potato for the paper industry. Although the company is looking for authorizations
for certain food products in the future, it does not plan to market other GMOs, including the diseaseresistant
potato product and the disease-resistant wheat product. Environmentalists were enthused about
this destruction of another genetically modified food product in Europe (Kanter, 2012).
These genetically modified Amflora
potatoes are no longer produced in
Europe.
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The most controversial risk is whether the by-products that accumulate over time from GM crops
are extremely harmful to the environment and the health of humans. These risks are not definitive, as
they vary in different environments and conditions. However, it is important that these issues be soon
resolved because the public will further support transgenic crops.
For those that are against the genetic modification of crops, it is unjust to jump to any negative
conclusions. The worldwide use of GM crops has the potential to harm people and the environment, but
there are serious problems with food and nutrition that cannot afford to reject the use of these crops.
Society, as a large scale, must come to an agreement with the use of GM crops (Nap, Metz, Escaler, &
Conner, 2003).
Benefits
Genetically engineered crops are being used to improve the management of pest insects, devise
new policies regarding effective land and water, and produce new crops from the thousands of
possibilities of gene and genome combinations. In 2009 it was reported that thirty different genetically
engineered crops were being grown on approximately three hundred million acres in twenty-five different
countries. Fifteen of those twenty-five countries were known as developing countries. Genetically
engineered crops have been growing in fields for over fourteen years. Throughout those years, not one
extreme health or environmental effect has been the result. It isn‘t completely inaccurate to think of some
harmful effects of GM crops on the environments as being no different than other unintended problems
that affected human health and the environment as well. Each new plant variety produced contains the
risk of different unintended problems; however, three government agencies thoroughly examine these
GM crops while other crops are never expected by any type of agencies. These conventional crops that
are never assessed have been recorded to cause harmful effects on humans or animals (Ronald, 2011).
New crops are essentially being made to improve the nutrition of humans, to diminish the use of
various harmful pesticides, and to improve the soil. A certain type of rice has been produced with an
increased amount of iron that reduces the chances of blindness and anemia worldwide. The increase in
GM crops would also increase the reduction of harmful pesticides. Such chemical pesticides cause great
harm to insects and worms that feed on pest insects and aid in decomposition and gaining nutrients.
Between 1997 and 1998, harmful pesticides were reduced by one percent because of the genetic
engineering of corn, cotton, and soybeans. The development of engineered crops that bear herbicides can
actually improve the soil. This would cut down on processes that reduce the amount of soil (Marvier,
2002).
Insect resistant crops are among those that are genetically engineered. These crops were grown to
reduce the use of harmful pesticides that control various insects that feed on the plants. There are
approximately three hundred thousand deaths related to pesticides globally. Modified populations of corn
and cotton were produced that contain certain proteins, Bt toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis, which kill
the pests that feed on the plants. Even better, these toxins do not cause harm to most insects, wildlife, and
people who prove to be beneficial. Bt crops are actually the second most popular type of engineered crop.
Since the planting and growing of Bt crops, the number of pounds of chemical insecticides have been
reduced. With the reduction of harmful insecticide comes the reduction of injuries in Chinese and Indian
farmers. There has also been an increase in biological diversity. Despite all of the advantages of using
this crop, certain insects may actually become accustomed to the toxins and will evolve to become
resistant to the Bt crops. Since there is much controversy about whether or not genetically
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modified/engineered crops are beneficial or not, farmers have been reluctant to try producing and growing
these types of crops.
There are new methods that are being designed to produce more accurate and precise
improvements than those being used that utilize a random process of mutagenesis or the mating of two
closely related organisms. Foods that are being developed through biotechnology raise speculation about
the legitimacy of the labeling of the products. Although fruits, vegetables, cereals, flour, oils, milk, fish,
and shellfish do not need to be approved by the FDA, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act states
that these foods must be safe for consumers. The food products of biotechnology are regulated under the
same, strict conditions that regulate conventional foods (Maryanski, 1999).
The most rapidly adopted technology in the history of agriculture and farming, genetically
modifying crops increases the amount of crops yielded and makes our foods healthier. For those opposed
to genetically modifying crops, every crop is actually the result of repeated experimentation and
adjustment by humans over time. In producing a new crop, scientists and plant breeders try to alter a
minute part of the genome of the crop rather than drastically changing large parts of the plant. This
method, unlike wide-cross hybridization and mutation breeding, produces predictable results that do not
bring about dangerous new species. A device called the gene gun is used to produce adequate results.
Not only does this device yield the healthy crops needed, but it also reduces the chances of bacterial
contamination and an inconsistency in results. Even with this fairly simple method of genetically
modifying organisms, plant breeders do not just transfer the genes to the genomes by themselves, but they
also include an antibiotic-resistant marker to ensure that no other cells than the modified ones are grown
into a full plant.
The United States, Argentina, and Canada are currently the countries to be growing the largest
population of genetically modified crops. Specific organisms like soybeans, corn, cotton, and canola have
been modified to be more resistant to pest insects, herbicides, and diseases. Engineered crops that are
able to tolerate herbicides help conserve that soil on large areas of land as the management no longing
needs to till the soil. GMOs affect the soil because they have the ability to decrease the plant
decomposition rates and the levels of carbon and nitrogen (Phifer & Wolfenbarger, 2000). Aside from
improving the conditions of the soil, genetically modifying crops produces a healthier supply of food to
feed thousands of people. Deficiencies in vitamins and minerals can result in anemia, intellectual
development impairment, blindness, and even death. A rice product that is being engineered contain an
enriched amount of provitamin A and digestible iron. Approximately three billion people globally
consume an inadequate amount of vitamins and minerals. Genetically engineered rice has the ability to
make people healthier and to save the lives of many people. Vaccine proteins are also being included in
some crops to eliminate diseases in developing countries. Trees are being modified with different genes
that enable them to decontaminate certain heavy metals found in the soil in result to pollution.
Researchers say that by the year 2025, there will be approximately eight billion people
worldwide. The future may likely include the increase in genetically modified crops to provide a key
food source. However, there are many concerns that come to people about genetically modifying
organisms, especially crops. Crops that are resistant to herbicides actually kill all weeds without harming
beneficial crops. The toxic chemical that is found in Bt pollen is belittled by the sunlight and natural
weather conditions, such as rain, over time. The so called supercrops that have the potential to invade
other existing plants are found to be growing in their own environments without any traces of invasion.
Scientists perform careful studies to ensure that no genetically engineered crops secrete proteins that
cause allergic reactions.
There are many risks and concerns that are proved to be illegitimate. With this in mind, the
American Medical Association believes that genetically modified crops have the potential to prevent and
even cure diseases. GM crops have the ability to help developing countries overcome a scarcity of food.
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These crops are just as healthy, nutritious, and safe as the other foods regularly sold in grocery stores
(Prakash, 2005).
International Policy
In recent years biotechnology has evolved into a controversial subject with debates about the
evolution, expenditure, and expansion of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). There has been a
volatile reception of GMOs in developed countries, and clear differences in regulation dictate the
response from the different international organizations. For some countries the acceptance of
biotechnology comes with relative ease, such as the quick FDA approval, while in other institutions the
technology undergoes intense scrutiny, such as the regulatory body of the European Union (EU). The
difference of opinion between the EU and the US was analyzed in a study during 1996-1997, which
studied the public opinion of the application of biotechnology. The study showed various level of support
for the use of GMOs in different applications and in the figure below a graphical representation of public
concern can be seen (Bailey & Lappe, 2002). The survey concluded that there were three factors
responsible for the greater European resistance to biotechnology
Applications for GMOs and their support. This bar graph shows the results
for a survey conducted between 1996-1997 asking about applications for GMOs.
The first factor responsible for the hostile public reaction against GMOs in the EU could be
attributed to the influence of the press and mass media. It is generally accepted that the media plays a
crucial role in defining public perception and there are currently two understanding of how the system
actually influences society. One view supports that the content of the press is the determining factor in
public understanding while another view believes that the total presence in the media is the deciding
factor (Bamford, 2007). In Europe the latter seems to be the greater influence. As the news of
biotechnology increases, there is a steady increase in public concern for the technology.
The second factor that may have contributed to the negative public opinion in the EU could be the
trust in regulatory procedures. Europe and the United States have rather different histories of
biotechnology regulation. The US held short public debates in the 1980s to settle most issues concerning
new regulations for biotechnology. These debates were resolved with relative ease because U.S.
regulators did not see biotechnology as posing special risks, and most of the regulation was already
contained within existing laws addressing known physical risks of new products. In Europe, by contrast,
debate took a much longer period as the union had to agree on a viable transnational consensus. With
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added regulatory process, the EU naturally had to take longer in approving biotechnology, but this
extended period of time was detrimental through the extended time that GMOs circulated the media
(Buhler, Stephen, Eddie, & Mann, 2002).
Press coverage of GMOs. This graph is representative of the number of articles relating to
biotechnology between the years 1984 and 1996. It represents how GMOs were in the
European media more than in the USA.
The third factor that is responsible for the negative understanding of GMOs is the role of
knowledge in public perceptions. There is a common belief that with scientific understanding, the public
will become more approving of a technology. The study however showed that the correlation with public
understanding in biotechnology and public concern was reversed, the more the public understood the
subject, the less approving they were about the technology. The European public understood the technical
aspects of biotechnology better than the American public, but chooses to eliminate any use of GMOs in
the market. The approval of the American public is representative of either the naivety to new technology
or the general acceptance of GMOs benefits (Conner, Glare, & Nap, 2002).
GMOs within the European Union
The use of GMOs within the European Union has prompted intense controversy and debate.
Although the USA was able to obtain authorization for the commercial use of GMs quickly, the EU has
posed long regulatory delays on the technology upon the requests for more scientific information.
Through growing public distrust of GMOs regulators that approved the use of biotechnology are
reconsidering questions previously dismissed and officially resolved. Coupled with government
reconsideration and public pressure, retailers have also begun reviewing their procedures and methods.
The EU as well as other government agencies have grown more cautious to GMOs and have begun
integrating as well as employing an assortment of protective measures. The major precautionary method
installed by governments is the necessary evidence required to demonstrate the safety of GMOs. Through
legislation, governments have broadened the practical definition of the adverse effects which must be
prevented and have also devised a market stage precaution for such effects. The risks of genetically
modified (GM) crops have sparked controversy within the European Union as companies test for the
commercial stage of GMs in Europe. One such legislation established by the EU is known as the EC
Deliberate Release Directive 90/220. The legislation sets a procedure to not only harmonize the
integration of GMOs into the market but also increase regulation for safe use. The major issue for this
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legislation as well as the regulatory procedure of the EU is that the multinational system has defined risk
in a multitude of ways, thus imposing conflicting views.
International Risk Analysis
Risk is defined differently for every country. Risk debates focuses on the conflicting ideologies of
how technology should be used within society. It also deals with contending visions of how society
should be organized. Certain protesters warn that the environment is at risk from a specific technological
practice or development such as GMs, this warning may actually express a more specific agenda by the
opposing organization. For example, a warning that a technology is out of control may be used to imply
that expert managers are needed to bring it under control and thus to protect the environment. Risk
debates generate conflicts of accountability about how potential harm can be reduced, and as a
consequence of the debate risk conflicts highlight disagreements among experts. Given the volatile nature
of risk debates, a small and self-critical society revolves around the disagreements. Experts are constantly
discussing the advantages and disadvantages until the final outcome is that more research is required. This
response may be used as a political strategy to delay contentious decisions, to accommodate
disagreements, or to gain resources to gather more scientific information. In practice, additional research
often leads to further controversy over how to interpret the experimental results, partly because the
research is grounded within a particular model of the relevant uncertainty. Although funded in order to
guide policy, the scientific research itself is often driven by policy directives and their epistemic criteria
for risk (Andow, Hilbeckk, & Van Taut, 2008).
Although GM crops shows promise in the future, there is a multitude of concerns about the
impact of GM crops on the environment. Key issues of GM crops are putative invasiveness, vertical or
horizontal gene flow, other ecological impacts, effects on biodiversity and the impact of presence of GM
material in other products. These are interdisciplinary and complex issues that are the major scientific
reason for the restriction in international policy. An important step in making an informed decision about
GMs is by defining the appropriate baseline for comparison of the risks and rewards of such technology.
The best and most appropriately defined reference point for GMs is the impact of plants developed by
traditional breeding. The latter is an integral and accepted part of agriculture. In many instances, the
putative impacts identified for GM crops are very similar to the impacts of new cultivars derived from
traditional breeding. When assessing GM crops relative to existing cultivars, the increased knowledge
base underpinning the development of GM crops will provide greater confidence in the assurances plant
science can give on the risks of releasing such crops (Mariani, 2007).
Throughout the history of plant breeding, new technologies have regularly been utilized to
develop new gene combinations for improving crop cultivars. These included: the artificial manipulation
of chromosome number; the development of addition and substitution lines for specific chromosomes;
chemical and radiation treatments to induce mutations and chromosome rearrangements; as well as cell
and tissue culture approaches such as embryo rescue, in vitro fertilization and protoplast fusion to allow
the recovery of interspecific and intergeneric hybrids. The genetic gains from the integration of these
technologies into mainstream plant breeding have substantially improved the performance of the resulting
cultivars. They continue to make a major contribution to genetic improvements in yield, environmental
adaptation, resistance to specific diseases and pests, and specific quality attributes that are constantly
demanded by farmers, the food industry and consumers. Although beneficial to some, it is regarded that
with reintroduction into the natural ecosystem, an uncontrollable interaction will occur, resulting in the
upset of the natural evolutionary process (Young et al. 2008).
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Future of GMO Crops
A booming global population is putting pressure on food producers. Over half of the global
population suffers from diseases caused by lack of food and dietary deficiency. Out of these people, in
developing countries, over 800 million are chronically undernourished. Two primary reasons are that food
is scare in developing countries, and whatever food is available in developing countries (maize, wheat,
and rice) is deficient in essential vitamins, amino acids, and minerals. Already, food demand is extremely
high; by 2050, that demand will double. To solve that problem, scientists are trying to start an Evergreen
Revolution, similar to the Green Revolution of the late 1960s (Despain, 2010). They propose to leverage
genetically modified organisms to improve global agricultural productivity. Proponents of the movement
claim that GM crops will significantly improve agricultural productivity and combat agricultural
challenges (such as climate change). However, critics continue to argue against GM crops, citing
problems such as biodiversity displacement, native plant devastation, and wildlife damage (Nap, Metz &
Escaler, 2003).
There are many challenges associated with adoption of transgenic crops. Recently, scientists,
policymakers, farmers, economists, and biotechnology representatives have been discussing the necessity
of ecological monitoring (Marvier, 2002). The details of monitoring have still not been decided; however,
it is important that the issues are worked out soon. A sound monitoring program will be essential for
public acceptance of genetically modified crops (Goyal & Gurtoo, 2011).
Research and Technology
Much research in genetically modified plants focuses on designing hardier and more efficient
crops. Scientists are developing several strategies to attempt to design better crops. One such strategy
allows plants to use solar energy more efficiently. There are three types of photosynthesis: C3, C4, and
CAM. Most plants including wheat, rice, and soy employ the C3 process, in which three carbon
compounds are fixed in a photosynthetic cycle. Some plants, such as corn and sugarcane, have evolved
into the more efficient C4 variety, which are able to store carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and thus
survive in harsher conditions and are produce more biomass efficiently. Genetically engineered C3 crops
using the C4 strategy would have the same abilities.
Another method involves designing crops to fix nitrogen, which would cause plants to require
less supplemental nitrogen. Nitrogen is plentiful in the atmosphere (in fact, it constitutes about 80% of the
air on Earth), but nitrogen-containing fertilizer is expensive and contaminates the environment. Certain
crops such as soy and some legumes have developed the ability to fix nitrogen gas from the air; giving
this trait to other crops will decrease pollution and increase yields. A third method is to bioengineer grains
to produce seeds without fertilization through apomixis. This cloning type of reproduction would
eliminate the need for annual interbreeding, greatly reducing costs.
Adapting crops to withstand heat, drought, and salinity is another option. These factors account
for the majority of crop losses. Engineering crops to better survive a wide variety of climate conditions
would allow farmers to use land not normally suitable for agriculture and reduce the impact of climate
shift caused by global warming on crop production.
Another strategy is bioengineering plants with greater resistance to pests and diseases. Scientists are
currently experimenting with ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) genes to find new methods of killing
insects and viruses (Qaim & Zilberman, 2003).
Increasing the light-gathering capability of plants is another plan. Plants could be more efficient
at gathering light from the sun; most collect only 1-3% of light, while human-designed solar panels
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collect 10-15% of light. But some plants are more efficient at capturing light than others; scientists are
looking into inserting these genes into the less efficient plants (Despain, 2012).
Research on genetically modified plants focuses not only on making more efficient crops, but
also on designing better crops. In current research, scientists are cloning a set of genes for the
biosynthesis of vitamins, essential amino acids, and minerals and using a novel method to introduce
multiple genes into cereal crops (Zhu et al., 2007).
Adoption
Biotech crops are the fastest adopted crop technology with over 160 million acres planted today, a
94-fold increase from the 1.7 million hectares planted in 1996 (―ISAAA Brief‖, 2011). They are not a
silver bullet solution to world hunger problems, but an outright rejection of genetically modified crops is
illogical and potentially harmful to the environment and poorer people in the world (Lynas, 2010).
Indeed, out of the 29 countries planting GM crops today, 19 are developing countries, growing
approximately 50% of global biotech crops. The top 10 planters each grew more than 1 million hectares.
Over 160 million acres of GMO crops are grown worldwide.
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Biotech crops are benefitting people in both developed and developing countries. In the United
States, 69 million hectares of GM crops are being planted. In developing countries, GM crops are
benefitting resource-poor farmers. For example, in China, 7 million farmers (growing approximately 0.5
hectares each) grew 3.9 million hectares of GM cotton. Biotech crops in Africa are making steady
progress: three countries (South Africa, Burkina Faso, and Egypt) have commercialized biotech crops,
altogether planting 2.5 million hectares; several other countries are conducting field trials focusing on
staple crops including maize, cassava, banana, and sweet potato.
There is contrast between developed and developing
countries in the cultivation of GMO crops.
With the rising world population, it is imperative that genetically modified crops succeed. The
world needs at least 70% more food by 2050, and demand is only going to increase after that. In
developing countries where 2.5 billion subsistence farmers survive, food production needs to be doubled
by 2050. With such a great rise in demand, biotech crops are essential not only for developing countries
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http://www.isaaa.org/
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Chapter 12
Sustainability and Food
Dennis Giaya, Eric Williams, and Rohit Satishchandra
Introduction
The high population density of many countries raises questions about there are enough resources
to support the growing population. With a growing amount of people to feed and a finite amount of
exploitable food sources, the agriculture industry is striving towards more efficient and ultimately more
sustainable methods of food production. Sustainability as a concept is rooted in a social context, and as a
term is loosely defined. There is no mathematical equation to give the sustainability of any particular
system because sustainability is dependent on multiple factors, many of which are rather subjective. There
are two main categories discussed under the title of sustainability: critical limits and competing
objectives. There exists a scientific procedure to determine the critical limit of earth to sustain human life.
However, considering competing objectives is a multifaceted problem. This involves balancing the
resources available in a manner best suited to serve the human population for an amount of time deemed
acceptable. For this method to work, items must be prioritized so that fair compromises can be made to
ensure maximum desired output (Fricker, 2000).
The sustainable agriculture movement embraces methods that are designed to maximize the food
production in a given area while minimizing the environmental impact. Practices such as rotating crops,
using less harmful chemicals, and recycling are all embraced under the sustainable movement. Another
critical focus is the processing and transportation of goods. Processing consumes energy, and current
transportation methods are fueled by depleting natural resources that also release harmful pollutants into
the atmosphere. For example, milk production is an energy intensive process from raising the cows to
transporting the milk. It is important to get as much milk per cow as possible in order to maximize profit
and reduce environmental impact. Focusing on retrieving more milk per cow leads to better treatment of
the cows and a more effective production process that is less wasteful. Dairy farmers are beginning to reuse
water from the milk cooling process, harvest rainwater, and install boreholes in an effort to minimize
water consumption. By increasing efficiency by 27%, dairy processors have prevented as much as
270,000 tons of carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere annually. This is a joint effort between the
processors and the retailers to use less energy and reduce emissions in the production and distribution
process (Tasker, 2011).
Unfortunately, helping the environment comes at a cost. Adhering to sustainable agriculture
practices is difficult for many farmers who are struggling economically. Although sustainable practices
are better in the long run, the operating costs can be impractical for some smaller farms. Additionally, the
cost of decreased output from using fewer chemicals is ultimately passed on to the consumer. Growing
crops in a sustainable manner is better for the environment, but in some cases it may mean a decrease in
volume. It all goes back to balancing the factors that contribute to sustainability. A decrease in output
would mean increased competition that leads to increased prices for the consumer. However, these initial
challenges are insignificant when compared to the result once devastating irreversible environmental
damage has occurred.
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This bar graph illustrates the amount of carbon dioxide released
in the atmosphere to produce a half-pound of each of the foods.
With the recent hype of climate change, the term carbon footprint has become increasingly
popular. A carbon footprint is a measure of the ecological impact of a specific individual, location, or
organization. Specifically, the carbon footprint accounts for the carbon dioxide emissions produced; it is
measured in tons of carbon dioxide ETAP (2007). Many factors can affect the carbon footprint of the
agriculture industry. Different types of crops can have different carbon footprints depending on the
method used to grow them. Also, it is generally true that eating lower on the food chain reduces the
carbon footprint of the end result. For example, eating beef will have a large carbon footprint because that
cow had to be fed and taken care of. Energy was required to grow the crops to feed the cow and also to
transport them to the cow. By eating the crops themselves rather than the cow, all of the excess
intermediate energy can be omitted from the process.
Carbon footprint is important to consider when discussing sustainable agriculture because a high
carbon footprint has a severe environmental impact. Polluting the atmosphere is harmful on two separate
levels. First there is the climate change and water pollution that results from high carbon dioxide
emissions. Then it must be considered that climate change could render some crops obsolete and would
make obtaining water more difficult than it already is for some areas that are struggling to obtain usable
farmland.
History
There has been a shift in U.S. agriculture. A census released by the USDA (United States
Department of Agriculture) shows a dramatic increase in the number of farms and farmers from 2002 to
2007. An increased awareness of how health, food, and the environment are all interrelated and impact
sustainability has been the catalyst for most of the change. Some problems Americans are currently faced
with include environmental degradation, water scarcity, and rising gasoline prices. These all affect the
ability to grow and transport quality food. The agrofuel boom, a recent movement to use agricultural
products such as corn and other grains to create fuel, has diverted a large portion of grain supplies and is
contributing to the global food crisis (Hundal, 2010).
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Major crops grown in the United States include corn, soybeans, hay, wheat, cotton, rain, and rice.
The U.S. is the world‘s largest producer of corn. Corn is a versatile crop that is mostly used to feed
livestock. It is also consumed by people or used to create environmentally friendly ethanol fuels for use in
cars and trucks with a lower carbon footprint. Hay and grain are mainly used for animal consumption
(EPA, 2009).
On a global scale, food production is not being distributed evenly to meet the needs of a growing
population. Economically stable nations suffer from food over consumption that leads to obesity while
developing countries are plagued with starvation and a dwindling food supply. Increased production is
limited by three major factors: land, water, and energy. An increasing global population means a decrease
in the amount of land area per person available for growing food (Leaver, 2011). The availability of water
is essential to growing food as irrigated crops account for 50% of the global food (Boutraa, 2010). A
large amount of nonrenewable energy is used to make fertilizer for agriculture as well as to transport
crops from the producer to the consumer. The main effect of globalization is that it is the driving force
behind the sustainable agriculture movement. By considering the needs of people as a whole and the
resources available to them, some kind of plan can be made to utilize the resources to their full potential
and ensure maximum output for as long as possible.
Rotating crops seasonally is a good way to avoid overfarming
a plot of land to the point that it becomes unusable.
Environmental Impact of Current Agriculture
The environmental impacts of agriculture can be divided into two groups: those caused by
expansion and those caused by amplification. Expansion refers to the scenario in which croplands and
pastures extend into new areas and replace natural ecosystems, and amplification denotes the process by
which existing crops are managed for higher production through the use of irrigation, fertilizers, and
mechanization.
The availability of land area to produce food has not increased substantially over the past 50
years. Meanwhile, the rising global population has decreased the agricultural land area available per
person to grow food from 1.30 to 0.72 hectares in the last 40 years. These trends will most likely stay the
same in future years because land will be used for other uses such as urbanization, biofuel production,
desertification, and salination. Global agriculture has cleared 70% of the grassland, 50% of the savanna,
45% of the temperate deciduous forest, and 27% of the tropical forest biome. Croplands and pastures
currently represent almost 40% of the non-ice land on Earth, and much of the expansion has been isolated
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to the tropics, where an estimated 80% of new croplands will replace forests. This clearing of the biomes
eliminates biodiversity and key ecosystem services, and also contributes a major source of greenhouse gas
emissions (approximately 12% of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions). In addition, almost 70% of global
freshwater usage is used for irrigation. Rainwater farming currently consumes the most of the global
water supply (Foley et al., 2011). Thus there is increasing pressure to slow the expansion of agricultural
land because of its associated GHG emissions and contribution to the loss of biodiversity. Agriculture has
also become dependent on non-renewable energy sources to maintain its operation; 4% of global fossil
fuel energy is used by farming, and about 50% of this amount is required for production of nitrogen
fertilizer (Leaver, 2011).
Food Transport and Climate
Public concern regarding climate change has significantly increased in recent years; one
particular aspect that has garnered increased attention has been food production and the impact it has on
greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Few studies, however, have analyzed the GHG emissions linked to food
production in comparison to the transportation and distribution of food products. The findings of one
recent study suggest that despite the vast amount of distance food travels in general, the great majority of
food-related GHG emissions can be linked to the production phase. In fact, 83% of the average U.S.
household footprint for food consumption is from production, and only 11% of life-cycle GHG emissions
can be attributed to transportation as a whole. Further, the results indicated that the most plausible course
of action in the attempt to lower food-related GHG may involve a shift in dietary standards, rather than an
emphasis on localized retail. Food, combined with home energy and transportation, comprises a large
share of most consumers‘ personal impact on the climate. Unlike home and transportation, however, the
purchase of food allows consumers to reduce more easily their personal impact because of the substantial
amount of personal choice involved and relative lack of long-term restricting effects.
The total t-km of freight by mode per year per household, transport-related GHG emissions by mode,
total GHG emissions by supply chain tier associated with household food consumption
in the United States, and comparative climate impacts of different food groups.
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There has been a steady increase in both organic and locally grown food in the U.S., which shows
the increasing awareness in American consumers of their impact on the environment. Red meat and cereal
(and other grain products) contribute the vast majority of transport and supply-chain affiliated GHG
emissions. Trucking contributes the vast majority of food transportation for all major food groups. Dairy
products are responsible for the most emission of methane. It was determined that relatively small shifts
in the average household diet could yield GHG reductions similar to that of localized production. For
example, a 21-24% reduction in red meat consumption, shifted to chicken, fish or an average vegetarian
diet lacking meat consumption would achieve the same reduction as total localization (Weber&
Matthews, 2008)
Solutions for Sustainable Agriculture
Clearly, these problems present environmentalists, and the human population in general, with an
alarming dilemma. Just as world population and consumption continue to rise, so also does the need to
grow food sustainably and reduce the agricultural footprint. Environmentalists insist that halting, or at the
very least delaying, agricultural expansion is the first step in ensuring secure and sustainable food supply
for the coming years. They claim that crops situated in tropical locations, where much of the deforestation
occurs, produce low yields, and are not a significant source of protein. The next step is closing the
disparities in yield among various landscapes worldwide so that underperforming landscapes can become
equal with the areas of highest yield, thereby increasing food supply while keeping expansion at a
minimum. Finally, maximizing the efficiency of irrigation and eating less meat and dairy products are
essential in sustainable agriculture (Foley et al., 2011)
Though conventional agricultural systems are largely specialized, the growth of one crop year after
year is not a prevalent practice. Crop rotation, or the planting of different crops on a particular plot of land
over time, has been observed for over 2,000 years. Through the years, different regions of the world have
adopted various combinations of crops; this independent evolution can be attributed to the adaptability of
particular crops to certain environments.
The widespread use of synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, and fungicides led agriculturalists to believe
that the need for crop rotation would slowly diminish because farmers could regulate yield-limiting
elements such as fertility and erosion. Removing crop rotation without conceding production has been
more of a challenge than originally anticipated however. Though the true benefits of switching crops is
not fully understood, farmers have continued the practice because of noticeable benefits, such as
increased nitrogen-use efficiency and a decline in weed resistance due to the diversity of herbicides
associated with particular crops. Careful design of rotations can also be useful in controlling pest
populations or the spread of pests across a landscape. Attention is now being drawn to system redesign,
which could be as simple as introducing an ―off-season‖ cover crop or as extensive as radically altering
the crops grown and expanding number of crops, thus increasing the length of the rotation. Similarly, a
push toward reduced tilling and greater focus on crop diversity could prove extremely beneficial in the
long run. These systems could provide greater farming system resilience and enhanced income stability
(Francis & Porter, 2011).
Maintaining soil fertility through more efficient use of fertilizer is a goal driven by high energy
prices and environmental regulation. The use of green manures as cover crops, animal manure and
compost, and grain legumes is an alternative in organic systems that distinguish them from large-scale
conventional systems. Research has shown that although starter fertilizer often provides a noticeable
effect on crop appearance in the early stages of development, it has little influence on crop yields.
Substituting compost and manure, along with non-traditional soil amendments are viable strategies for
sustainable nutrient management (Francis & Porter, 2011).
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The search for sustainable agricultural methods that can secure a stable food supply for future
generations inherently places greater demand on food crop production, animal feed, fiber, and fuels. In
recent years, improved genetics have led to crops receiving private research in the hope of dramatically
increasing yields. In nearly all cases, plant genes are moved within or across species, which creates new
combinations based on mutations. The most obvious instance of this has been in U.S. corn production,
which has increased 500% in the last 70 years. Today scientists are able to use market-assisted breeding
and biotechnology to better measure and increase the precision of DNA alterations. Seed development has
the potential to reduce water requirements and fertilizer needed for corn and cotton crops (―Agriculture's
Sustainable Future‖, 2009).
Future Plans
Increasing global awareness of environmental effects of excess carbon has led to plans to reduce
carbon outputs. Five proposed solutions are the end of using tropical land for farming, increasing
productivity of initially low-yield farms, improve water usage and waste, reduce fertilizer use, and reduce
meat consumption. Doing such can reduce economic costs and environmental costs simultaneously. There
are core issues that can be addressed which will have a significant effect on sustainability (Jonathan,
2011).
Three major issues that can be addressed are land use, meat consumption, and food waste. All
three of these can be reduced in order to improve the sustainability of food production. By the year 2050,
the world population is expected to reach nine billion. These people will need to be fed, which will cause
an increase in food consumption and therefore an increase in food production. An extrapolation of current
statistics regarding food production indicates an impending dilemma. Farming is the leading cause of
deforestation, and to some extent, soil erosion. Previous solutions were made without sufficient data of
the situation. Each idea only focused on one problem. The overarching problem is caused by the
combination of the individual factors. Recent research has allowed for informed ideas. The proposed plan
includes slowing and stopping clear-cutting land, increasing food production in developing countries, and
using fertilizers strategically. It was also suggested that individuals start consuming more vegetables and
fruits as opposed to meats. In addition, crops used for animal feed uses a significant amount of the food
produced globally. Reducing this would provide more food for the growing population. (Coren, 2011).
Currently, 38% of global land area (excluding Antarctica and Greenland because of the cold
climates of these regions) is used for farming. Although this is not the majority of the available land, it is
the best portion of land. Naturally, the most arable sections of land were chosen first. The remaining land
comprises deserts, mountains, and tropical rainforests. Although expanding into the rainforests is
possible, and has already occurred, it is not an expedient choice because the rainforests are large
consumers of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Clearing the rain forests would harm the planet greatly
(Jonathan, 2011).
Ideally, food production per unit area should be increased; however, it is not nearly enough to
provide sufficient food for the growing population. Global production has been increased by
approximately 20%. This increase is far less than what is needed and is less than what is reported. In
addition, a portion of the produced food is not being consumed by people. Alternate uses reduce the food
supply by 40%. Also, meat production has a net food loss. The conversion of plant mass to animal mass is
about 30 to one (Jonathan, 2011).
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Mean carbon footprint versus total nitrogen applied.
As more nitrogen fertilizers are added, emissions increase dramatically
(from Huthaa, Thorburnb, Radford, & Thornton, 2010).
The number of miles food travels is another aspect that can be reduced to improve sustainability.
On average, food travels 1500 miles before it reaches the consumer (Lindsey, 2011). This can be reduced
to by producing food locally. This way, the emissions by the truck or ships used to transport the food is
avoided.
The solution must come from a multitude of actions. First, agriculture must not be allowed to
spread into tropical forests. Although this might restrain expansion for land, the environmental effects of
expansion would have more drastic, negative effects in the long-term. This has been done by offering socalled
carbon credits to countries that do not cause deforestation. Other countries can buy these carbon
credits, causing incentives to the counties to continue to avoid clearing forests. In addition, food can be
certified to be shown that it was not grown on deforested land. Such a method would require individual
initiative to choose foods not grown on deforested lands (Jonathan, 2011).
The next problem to be addressed is the production per land area. Improvements can either be
made to the highest producing farms, such as through genetic engineering, or to the lowest producing
farms, which are generally in areas where food shortages are common. Research has shown that
increasing food production of low yield farms would have the greatest impact. These farms are primarily
located in Africa, Central America and Eastern Europe. Yields can be improved with better seeds,
efficient fertilizer use, and improved irrigation, all readily available, as opposed to genetic engineering,
which is a greater investment. Such tactics would have little environmental effect, the worst being
fertilizer use if done improperly, and could result in gains of up to 60%. Still, caution must be taken to
avoid overuse of chemicals irrigation (Jonathan, 2011).
Resources must be used more efficiently. The resources are water, fertilizers and energy. One
calorie of food requires, on average, one liter of irrigation water to grow. However, this optimal amount is
often exceeded because of poor technique. Better tactics would reduce water usage. For example,
applying water directly to the roots of crops as opposed to spraying the water into the air would minimize
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water lost to evaporation. It is also possible to reduce evaporation in irrigation systems by covering said
systems with organic matter. Fertilizers are difficult to use efficiently. Fertilizers are commonly overused
or underused, the first of which is wasteful and harmful to the environment and the second of which will
reduce crops production. Incentives can be made to prevent watershed contamination, an effect of
overused chemicals (Jonathan, 2011). In standard use of fertilizers, 1% of the nitrous oxide directly enters
the atmosphere (Huth, Thorburn, Radford, & Thornton, 2010). Fertilizers can account for 75% of the
emission of crop production, so care must be taken not to overuse them (Hillier, Hawes, Squire, Hilton,
Wale, & Smith, 2009).
Drip irrigation system; water is applied directly
to the roots of plants to conserve water.
Food can be made more readily available if individuals choose to eat less meat. As mentioned
before, meat consumption loses a large portion of the calories used as animal feed. In fact, completely
ending all meat consumption would allow cause a 50% increase of available calories. This situation is
unlikely, as many people might oppose giving up meat because of personal preference. Still, minor
changes can be made. Switching grain-fed beef to other types of meat would have a significant effect
(Jonathan, 2011).
Another major solution is to reduce food waste. After the effort and resources have been spent to
produce the food, it makes sense not to waste it. However, up to 30% of the food produced is lost. In
richer countries such as the US, a great deal of food is thrown out. This happens frequently at restaurants;
causes include oversize portions, in which servings are too large, and extras are discarded. Reducing
portions would be beneficial in terms of reducing food wasted and would also help a country deal with
growing obesity. Less developed countries suffer most of the losses at the production stages. Food is lost
to failed crops and pests because of lower quality refrigeration and storage. Some food is never delivered
because of lack of infrastructure to handle the food. Improving the infrastructure and communication
would help reduce waste (Jonathan, 2011).
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Conclusions
Overall, the greatest gains can be made possible by a combination of the available strategies,
methods, and personal choices. The five proposed strategies, although each helpful on its own, require the
other four to be significant. These also need person initiative to be implemented.
An example of what has happened and what can happen if proper decisions are made is the case
of the orangutans that inhabit Borneo. The orangutans have been threatened because of the deforestation
of their habitats. The orangutans live in a 415000-hectare wildlife preserve; however, the reserve is
immediately surrounded by oil-palm plantations. Because of this, their population is in decline. The
values of these industries makes the end them quite unlikely. This means that continuance of current
practices can mean extinction of the specie. However, activists have worked to prevent such an end
(Finitude, 2009).
A plan has been made to pay foresters to not cut down trees. This benefits both the country and
the environment. One example is Indonesia. Being the third greatest producer of carbon, it had agreed to
one of these contracts. It has plans to cut pollution by 26%, and this deal could increase that figure to
41%. However, despite the potency of the idea, implementing it might not be as easy as thought. The land
not being used is highly sought out for because of the potential productivity. Still, activists are trying their
best. This halt of the industrial invasion would allow for the release of captive orangutans back into their
natural habitats, without the fear of being run out by business (―The Finitude of Forests‖, 2009).
The plan also includes the re-planting of multiple trees. Such would bolster affected communities
and improve lives. These new trees would also contribute towards removing carbon from the atmosphere.
It has been estimated to be a quantity of 75 million tons spanned over the next 30 years (Finitude, 2009).
These figures will not come to pass if the plan is not implemented. The plan has to receive certain
certifications before can be applied. For example, it has to be proven that the land was in sufficient danger
of being cleared in order for carbon credits to be awarded. There are also political qualms halting
progress. The companies have greater sway in the debate, making it difficult to get the plan approved.
These trees provide a source of income for multiple companies, and protecting the trees would reduce
their profits (―The Finitude of Forests‖, 2009). This example shows how food production can be made
sustainable as long as the proper actions are taken
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Illustration Credits
http://www.drgreene.com/sites/default/files/images/perspectives-fightglobalwar.jpg
http://www.iol.uni-bonn.de/images/FF_kreis_e.jpg
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1021/es702969f
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1021/es702969f
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3763/ijas.2009.0419
http://www.cropinfo.net/drip.htm
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Chapter 13
The History of Agriculture
Ryan Fletcher and Aaron Hammond
Introduction
For the past ten thousand years, the history of human civilization has run parallel to the
development of agriculture. First honed in the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, and India, plant and animal
domestication allowed local Neolithic peoples to grow a surplus of food and thus support non-agrarian
specialists. Between craftsman, warriors, and kings, this increasing social complexity led naturally to
more stratified and capable societies and soon gave rise to the cultural and infrastructural institutions
which define civilization. Nonetheless, some societies remained steadfast in their hunting and gathering
ways. These groups were almost universally eclipsed, however, by their better nourished and more
populous neighbors who had made the switch. Agriculture was therefore crucial in shaping the ancient
world and consequently key in the emergence of advanced civilization.
The first undisputed archaeological evidence for plant domestication comes from the Levant, a
region on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean which includes present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel,
Jordan, and Palestine. At numerous sites throughout this area, evidence of the cultivation of emmer
wheat, einkorn wheat, peas, flax, chick peas, bitter vetch, and barely has been discovered (Diamond,
1991). These plants are often referred to by anthropologists as the founder crops because of their immense
importance to these agricultural pioneers.
This map identifies locations associated with early Neolithic agriculture.
These sites are spread throughout Southwest Asia, particularly in the Levant.
Neolithic trading and migration soon spread these crops to both Egypt (8000 BC) and
Mesopotamia (7000 BC). Particularly fertile soil, due to regular silt deposits by the Nile in the former and
the Tigris and Euphrates in the latter, allowed for large-scale agricultural operations which would lead the
civilizations local to these regions to flourish, building cities and leaving an indelible mark on early art
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and science. In a similar way, knowledge of plant cultivation exploded across Europe around this time,
and evidence suggests the presence of farming as far west as Ireland by the mid-sixth millennium BC
(Diamond, 1991). Because the Eurasian landmass exists primarily on an east-west axis with relatively
consistent latitude and climate, early plant domesticates required little modification to spread throughout
the two continents (Diamond, 1999). Consequently, within a few millennia, nearly all of Europe and
western Asia had succumbed to the agricultural revolution.
Plant domestication also appears to have independently originated in China. By 7500 BC, the rich
loess of the Yangtze and Huang He Rivers had provided the requisite material to cultivate millet, rice, and
soy and mung beans. Surrounded by tall mountains and inhospitable deserts, the Neolithic Chinese were
entirely geographically isolated from the rest of Eurasia, leading to this difference in agricultural fare.
Furthermore, the East Asian land proved fertile enough to allow early Chinese to overcome this isolation
and consequently develop civilization of a complexity on par with their European relatives (Mazoyer &
Rudart, 2006).
Agriculture likewise developed independently in several other locales around the world. By 5000
BC, the Sahel zone in Africa boasted domesticated rice and sorghum, and the peoples of the New Guinea
had been farming sugar cane and bananas in gardens for two thousand years. The Amerindians, too,
began to domesticate a number of plants within a few millennia. In Mesoamerica, the familiar trio of
maize, beans, and squash took hold in the mid-third millennium. At the same time, early Andeans had
domesticated manioc, quinoa, and the potato, and groups in the Eastern United States had begun growing
sunflower and goosefoot. The Americas, unlike Eurasia, are situated on a north-south axis; there is great
latitudinal and climatic variation on the landmass (Diamond, 1999). Species of plants suited for one area
thus could not be grown in others. The spread of agriculture was therefore much slower for aboriginal
Americans than for their European counterparts. In many cases, however, distribution was altogether
impossible, meaning that many Native American groups remained hunters and gatherers.
This map identifies the major continental axes for Eurasia, the Americas, and Africa.
The north-south orientation of both the Americas and Africa seriously hindered
propagation of crops throughout the landmasses.
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In many areas, the domestication of animals directly followed the domestication of plants.
Whether they served as beasts of burden, means of transportation or warfare, or dietary and material
supplements, early animal domesticates complemented the increased productivity offered by agriculture.
Southwest Asia was home to many potential candidates for domestication; by the sixth millennium BC,
dogs, sheep, goats, pigs, and cows had all been bred in captivity by Neolithic farmers (Diamond, 1999).
Archaeological evidence suggests that dogs were primarily used for hunting, whereas goats, pigs, and
cows provided some variety to the otherwise bland agrarian diet through meat and milk (Mazoyer &
Rudart, 2006). Better than offering foodstuffs alone, bulls were used to supplement human muscle and
sheep were sheared for their wool. The horse, arguably the most important animal domesticate, emerged
from southern Russia as early as the fifth millennium BC, consequently revolutionizing warfare and
communication. Around the same time, the water buffalo was first domesticated in China, essentially
filling the same role as the cow in Southwest Asia (Diamond, 1999). Eurasia thus offered a veritable
menagerie for Neolithic farmers, and the material culture benefitted accordingly.
The peoples of the Americas, in contrast, did not benefit much from domestication of animals.
Because of widespread extinctions of many of the large mammals of North and South America possibly
precipitated by the migration thereto, few possible animal domesticates persisted until the development of
agriculture. Only the llama and alpaca proved sufficiently docile; these animals, however, could not
accept a human rider or plow. The Amerindians thus primarily used these two for their wool and to carry
light loads. As a consequence of this absence of large mammals, Native Americans were largely
unexposed to the suite of diseases that accompany these animals, leading to a lack of acquired immunities
(Diamond, 1999). When such viruses were introduced to the natives during European colonization, the
results were therefore catastrophic.
In retrospect, the benefits of agriculture seem abundantly clear. Farming and husbandry offer
much more food per acre than hunting and gathering, which obviously must improve the quality of life for
those cultivating the acre. This is not the case, however. On average, those in modern hunting and
gathering societies spend only fifteen hours a week on the acquisition of food. Comparatively, those in
primitive farming societies spend upwards of sixty hours a week tilling, plowing, watering, and
harvesting (Diamond, 1991). Furthermore, animal and wild plant populations tend to be more stable
sources of food than farming; there is never a bad season of deer, whereas a bad growing season can lead
to famine for primitive farmers. The increased population density that generally accompanies farming
also tends to be miserable. Cities, on the whole, tend to be much dirtier, disease-ridden places than rural
hamlets (Mazoyer & Rudart, 2006).
In addition, the surplus of food provided by agriculture allows for a social stratification and,
consequently, inequality (Harris, 2001). The question thus arises as to why then nearly all successful
civilizations have been those based upon an agrarian model. Although agriculture can lead to an
unfortunate situation for the populace, it is a sustainable and scalable economic model for the state. In
times of war, quantity often beats quality. Consider that, in a battle of two opposing tribes, the one who
presents ten warriors is likely to beat the one who presents one. Whereas hunting and gathering produces
better-fed and happier people, the sheer abundance of food offered by agriculture leads populations to
grow accordingly (Diamond, 1991). Therefore, in most confrontations between farming and non-farming
peoples, the green thumbs generally win.
The history of agriculture has been inextricable from the past ten thousand years of human
history. This trend shows no sign of abating. The population of Earth is perpetually increasing; so too
must food production increase to meet this growing demand. Although modern methods of farming and
animal husbandry would be foreign to Neolithic farmers, modern man can learn from his primitive
forebears. Moreover, he should appreciate the sacrifices in quality of life that made agriculture possible
and likewise shaped the world in an overwhelmingly positive way.
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Sustainable and Alternative Agricultural Methods
For the last ten thousand years agriculture has served as the keystone to human civilization. From
humble origins in manual labor, agricultural methods rapidly advanced towards large scale animal
husbandry and mechanized crop farming during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Mazoyer &
Roudart, 2006). These agricultural advances have vastly increased worldwide food production; however,
these same methods pose serious problems in terms of their sustainability and have significant detrimental
environmental impacts.
Agriculture of today must be able to sustain itself for many centuries to come if humanity is to
continue its swift technological advancements and maintain its large global population. The world
populace is projected to increase by billions of individuals over the next several decades, and is
anticipated to reach a maximum size of between ten billion and eleven billion individuals. In order to
avoid potential food shortages in the future, food production and thus agricultural yields must increase
with the global population. Unfortunately, the human race has already manipulated 70% of the world‘s
farmable landmass. As the amount of available land for farming dwindles, future food demands must be
met by farmers either increasing the productivity of their current farmlands or exploiting alternative
sources of arable space, such as the world‘s oceans. New, space conserving methods of agriculture will be
needed in order to avoid potential catastrophe and starvation in the future (Raman, 2006).
Starvation has been avoided, for the most part, due to increases in productivity of current
farmlands. This increased productivity has been created by farmers applying chemicals to and exploiting
technology usage in agricultural spaces. Because technology and chemicals are only as abundant as their
raw materials, which are a finite resource, further increases in the productivity of current agricultural
methods will eventually decline (Raman, 2006).
The application of these chemicals by farmers has serious detrimental health effects. Because
fertilizers and pesticides play important roles in the productivity of current agriculture, twenty million
tons of fertilizer and five-hundred thousand tons of pesticides are applied in the United States alone.
Researchers have found many of these chemicals to cause health issues in humans; for instance, the
commonly used herbicide Atrazine has been linked to numerous forms of cancer. The pilots of cropdusting
aircraft have significantly higher instances of stomach cancer than individuals in the normal
population. Unfortunately, farmers eschew alternatives to this massive chemical usage because of its
financial benefits (Uri, 2006).
Both chemical products and soil degradation have serious detrimental effects on the environment.
On average, just over five tons of soil per acre is eroded annually with an estimated societal cost of
approximately twenty-nine billion dollars. This eroded soil, and the chemicals applied to it by farmers,
often find their way into bodies of water. As precipitation falls on agricultural lands, it absorbs these
chemical and forms a mixture with soil. This mixture then flows into streams, rivers, and lakes.
Eventually this concoction appears in the oceans of the world, polluting waterways and ruining entire
ecosystems in the process (Uri, 2006).
Soil degradation and the usage of chemicals can be entirely avoided using the practice of
aquaculture, or the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic plants.
Aquaculture can meet future food demands because it can utilize the free space of the oceans;
approximately three quarters of the planet is covered by water while only a quarter of the planet is dry
land. Aquaculture can also reduce pressures on natural fisheries, which are currently either at their
maximum productivity or are in decline due to overharvesting. Lastly, aquaculture is an excellent
alternative to animal husbandry for the production of necessary proteins that are not found in plants
(Parker, 2002).
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Aquaculture is composed of four distinct stages. The process begins with hatchery, which is the
production of seeds, eggs, and young fish that are used to stock growing facilities. Seeds are used for the
cultivation of aquatic plants, and eggs are used for the breeding of fish, crustaceans, or mollusks. Both
seeds and eggs are either captured from their natural environment or produced from broodstock, which
are adult specimens kept alive for the purpose of reproduction (Parker, 2002).
The young organisms produced in hatchery are then transported to the previously mentioned
growing facilities, where they are allowed to fully mature into adult specimens in a process known as
grow-out. This process can either be an intensive program, in which a very dense, highly maintained,
population is maintained in a small space, or an extensive program, in which a lower population density is
maintained with less micro-management. Intensive programs often take place in cages, tanks or ponds,
and extensive programs often take place in lakes or unrestricted areas of the ocean (Parker 2002).
The Aquaculture Processes of Cobia Production
Hatchery
Grow-out
Harvesting
Marketing
Farming of cobia begins with the collection and hatchery of eggs. After the eggs have grown into young
fish, they are transported to a growing facility in which they mature into adults. Once the maturation
process has finished, the fish are harvested and then marketed worldwide.
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After the farmed organisms have matured during the grow-out stage, they are meticulously
harvested and marketed. Mollusks often require manual harvesting, whereas both fish and aquatic plants
can be mechanically or even automatically harvested. Most of these yields are sold for human
consumption, but a small percentage of these yields are marketed for other purposes such as animal feed,
sport and bait fish, and pets (Parker, 2002). A visual representation of the aquaculture processes involved
in the production of cobia, a popular fish used in sushi dishes in Asian nations, can be seen in the figure
above.
Farmers use numerous technologies in aquaculture, especially for hosting the organism being
farmed. They often use large floating cages or nets for containing schools of fish and groups of
crustaceans. These containment devices usually employ robots to automatically clean their inner surfaces.
Cages are nearly always composed of corrosion-resistant metals and nets are composed of incredibly
durable rope. Farmers alsoraise mollusks on ropes suspended from a floating platform (Parker, 2002).
Examples of these technologies can be seen in the figure below.
Technologies Used in Aquaculture
Fish Cage
Fish Net
Technologies Used in Aquaculture. An example of a fish cage can be seen at the top left. An example of a
fish net can be seen at the top right, and an example of a mollusk platform can be seen at the bottom
center (based on U.S. Patent No. 178,626, 1988; U.S. Patent No. 917,853, 1992; & U.S. Patent No.
568,856, 2006).
Mollusk Platform
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Similar to aquaculture, hydroponics can ensure the sustainability of agriculture while
simultaneously reducing the detrimental effects of current agricultural methods on the environment. By
definition, hydroponics is a class of techniques used for growing plants in a soilless medium. All
hydroponic methods involve a water and nutrient solution being directly sprayed or applied to the root
system of plants. This allows farmers to precisely control the environment in which plants are grown,
specifically its water, chemical, and light requirements. Because of this, hydroponics uses significantly
less water and fewer chemicals than traditional crop farming. Due to the nature of hydroponics, the roots
of plants do not need to actively search for nutrients and hence do not grow to be as large as those in soil
agriculture. This allows for more plants to be grown in a smaller area. The entire range of benefits that
hydroponic method offers can be seen in the table below (Winterborne, 2005).
A simple hydroponics method referred to as deep water culture is often used by novice farmers.
This apparatus used in this method consists of a bucket and lid, a large net pot, a large air pump, some
length of airline, a large air stone, and clay pebbles. The air stone is placed at the bottom of the bucket
and the airline is placed under the air stone. The bucket is then filled to between two-thirds and threequarters
full with the nutrient and water solution. Lastly, the lid is placed on top of the bucket, which
holds the net pot that contains the clay pebble growth medium. The air pump and airline system produces
bubbles under the air stone, which in turn both both mixes the nutrient solution and and generates spray,
which wets the net pot and thus the root system of the plant.
Most of the root system of the plant lives in the aerated nutrient solution; therefore, the air
pumping system must be working constantly. Otherwise, the roots will experience oxygen deprivation
and quickly die. As the roots of the plant grow, they begin to extend downward towards to bottom of the
bucket, so the water level must be lowered accordingly. Unfortunately, this method of hydroponics
demands a high level of maintenance; because the size of a bucket is often between five and ten liters, and
plants often consume up to five liters of water per day, the plants may literally dry out if left unattended
for any significant period of time (Winterborne, 2005).
Hydroponic Systems
A deep water culture system can be seen at the left, and
an ebb and flow system can be seen at the right (Winterborne, 2005).
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Farmers seeking for a hydroponics method involving less maintenance often choose ebb and flow
systems. These apparatuses are composed of a slightly slanted growth box with clay pebbles in the
bottom, a collection reservoir, and a water pump. The growth both is slanted towards the reservoir, and
the water pump floods the growth box to a pre-determined level. The water then slowly drains back down
towards the reservoir until a minimum water level is reached. The pump re-floods the reservoir and the
process is continually repeated (Winterborne, 2005). A visual representation of both an ebb and flow
system and a deep water culture system can be seen below.
Benefits of Hydroponics
Factor
Water
Chemicals
Diseases
Weeds
Quality
Maturation
Sanitation
Transplanting
Advantage over soil agriculture
10% that of soil irrigation
No herbicides or pesticides, significantly less
fertilizer
No soil bacteria or viruses
Virtually none
Healthier and higher than that of soil agricultural
yields
Non-seasonal dependent, faster than that of soil
agriculture
Easy, safe
Not possible with soil agriculture
Bibliography
Diamond, J. (1999). Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies. New York: Norton.
Diamond, J. (1991). The third chimpanzee. New York: Hutchinson Radius.
Harris, M. (2001). Cultural materialism. (Updated ed.). Altamira Press.
Kvietelnitis, P. (2006). U.S. Patent No. 568,856. Washington D.C.: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Mazoyer, M. and Roudart L. (2006). A history of world agriculture from the Neolithic age to the current
crisis. London: Earthscan.
Mukadam, H. and Morgan, J. (1992). U.S. Patent No. 917,853. Washington D.C.: U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office.
Nakamune, H. and Hirose, H. (1988). U.S. Patent No. 178,626. Washington D.C.: U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office.
Parker, R. (2002). Aquaculture science, second edition. Albany: Delmar.
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Raman, S.(2006). Agricultural sustainability: Principles, processes, and prospects. Binghamton: Food
Products Press.
Uri, N. (2006). Agriculture and the environment. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Winterborne, J. (2005). Hydroponics: Indoor horticulture. Surrey: Pukka Press.
Illustration Credits
http://dienekes.blogspot.com/2011/05/neolithic-founder-crops.html
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/history/lecture03/r_3-2.html
http://www.art.com/products/
http://waittfoundation.org/us-marine-aquaculture-plan
http://www.lib.noaa.gov/retiredsites/docaqua/nmai2006.html
http://www.alibaba.com/product-free/106597864/Cobia_sushi.html
http://growingplantsindoors.com/ebb-and-flow-hydroponic-system/
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Chapter 14
Food Additives
Naveena Shanmugam, Jacob Grotton, Daniel Huang, and Jeeva Jacob
Introduction
In recent years, processed food has become more and more commonplace in the market.
However, processed food often contains synthetic compounds used to enhance the quality, taste, texture,
or longevity of the food. These additives may include various vitamins, minerals, herbs, extracts,
preservatives, and colorings.
An illustration depicting many of the food additives
present in commonly consumed foods.
Food containing any kind of additive is also known as a functional food. Millions of Americans
consume significant amounts of food additives every day, the most common examples being those found
in general processed food, boxed food, and supplements. These compounds have been placed under
extensive scrutiny through repeated experimental studies, and rising consumer concern has led to
increased awareness on the nature of these additives. Experiments have provided strong evidence that a
large number of food additives and preservatives produce harmful effects upon ingestion, especially
among children.
Additionally, there has also been considerable debate over whether or not these functional foods
are beneficial or detrimental to our health. For instance, many critics attest that functional foods provide
nothing more than a placebo effect to trick people into thinking that they are eating healthier. In fact, an
incredible 95% of food additives have not been clinically tested or supported by raw data, a statistical
figure that should be a warning sign to consumers everywhere (Schardt, 1999).
Furthermore, it is extremely difficult to remove many of these compounds from the body, and the
cumulative effects of food additive consumption over time can lead to a troublesome buildup of
compounds that cannot be broken down and degrade naturally. Over time, this toxic buildup and constant
consumption can lead to chronic illnesses such as diabetes, obesity, and decreased lifespan (―Chemical
Cuisine‖, 2011).
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Herbs and Spices
Herbs and spices have been used for thousands of years for their rich flavor and plentiful health
benefits. Their potential for curing chronic disease is alluring to researchers and the public alike,
especially after the rise of the cost of health care. Researchers have recently discovered the countless
health benefits of herbs and spices, ranging from a decrease in cancer risk to a modification of tumor
behavior. Growing evidence leans towards anticancer characteristics in culinary herbs and spices which
vary in diet according to ethnicity. They are capable of influencing carcinogen bioactivation and are likely
anticancer contributors. These spices have traveled along the Silk Road since the second century and have
been used to flavor food since 50,000 B.C. (Kaefer & Milner, 2007).
Herbs and spices are used to season and preserve food and can also affect eating habits. A large
majority of American households are also trying to reduce their risk of heart disease and cancer, health
conditions for which herbs and spices can provide a solution. However, overall food consumption patterns
and food preparation techniques are equally important to attain full benefits. Due to the shift in
consumption of different ethnic foods the overall consumption of spices has doubled from 1970 to 2005
(Kaefer & Milner, 2007).
The medical properties of various herbs and spices.
Spice Medical Properties/Indications Spice Medical Properties/Indications
Ajowan expectorant, anti-flatulent Galangal expectorant, anti-bacterial
Allspice anti-emetic, purgative Garlic
anti-microbial, anti-hypercholesterolemia, anti-cancer, antihypertensive
Aniseed anti-spasmodic, expectorant, sedative Ginger for colds, anti-emetic, anti-rheumatic
Asafetida anti-helminthic, anti-tussive Horseradish anti-microbial, expectorant, purgative
Bergamot antiseptic, anti-spasmodic, sedative Lemon Grass fever, insect bites
Camphor antiseptic, cardiostmulant, anti-spasmodic Licorice anti-spasmodic, anti-tussive, peptic ulcer
Capsicum
peppers
analgesic, counter-irritant, expectorant Mustards counter-irritant, emetic, purgative
Caraway diuretic, anti-spasmodic, galactogogue Nigella diuretic, anti-helminthic, purgative
Cardamom antiseptic Nutmeg, Mace astringent, hallucinogen
Chive antispetic, diuretic Onion, Shallot for colds, expectorant, anti-cancer, asthma
Cilantro antibacterial, anti-inflammatory Paprika colorant, source of ascorbic acid
Cinnamon,
Cassia
antiseptic, anti-diarrhea Peppercorns expectorant, anti-microbial
Clove topical anesthetic, anti-dyspeptic Saffron anti-rheumatic, for neuralgia
Coriander anti-spasmodic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory Sesame seed diuretic, galactogogue, demulcent
Cubeb antiseptic, diuretic, anti-asthma Star anise antiseptic, anti-rheumatic
Cumin anti-microbial, vermifuge, diuretic Turmeric anti-arthritic, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer
Curry leaves anti-emetic Vanilla anti-spasmodic, febrifuge
Fennel anti-spasmodic, diuretic Wasabi expectorant, for sinusitis
Fenugreek anti-diabetes, anti-hypercholesterolemia Zedoary expectorant, diuretic
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Different regions in the world have distinct ethnic food, but there is overlap in the types of spices
used in the 36 different countries that were studied. The difficulty in measuring their benefits arises from
their small amounts of daily intake. The concentration of these spices also depends on personal preference
(Kaefer & Milner, 2007).
Herbs known as sages belong to the genus Salvia which includes more than 900 different species. The
commonly used sage is a culinary herb that contains many health benefits. There is evidence supporting
that is was used as a tonic for treatment in the sixteenth century. To support this finding, many poets have
even referred to this herb as medicine in their poetry. The monoterpenoids are responsible for the
aromatic scent and are the essential oils that provide the beneficial factors. Sage also possesses medical
properties and produces chemicals that are used in the perfumery industry.
Some species of Salvia are used as a hallucinogens, and for this reason these species have been
deemed illegal in some parts of the world. The hallucinogenic effect of this herb is obtained from dried
leaves that are chewed to produce this effect for up to an hour. This short-lasting effect is the reason for
why sage is used in many religious rituals (Hanson, 2010).
Various spices and herbs.
There are many different species of sage which are used in different products such as perfumes
and cosmetics. The most commonly used kind is garden sage which is grown in warm, sunny areas. Sage
is usually harvested before its flowering because of the quality of essential oil is at its highest then. This
oil is then used for its antioxidant properties in cheeses, pickles, processed foods, and bitters. The variety
of antioxidants ranges from volatile oils to phenolic acids and contains anti-inflammatory agents which
can fight against rheumatoid arthritis, bronchial asthma, and atherosclerosis. Sage is highly known for its
aromatic fragrant and bitter taste. This herb also proves to be an effective cure for symptoms of
menopause, night sweats, and hot flashes and could possibly prove to be a cure for people with diabetes
(Kirby, 2008).
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Nutmeg can create hallucinogenic effects with over dosage, an effect that has been recorded since
the Middle Ages. Over dosage interacts with different parts of the nervous system and has side effects
such as dry mouth, flushed skin, and faster heartbeat. The side effects are too great to measure and have
even lead to catastrophic events such as miscarriages. In many tests, some of the compounds have
stimulated the central nervous system while others have caused sedative effects (O‘Mathúna, 2010).
Both herbs and spices offer potential cures for many diseases, including Alzheimer‘s disease. The
herbs that proved to be therapeutic are Melissa officinalis, Salvia officinalis, Yi-Gan San, and BDW (Ba
Wei Di Huang Wan). They are also useful for agitation and have sedative effects (Luiz, Alice, Mederios-
Souza, & Almeida, 2006). The table below lists commonly used spices and their medical benefits, which
can be taken as self-medication in small dosages.
Probiotics
Probiotic bacteria provide health benefits, mainly vitamin production. The disturbance of proper
balance of intestinal microbiota results in inflammatory bowel diseases, metabolic diseases, cancer, and
autoimmune diseases. Intestinal bacteria, probiotics have been proven to be therapeutic against these
types of infections and diseases. Probiotics are ―live microbes which, when administered in adequate
amounts, confer a health benefit.‖ Probiotic bacteria can be added to food or taken as pharmaceutical
products and can reduce pathogenic bacteria and metabolites in the normalization of gastrointestinal
functions (Rossi & Amaretti, 2011).
This is a depiction of probiotic bacterial cells on the left.
On the right is an example of yogurt that uses probiotics.
The use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has increased in the past few decades due to the capabilities
of the probiotics that they contain. These probiotics are known to feed beneficially off the host and
improves the intestinal microbial balance. It was during the 20th century when Metchnikoff explored the
idea of ingesting bacteria that could have a positive influence on the host. He started to promote
lactobacilli in yogurt because it was important for human health and longevity. Some microbial possess
beneficial properties that are useful in food production, storage, and fermented foods. Lactic acid bacteria
decrease the risk of food-borne pathogens and thus reduce the use of chemical preservatives. LAB has
been defined as a function food that affects beneficially to the body and reduces the risk of disease. It is
known for its significant growth in the global market as well (Sheetal, et al., 2012).
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However, probiotic lactobacilli face different environments once ingested by the host because the
lactobacilli need to outlast the harsh conditions of the stomach. After entering the system, probiotic
lactobacilli provide a number of health benefits, such as improvement in lactose metabolism, antimutagenic
properties, anti-carcinogenic properties, reduction in serum cholesterol. They also produce
organic acids which provide benefits of their own (Sheetal, et al., 2012).
The function of antimicrobials in food is to preserve food by preventing the growth of microorganisms.
Antimicrobial spices and their essential oils are underutilized for many reasons, including
limited data about their effects in food, strong odor, and high cost. Customers demand quality in their
organic food, and as a result anti-microbial effects of probiotics have wide reception. Some of the benefits
include controlled microbial contamination in food, extended shelf-life, decreased development of
antibiotic resistance, and a reduced need for antibiotics. Natural anti-microbials are found in animals and
plants and shows potential in fresh fruits and vegetables. Along with flavoring many herbs and spices also
enforce anti-microbial effects on humans (Tajkaimi, Ibrahmin,& Cliver, 2010).
Artificial Sweeteners
Artificial sweeteners are synthetic sugar substitutes or alternatives that serve to sweeten food. The
most common high-intensity sweeteners are cyclamates, aspartame, saccharin, and acesulfame K. The
sensation of sweetness is transmitted through certain receptors located on specialized taste cells.
Sweeteners function by binding to these receptors and triggering them. The increased sweetness caused
by these artificial sweeteners is postulated to be caused by either a tighter or longer binding of these
compounds to the receptors. Most artificial sweeteners are employed in low calorie products such as
baked goods, dairy products, desserts, sodas, and candy. They are also often used as a carbohydrate
replacement for diabetics or those who wish to diet, and thus consume less sugar. Numerous studies have
been attempted to determine the potential side effects and toxicity of these sweeteners, with mixed results.
High concentrations of these synthetic sweeteners in rats have been shown to induce the development of
tumors and liver failure. Thus, cyclamates have been banned in several countries and the potential side
effects of saccharin, aspartame, and acesulfame potassium have been a center of controversy for quite
some time. However, as of today the FDA has ruled that most of these artificial sweeteners on the market
are relatively harmless, and have not taken extra precautions to reconsider the potential dangers of them
(Chaudhary, 2010).
Some of the most commonly used artificial sweeteners.
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Aspartame
Aspartame (known under its brand names of Equal and NutraSweet) is a chemical composed of
two amino acids and methanol. Discovered accidentally in 1965 when a scientist noted its particularly
sweet taste, it is 200 times sweeter than sugar. Its chemical formula is C 14 H 18 N 2 O 5 . It is typically found in
diet foods, soft drinks, gelatinous products, and low-calorie sugar packets.
Although aspartame was originally hailed as the perfect artificial sweetener, studies have
suggested that the sweetener might cause cancer, in addition to causing other problems such as dizziness
and hallucinations. A 1970s study suggested that aspartame induced brain tumors in rats. However, the
Food and Drug Administration was able to persuade the review panel to reverse its conclusion that
aspartame was unsafe. Since then, many studies have been conducted in an attempt to demonstrate the
carcinogenic dangers of aspartame, but in most cases these results have been ignored and labeled as
flawed and/or controversial. The results of these studies claim that aspartame is linked to premature birth
in pregnancies, cancer, and decreased lifespan. However, by now health-conscious individuals are quite
familiar with this sweetener and tend to avoid it (Winter, 2004).
Acesulfame Potassium
Acesulfame potassium is an artificial sweetener that is widely used in the market today, despite
having come under fire for its potentially harmful side effects in the 1980s. It is approximately 200 times
sweeter than sucralose, and its appearance can be likened to that of crystal sugar. Acesulfame potassium
is a relatively new calorie-free artificial sweetener. A dipeptide of aspartic acid and a methyl ester of
phenylalanine, the chemical formula for it is C 4 H 4 KNO 4 S.
Most studies done on the compound are deeply controversial and antiquated. The compound was
initially petitioned for in September 1982, and the FDA approved it in 1988 (―Acesulfame K‖, 2011).
However, the Center for Science in the Public Interest conducted studies that suggesting that it caused
tumors and increased levels of cholesterol in mice, just as aspartame had a few years before. Initially,
acesulfame potassium was permitted only in such foods as sugar-free baked goods, chewing gum, and
gelatin desserts. In July 1998, however, the FDA allowed the chemical to be used in soft drinks, thereby
greatly increasing consumer exposure. (―Chemical Cuisine‖, 2011). Methylene chloride is used in the
manufacturing of acesulfame potassium, which through multiple independent studies has itself been
demonstrated to be carcinogenic and toxic. Like many other artificial sweeteners, overconsumption of it
over prolonged periods of time will increase appetite and cause a craving for the chemical. This can be
attributed to the theory that it may potentially cause low blood sugar, interfere with behavior, and induce
hyperactivity (Winter, 2004).
Saccharin
One of the most popular artificial sweeteners, saccharin (benzoic sulfilimine) is otherwise known
as Sweet ‗N Low. It is 350 times sweeter than sugar but has a bitter or metallic aftertaste, especially when
used at high concentrations. First discovered in 1878 in a lab at Johns Hopkins University, the compound
is most often used to sweeten products such as drinks, candies, cookies, medicines, and toothpaste. Its
chemical formula is C 7 H 5 NO 3 S.
Initially, although saccharin was commercialized and used in the food market shortly after its
discovery, it did not become popular until World War I, when sugar was scarce. It gained more popularity
in the 1960s and 1970s among dieters attempting to try sugar alternatives and substitutes. Even today, it
remains one of the most widely used artificial sweeteners. However, just as with the most other artificial
sweeteners, previous studies conducted on the substance have strongly suggested that it is carcinogenic
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and potentially harmful. In 1977 the FDA proposed the substance be banned, but Congress intervened and
decided against it, as long as a warning label was placed on foods containing saccharin. However, in 2000
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services removed saccharin from their list of cancer causing
substances and Congress subsequently removed the law enforcing the warning label (Winter, 2004).
Cyclamates
Cyclamate, otherwise known as sodium cyclamate, is an artificial sweetener that is the calcium salt
of cyclamic acid (cyclohexanesulfamic acid). First discovered in the University of Illinois in 1937, the
discovery was purely accidental, much like the discovery of aspartame was. It is approximately 30 to 50
times sweeter than table sugar, and the chemical formula for it is C 6 H 12 NNaO 3 S. Originally intended to be
used as a compound to mask the bad taste of certain medicines, its potential as an artificial sweetener was
realized and it became marketed towards diabetics to be used as a sugar alternative. However, studies
conducted in the late 1960s proved that, when cyclamate was used in conjunction with saccharin, it
proved to be potentially fatal and carcinogenic in rats, among a multitude of other side effects. Thus, in
1969 the artificial sweetener was banned by the FDA and it is currently illegal in the United States
(―Chemical Cuisine‖, 2011).
Acids
An acid is defined as any substance that has a pH less than seven. Acids are typically used in most
food products for a couple of reasons. These include: altering the taste of the food, preserving the food,
and controlling the pH of the food. Usually organic or naturally occurring acids are added into the foods
for these purposes. However, some companies have been using synthetic acids in their products to
exercise more control over all aspects of these foods. Also, synthetics are easier to make and cost less;
making them highly desirable by companies that sell food products (Feed, 2012).
One common food additive is citric acid. Despite its popularity, it is an organic acid. Citric acid is
an acid that is usually found in most fruits. It has been used to create most of the candies that you and I
know of today. Citric acid is known for its sweet taste and is used to create many sweets like ice-cream
and or fruit juice. If citric acid is present in its original organic state, it can stop browning in fruits or
vegetables. Citric acid has also been known to be used as an enzyme inhibitor. It is most commonly found
in most fruits such as oranges, apples, and grapefruits. It is also commonly found in some cheeses and in
many jams. Like citric acid, sorbic acid is used for is used to inhibit enzymes. Sorbic acid is most
commonly found in yeast, molds, and bacteria (Davidson & Singh, 2012).
Another commonly used organic acid is called tartaric acid, which is known for being extremely
sour or having a rough and hard taste. Ironically, it is used in the creation of wine, ice-cream, and juice
because of the property of tartaric acid making it bind into a metal state so that rigidity is maintained
(Belitz, Growsch, & Schienberle, 2009).
Synthetic Acids
One of the most commonly used food additives that is currently employed in the marketplace is
ascorbic acid. This acid can be organically found, but it is much easier to be produced. The acid usually is
produced from a glucose molecule and through a process which is called the Richstein process converts
into ascorbic acid. Most companies pass it off as a source of vitamin C and advertise that it is the pure
vitamin as well. However, this synthesized acid is not just a source of vitamin C, as it also has the
potential to lead to cancer in some people.
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Acetic acid, which is most commonly found in vinegar, is another acid that can be produced
organically but is easier to produce industrially. Most of the acetic acid used is created by the
fermentation of bacteria; this is mostly done in the United States and in Europe because those places use
the most acetic acid. An average about half of the total production is in America with the rest coming
from Japan and other places in Europe (Piper, 2011).
Common food acids.
Chemical agent
Mechanism of action
· ascorbic acid oxygen scavenger
· butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) free radical scavenger
· butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) free radical scavenger
· citric acid enzyme inhibitor/metal chelator
· sulfites enzyme inhibitor/oxygen scavenger
· tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) free radical scavenger
· tocopherols free radical scavenger
· acetic acid disrupts cell membrane function (bacteria, yeasts, some molds)
· benzoic acid disrupts cell membrane function/inhibits enzymes (molds, yeasts, some bacteria)
· natamycin binds sterol groups in fungal cell membrane (molds, yeasts)
· nisin disrupts cell membrane function (gram-positive bacteria, lactic acid-producing bacteria)
· nitrates, nitrites inhibits enzymes/disrupts cell membrane function (bacteria, primarily Clostridium botulinum)
· propionic acid disrupts cell membrane function (molds, some bacteria)
· sorbic acid disrupts cell membrane function/inhibits enzymes/inhibits bacterial spore germination (yeasts,
molds, some bacteria)
· sulfites and sulfur dioxide inhibits enzymes/forms addition compounds (bacteria, yeasts, molds)
Food Colorings
A food coloring is any food additive that is used to color a food or drink. Food colorings usually
come in the form of pastes, powders, gels, and liquids. They can be any color, and come in many different
classes. Most are harmless, and most Americans, unlike most other people from foreign countries, are
uneducated about most food colorings. One can be dounf with consumer knowledge over the food
coloring cochineal in the US. Cochineal is a food dye that was used in America but was banned because
people started to worry about what they were eating. Cochineal is still used in most South American
countries both as a food coloring and also as a paint pigment. It is an insect that used to be put in all sorts
of foods, with the general public unaware.
Anthocyanins are one class of food colorings that includes colors from red to blue including all
the purples in between. These colors usually come from fruits such as strawberries and grapes. And are
used mostly in beverages but have also been used in some fruit products (Cheesman, 2012).
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Recent discoveries have led to the need for recent research in the effects of different food colorings.
Colorings like Blue #1 and Blue #2 have been known to cause some sort of kidney malfunction in most
rodents (Melnick, 2011).
A table of synthetic food colorings.
Common name
U.S. designation Products
· allura red AC FD&C red no. 40 gelatin, puddings, dairy products, confections, beverages
· brilliant blue FCF FD&C blue no. 1 beverages, confections, icings, syrups, dairy products
· erythrosine FD&C red no. 3 maraschino cherries
· fast green FCF FD&C green no. 3 beverages, puddings, ice cream, sherbet, confections
· indigo carmine FD&C blue no. 2 confections, ice cream, bakery products
· sunset yellow FCF FD&C yellow no. 6 bakery products, ice cream, sauces, cereals, beverages
· tartrazine FD&C yellow no. 5 beverages, cereals, bakery products, ice cream, sauces
Food Additives and Children
A large number of studies have been conducted on the effects of food additives on children; in
particular, many studies have claimed to have established a link between a high consumption of food
additives and hyperactivity in children. It is a well-known fact that certain foods cause specific reactions
in certain individuals, including food allergies and in this case, increased hyperactivity. A study
conducted on the potential effects of food colorings and additives on children subjected children who
were already hyperactive to a mixture of various food colorings and additives, with the dosage amount
being equivalent to average daily intake over the course of a week. The study showed statistically
significant differences in hyperactivity between the children that were given the food colorings and
additives and the control group. Furthermore, the discrepancy between individual children and their
individual responses to the additives was noted to be significant as well. This is a prime example of just
one of many studies that have helped to establish the link between food additives and hyperactivity in
children (Eigenmann, 2007).
Artificial food colorings, preservatives, and other additives may play a role in increasing
hyperactive behavior among young children. Amount and type of food can influence mental health that
can result in wide range of behavior variation, including attention, conduct disorder and mood. The role
of food additives, specifically artificial food colors, in elevating hyperactive behavior in children has been
long debated. There has been evidence that removal of food colors from the diet can make improvement
in the behavior of some children with ADHD. Studies done by research group at Southampton extend this
discovery indicating that some children from the general population without ADHD also get similar
benefits.
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There has been a link postulated between
food additives and hyperactivity in children.
Hyperactivity can be described as a physical state in which a person is abnormally active
impulsive and inattentive. There can be marked variations across the range of severity in a general
population of children. Some children show little hyperactivity while others exhibit a considerable
amount, meeting the diagnostic criteria for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). A number
of nutrition and diet have been suggested to treat ADHD. One of the most extensively investigated is
fatty acid intake as there is evidence that a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are
contributing factors to behavioral and cognitive development in children. However the findings are
somewhat contradictory. It would appear then that there is some evidence that omega-3 supplementation
may improve the behavior of some children but perhaps only those who show specific learning
disabilities and there is as yet no evidence of a beneficial effect in the general child population. The first
study done on sample children with hyperkinetic syndrome and other neurological problems indicates a
link between hyperactivity and food intolerance (Stevenson, 2010). Putting the children on a few food
diets produced improved behavior in a substantial proportion of the children. The potential value of
elimination diets in the treatment of children with ADHD has been recognized.
However these studies were done in children with complex behavioral difficulties and the effect
in a broader range of children is still an open question. The research suggests that the removal of colors
(and perhaps other food stuffs) may have a beneficial effect on hyperactivity symptoms in children
diagnosed with ADHD. However studies to know the impact of food additives on behavior in children in
general have been examined less extensively.
Another study done using parents‘ behavior ratings and known as Isle of Wight study indicate
that, the levels of hyperactivity were significantly higher on a mix of food containing four specific colors
than on fruit juices alone. As per the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, the elimination
of artificial coloring and additives from the diet is not recommended as a generally applicable treatment
for children and young people with ADHD. They are cautious about making strong recommendations
about the use of an AFC free diet in the clinical management of children with extreme hyperactivity or
ADHD. It is therefore becoming accepted that one of the approaches to the treatment of ADHD that
should be considered is diet modification, but only on the basis of detailed clinical appraisal of individual
cases.
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Phosphates and Kidney Disease
A team of Dutch scientists have postulated that there may be a potential link between
hypophosphatemia (elevated phosphate concentration) and advanced chronic kidney disease. While
natural phosphates (organic esters) that are normally present in foods pose no danger to the human body
because these phosphates are not completely absorbed, artificially added inorganic phosphates are almost
completely absorbed, thus contributing to an individual‘s phosphate concentration. Unfortunately,
inorganic phosphates are commonly found in processed and fast food normally consumed by those in the
lower end of the socioeconomic status. Although no conclusive studies have been published to validate
this link, further studies should be conducted (Eberhard et al., 2012).
Food Additive Influence on Consumers
Although the direct side effects of food additive consumption have been scrutinized and
researched extensively, very few studies have directed their attention to the psychological aspects of
consumer concern over food additives. However, one recent study has attempted just that, providing
crucial information representing how the average consumer deals with purchases involving food
additives. Two types of experiments were conducted. The first was hypothetical, where consumers were
educated about the dangers of phosphate additives and asked to play out a situation involving the
purchasing of ham in a supermarket. In this study, consumers were found to be willing to pay more for
phosphate-free ham and tended to decide their purchases based on how healthy the brand of ham was.
Likewise, the second set of experiments was modeled after an actual situation where consumers were
educated about the dangers of phosphate additives and asked to play out a situation involving the
purchasing of ham. However, in the real situation, consumers were found to be willing to pay less for
phosphate-free ham and tended to decide their purchases based on information on the flavor quality of the
brand of ham. The study concluded that the presence of food additives, both hypothetical and real, greatly
influence the purchasing decisions of many consumers (Keiko et al., 2010).
Some of the food additives that pose health concerns.
Additive Used in Problems
tartrazine Sweets, biscuits, mushy peas Hyperactivity, asthma rashes
Ponceau 4R Sweets, biscuits, drinks Allergy, intolerance
Sunset yellow Sweets, ice cream, drinks Gastric upset, allergy
Camoisine Biscuits, jelly, sweets, ready meals Allergy, intolerance
Quinoline yellow Sweets, smoked haddock, pickles Hyperactivity, asthma, rashes
Allura red Soft drinks, cocktails, sausages Some evidence of hypersensitivity
Sodium benzoate Soft drinks, baked goods Hyperactivity, asthma
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The food additive known as pink slime,
which is now commonly found in beef products.
Consumer Reaction to Information on Food Additives
Consumers are becoming increasingly concerned that the food they eat could be harmful to
health. There have been issues and outrage lately over the beef product known as "pink slime." Officially
called Lean Finely Textured Beef (LFTB), these are beef additives made from processed trimmings of
beef leftover from other cuts. Pink slime is a lower fat meat that is added to ground beef or beef products
as inexpensive filler. Similarly the presence or absence of food additives and accurate information of the
additive are considered to be very important factors in an individual‘s purchase decisions. There is always
positive and negative information on food additives available to consumers; therefore, consumers‘ food
choice is believed to be greatly influenced by how they judge this available information.
To examine the issue of information effect on choice behavior, the researchers simultaneously
provided both negative and positive information about sodium nitrite, a food additive contained in ham
sandwiches, to the subjects and tested whether information provision affects the subjects‘ choice. The
results showed that when given both positive and negative information, the negative information was
dominated. This therefore, shows the general public concern in the detrimental effects of a food additive.
The results also showed that the subjects prefer a low-priced ham sandwich and do not prefer a ham
sandwich containing sodium nitrite. Information about flavor had the greatest effect on the choice of a
ham sandwich with sodium nitrite, which shows that people eat these food additives to enhance the taste,
regardless of the negative effects that may be attributed to them.
Sodium nitrite eliminates the smell of pork, which is the raw material for ham and sausages.
Therefore, it plays a significant role in the creation of the distinctive flavor of meat products, which is
called ―curing flavor.‖ (Keiko, Junyi, & Tatsuyoshi, 2010). Nitrates and nitrites are not cancer-causing
agents (carcinogenic), but nitrates can be converted to nitrites in the gut and saliva. Nitrites are considered
to be more toxic because they can combine readily with natural amines in some foods to form highly
carcinogenic chemicals called nitrosamines. A study published earlier this year by researchers at Rhode
Island Hospital in the US reported a link between increased levels of nitrates and increased deaths from
certain diseases including Alzheimer's, diabetes mellitus and Parkinson's, possibly through the damaging
effect of nitrosamines on DNA (Dengate, 2009). However, the residual volume of sodium nitrite in the
food products sold in the current market is very small, only – 1/5 to 1/14 of 70 ppm as prescribed by the
Food Sanitation Law.
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It is not yet confirmed that using such a small amount of sodium nitrite would create the risk
mentioned above.‖ On the other hand it is also mentioned that, ―Since Carcinogenic N-nitrosamines are
formed by the combination of sodium nitrite and low amine, which is abundant in fish, it is desirable to
limit the use of food additives as much as possible.‖ (Keiko, Junyi, & Tatsuyoshi, 2010). In patients with
renal disease, a high serum phosphate concentration is a major risk factor for elevated cardiovascular and
overall mortality hypophosphatemia, a state of abnormally elevated levels of phosphate in the blood that
has been identified in the past decade as a strong predictor of mortality in advanced chronic kidney
disease (CKD). For example, a study of patients in stage CKD 5 (with an annual mortality of about 20%)
revealed that 12% of all deaths in this group were attributable to an elevated serum phosphate
concentration.
Recently, a high-normal serum phosphate concentration has also been found to be an independent
predictor of cardiovascular events and mortality in the general population. Phosphate occurs naturally in
the form of organic esters in many kinds of food, including meat, potatoes, bread, and other farinaceous
products; the consumption of such foods cannot be restricted without incurring the risk of lowering
protein intake as this natural phosphate is not fully absorbed. On the other hand, inorganic phosphate in
food additives in processed and ―fast‖ food is effectively absorbed and can measurably elevate the serum
phosphate concentration. Therefore, phosphate additives in food are a matter of concern, and their
potential impact on health may well have been underappreciated. Furthermore, calls for labeling the
content of added phosphate in food are appropriate.
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Illustration Credits
http://www.choice.com.au/~/media/Images/Reviews/Food%20and%20health/Food%20and%20drink/foo
d_additives_2008/2008/body/28_FoodAdd.ashx?w=709&h=380&as=1
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jzhOOlM-x3o/TpDC1dnH59I/AAAAAAAABhE/
TqYnd5Pm2sY/s1600/herb_chart.jpg
http://www.opencountrycampware.com/i/f/Herbs3.jpg
http://www.helpyourautisticchildblog.com/wp-content/uploads/probiotics3.jpg
http://static.caloriecount.about.com/images/medium/roundys-probiotic-yogurt-nonfat-4512.jpg
http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/artificial-sweeteners-1.jpg
http://www.bettermommies.com/content/articles/03f75038dc934da4a66dd37f7e368485_450x350.jpg
http://media.onsugar.com/files/2010/12/50/4/192/1922195/86ff49fb106a39ed_86546219. preview.jpg
http://www.educationnews.org/k-12-schools/school-cafeterias-continue-to-use-pink-slime-meat-product/
163

Chapter 15
Cooking in Developing Countries
John Dymek, Deidre DiLiddo, and Mark Guertin
Introduction
According the World Health Organization, indoor air pollution is the fourth greatest health risk to
the citizens of developing countries. The toxic smoke produced by inefficient stoves does not only cause
death and disease in these developing countries, they are a major contributor to global warming, second
only to then use of fossil fuels. Both private organizations and governments have ignored this problem for
years. Foraging for fuel poses dangers of its own. Conflict-torn regions are a hazardous environment for
women and children, the primary gatherers. These children are kept out of what little education they are
offered to forage (Foell, Pachauri, Spreng, & Zerriffi, 2011).
A mother in a developing country holds her child near a
potentially harmful cooking fire.
Developing countries is actually defined by the UN conventions as ―Least Developed Countries.‖
These countries represent the poorest and weakest segment of the international populations. They
comprise more than 880 million people in several different areas of the globe. Weak economic and social
infrastructure is based on a mainly agricultural lifestyle. These countries are the victim of both internal
and external conflict. Political instability has kept the citizens from modern developments in social and
technological ways ("Least developed countries:," 2012).
Agricultural areas of developing countries are not the only societies at risk. Overcrowded cities
and poor living conditions only add to the cumulative hardships of life in urban areas. New threats arise
with the use of outdates cooking methods. Inexpensive and poorly constructed living quarters pose an
extreme fire hazard that often leads to structural collapse.
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Fuel Types and Biomass
Environmental Attributes of Different Fuel Types
1E+05
1E+04
1E+03
1E+02
1E+01
1E+00
1E-01
Charcoal
Biogas
LPG
1E-02
1E-03
1E-04
1E-05
1E-06
1E-07
This table is based on data from Afrane and Ntiamoah (2011). Information is given for 1kg of charcoal,
biogas, and LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas). SO2 is sulfur dioxide, DCB is 1.4 dichlorobenzene, CO2 is
carbon dioxide, and C2H4 is ethylene. EV is energy value, CE is cookstove efficiency, AP is acidification
potential, EP is eutrophication potential, FAETP is freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential, GWP is
global warming potential, HTP is human toxicity potential, POCP is photochemical ozone creation
potential, TETP is terrestrial ecotoxicibal warming potential, HTP is human toxicity potential, POCP is
photochemical ozone creation potential, and TETP is terrestrial ecotoxicity potential. Equiv compares to
an equivalent amount of the material. The information is given on a logarithmic scale of base 10.
Wood, charcoal, and similar wood-based products, as well as other biomass products including
animal dung, are heavily used in developing countries for cooking and other such uses. Charcoal is the
result of carbonization of wood. It can be generated from waste wood after logging and sawmill operation
so as not to cause as much deforestation (Afrane & Ntiamoah, 2011). Charcoal has advantages over
firewood, as it is more efficient, but pollutes more than LPG, and is extremely inefficient to produce
(Akpalu, Dasmani, & Aglobitse, 2011). In Ghana, two types of charcoal stoves are commonly used: the
traditional type and an improved type, both of which are made locally from scrap metal. The improved
model has additional insulation (Afrane & Ntiamoah, 2011).
Overuse of such biomass energy sources as charcoal and firewood for cooking in developing
countries has contributed to high levels of deforestation and indoor pollution, which has in turn negatively
affected the health of many. Estimates show that 15 million hectares of tropical forest land are cleared
each year to make room for small-scale farming or for use as fuel for heating or cooking. There is a
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consensus that the rate of biomass consumption in developing nations is a threat to long-term
sustainability of forests (Akpalu, Dasmani, & Aglobitse, 2011).
Fuel consumption patterns in developing countries are dynamic, as they depend on prices and
accessibility of each fuel type. Local users of biomass generally do not respond to external forest loss.
Cooking fuel in Ghana, for example, is demanded based on prices; a household will be ambivalent about
using two different fuels if prices are equivalent, regardless of combustion efficiency. In these countries,
biomass remains dominant as fuel for both heating and cooking. It is estimated that biomass is heavily
relied upon by 70% of Ghana, and the average Ghanian uses approximately 640 kg of wood yearly, where
forest growth in the nation is under half of the wood fuel demand (Akpalu et al., 2011).
Indoor air pollution is a health issue worth noting. Literature indicates that exposure levels are
severely high. Solid fuel use on open flames or traditional stoves may result in exposure to dangerous
toxins; in addition, incomplete combustion allows small particles to be released into the household. Use
of charcoal is expanding and taking away from use of other solid biomass, as it is cleaner; however, it
poses other types of health risks and ecological detriments. Studies reveal that indoor air pollution causes
a common illness known as acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) in children and obstructive lung
diseases in adults. Estimates show 2.44 million deaths due to indoor biomass pollution in developing
countries; these may be due to improper ventilation and incomplete combustion of biomass (Akpalu et al.,
2011).
According to a study by Palmer and Mann (2011), fine particles (PM 10 ) have been estimated to
cause 9.1% of all deaths in Christchurch, New Zealand, and 48% of those are from wood fires in homes,
while an estimated 80% of PM 10 is actually from said wood fires. However, this is in a more industrial
setting, so it must be considered that this toxicity rating is compared to traffic- and industry-related PM 10 ;
wood burning does, in fact, release toxic particles into the air and cause deaths, according to this study.
In rural India, cooking dominates aggregate energy consumption. According to the Nation
Sample Survey report, 88.4% of this energy demand is met by unprocessed biomass fuels: fuel wood,
crop residues, feces, et cetera. Usage has both direct and indirect disadvantages. Direct effects include
detrimental health impacts from indoor air pollution and environmental impacts of soil erosion and
deforestation, resulting in decreasing agricultural productivity. Biomass fuels have been estimated to
cause 5-6% of diseases in India.97% of households in Jharkand, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Uttar Pradesh
use biomass fuels. Use of firewood and chips has increased from 75% in 2004-5 to 78% in 2007-8 despite
petroleum fuels. Dung cakes, coal, and other burnable fuels have declined steadily; however, this says
nothing about what these fuels have been replaced with (Pandey & Chaubal, 2011).
Fossil Fuels
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a mix of propane and butane. It has a human toxicity potential
orders of magnitude higher than charcoal and biogas, and also has higher potential for terrestrial
ecotoxicity, eutrophication, and freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity (Afrane & Ntiamoah, 2011).
Fossil fuels such as LPG, propane, and kerosene are used sparingly in developing countries. As
stated before, fuel consumption patterns in developing countries are dynamic, as, again, they depend on
prices and accessibility of each fuel type. In developing countries including Ghana, households use
kerosene and LPG as cooking fuels, which have higher efficiency and lower environmental impacts than
charcoal, alongside wood derivatives (Akpalu et al.2011).
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Kerosene and LPG are commonly used modern fuels, as they have high energy density, high
heat-transfer efficiency, and high combustion efficiency. Kerosene is used varyingly but extensively in
urban centers for cooking. The use of LPG varies between urban centers, partially due to limited
availability. It is non-toxic, emits few pollutants, and the required stove is easy to use. Biomass and
petroleum derivatives all have negative impacts on the environment due to particle emission. If the use of
cooking fuel is not properly managed, especially wood derivatives, then it can harm both humans and the
environment in numerous ways. Extraction, processing, and transportation of cooking fuels each have
detrimental effects at all levels (Akpalu et al., 2011).
Especially in rural areas, some houses generally favor biomass over petroleum products, even
with high availability of the latter. Only rarely can biomass be completely substituted. A town in Sierra
Leone has 2/3 of its families refusing to switch to modern fuel due to ease of wood stoves. In Ghana,
governmental policies aim to promote use of LPG to reduce environmental impact, and have been
successful, increasing the use of clean cooking fuels, albeit slowly (4% in 1998 to 9.5% in 2006).
In rural India, use of LPG has increased steadily over the years, albeit marginally 8.6% in 2004-5
to 9.1% in 2007-8. Dung cakes, coal, and other burnable fuels have declined steadily; however, this says
nothing about what these fuels have been replaced with. Kerosene is easily obtained as the only fuel
available from the open market, but is not used very often, being used by 0.72% of houses in 2007-2008
(Pandey & Chaubal, 2011).
Biogas
Biogas is a mix of carbon dioxide and methane produced by anaerobic digestion of organic waste
such as cow feces. It isn‘t used as often as other types of fuels, but, according to the above table, is much
better for the environment. The waste left after gas generation, or the digestate, can be used as fertilizer
for farms with little negative impact. Methane can be lost from the biogas system due to leakage,
technological deficiencies, or excess production; however, methane losses of 1% have been reported
when used for generation of heat (Afrane & Ntiamoah, 2011).
Indoor Air Pollution and Health Complications
Cooking is an unavoidable activity that is necessary to survive. In most developing countries, the
main method of cooking is indoor open fires or primitive indoor stoves. Although these methods work
sufficiently for these people, it is not done in the most sanitary and healthy conditions. Biomass fuels and
coal are generally the main source of fuel for cooking.
Biomass fuels and coal are burned, which releases harmful pollutants into the surrounding air and
atmosphere. Because the smoke does not have a means of escape, many people are affected by the
unclean air. Most fires and cookstoves are inside of homes, and there is generally a lack of ventilation in
these homes. A single window or an opening to enter and exit through may be the only opening that
allows smoke to exit the home. This is an issue because of the particulate matter that is released into the
air. Without proper ventilation the soot and matter build up and pollute the air inside the home.
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An open fire is used by many to cook within the home. A lack of
windows causes the smoke and soot to build up inside the home.
Exposure to the combustion of these materials can cause acute respiratory infections, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, asthma, nasopharyngeal and laryngeal cancers, and
tuberculosis, as well as many other diseases (―Indoor air pollution and health in developing countries‖,
2005). The effects of diseases are most commonly found when cooking is done indoors or when the stove
is poorly ventilated. More than half of the pneumonia deaths that occur in children that are five years or
younger are a direct result of exposure to the particulate matter that is a result of burning biomass. The
levels of this matter that are released into the air are generally 100 times higher than the acceptable health
standard. Although a disease may not develop as a result of exposure, people are still affected. The smoke
causes inflamed airways and lungs, lowers the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, and impairs the
immune response, which can bring on other sicknesses (WHO, 2011).
Another health issue that is common to people in developing countries exists among pregnant
women. Generally, the women are in the kitchen and cooking with these stoves and fuels. When the
women are pregnant, exposure to the indoor air pollution causes birth defects such as low birth weight.
This can be fatal considering that in these underdeveloped countries, women give birth at home, without
the luxury of a hospital, where other complications could arise. Low birth weight can have a domino
effect on other health issues that will come as the child begins to grow and develop.
The global effects of the methods of cooking in developing countries are being studied to raise
awareness of the problem that is at hand. The lack of clean fuels is ignored by governments and private
aid organizations. The indoor air pollution is the fourth greatest health risk factor found in developing
countries. This health risk is fourth to unclean water and sanitation, unsafe sex, and undernourishment.
This has recently been focused on and hopefully there will be an effort to replace these stoves that emit
harmful gases and soot (―Developing nations to get clean-burning cookstoves‖, 2010). To minimize the
exposure to cooking related emissions, cooking devices need to be improved or an alternate source of
energy needs to be implemented. However, fires and stoves that are built are easy and essentially free. If
newer and cleaner methods were implemented, for most people, government aid would be required.
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The map displays the amount of deaths that can be attributed to indoor air pollution.
Countries in Africa tend to have more deaths because the majority of the country cooks
with open stoves and indoor fires.
Not only do these cook stoves cause indoor air pollution, but they can also catch fire, which risks
the lives of those that are using them. In addition to premature deaths, there is a lot of time wasted when
the focus of everyday life is on finding and gathering fuels that can be anything from crop waste to cow
dung. Time and energy that could be better used are spent on such a rigorous and repetitive activity that
cannot currently be avoided (―Silent and deadly‖, 2010).
Alternative Cooking Methods
Solar cooking, a simple and efficient alternative to fuel, is a concept that has been applied for
hundreds of years. It is always readily available and essentially it is free. There are numerous advantages
in the use of solar cooking. The lack of complicated procedure makes it easy to use and solar cooking is
also safer and more sanitary than traditional fuels.
On top of health concerns, many are suffering because they cannot afford the fuels that are
necessary for cooking. Developing countries have the potential to gain many benefits from the use of
solar cookers. For example, these countries tend to have a strong concentration of the energy from the
sun, as well as a need for an alternative cooking method that is at little or no cost to them. Solar cookers
would not only be more cost-efficient, but would also increase the nutritious value of the food that the
people consume.
In some of the more sunny regions, where the concentration of the rays are the most intense, solar
energy can be captured and used to cook food. Although burning wood is a sufficient source of energy, it
is not always readily available because deforestation is occurring in many locations. Deforestation refers
to the removal of a forest in which the land is then used for industrial related activities that leave the
animals native to the area stranded without food or shelter. A related problem that most families
encounter is that they do not have enough money to afford fuels to cook their food.
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Solar cookers are environmentally friendly because they reduce the amount of fuels that must be
used or wood that needs to be burned to cook. These fuels tend to be expensive, unsanitary, or
inaccessible in certain areas. Fortunately solar energy is usually readily available, unless it is at night.
Solar cooking also allows for the women, who tend to be responsible for household activities, to be able
to accomplish many tasks while the food is cooking because solar cooking generally takes a long time to
sufficiently cook food (―A review of the thermal performance parameters of box type solar cookers and
identification of their correlations‖, 2010). If solar energy is implemented in a way so that families can
afford a device that would cook their food using a resource that is guaranteed to be available to them, the
families would lead healthier and less stressful lives.
There are multiple designs of solar cookers, and they are all designed to function in a similar way.
However, some solar cookers are more efficient than others. Equations can be applied to each design of a
solar cooker to determine the efficiency, heat loss, heating power, and other variables that would be
presented in choosing the most fitting solar cooker.
Solar cookers have advantages over other cooking methods because they cost nothing to power
and they have a high nutritional value for foods. Although there are numerous advantages to solar
cookers, some of the disadvantages could include limited amount of sunshine, time of cooking, and high
cost to initially purchase the device (―Design optimization of solar cooker‖, 2007).
A simple box type solar cooker can easily be
built with basic materials such as wood,
aluminum, mirrors, and glass.
The diagram above illustrates a simple design that shows the basic necessities of a solar cooker.
Although it lacks complexity, the food will be sufficiently cooked over a long period of time.
One of the main issues that comes with solar cookers is that people that live in rural areas of
developing countries are generally accustomed to tradition. These people perform every part of their daily
lives out of routine tradition. Cooking with fires and cookstoves is the method of cooking that has been
used for generations. Although solar cooking is more efficient and affordable, researchers fear that the
people in developing countries will not accept this method because it is not a traditional method of
cooking.
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Global Politics on Cooking in Developing Countries
U.S. Involvement
The primary form of cooking in developing countries is through the use of primitive indoor
stoves. Smoke inhalation and heart disease from these stoves kills 1.9 million men, women, and children
every year. These stoves are also a major part of Global Climate change. They produce huge amounts of
soot and reduce forest cover. The United States has taken an active role in supplying developing nations
with renewable energy and modern cookware. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has pledged the US‘s
support to the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves that provides clean-burning stoves to villages in
Africa, Asia, and South America. Secretary Clinton has used her political influence and public fame to
push the agenda to an important position in the US. Recruiting well-known chefs and public-figures, she
has made the problem known to the public (Broder, 2010).
US Secretary of State Hillary Rodham
Clinton meets with Chef Jose Andres,
Culinary Ambassador for the Global
Alliance for Clean Cookstoves.
The US is also providing $50 million in seed money to these developing countries. Several other partners
including foreign governments are to contribute another $10 million.
There has been little attention for this subject from scientific institutes. Until recently, many
ignored the inefficient biofuel based stoves. Currently stoves on the market run as little as $20 US dollars
and are 50% more efficient than there third-world counterparts. The higher end models, running around
$100, capture 95% of harmful emissions and burn fuel more efficiently.
Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves
Nearly half the world‘s population is using dirty and inefficient cooking methods for their daily
meals. Women and young children are often affected by the population produced from these stoves.
Chronic illnesses often appear in areas where clean, efficient cooking methods are not available. Natural
resources are strained by these inefficient methods and. The Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves is a
new public-private partnership that has enlisted the helped of several global businesses and governments.
The alliance has been formed to provide developing countries with clean and efficient household cooking
solutions ("Global alliance," 2012).
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Number of people gaining clean cooking facilities
and additional cumulative investment needs.
One major issue in the transition of primitive fuel users to more current methods is the conversion
itself. Close to 800,000 poverty-stricken people would need to gain access to improved cooking methods
a day to meet the international organization‘s goal. The approach of introduced by global charity is the
promoting of more efficient and sustainable fuels and encouraging the self-transition to more modern
fuels and technologies. Cultural and habitual customs take a major role in the introduction of new
technology in developing areas. Some biomass fuels may be more accessible in one area of the globe
(Akpalu et al., 2011).
Cookstove programs are often implemented by non-governmental organizations of varying size,
capacity, funding sources and focus. Some are primarily concerned with solving energy poverty problems
while others see the introduction of new cooking technologies to be of high priority. All too often though,
many choose to ignore the needs of the developing areas. Among the supporters are the Shell Foundation,
the Morgan Stanley Foundation, the World Health Organization, the United Nations Environment
Program, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the governments of Germany,
Norway and the Netherlands.
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Illustration Credits
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/16/science/earth/16degrees.html?_r=1
http://www.solarcooker-at-cantinawest.com/solarcooking-howitworks.html
http://solarcooking.wikia.com/wiki/Indoor_air_pollution
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http://www.humanrights.gov/tag/clean-cookstoves/
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