gas for energy European Energy Market (Vorschau)

02–2014
www.gas-for-energy.com
ISSN 2192-158X
energy
gasfor
Magazine for Smart Gas Technologies,
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A CLOSE-UP VIEW OF THE
INTERNATIONAL GAS BUSINESS
This magazine for smart gas technologies, infrastructure and utilisation
features technical reports on the European natural gas industry as well as
results of research programmes and innovative technologies. Find out more about
markets, enterprises, associations and products of device manufacturers.
Each edition is completed by interviews with major company leaders and
interesting portraits of key players in the European business.
READ MORE ABOUT
Gas applications Grid infrastructure Measurement
Gas quality issues Pipeline construction Regulation
Biogas injection Corrosion protection Smart metering
on the annual
Save 25% subscription
gas for energy is published by DIV Deutscher Industrieverlag GmbH, Arnulfstr. 124, 80636 München
KNOWLEDGE FOR THE
FUTURE
Order now by fax: +49 931 / 4170-494 or send in by mail
Deutscher Industrieverlag GmbH | Arnulfstr. 124 | 80636 München
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Germany / € 14.00 outside of Germany)
as an e-paper magazine (single user) at
the annual price of € 144.00.
as a printed plus an e-paper magazine
(single user) at the annual price of € 199.20
(within Germany) / € 201.20 (outside of
Germany) incl. shipping.
Special offer for students (proof of entitlement)
as a printed magazine at the annual price of
€ 72.00 plus shipping (€ 12.00 within Germany /
€ 14.00 outside of Germany).
as an e-paper magazine (single user)
at the annual price of € 72.00.
as a printed plus an e-paper magazine
(single user) at the annual price of € 105.60
(within Germany) / € 107.60 (outside of Germany)
incl. shipping.
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to Readers’ Service gas for energy, P.O. Box 91 61, 97091 Wurzburg, Germany. After the first period the agreement can be
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PAGFE2014

EDITORIAL
The way to a
clean energy system
Dear Readers,
The costs of energy, security of supply and further reduction of
carbon dioxid emissions are among the biggest challenges
within the European energy market. All players in the market
agree on one point: A clear policy needs to be adopted as soon
as possible otherwise the transition to a low-carbon energy
system will slow down. An adjustment to more market and less
regulation could help to encourage investors to finance projects
in Europe. For the Eurogas association the route is clear:
The only way to go is forward. Read more about this in a report
by the Secretary General, Beate Raabe, from page 14 on.
A new and innovative technology which is debated in the
energy industry is Power-to-Gas. It will provide flexibility to the
energy system. The article on pages 20ff. discusses the state of
this technology in terms of technology readiness. According to
this report from DNV GL the next step should be the qualification
of integrated power-to-gas systems in real-life environments.
Natural gas odorisation is an essential for safe operating of a
gas grid. Usually it is required by national regulations that distributed
gases are odorized. GDF SUEZ CRIGEN has completed
a study about the smell of gas. Among the smells which were
presented to 2,000 people were THT, TBM and Gasodor S-Free®.
Their reaction to the smell and its association to gas flow into a
detailed paper. The findings are presented on the pages 26ff.
One potential contribution to the transformation of the energy
sector are virtual power plants. They enable to merge a number
of decentralized generation units into a significant generation
capacity. One result could be a stronger link between the
electricity and the heating market. This technology is introduced,
especially in combination with micro-CHP systems, in a
report from page 36 on.
Substantial findings from reading wishes you
Yours Sincerely
Volker Trenkle
Editor

TABLE OF CONTENTS 2 – 2014
4 HOT SHOT
Production started on new Gudrun
platform in the North Sea
6 TRADE & INDUSTRY
Possible increase in Blue
Stream capacity
13 EVENTS
ptc - Europe´s biggest pipeline
conference took place in Berlin
Reports
ENERGY MARKET
14 Energy and climate policy to 2030
by B. Raabe
POWER-TO-GAS
20 Power-to-Gas: Climbing the technology readiness ladder
by L. Grond and J. Holstein
GAS QUALITY
26 The gas smell: A study of the public perception of gas
odorants
by F. Cagnon, A. Louvat and V. Vasseur
Columns
1 Editorial
4 Hot Shot
48 Diary
2 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

making a clean future real
LNG can 5 deliver
2 – 2014 TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUPPLY
Switching from
coal- and oil-fired
power generation
to best performance
CCGT plants 2
Europe enjoys varied supplies of gas, with a majority
coming from European countries (including Norway). Europe
will continue to diversify its gas supplies via new significant
sources such as the United States, and in the long term
Azerbaijan, East Africa, Eastern Mediterranean, etc.
Developing untapped domestic gas resources will
reduce Europe’s import dependency. Europe’s potential
to diversify its natural gas supplies will further be
realised through deliveries of liquefied natural gas (LNG)
from all over the world.
DOMESTIC GAS
PRODUCTION
GAS +
SOLAR
COMBINED CYCLE
GAS TURBINE
vs.
1990 levels
CO 2
EMISSIONS
INDUSTRIAL
PLANT
IMPORTS BY PIPE
Regasification
capacity expected
to rise in Europe 1 .
369 bcm/year
199 bcm/year
LNG
GAS & RENEWABLES
GAS AT THE CENTRE OF OUR
ENERGY SYSTEM IN 2030
Gas-fired power generation is well suited to provide flexible
generation to complement variable renewable energy
sources as it is capable of rapid response to changes in
demand. If the necessary market conditions and policies
are in place, the increased use of natural gas for power
generation will help the EU achieve considerable
emissions reductions by 2030. In such a scenario, gas
and renewables will grow together, displacing coal from
the fuel mix for power generation.
Biogas can be produced from various
sources (biomass, organic waste) and is
already injected today into the gas grid
2013 2022
SHIP
GAS
STORAGE
BIOGAS PLANT
LNG TERMINAL
GAS IN TRANSPORT
In the future, natural gas has the potential to play a greater
role in transport, in light of lower CO₂ and other emissions.
According to industry estimates, LNG heavy-duty vehicles
could reach more than 50,000 units per year by 2020. By
then, they could represent 10-15% of the market. 7 Today,
there are however only 38 filling stations for LNG for
heavy-duty vehicles in the EU. 8 Refuelling infrastructure
therefore needs to be developed to allow the technology to
grow. There are also interesting prospects for LNG in
maritime transport, with a clear environmental case of 25%
lower CO₂ emissions and very substantial reductions in
emissions of sulphur, nitrogen oxide and particulate matter. 9
$10
LNG
$17
HEAVY
FUEL OIL
LNG
$20-24
GASOLINE
50% savings for
the shipping
industry.
February 2013 prices
in USD per mmBtu 6
CNG
INFRASTRUCTURE
The current gas infrastructure can be used for the future energy
system without any fundamental modifications beyond 2050.
However, further investments will be needed to safeguard secure
supplies, provide alternative supply routes and integrate growing
variable renewable energy sources. Investments needed by 2020
are estimated around €90 billion for transmission, storage and
LNG. 3 For comparison purposes, it should be noted that the
transmission of gas is up to 20 times cheaper than the
transmission of energy in the form of electricity. 4 Gas storage
offers seasonal and short-term flexibility in a fully functioning
European gas market, as well as security of supply.
INNOVA
The priority use
require a very flex
constant balanc
consumption is t
be Power-to-Ga
renewable electr
can be converte
proven technolo
hydrogen produc
or turned into
beyond, CCS sh
carbon dioxide em
generation or ind
or reinjected into
using Power-to-G
such as con
micro-CHP and
continuously impr
use even more ef
20 R E P O R T
Power-to-Gas: Photo of
methanation process
26 R E P O R T
The gas smell: Spontaneous
identification of the smell
42 PROFILE
GasNaturally: The vision for gas in
2030
CHP
36 The regional virtual power plant – a potential
contribution to the energy sector transformation
Pro fil e
by J. Seifert, J. Haupt, F. Glöckner and J. Hartan
42 GasNaturally: A unified voice for gas at EU level
News
6 Trade & Industry
12 Events
44 Associations
47 Products & Services
visit us at our website:
www.gas-for-energy.com
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 3

HOT SHOT
The new Gudrun platform
Production started on new Gudrun
platform
Gudrun is an oil and gas field in the
middle of the Norwegian sector of
the North Sea. The reservoir is
located at a depth of 4,200-4,700 m,
and originates from the Jurassic Age.
The platform will produce from
seven production wells.
Source: Harald Pettersen/Statoil

TRADE & INDUSTRY
Gazprom and Turkey to look into possible increase in
Blue Stream capacity
Ankara hosted a working meeting between Alexander
Medvedev, Deputy Chairman of the Gazprom
Management Committee and Taner Yildiz, Minister of
Energy and Natural Resources of the Republic of Turkey.
The meeting participants addressed the cooperation
deepening between Gazprom and Turkey in the gas sector.
In particular, they considered the possibility of increasing
the capacity of the Blue Stream gas pipeline from 16 to
19 billion m 3 /a. The parties agreed to examine this issue in
detail. It was pointed out that the increase in capacity
would not require laying additional strings of Blue Stream.
Blue Stream conveys over 50 % of all the Russian
natural gas purchased by the Republic of Turkey. While
securing uninterrupted gas supplies to Turkish consumers,
the gas pipeline is also crucially important when
additional gas volumes are urgently needed to replenish
gas deficiency in case of emergency.
The meeting also addressed the South Stream gas
pipeline. It was noted that the project was progressing
following the approved route. The gas pipeline
will considerably increase the reliability of gas supply
to Europe.
Fluxys and Snam sign MoU to combine their
international assets in Europe
Fluxys S.A. and Snam S.p.A. have agreed to assess
and evaluate the set-up of a jointly controlled company
for the integrated management of the companies’
international assets across Europe.
The Memorandum of Understanding signed by
the companies further develops the Strategic Alliance
of 2012 aimed at pursuing opportunities in
Europe through projects enhancing the flexibility
and security of supply in the European gas infrastructure.
The joint company under consideration would
combine Fluxys’ and Snam’s international assets
located on the South-North and East-West corridors
with the exclusion of the Belgian and Italian domestic
markets and would play a key role as facilitator of the
creation of deeper market flexibility and liquidity
through an enhanced interconnection of the European
gas networks and markets.
Snam and Fluxys already work closely together on the
South/North Reverse Flow project in Germany, Switzerland
and Italy which is to enable gas landing in Italy to
flow to Northwest Europe and the UK. The companies
also have become co-shareholders in the Interconnector
pipeline linking the UK to Belgium.
6 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

TRADE & INDUSTRY
Large order from France
for smart meters from
Diehl Metering
Diehl Metering has been selected by Gaz réseau Distribution
France (GrDF), a company of GDF Suez, as
partner for the large-scale gas meter project “Gazpar”.
Between 2016 and 2022, the new communicative gas
meter Gazpar is to be installed in around 11 million
French households and for commercial consumers – an
investment of some one billion €. The new system makes
it possible to bill the customer for the amount of gas
actually used and no longer – as previously the case – on
the basis of forecasts.
The Gazpar project was launched by the French government
back in 2009. In a broad-based selection process,
altogether seven companies from France, the USA,
Italy, Great Britain, Romania and Germany were chosen
for the development and production of the equipment.
The optimum technical solution for the communicative
Gaspar Gasmeter.
gas meter of the future and the customers’ expectations
of the new system were then defined in a subsequent
pilot study before inviting tenders and finally awarding
the contract for the project. The selected French company
Sappel, a subsidiary of Diehl Metering, will supply
around 2.5 million radio modules for Gazpar.
Rosen is committed to ultrasonic crack inspection
technologies
ROSEN is fully committed to providing state-ofthe-art
in-line inspection tools for crack inspection
in oil and gas transmission pipelines. This commitment
can be seen in the launch of new tools utilizing
ultrasound technology throughout 2014,
significantly increasing the current crack inspection
tool fleet.
A very strong emphasis is being placed on the detection
and sizing of cracks in liquid as well as gas pipelines.
The comprehensive fleet of crack inspection tools available
includes piezo-electric ultrasonic inspection tools for
liquid pipelines and EMAT tools for gas pipelines. The latter
tools also incorporate the capability to reliably detect
coating faults and areas of disbondment.
GAZ-SYSTEM S.A. decorated with the CSR White Leaf
of POLITYKA
GAZ-SYSTEM S.A. was decorated for the first time
with the CSR White Leaf of POLITYKA, an award
that is granted to companies which implement key
solutions recommended by ISO 26000 for effective
management of their impact and improve their activity
in this area all the time.
POLITYKA weekly, together with PwC, granted CSR
Golden, Silver and White Leaves to companies that stand
out in terms of corporate social and sustainable development
for the third time. Corporate social responsibility
was reviewed at companies on the basis of a questionnaire
prepared in accordance with ISO 26000 guidelines
in seven areas: corporate governance, human rights, attitude
to employees, environmental protection, customer
care, business honesty, and social involvement. The questionnaire
was filled in by 123 companies.
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 7

TRADE & INDUSTRY
Cornerstone ceremony for new Norsea gas terminal
in Emden
time capsule consisting newspapers and coins
A buried on the site, celebrated the building of a
new receiving terminal for Norwegian gas in Emden
Germany.
The ceremony took place on Thursday 8 May and
was conducted by Lower Saxony minister Olaf Lies,
Norwegian ambassador to Germany, Sven Erik Svedman
and executive vice president Trond Nordal from Gassco.
The new facility will replace the existing Norsea Gas
Terminal. It will be constructed on an unused site within
the fence surrounding the existing terminal area.
The Norsea Gas Terminal (NGT) became operational
in 1977 and the facility receives a substantial proportion
of Norwegian gas deliveries to Germany through
the Norpipe line. The final decision to build a new terminal
to replace the NGT was taken by the Gassled
Joint Venture 30 November 2012, based on recommendation
from the operator Gassco. Safety and regularity
considerations related to the age of the NGT,
were the commercial drivers for the conceptual choice
and investment decision.
During the ceremony, Gasscos representative, Trond
Nordal, pointed out that large investment have been
made in the transport system to handle European
demand for Norwegian gas. Construction of a new terminal
in Emden is an example.
The new receiving terminal will become operational
in 2016. Norway is the second largest gas supplier to the
EU. Compared with Germany's domestic consumption in
2013, the Norwegian gas flow to the country covered
nearly 50 % of Germany's demand for the fuel.
Energy Academy Europe and Gasunie join forces for
energy research and innovation
Energy Academy Europe and Gasunie have concluded
an agreement for a strategic co-operation in the area
of research, education and innovation in energy. The
agreement was formally signed at Gasunie by Bert
Wiersema, director Energy Academy Europe, and Hans
Coenen, director Strategy of Gasunie. The company’s current
research activities will be transferred to EnTranCe
(Energy Transition Centre), which was launched jointly
with other partners under the lead of the Hanze University
of Applied Sciences (Groningen), within the formal cooperation
with Energy Academy Europe. EnTranCe serves as
a testing facility to further develop innovations in (sustainable)
production, distribution and transport of energy.
The participation of Gasunie is a boost for the contribution
gas can make to a sustainable energy supply. It
also strengthens the role Energy Academy Europe can
play in education, research and innovation in a sustainable
gas and energy infrastructure. In addition, it will
ensure the further development of the international orientation
of Energy Academy Europe.
As a result of the participation of Gasunie Energy
Academy Europe has the opportunity to initiate and
develop research and innovation with industrial
knowledge partners across the entire gas and energy
value chain, from upstream (production and exploration)
to downstream (distribution and consumption).
8 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

A CLOSE-UP VIEW OF THE
INTERNATIONAL GAS BUSINESS
This magazine for smart gas technologies, infrastructure and utilisation
features technical reports on the European natural gas industry as well as
results of research programmes and innovative technologies. Find out more about
markets, enterprises, associations and products of device manufacturers.
Each edition is completed by interviews with major company leaders and
interesting portraits of key players in the European business.
READ MORE ABOUT
Gas applications Grid infrastructure Measurement
Gas quality issues Pipeline construction Regulation
Biogas injection Corrosion protection Smart metering
on the annual
Save 25% subscription
gas for energy is published by DIV Deutscher Industrieverlag GmbH, Arnulfstr. 124, 80636 München
KNOWLEDGE FOR THE
FUTURE
Order now by fax: +49 931 / 4170-494 or send in by mail
Deutscher Industrieverlag GmbH | Arnulfstr. 124 | 80636 München
Yes, I want to read gas for energy on a regular basis. During the first year I will benefit from a 25%
discount on the annual subscription fees. I subscribe to the technical trade journal for at least one
year (4 issues)
as a printed magazine at the annual price
of € 144.00 plus shipping (€ 12.00 within
Germany / € 14.00 outside of Germany)
as an e-paper magazine (single user) at
the annual price of € 144.00.
as a printed plus an e-paper magazine
(single user) at the annual price of € 199.20
(within Germany) / € 201.20 (outside of
Germany) incl. shipping.
Special offer for students (proof of entitlement)
as a printed magazine at the annual price of
€ 72.00 plus shipping (€ 12.00 within Germany /
€ 14.00 outside of Germany).
as an e-paper magazine (single user)
at the annual price of € 72.00.
as a printed plus an e-paper magazine
(single user) at the annual price of € 105.60
(within Germany) / € 107.60 (outside of Germany)
incl. shipping.
Company/Institution
First name, surname of recipient (department or person)
Street/P.O. Box, No.
Country, postalcode, town
Reply/Antwort
Readers’ Service gas for energy
Postfach 91 61
97091 Wurzburg
GERMANY
Phone
E-Mail
Line of business
Fax
Please note: According to German law this request may be withdrawn within 14 days after order date in writing
to Readers’ Service gas for energy, P.O. Box 91 61, 97091 Wurzburg, Germany. After the first period the agreement can be
terminated in writing with 2 months notice to the end of each year. In order to accomplish your request and for communication
purposes your personal data are being recorded and stored.
In order to accomplish your request and for communication purposes your personal data are being recorded and stored.
It is approved that this data may also be used in commercial ways by mail, by phone, by fax, by email, none.
This approval may be withdrawn at any time.
✘
Date, signature
PAGFE2014

TRADE & INDUSTRY
Foundation stone ceremony held at joint energy
storage project Energiepark Mainz
Germany’s Minister of Economics and Technology, Sigmar
Gabriel, together with representatives of power
utility Stadtwerke Mainz AG, Siemens AG, The Linde Group
and RheinMain University of Applied Sciences, gave the
starting signal for the construction of the Energiepark Mainz.
From 2015 on the energy storage project, which is receiving
financial support from the ministry, could make an important
contribution to the success of the energy turnaround in
Germany, said Mr Gabriel during the foundation stone ceremony
in the state capital of Rhineland-Palatinate.
Starting next year, the jointly developed pilot plant
will produce major quantities of hydrogen using electricity
from renewable sources, mostly from nearby wind
power stations. This hydrogen can be stored, loaded into
tank trailers or fed directly into the natural gas grid, for
use in generating heat or electricity. This makes it possible
to store electricity from renewable energy sources.
The growing network of hydrogen filling stations for
emission-free fuel cell-powered vehicles can also be supplied
from Mainz by tank trailers.
Harald Pettersen/Statoil.
Production started on new Gudrun platform in the
Norwegian North Sea
The partners Statoil (operator), OMV and GDF SUEZ
have started oil and gas production on the Gudrun
platform in the North Sea. OMV acquired a 24 % interest
in the Gudrun license in last year’s major deal with
Statoil. The development is an important step for OMV
to achieve its strategic targets for 2016.
Gudrun (PL025) is a North Sea oil and gas field in which
OMV (Norge) AS holds 24 %, with Statoil as the operator (51 %)
and GDF SUEZ E&P Norge as an additional partner with 25 %.
The decision to develop the Gudrun field was taken in 2010
and the production start in 2014 is on time and below the cost
estimate in the PDO (plan for development and operation).
10 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

TRADE & INDUSTRY
TAP launches pre-qualification for onshore pipeline
construction companies
Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) has issued its second
contract notice for a major Engineering Procurement
Construction (EPC) contract in the Official Journal
of the EU – the EU Gazette: The scope for this contract
will include the Engineering, Procurement and
Construction of the approximately 760 km of 48 inch
(1.2 m) diameter, cross-country onshore pipeline in
Greece and Albania.
The current pre-qualification is the second, following
a contract notice on construction of Albanian roads and
bridges issued on 15 April 2014. In addition to the pipeline
construction, the contract will include the construction
of 32 block valve stations along the route. Construction of
the pipeline is planned to start in 2016 and will be split
into five lots – three in Greece and two in Albania. TAP’s
highest elevation will be 1,800 m in Albania and the pipeline
will on the way, cross many roads and rivers. Companies
interested in being pre-qualified for the onshore
pipeline construction contract need to request a prequalification
questionnaire from TAP.
Only a selected number of companies that have completed
the pre-qualification will be invited to participate
in the tendering stages of the TAP’s procurement process
for the onshore pipeline construction.
Russia and China signed
the biggest contract in the
entire history of Gazprom
In foreground – Alexey Miller and Zhou Jiping,
in background – Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping.
Photo: RIA Novosti
Alexey Miller, Chairman of the Company's Management
Committee and Zhou Jiping, Chairman
of China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) signed
a contract to supply pipeline gas from Russia to China via
the eastern route. The parties signed the document
in the presence of Russian President Vladimir Putin and
Chinese President Xi Jinping in Shanghai.
The 30-year contract stipulates that 38 billion m 3
of Russian gas will be annually supplied to China. The
mutually beneficial contract contains such major provisions
as the price formula linked to oil prices and the
'take-or-pay' clause.
The arrangement of Russian pipeline gas supplies
is the biggest investment project on a global scale.
USD 55 billion will be invested in the construction of production
and transmission facilities in Russia. An extensive
gas infrastructure network will be set up in Russia's East,
which will drive the local economy forward. Great impetus
will be given to entire economic sectors, namely metallurgy,
pipe and machine building.
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 11

EVENTS
29 th International Scientific & Expert Meeting of
Gas Professionals
The already traditional International Scientific & Expert
Meeting of Gas Professionals, organized by the Croatian
Gas Centre Ltd. and Croatian Gas Association was
held sucessfully for the twenty-ninth time on 7-09 May,
2014 in a row in the Congress Centre of the Grand Hotel
Adriatic, Opatija, Croatia. International gas conference
and exhibition - the largest annual gas event in South-
East Europe - gathered about 500 participants from 22
countries. Those were mostly gas and energy experts and
managers from leading European energy companies, scientists
from renowned European universities, gas transmission
representatives, suppliers, producers and distributors
of gas from the country and abroad. Totally 198
various gas and energy companies and organizations
were present, of whom 80 from abroad and about twenty
journalists from 15 media companies.
During the three days of the event a total of 41 scientific
and professional papers (of which 4 invited presentations
and 11 papers in poster session) and 10 technicalcommercial
presentations were presented covering the
current gas topics.
As was the case in previous years, this time as well,
due to the extremely large number of registered papers
the poster session was organized. Total of 11 scientific &
professional papers from Croatia and abroad were published
and presented, showing continuous growth of
interest for the participation on the Opatija gas event.
At the same time in front of the Grand Hotel Adriatic
congress hall premises the largest three-day exhibition
of gas equipment in South-East Europe took place where
38 exhibitors (of whom 32 gas equipment exhibitors), of
which 13 from abroad, presented their products and services.
The exhibition was attended by representatives of
gas equipment manufacturers and traders who have
actively participated as exhibitors at Opatija Meetings of
gas professionals for a number of years, but also a significant
number of new exhibitors, from Croatia and especially
from abroad, have participated for the first time.
At the end of this year´s conference, Prof. Miljenko
Sunic, D.Sc., president of Croatian Gas Association,
thanked all participants who have contributed to the success
and quality of the annual gas event which has once
again proved its quality and size despite the challenging
times we are witnessing. Prof. Sunic also announced the
next conference, the jubilee 30 th International Scientific &
Expert Meeting of Gas Professionals, which will take place
again in Opatija on 6 th till 8 th May, 2015.
12 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

EVENTS
International Gas Union Research Conference 2014
IGRC2014 (September 17-19) intends to facilitate a dialogue
between technology and business leaders across
all areas essential to the future gas system. IGRC2014 is
held under the auspices of International Gas Union (IGU).
The conference is hosted by Danish Gas Technology Centre
in the new top modern Tivoli Congress Center in the
centre of Copenhagen.
In addition to the technical conference program
IGRC2014 will also feature an exhibition of advanced gas
technology equipment and services from gas companies
and manufacturers around the world. The exhibition will
give the delegates a unique opportunity to obtain a
quick overview of some of the most important gas technology
developments conveniently gathered at the same
time under one roof in the Tivoli Congress Center.
As a new feature the IGRC2014 will encompass an
Innovation and Student Forum. This special forum is
intended for small start-up companies, educational
organisations, human resource departments, etc. that
have a special interest in communicating
with students, venture entrepreneurs
and organisations/individuals
dedicated to R&D. In this area it
is possible for exhibitors to acquire a
Meeting Point consisting of two
poster boards and a table. Young professionals/students
may apply for an IGU sponsorship covering the conference
fee and accomodation costs.
IGRC2014 offers three alternative technical tours to
places of interest in the Copenhagen area in addition to
the conference programme. (Avedøre Power Station,
gasworks which produces 30% CO 2-neutral gas and
future heating system – gas-fired heat pump) All three
tours take place Tuesday September 16, 2014 in the
afternoon. The Technical tours are not included in the
conference fee.
www.igrc2014.com
Europe’s biggest pipeline conference took place
in Berlin for the first time
Delegates from 42 different nations travelled to Berlin
for the 9 th Pipeline Technology Conference (ptc) from
12-14 May, in order to gather information from nearly 70
presentations on the latest trends in design, construction,
operation and maintenance of onshore and offshore pipelines.
A new attendance record was set with over 420 participants.
Current issues in the spotlight like the South
Stream Project and the security of European supply in the
wake of the current crisis in Ukraine were included in the
program alongside new developments in the areas of
inline inspection, leak detection, corrosion protection,
compressor stations and pumping stations, construction
procedures, material issues and integrity management.
The ptc is supported in terms of content by 10 trade
associations and published worldwide via 20 media
partners. An exhibition featuring 41 companies which
ran alongside the conference was the most popular
spot at break times. Particularly the many participants
from international operating companies used the
chance to gather information and compare the latest
developments from different suppliers. Two evening
events and a number of post-conference workshops
rounded off the 9 th ptc. The 10 th Pipeline Technology
Conference will take place from 8-10 June 2015 in Berlin.
Main topics will include “Challenging Pipelines”
and “Offshore Technologies”. As in previous
years, the papers presented at this year’s pct
will be available online. For more information
visit www.pipeline-conference.com.
More than 420 participants attended this year‘s 9 th Pipeline Technology
Conference in Berlin.
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 13

REPORTS
Energy market
Energy and climate policy to 2030
The only way to go is forward – so why hesitate?
by Beate Raabe
In the face of concerns about the costs of energy, security of supply and the future trend of carbon dioxide emissions
in the EU, Member States cannot easily agree on the lessons learnt from the 2020 package and the strategy
to adopt for 2030. Yet when considering EU energy market developments, the answers seem to be quite obvious.
Nationally focused steering of the energy market has led to unnecessary costs, security of electricity supply
risks and new obstacles for a competitive, low-carbon internal energy market. This has been reinforced by the
economic crisis and the changed economics of gas and coal as a result of the U.S. shale gas revolution. The only
way out seems to be in a forward direction with an EU-wide approach based on competition. This is not new
and actually what the EU had set out to do…
On 22 January 2014, the Commission issued a package of
documents and political proposals related to a policy
framework for climate and energy in the period 2020 to
2030. At the European Council of 20-21 March, the Member
States’ Heads of State and Government concluded
that they will seek to take a final decision on the new
policy framework as quickly as possible and no later than
October 2014. An earlier decision would have been preferable,
but if the European Council keeps word, this will
still be beneficial. The promoters of different types of
energy may differ on the best route to take to 2030, but
they all agree on one point: A clear policy needs to be
adopted as soon as possible because treading on the
spot will discourage investment - in any type of energy.
1. WHERE DO WE STAND IN 2014?
On the positive side, the EU is becoming more energyefficient
and less energy-intensive. The 20 % target for
2020, compared with a business-as-usual scenario, may
not quite be reached, but much will depend on the
implementation of the Energy Efficiency Directive. Greenhouse
gas emissions have been reduced and are on track
for the 2020 target of a 20 % reduction, compared with
1990, to be achieved. However, much of this is due to the
economic crisis, which has resulted in lower than
expected energy demand. The market share of renewable
energy sources is also developing in line with the target
of 20 % of gross final energy consumption. However,
subsidies are needed to reach the target. These and other
issues that the targets could raise were largely overlooked
- by all stakeholders – when the targets were adopted in
2007 and the climate and energy package was passed in
2009. As a result, the three features of sustainable energy
– competitive, secure and clean – are in imbalance. Some
of this is related to, or reflected in, gas losing out to
renewables and coal (Figure 1). The most dramatic year
for gas was 2011, when, according to Eurogas figures, the
market share of gas in primary energy consumption
dropped by 10 % and coal increased its market share by
3 %, compared with 2010. The growth of renewables was
less pronounced over this period. In 2012, compared with
2011, gas dropped by another 2 %, coal rose by another
2 %, and renewables rose by 10 %. This development is
affecting competitiveness, security of supply and environmental
protection. Let me explain why.
2. COST-EFFICIENCY WENT DOWN
TOGETHER WITH THE EMISSIONS
TRADING SYSTEM
The Emissions Trading System (ETS) was intended to
ensure cost-efficiency by the price of carbon determining
whether it is cheaper in the covered sectors to invest in
energy-saving or less carbon dioxide emitting equipment,
or to buy emissions allowances to cover emissions.
The ETS could not play its role because the price of allowances
dropped so low that it has been no incentive for
investment or behaviour change. This is due to a large
oversupply of allowances in the market. According to the
Commission, the surplus stood at almost two billion
allowances at the beginning of 2013. Several factors had
not been taken into account when the energy and climate
package was adopted: the possibility of a major
14 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Energy market
REPORTS
economic crisis decreasing energy demand, large use of
international credits, and separate support schemes for
renewables and energy efficiency in ETS sectors. This led
to emissions reductions not being achieved in the most
cost-efficient way and the cost of renewables support
schemes driving up the retail price of electricity.
3. THE ISSUE ABOUT GAS-FIRED
POWER STATIONS
Meanwhile, the U.S. has increasingly produced unconventional
gas: shale gas, tight gas and coal-bed methane. This
did three things: it brought down the price of gas in the
U.S., it changed the economics in electricity generation
with gas becoming a cheaper fuel than coal, and it reduced
carbon dioxide emissions (Figure 2). U.S. coal supplies
now available to the rest of the world, where gas is more
expensive, has risen and the price of coal has dropped.
Paired with a low price for carbon dioxide allowances, coal
has become a very cheap fuel for power generation in the
EU. As it is cheaper than gas, its use went up whilst that of
gas went down dramatically because its environmental
characteristics (half the carbon dioxide emissions of coal,
less nitrogen oxide, less sulphur oxide and less particles)
are not sufficiently valued. Nor is the flexibility of gas-fired
power stations to be switched on and off as needed to
back up electricity from variable renewable sources. The
increasing market share of electricity from renewables, of
course, also reduces the demand left for gas. Moreover,
lower gas demand led to some pipelines being underused,
thus increasing the costs to be distributed and further
reducing the competitiveness of gas.
Gas-fired power stations are turning into stranded
assets. They were built against the background of an
average growth rate of gas of 3 % per annum in the EU
between 1995 and 2005. Eurogas’ expectation at the
beginning of 2011 was that there would be a growth rate
of up to 1.2 % per annum through to 2030. Instead, gasfired
power stations are now increasingly mothballed or
closed unless they are required by law to remain on
standby when needed. As the market share of renewables
is rising further, so is the need for backup capacity.
Discussions about capacity remuneration mechanisms
have therefore arisen at EU level. Such mechanisms are
already applied in some Member States and remunerate
the availability of power generation capacity rather than
the electricity itself. Some argue that better electricity
interconnections between the Member States, demandside
response (certain customers using less electricity at
peak times), and electricity storage could avoid the need
for capacity remuneration mechanisms, but changing
negative public opinion on high-voltage power cables,
adapting customers and appliances to new consumption
patterns, and developing electricity storage technology
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Figure 1. EU 27 Electricity generation from renewables, gas and coal
2005-2012, in TWh.
Source: IEA, Enerdata, Global Energy & CO2 data, Eurogas
MtCO2
800
600
400
200
0
-­‐200
-­‐400
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Figure 2. Changes in energy-related CO2 emissions 2012.
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2013
are likely to take more time than is available to avoid
blackouts. At the same time, the increased use of coal is
driving carbon dioxide emissions back up in some EU
Member States.
4. ENERGY PRICES HAVE BECOME A
POLITICAL ISSUE
The low energy demand in the EU contrasts with the
high energy prices that the Commission has recently
examined in its Communication of 22 January, entitled
“Energy prices and costs in Europe”. If wholesale prices
are considered, the Commission notes that electricity
prices declined by 35-45% on the major European wholesale
electricity benchmarks in the period 2008-2012. This
is mainly due to the low price of coal and the low operational
costs of electricity from renewable sources. According
to the Commission, wholesale gas prices have fluctuated,
falling and then returning to earlier levels so that no
Renewables
Gas
Coal
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 15

REPORTS
Energy market
price increases are evident when the period as a whole is
considered. The Commission further identifies high taxes
and, in the electricity sector, heavy levies for renewable
support schemes as the drivers for high retail prices. As
Europe is only just hoping to come out of the economic
crisis, there is a limit to what industry and households are
able or prepared to pay for energy. Energy prices have
become a political issue.
Citizens are complaining to their governments about
the high costs of energy. Moreover, by spending more on
energy they are spending less on other goods and services,
thus causing an additional impact on the economy.
Industry is sounding the alarm on its competitiveness.
Energy-intensive sectors do, or threaten to, leave Europe
because energy is much cheaper in the U.S. The finger is
pointed at the fact that shale gas exploration is banned in
many EU Member States and at subsidies for renewables.
5. SHALE GAS IN THE U.S.
Indeed, the price that industry has to pay for energy in
Europe is higher than in the U.S. This is thanks to the large
volumes of shale gas that have been produced in the U.S.
and exports being limited to countries with which the U.S.
has trade agreements. This has led to ample supplies and
low prices in North America, beating the price of coal.
However, gas is achieving even higher prices in East Asia,
where demand is high, so that this is the region where it is
currently most interesting to send tankers with liquid natural
gas (LNG). The U.S. has worked out that it is economically
beneficial overall to export gas even if this means that
the price of gas in the U.S. may go up again. In fact, they
have gone up again already (Figure 3). According to data
provided by the U.S. Energy Information Agency, natural
gas spot prices at Henry Hub went as low as $182 per million
Btu in September 2009 and again in April 2012 and
have been moving above $4 since December 2013. Permits
to export LNG to more countries are being considered.
LNG from the U.S. may come to Europe if the right
price can be achieved. The necessary agreement may be
part of the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership
(TTIP), which is currently being negotiated between the
U.S. and the EU. The envisaged time horizon for the signing
of this agreement is 2015, but many hurdles still need to be
overcome. There are also other sources of LNG that will
become available in the medium term, such as Mozambique,
but, again, supplies will first go where the highest
price is paid. Hurdles in public and political opinion are to
overcome if the ban on shale gas exploration in EU Member
States concerned is to be lifted although nobody can
deny the excellent safety and environmental record of gas
production in Europe over decades and the fact that maintaining
the currently decreasing levels of EU gas production
would be beneficial to maintain a diverse supply base,
thus increasing security of supply and also technology
development, growth and jobs in Europe.
6. RENEWABLES STILL NEED TO PROVE
THEIR COMPETITIVENESS
At the end of 2012, the share of renewable energy in gross
final EU energy consumption was on average 14.4 %, according
to the Commission. When the sun is shining and the
wind is blowing, Germany’s 65 GW of renewables capacity
can provide 100 % of its power needs. However, this can
only be achieved by subsidies and priority access to the grid.
Industry, if not exempted, and household customers
are no longer prepared to foot the bill, and State coffers
are empty. The renewables sector retaliates by pointing to
the cost of fossil fuel imports, and says that this money
would be better spent on renewable energy generated
within the EU. But would it really? Coal and oil imports are
subject to global competition, and gas imports are
increasingly so. It is still much less expensive to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions with gas than with renewables.
As the trade war between the EU and China on solar
equipment has shown, renewable equipment made in
Europe is – and should be - subject to global competition.
Moreover, biomass for power generation and home heating
with pellets is increasingly imported from outside
Europe where its sustainable growth is put into question.
For the balancing of electricity from variable renewable
sources without backup from thermal power stations,
interconnections are missing, the potential of demandside-response
is uncertain, and technology for energy
storage still needs to be developed further.
7. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INTERNAL
ENERGY MARKET
The implementation of the internal energy market is an
important tool to increase choice and competition and to
come to competitive prices, and it is therefore an important
element for the EU’s 2030 strategy. The internal
energy market is well advanced in Northwest Europe, but
cross-border interconnections and trade – both in gas
and electricity - are still missing in many Member States,
largely because of nationally focused policies and lack of
investment, which is strongly due to regulatory intervention
and uncertainty. Governments are capping retail
prices and grid tariffs to protect consumers or to win the
next elections and a number of Member States have
insisted that they will continue to do so. Tampering with
the market means disturbing and distorting the market.
EU legislation has made one step forward and one
step back. Whilst the Third Package aims to achieve the
mentioned cross-border interconnection and trade, the
Renewable Energy Directive does the exact opposite.
16 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Energy market
REPORTS
Figure 3. U.S. Natural gas prices.
Source: Short-Term Energy Outlook, April 2014
Energy Information Administration, U.S.
The European Court of Justice is currently examining
whether that Directive is compatible with the Treaty by
preventing companies established in other Member
States from supplying electricity from renewable energy
sources across the border from benefiting of the subsidies
handed out in the Member State of consumption.
Member States have to subsidise the development of
renewables heavily to achieve their EU or nationally
agreed targets; wind and solar installations are not always
placed in optimal locations; and bad interconnection or
lack of cross-border exchange either creates surplus
power or forces the electricity into countries that cannot
cope with it, and creates ultralow or even negative prices
at certain times when off-takers need to be paid to
accept the surplus electricity.
8. INTERCONNECTIONS ARE STILL
MISSING
A number of gas pipelines and electricity grid connections
have been developed, but, particularly on the gas
side, more towards the EU than within the EU: Nord
Stream has been added, TAP will be added, and South
Stream is at an advanced development stage.
The construction of LNG terminals, too, is positive to
increase the diversification of supplies. However, they
should pass a cost-benefit analysis, which is not the case
for some of the LNG terminals that are under construction
or planned around the Baltic Sea.
There are still important bottlenecks, missing links
and missing reverse flow possibilities for gas. The infrastructure
package and the funding options that have
been created are helpful. However, companies point out
that permitting procedures are still long and complex
even in the case of Projects of Common Interest (PCI) for
which the idea was to streamline their permitting. Moreover,
we should not forget that in a well-functioning
energy market, public funding would not be necessary
and that, therefore, the EU and Member States should
continue to improve the regulatory framework for the
market in such a way that private funding is attracted. In
particular, if existing or planned projects are fully commercial,
they should not have to compete with EU funded
projects. Market rules must be clear, coordinated and fair,
but right now, the market is uncertain about what future
policy will be.
9. WHAT IS THE WAY FORWARD TO A
COMPETITIVE, SECURE AND CLEAN
ENERGY SYSTEM?
Above all, more market and less regulation will be beneficial
because regulatory risk is amongst the most difficult
to calculate and has for years been mentioned by investors
who would principally be happy to finance projects
in Europe. The transition to a low-carbon energy system,
even the German “Energiewende”, can be achieved at a
much lower cost, with more market and less political
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 17

REPORTS
Energy market
intervention. With the price of carbon dioxide as the main
driver, renewables and energy efficiency can thrive and
hybrid systems will develop naturally.
The main changes needed in the short and medium
term are as follows:
■ One target: This should relate to greenhouse gas emissions
reductions. The Commission’s proposal of 40 % is in
line with the EU target of an 80-95 % reduction by 2050.
Of course, for EU climate action to be successful it should
be part of a global effort. The 2030 framework should
determine the negotiating position of the EU for a 2015
global climate agreement. Until an equitable global
agreement has been reached, the competitiveness of
the EU economy should be appropriately addressed.
■ Reform of the ETS: if the right effort is made, it will
remain the ideal instrument to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions cost-efficiently. It will ensure a balanced
and diverse energy mix and enable gas to compete
with coal. Renewables that are market-ready will naturally
phase in without requiring subsidies, energy efficiency
measures are encouraged, and energy prices
can be competitive. The renewables sector is pessimistic
that the ETS will ever be made to work for a true
energy transition. It is therefore high time to demonstrate
political willingness to do so. The Commission
has presented the various options available. They now
need to be put together in an effective amendment
package that is adopted as soon as possible to provide
investors with a mechanism on which they can
rely. Needless to say that the ETS should be complemented
with cost-efficient measures to reduce emissions
in non-ETS sectors.
■
■
■
Full and speedy implementation of the third legislative
package on the internal energy market, abandoning
nationally oriented regulation, including price
caps - If market distortions cannot be removed or not
quickly enough, capacity remuneration mechanisms
can be an effective means to address security of electricity
supply. But any market distortion by such
mechanisms must be kept to a minimum.
Gradual but non-retroactive phase-out of existing support
schemes for mature renewables – The proposed
EU State aid guidelines are a step in the right direction,
but they will allow a purely national approach to continue
for some time, differing across the Member States
and impacting the internal energy market.
Continued support for all non-mature low-carbon
options under the aspect of research, development and
demonstration – CCS and power-to-gas should be part
of this, as well as nanotechnology in solar panels etc.
AUTHOR
Beate Raabe
Secretary General |
Eurogas |
Brussels |Belgium
Phone: +32 2 894 48 02 |
E-mail: Beate.Raabe@eurogas.org
18 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

The Gas Engineer’s
Dictionary
Supply Infrastructure from A to Z
The Gas Engineer’s Dictionary will be a standard work for all aspects of construction,
operation and maintenance of gas grids.
This dictionary is an entirely new designed reference book for both engineers with
professional experience and students of supply engineering. The opus contains the world
of supply infrastructure in a series of detailed professional articles dealing with main
points like the following:
• biogas • compressor stations • conditioning
• corrosion protection • dispatching • gas properties
• grid layout • LNG • odorization
• metering • pressure regulation • safety devices
• storages
Editors: Klaus Homann, Rainer Reimert, Bernhard Klocke
1 st edition 2013
452 pages, 165 x 230 mm
hardcover with interactive eBook (read-online access)
ISBN: 978-3-8356-3214-1
Price: € 160,–
DIV Deutscher Industrieverlag GmbH, Arnulfstr. 124, 80636 München
www.di-verlag.de
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PATGED2014

REPORTS
Power-to-gas
Power-to-gas: Climbing the
technology readiness ladder
Qualification of integrated power-to-gas systems in
real-life environments is the next step
by Lukas Grond and Johan Holstein
Power-to-gas as a technology to provide flexibility to the energy system or to generate low carbon or carbon
free gas is currently heavily debated in relation to the energy transition and is considered to be a new and innovative
technology. New technology in general introduces uncertainties that imply risks for developers, manufacturers,
vendors, operators and end-users. This article discusses the state of power-to-gas in terms of technology
readiness and provides insight in recent developments and proposed near-future activities. The current technology
readiness level of power-to-gas equipment varies between the technology readiness level (TRL) 5 and 8,
depending on the specific processes considered. In order to abate investors’ and policy-makers’ risks and uncertainties
in adopting power-to-gas as an energy transition enabler, qualification and verification of integrated
power-to-gas systems in operational, real life environments is required to improve on the technology readiness
ladder and is crucial for facilitating possible further market penetration.
1. INTRODUCTION
The EU is facing unprecedented energy challenges until
2020. As part of the ‘20-20-20 goals’, 20 % of EU’s energy
consumption should be generated by renewable energy
sources (RES) in 2020, a 20 % greenhouse gas emissions
reduction (relative to 1990 levels) should be realized and
EU’s energy efficiency should be improved by 20 % [1].
Such a boost for the implementation of renewables will
encourage technological innovation, development and
increased employment in Europe. Adoption of enabling
technologies by industrial companies is inevitable for realizing
EU’s renewable energy targets. A common industryaccepted
methodology for qualifying the development
state of technology is by classification of the technology
readiness level (TRL) of technological systems or system
components. This methodology is suitable for comparing
similar or competitive technologies and for indicating progress
in the technology development [2]. Furthermore it
helps to structure and prioritize development and
improvement activities. The following technology readiness
levels have been defined by US DoD [3]:
TRL1. Basic principles observed and reported
TRL2. Technology concept and/or application formulated
TRL3. Analytical and experimental critical function and/
or characteristic proof of concept
TRL4. Component and/or breadboard validation in a
laboratory environment
TRL5. Component and/or breadboard validation in a
relevant environment
TRL6. System/subsystem model or prototype demonstration
in a relevant environment
TRL7. System prototype demonstration in an operational
environment
TRL8. Actual system completed and qualified through
test and demonstration
TRL9. Actual system proven through successful mission
operations
This article discusses the state of power-to-gas in terms of
technology readiness and provides insight in recent
developments and proposed near-future activities.
20 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Power-to-gas
REPORTS
2. POWER-TO-GAS IN SHORT
Power-to-gas is the functional description of the conversion
of electrical power into a gaseous energy carrier like
e. g. hydrogen and/or methane. With the technology currently
available, the production chain of power-to-gas
consists of electrolysis and optionally methanation can
be included. Electrolysis relates to the conversion of electricity
into hydrogen by splitting the water molecule
(Equation 1). Methanation is the process of generating
methane (and water) from a synthesis process of hydrogen
and carbon dioxide (Equation 2).
2H 2O(l) → 2H 2(g) + O 2(g) [1]
CO 2(g) + 4H 2(g) ←
→ CH4(g) + 2H 2O(l) [2]
The main purposes for the development and implementation
of power-to-gas are (I) to deliver flexibility to the energy
system by offering a controllable power load to facilitate
the implementation of intermittent renew able energy
sources into the existing energy system and (II) to enhance
decarbonisation of the gas sector, mobility sector or chemical
industry by establishing the conversion of renewable
power to natural gas substitute, hydrogen fuel/feedstock or
carbon recycling via methanation. However, solely based
on the rationale of exergetic efficiency, electricity should
always be directly used as electricity whenever possible,
namely every conversion step imposes energy losses.
3. POWER-TO-GAS READINESS
Until recently electrolysis (mostly alkaline electrolysis) has
generally been applied for continuous industrial processes
like the production of fine chemicals or for vehicle
Power production and demand (MW)
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Electricity balance in June in 2020 in Dutch region
1
25
49
73
97
121
145
169
193
217
241
265
289
313
337
361
385
409
433
457
481
505
529
553
577
601
625
649
673
697
Figure 1. Power production and demand profiles [4].
fuel and can be characterized by TRL 9. Both these applications
however did not require the electrolysis process
to be very flexible for its application in terms of ramping
up or down. With the increasing penetration of intermittent
power resources the need for more controllable load
in the power system increases (see Figure 1). This has
been a direct motivation for electrolyser manufacturers
to adapt their technologies to this market demand. So
even though the electrolyser process is already known
for decades and widely applied, the demand for flexible
operation drives the innovation of the technology
towards a system that is able to quickly and adequately
respond to power production fluctuations. This means
that this new application for the electrolyser technology
forces it to be considered in TRL level 5 to 7 again.
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
Hours
Conv. must run Solar PV Wind onshore Power demand Surplus electricity
400
300
200
100
0
Surplus electricity (MW)
Capital requirement & investment risk
Methane & methanol synthesis with CO2
H2 injection natural gas grid
Steam water electrolysis (SOEC)
Steam water electrolysis (HT PEM)
Photochemical hydrogen production
PEM electrolysis
Laboratory work Bench scale Pilot scale
Solid storage
Fuel cells (Large scale, high temp.)
Fuel cells (mobility, low temp.)
Compressors, H2 refuelling compressors & tanks
Alkaline electrolysis
Commercial-scale, process proved,
substantial optimization potential
Gas turbines for H2 rich fuel gases
H 2 production
H 2 storage
H 2 application / accommodation
H 2 processing
H2 compressors, H2 refuelling compressors
Steam reforming (hydrocarbons)
Commercial-scale, process proved, widely
deployed, limited optimization potential
Research Development Demonstration Deployment Mature technology
Technology maturity
Liquefaction & cryogenic storage
Liquefaction & cryogenic storage
Various use of H2 in refineries
H2 infrastructure
Figure 2. Development
curve of
power-to-gas
technologies
and hydrogen
application [5].
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 21

REPORTS
Power-to-gas
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of the predominantly considered electrolysis technologies [5][6]
Advantage
Commercial technology (high technology readiness level)
Low investment electrolyser
Alkaline Electrolysis
Disadvantage
Limited cost reduction and efficiency improvement potential
High maintenance intensity
Large stack size Modest reactivity, ramp rates and flexibility (minimal load 20 %)
Extremely low hydrogen impurity (0,001 %)
Advantage
Reliable technology (no kinetics) and simple, compact design
Very fast response time
Cost reduction potential (modular design)
Advantage
Highest electrolysis efficiency
Low capital costs
Possibilities for integration with chemical methanation
(heat recycling)
Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis (PEME)
Stacks < 250 kW require unusual AC/DC converters
Corrosive electrolyte deteriorates when not operating nominally
Disadvantage
High investment costs (noble metals, membrane)
Limited lifetime of membranes
Requires high water purity
Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC)
Disadvantage
Very low technology readiness level (proof of concept)
Poor lifetime because of high temperature and affected material
stability
Limited flexibility; constant load required
Today, alkaline electrolysis is being optimized to meet
the flexibility requirements resulting from the market
demand. Proton exchange membrane electrolysis (PEME)
is based on a different chemical process and characteristically
better capable of meeting the technical flexibility
requirements. See Table 1 for the advantages and disadvantages
of the three predominantly considered electrolysis
technologies today (alkaline, PEM and SOEC). The
PEME technology currently is close to commercial deployment,
meaning that the technology is about ready for
large scale market penetration. In addition to Table 1,
Figure 2 shows the development curve for power-to-gas
technologies in terms of maturity levels.
Diving into the pool of hydrogen accommodation or
processing opportunities, we can extract from Figure 2
that methanation currently is in demonstration phase
representing a TRL level 5–7. Remarkably, both methanation
and methanol synthesis are mature technologies
and have already been widely applied in industrial processes.
Again, the requirement of being able to follow
intermittent hydrogen production as a result of intermittent
power production requires adaptation of the technology
to its purpose, explaining the place of methanation
on the maturity curve.
Manufacturers of both the electrolysis and methanation
(or methanol synthesis) technologies are currently
deploying extensive innovation activities in order to
make the standard and mature technologies fit for this
new purpose. Integrating technology components or
systems often requires adaptation or optimization and
renewed interest in testing, validating and demonstrating
new system configurations.
4. MARKET PENETRATION AND SYSTEM
INTEGRATION LEAD TO COST
REDUCTION
Investment costs for power-to-gas plants today are substantial.
Electrolysis units face strong economies of scale
up to 1 MWe of electrical capacity. For larger capacities
the investment cost line is nearly horizontal (see
Figure 3). Since the commercially available electrolyser
systems today have maximum capacity of 3 MWe per
unit, installation of a plant with a larger capacity than 3
MWe means that electrolyser units need to be stacked in
order to realize the desired capacity (very limited economies
of scale). However, Siemens is currently developing a
high capacity (90 MW) PEM electrolysis unit that is capable
of overshooting its nominal capacity by up to 300 %
for several minutes. The economies of scale of that electrolysis
unit are expected to be substantial in a large
range of capacities. Chemical methanation technology is
subject to very strong economies of scale. The power-tomethane
demo’s operational today consist of small scale
methanation units, putting pressure on the investment
costs. However, when large plants are envisioned
( > 100 MWe) methanation becomes relatively cheap considering
the total costs of the plant. The share of metha-
22 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Power-to-gas
REPORTS
nation capital expenditures in the total investment of
such plants is relatively small. Regarding operational
expenditures, chemical methanation has high potential
to increase efficiency by utilizing the heat (200–500 °C).
System integration of components or processes and valorization
of all process products (including heat and oxygen)
will result in improved business cases.
5. CERTIFICATION OF HYDROGEN AND
METHANE
The products from the power-to-gas process need to be
valued properly in order to realize a viable business case
for the owner or investor. In most European countries
(except Germany) the hydrogen and methane from
power-to-gas are not yet fully integrated in national subsidy
schemes or stimulation programs. Neither can
power-to-gas plants currently be exempted from regular
taxes nor grid fees. It can be considered legitimate
though to introduce supporting financial or legal measures
for power-to-gas because the technology is implemented
to relieve pressure on the power grid and to
enhance the energy transition.
For the purpose of producing low carbon or CO 2-
neutral methane for fuelling Audi’s g-tron vehicles, certification
of methane is essential for Audi in order to comply
with the recent (Euro 5), the future (Euro 6) and national
vehicle emission standards.
Similar discussions can be introduced for the use of
power-to-gas for energy storage or flexibility purposes. In
that case its real value is in storing energy to provide flexibility
to the energy system. However, valuing only the
caloric value of the hydrogen or methane produced does
not address its service benefit properly. As with any development
process, it is irrefutable to have a positive balance
between the power-to-gas system costs and its benefits.
6. CURRENT STATUS: DEMONSTRATION
OF DIFFERENT SYSTEM
CONFIGURATIONS
Most of the investments in power-to-gas have until now
been in macro-level research such as techno-economic
technology assessments, energy systems analysis studies,
feasibility studies and business case assessments, road
maps and fact books. Results from these works are essential
for companies and institutions to determine the
appropriate approach towards further development of
the technology. Two striking examples of European initiatives
having the main objective to investigate the viability
of the concept in this stage of the development by
exploiting these aforementioned activities are the North
Sea Power to Gas Platform (initiated and chaired by DNV
GL) and the Strategieplattform Power-to-Gas (initiated
Capital costs ( /kW H2 )
Capital costs ( /kW CH4 )
4.000
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
500
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800 2.000
Capacity (kW H2 )
Figure 3. Capital cost curves of electrolysis (PEM curve is a
prediction of future costs) and methanation [6].
and chaired by DVGW). The North Sea Power to Gas Platform
is a joint body, based on an integrated network of
stakeholders, which aims to explore the viability of
power-to-gas in the countries surrounding the North Sea
Proton Exchange Membrane
0
0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800 2.000
Capacity (kW CH4 )
Alkaline electrolysis
Chemical methanation
Biological methanation
Figure 4. Life cycle analysis
results of the Audi
A3 g-tron (obtained
from [7]).
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 23

REPORTS
Power-to-gas
DNV GL has technologically supported the Dutch distribution
grid operator Stedin in realizing the first Dutch
power-to-methane plant, by defining engineering guidelines,
validating the selected technology and ensuring
gas grid injection compliance. This project has the objective
to show the value of power-to-gas as a smart gas grid
technology that enables wind and solar power accommodation
as methane, which is used by households in the
city of Rotterdam (Figure 5).
The world famous power-to-methane full-scale
demon stration plant of Audi in Werlte, Germany, is
remarkable since it kick-starts the large scale deployment
of the industrial produced methane vehicle fuel
from wind power as a tool for Audi to comply with new
European vehicle emission legislation. Another remarkable
pilot project is the proof of concept of a biological
methanation technology, which turns out to be a highly
efficient process and capable of very rapid response to
fluctuating input [10][11].
7. INCREASING NEED FOR TECHNOLOGY
QUALIFICATION
Figure 5. Methanation reactors (above) and IR
photo (below) of the methanation process
in the Netherlands, a project of Stedin,
Ressort Wonen, Agentschap NL,
Gemeente Rotterdam and DNV GL [12].
area [8]. The Strategieplattform Power-to-Gas is politically
oriented and aims to develop strategy for large scale
implementation of power-to-gas [9].
Since 2012 there has been a steep increase in the
number of demonstration plants, with Germany as a
leading nation in Europe. Currently over thirty power-togas
plants have been realized or are about to be commissioned
in Europe, all having a strong research or demonstration
character [8]. Referring to the aforementioned
TRL’s, most of the power-to-gas realization projects today
fit in TRL 6 and 7. None of the demonstration plants is
identical to another, all demonstrating different system
configurations, providing different service applications or
fulfilling different market needs.
Implementation of new technology introduces uncertainties
that imply risk for its developers, manufacturers,
vendors, operators and end-users. Concepts with wellknown
and proven technology are often preferred over
solutions with elements of non-proven technology,
even if the latter provides significant operational
improvement or cost-efficiency [2].
With the current status of power-to-gas technologies
(TRL 5–8), investors take a risk that their investment might
not return within the envisioned period, due to e. g.
design errors, technological failure, underestimated
maintenance intensity or operational faults. Technology
qualification and verification enables the TRL upgrade to
TRL 9, needed to facilitate the implementation of powerto-gas
and enhancing the creation of new business
opportunities and/or improved profitability. Verification
of the technology or project gives investors and potential
operators reliable information about the technology of
interest and helps them mitigating investment and technology
related risks. Successful deployment of plants initiated
by the pioneers in the energy transition is crucial.
There is a need to set technical engineering guidelines
and recommended practices for power-to-gas projects
in order to enable technology qualification and provide
transparency for vendors, investors and operators. Also
other stakeholders, like public policy-makers and regulators
have an interest in clear indications of the performance
achievable by such technologies. This, subsequently,
enables verification of projects to well-accepted
standards and accelerates realization of projects and
technology and market developments.
24 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Power-to-gas
REPORTS
8. ENHANCING THE ENERGY
TRANSITION
Developments of new power-to-gas technologies such as
solid oxide electrolysis and biological methanation and the
further adaptation and optimization of well-known technologies
such as alkaline electrolysis, proton exchange
membrane electrolysis and chemical methanation offer
opportunities for enhancing the energy transition, by
offering flexibility as well as decarbonisation. The technology
readiness of power-to-gas technologies today varies
between TRL 5 and 8, depending on the specific processes
considered. In order to abate investors’ and policy-makers’
risks and uncertainties in adopting power-to-gas as an
energy transition enabler, qualification and verification of
integrated power-to-gas systems in operational, real life
environments is the first next step that needs to be taken.
DNV GL acknowledges that qualification, standardization
and verification is crucial for further improvement of
power-to-gas on the technology’s TRL and thus for harvesting
the technology’s potential to enhance the energy
transition and realize EU’s RES ambitions.
REFERENCES
[1] European Commission; the climate and energy
package. Online: http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/
package/12-5-2014.
[2] DNV (2011) Qualification of New Technology, Recommended
Practice DNV-RP-A203, July 2011.
[3] US DoD (2009) Technology Readiness Assessment
(TRA) desk book.
[4] DNV GL (2014) Meso-level considerations in exploring
power-to-gas. International Conference on
Energy Storage, 3 rd Conference on Power to Gas.
March 27 th 2014, Dusseldorf, Germany. L. J. Grond.
[5] SBC Energy Institute (2014) Fact book - Hydrogen based
energy conversion. More than storage: system flexibility.
[6] Grond, L. J.; Holstein, J. and Schulze, P.: DNV KEMA (2013)
Systems analysis power-to-gas; Technology Review.
[7] Otten, R.: Power to Gas in operation: Experiences with
the Audi 6 MW plant in Werlte. OTTI – 4 th Storage
Day, Düsseldorf, 27 th of March 2014.
[8] North Sea Power to Gas Platform website:
www.northseapowertogas.com (31.4.2014).
[9] Strategieplattform Power to Gas website:
www.powertogas.info (31.4.2014).
[10] Krassowski, J.: Power-to-gas-Technologien als Baustein
in einem regenerativen Energiesystem - Ansätze zur
Systemintegration in der Altmark, 30 May 2012.
[11] Electrochaea (2012) Power-to-gas via biological
cataly sis. Personal communication with D. Hofstetter
of Electrochaea and product information. September,
14. 2012.
[12] Stedin & DNV GL (2014) Power-to-gas demonstration
plant Rotterdam (NL).
AUTHORS
Lukas Grond
Engineer
Asset Risk Management
DNV GL
Groningen | Netherland
Phone: +31 50 700 9893
E-Mail: Lukas.Grond@dnvgl.com
Johan Holstein
Engineer
Gas Quality and Transition
DNV GL
Groningen | Netherland
Phone: +31 50 700 9849
E-Mail: Johan.Holstein@dnvgl.com
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 25

REPORTS
Gas quality
The gas smell: A study
of the public perception of
gas odorants
by François Cagnon, Amélie Louvat and Véronique Vasseur
In 2010 GDF SUEZ CRIGEN completed a study about the smell of gas. Small focus groups constructed an ID card
of the smell of gas by working with 10 unpleasant smells, including THT, TBM and Gasodor S-Free®. The three
product's smells and two other “bad” smells were then presented to 2,000 people (400 per smell) to evaluate
their reaction to the smell and its association to gas. The results detailed in the paper bring a new perspective
about the use of these gas odorants when compared with previous studies once the hedonistic bias is taken out.
In every country odorisation of distributed gases is
required for safety reason. Although the formulation may
vary the basis of the requirements are that the smell shall
be perceived before a given concentration of gas in air,
generally 20 % LEL, and that it shall be characteristic. The
first requirement means that the odour intensity of the
smell is sufficient. This can be evaluated through an olfactometric
evaluation as proposed for instance in the Italian
standard UNI 7133 or the French specification AFG 87-1.
The last requirement means that the smell is not easily
mistaken for a smell normally present in the ambiance. It
is not easily verified as the smell perception, for untrained
people, is based on the individual history but may also
depend on some cultural or environmental factors.
Since the beginning of gas distribution odorisation has
generally been done by adding reduced sulphur compounds
to the gas such as sulphides (THT for instance) or
mercaptans. These products smells are quite similar and
are generally recognised as characteristic, leading to their
identification with the "gas smell". Recently new odorants
have been proposed in Europe based on acrylates compounds
having a very different smell. Thus the question of
the character of the smell, its perception and association
with gas by the public is raised again.
GDF SUEZ investigated this question in a two steps
study. With the collaboration of a French survey company,
CSA, small focus groups were used to screen ten
different smells. The ten smells were recognised as bad
smells in order to avoid any hedonistic bias and included
THT, TBM and acrylates. After a free discussion about the
smells perception the focus groups were interviewed
about the feelings that each smell generated. Finally
they were invited to discuss about the gas smell, both in
term of what it should be and about which smell would
most closely fit with it.
At the end of this first step an identity card of what the
gas smell should be was drawn and each of the ten
smells that has been used were put on this map. Then
five of these smells were selected, including THT and TBM
as traditional odorants, an acrylate based odorant and
two others as control smells.
These five smells were integrated in "scratch and
sniff" cards that were used in interviews with individuals
during a one week survey conducted by CSA. Four hundred
persons were interviewed for each smell thus leading
to a two thousand people panel. The interviews
lasted about half an hour and covered many topics for
different sponsor, with only five minutes for GDF SUEZ
about odour. During these five minutes interviews the
person had to give its spontaneous identification of the
smell and then was asked several question in order to
evaluate how its perception of the smell would fit the
identity card of the gas smell. The word gas was introduced
only at the end of the interview in a list of proposals
about what the smell could be. Thus for each
smell was obtained the spontaneous and assisted identification
with gas or other products, but also how the
smell would fit with the idea of a gas smell.
This communication is detailing the methodology
that has been used in both focus groups and interviews.
It will present how the gas smell "ID card" has been
drawn and how the different smells are fitting that ID
26 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Gas quality
REPORTS
card. Then the analysis of the quantitative panel results
will be detailed. The differences in perception will be
presented taking into account the possible bias coming
from age, sex, use of gas etc 1 .
1. INTRODUCTION
Natural gas odorisation is a necessity for safety as it allows
anyone with a sense of smell to perceive the odour of gas
and thus be warned of its presence in the atmosphere. It
is usually required by national regulations that distributed
gases are odorised. This can be done by using different
products and techniques [1]. In general the requirements
ask that the smell is detectable before gas concentration
in air reaches 20 % of the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL).
Some regulations or technical guidelines may give precision
about odour intensity or the normal sense of smell.
Furthermore the gas industry can rely on methods and
results to evaluate the odour intensity of gases or samples
of gases ([2], [3], [4]).
Regulations may also introduce a requirement that
the smell shall be characteristic. This is generally understood
as a typical smell for gas or at least different from
everyday odours in order not to be confused with them.
Obviously this requirement is very difficult to validate.
Natural gas has generally no odour as such and the typical
smell of gas has for decades been given by the addition
of sulphur compounds such as sulfides, Tetrahydrothiophene
(THT) being the most common, or mercaptans,
Tertio ButylMercaptan (TBM) being the most
common for natural gas odorisation.
These sulphur compounds, although they have a
slightly different odour, are generally considered as giving
similar and distinct from usual smells. Thus if those products
are used as odorants, the resulting smell of the gas is
deemed characteristic, in the absence of odour fading
resulting from the presence of contaminants in the gas or
interaction with pipeline walls.
In the last years a new product has been qualified in
Germany as a gas odorant, the GASODOR S-Free®. This
product is a mixture of ethyl and methyl acrylates with
traces of methylethylpyrazine [5]. Although its smell is
clearly dissimilar to that of current sulphur products used
as gas odorant, it was deemed acceptable for such use as
it was evaluated as an alert smell [6]. This evaluation was
done by a sample of 113 people that was submitted to six
different smell, three of them being respectively THT,
TBM and S-Free® and the others being jasmine, fish and
roast meat. The interpretation of the results showed that
THT and TBM were close together on one side, jasmine
1 Acknowledgement: This study has been sponsored by the French companies
GRTgaz and GrDF.
and roast meat on the other side with fish and S-Free® in
intermediate positions, S-Free® being the closer to traditional
sulphured odorants. This repartition is close to a
hedonistic evaluation as jasmine and roast meat were
defined as good smell, whereas THT and TBM are generally
qualified as unpleasant.
As other acrylate based odorants are being proposed
by manufacturers, GDF SUEZ decided to organise
an evaluation of the perception of the gas smell as
given by traditional odorants and S-Free®. The test was
conducted in 2009 in two phases, one qualitative with
about 40 people and the other quantitative with 2000
people with the collaboration of a French marketing
and opinion research company CSA. The objective of
the first phase was to screen a number of smells that
could be used as reference to compare with the three
odorants and to identify descriptors for the quantitative
phase. Then the second phase aimed at evaluating the
perception of five different odours, including the three
odorants. This paper will detail the organisation of each
phase and the results that were obtained.
2. QUALITATIVE PHASE
2.1 Methodology
2.1.1 Odours used
Ten smells were selected for the qualitative phase. Every
smell was bad, ranging from mildly to highly offensive to
avoid any hedonistic bias. They were presented in small
vials filled with paraffin impregnated by the odoriferous
solution or molecule in the case of THT and TBM. Thus all
vials were identical save a label coded with a number and
contained a white solid to avoid spillage. The vials were
prepared by the French company EURACLI who also prepared
the scratch and sniff cards used in the quantitative
phase. Three contained THT, TBM and S-Free®, all three
products being supplied by their manufacturers. The formulas
of the other odours were not known, they were
available at EURACLI laboratories as they had been used
for some other operation. They were identified as:
■■
■■
■■
■■
■■
■■
■■
Rotten egg,
Gasoline,
Skunk,
Goat urine,
Horse dung,
Old shoes,
Tar.
All odours were strong, and the participants were free to
sniff the vials at varying distances in order to adjust the
perceived odour intensity.
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Gas quality
Figure 1. Natural gas smell ID card.
2.1.2 Focus groups
The qualitative phase was conducted with 10 focus
groups each numbering four people, two men and two
women. In five groups the participants were between
25 and 50 years old, in the five other groups between 51
and 70. Each session took place in CSA's Paris offices in a
large room where the focus group was invited to sit
around a table. One CSA's employee was moderating
the session, one other taking notes. All participants
were living in Paris or around but their personal profiles
were mixed according to social criteria, housing type,
etc. Each session lasted for about two hours during
which four odours were studied out of the ten that have
been chosen. Each focus group had one of the three
gas odorant within the four odours studied.
2.1.3 Organisation of one session
The focus groups were organised as brain storming sessions
to find out the evocations related to each odour.
After a brief introduction about the rules of the session
(no food, smoke or drink other than water, etc), an exercise
about the different rooms of the house and an evocation
of good and bad smells was conducted in order to
warm up the participants. Then the four odours were
studied successively in 20 minutes sessions. Each session
followed the same protocol:
■ Sniff of the odour followed by five minutes during
which the participant had to write its spontaneous
evocations coming from the smell.
■ Then the group started discussing to present their
spontaneous feelings, then the moderator proposed
associations with images or words for the
participant to agree or reject. Exercises were suggested
to reproduce the formula of the smell or
the emotions (fear, pleasure, anger, ...) associated
with the smell.
■ Then a second sniff of the vial was taken and the
moderator asked the participant to dream from the
smell. This exercise allowed the participants to summarise
the session.
■ Then a 3 minutes break was allowed.
After the four sessions, the participants were invited to
sniff again all four smells and had to answer a questionnaire
in which they had to:
■ Give a key word for each smell.
■ Rank all smells from the least to the most alerting and
from the least to the most inconspicuous.
■ Indicate which smell was the more "hinting of a danger",
"Frightening", "adapted to natural gas".
28 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Gas quality
REPORTS
Figure 2. Relative position of the ten odours in the danger vs. action domain.
This was the first direct indication of natural gas although
gas, gas smell and such words had generally been spontaneously
stated before during the sessions. Then the moderator
launched a general discussion around the smell of natural
gas, the participants being invited to explain their choice
for the smell they associated to natural gas and to describe
what qualities they would expect for the smell of gas.
2.2 Results
2.2.1 Interpretation of results
The analysis first focused on the vision the participants had of
the gas smell. The descriptions where synthesised to achieve
an ID card of the gas smell and two criteria were identified
that relates the adequacy of a smell with the gas smell.
Then the evocations of the ten odours were analysed in view
of this ID card and a lexicon of descriptors that do and don't
apply to the gas smell was built in order to prepare the questionnaires
for the quantitative phase. Finally all odours were placed
on a map summarising their position as regards the two criteria.
2.2.2 Natural gas smell ID card
The first result from this qualitative phase was an ID card. For
the participants of this focus group the gas smell shall be:
■
■
■
■
■
Unique, so that one can't confused it with other smell,
Persistent, so that it won't disappear in a moment,
Encompassing, so that the people will be oppressed
and have to react,
Disagreeable but not incapacitating, so that one
can still act on it,
Aggressive, so that people will be alert with a feeling
of danger,
Its perception shall lead to action but no panic. This is
summarised in Figure 1.
From this ID card, two criteria have been identified for
a good "gas" odour:
■ It shall induce a danger
■ It shall prompt action.
Thus the ten different odours have been positioned on
a graph built against these two axes as presented in
Figure 2. THT and TBM are in the best position as for
the "would be" gas smell as being the smells raising
more danger and need for action. On the opposite sits
old shoes and rotten egg as perceived by the oldest
focus groups. Rotten egg is quite peculiar as there is a
dichotomy in its perception between old and young
focus groups, the younger ones being more prone to
action when smelling this product.
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 29

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Gas quality
As for the S-Free® odour it led to a surprisingly high
number of references to the kitchen smells as garlic, onions,
leek, etc. Goat urine induces a lot of action responses as
being very disagreeable but no real sense of danger.
Thus the quantitative phase included THT and TBM as
traditional gas odorants, S-Free® as the alternative. For the
control smell, tar was chosen as it seems close to the traditional
odorants and goat urine as a smell with a very
different perception from all the others.
3. QUANTITATIVE PHASE
3.1 Methodology
3.1.1 General
The quantitative phase was conducted in all regions of
France through face to face interviews at the home of the
people surveyed by CSA's investigators during the course
of an all purpose survey. The investigators were equipped
with "scratch and sniff" cards prepared by the French
company EURACLI specialised in microencapsulation.
During the course of the all purpose survey, several
themes were discussed for different customers (for
instance food preferences, TV shows, ...) and one set of
questions were relevant for GDF SUEZ's enquiry. This
sequence about odours lasted about 6 minutes out of the
half an hour of the general survey and was placed at random
within all the sequences. Each person interviewed
was presented with only one card supporting one of the 5
odours that were selected for the quantitative phase. The
cards have been prepared in order that they can generate
a moderate to strong smell. People were free to adjust
their perception by moving the card closer to their nose.
For each odour 400 persons were interviewed, leading
to a total of 2 000 interviewed in all regions of
France. Each 400 people sample was built according to
the quotas methodology by taking into account sex,
age, profession, region and population of the place the
interviewed is living. Although this was not taken into
account in the constitution of the samples, the fact that
the interviewed was using gas at home was checked at
the end of the interview. For each odour, about 42 % of
the interviewed were using natural gas, 33 % LPG in cylinders
and 25 % were not using gas.
3.1.2 The interviews
The interviews were divided in three blocks. First the
interviewed was asked to scratch and sniff the card given
by the investigator and to express spontaneously what
the odour was. They were asked to give their first and
second guess if any but also to state on a 1 to 10 scale the
degree of certainty about their recognition of the odour.
Then a list of propositions was presented for which
people had to express their agreement in a four degree
scale (Yes certainly, probably yes, probably no, certainly
no). The first two proposals were to know if the odour
was easily recognisable, and if it was pleasant. Then followed
a list of nine proposals about what the perception
of such smell would prompt. Four of them would be
positive actions would the smell be gas ("Open the windows",
"Call the emergency services", ...), three of them
negative ("Don't do anything", "Spray deodorant", ...) and
two were relative of the perception of danger for health
or explosion. Then the interviewed had to state on a 1 to
10 scale how dangerous he was thinking the odour was.
The third block of the interview was an assisted recognition
of the odour. Seven propositions were made (Gasoline,
Paint, Burned, Rotten egg, Gas, Garlic and Tar) and
the interviewed had to state how close from the proposal
was the smell using the same four degree scale as before.
The last question was about the use of gas for cooking,
and if so, from network gas or cylinders. Then
another sequence would start about a different topic, for
a different customer's than GDF SUEZ.
Thus the sequence about smell was only making reference
to gas in the last question and in one proposal of
the last block of question. No other mention of gas was
made during this sequence or the whole interview.
3.2 Results
3.2.1 Data treatment
The data were interpreted to evaluate three aspects of
each odour:
■■
Its recognition as gas smell, the possibility that it could
be recognised as something else and its ability to
draw attention.
■■
■■
The degree and nature of danger it was evoking
The way people would react to the odour.
For the questions asking an evaluation on a 1 to 10 scale the
arithmetic average was built for each answer. For the questions
where an adhesion to a proposal on a four degree
scale was asked a synthetic indicator was built as follows:
■■
■■
A weight from 100 (yes certainly) to 0 (Certainly not)
with 66 and 33 as intermediate was attributed to
each degree.
The percentage of answers (%A i) for each degree
was weighted and summed up to calculate the synthetic
indicator.
Thus SI = ∑ 4 1 (Weight × %Ai). Thus SI can rate from 0 to 100,
a value above 50 would mean that people are agreeing
30 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Gas quality
REPORTS
with the proposal, the more agreement the higher the
value. Below 50 means a rejection of the proposal the
more rejection the lower the value.
As natural gas is odorised in France with THT, a special
attention has been given to potential bias in the identification
of the smell of gas. This was done by looking for
higher or lower than average association of a smell with
the gas smell in one sub segment when compared with
others. Segments were built per region (4), size of city (5
segments, Paris being one segment), sex, age (5 groups)....
The distinction between gas users and non gas users was
also made. Although some age group, region and city size
segments did respond differently than average to one or
the other smell, no pattern was identified. In some cases
THT was better associated with the smell of gas in other it
was TBM, but no rationale could be found to explain that.
The important information was that no difference was
apparent between those using gas and those not using
gas when associating one of the smell with the gas smell.
3.2.2 Spontaneous identification
Descriptors used for the spontaneous identification of
the odours were closely related to that used during the
qualitative work with the focus groups. They were gathered
into five categories:
■ Gas,
■ Fuel or burned materials,
■ Chemicals as cleaning materials, antiseptic (hospital
smell), ammonia, etc.
■ Kitchen smells such as garlic, onions, leek, shallots,...
■ Repulsive, for descriptors around rotten material,
including rotten egg, sewage, excrement,...
For each odour about 11 to 17% of the people were unable
to formulate any guess. Figure 3 present the percentage
of first answers in each category associated with the
different odours. For all the odours, and whatever the
answer was, people were quite sure that they had made a
correct identification of the smell which was confirmed
by the fact that the synthetic indicators for the question
"Is this odour very characteristic?" were above around 60,
with higher values for THT and TBM (70 and 69). Consequently
second guesses were not numerous and were
often giving descriptors close to that of the first guesses.
Except for TBM for which a bimodal pattern applies (gas
and repulsive for 30 %) all other odours have one main axis.
THT is spontaneously associated with gas and tar with fuel/
burned material by about 43 % of the sample. Goat urine is
mainly associated with chemicals and S-Free® with kitchen
smells but to a lesser extend as it concerns around 30 % of
the sample. For people associating one of the odours with
gas there is a high certainty level as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Spontaneous identification of the smell (1 st guess)
Figure 4. Spontaneous identification of the smell as Gas.
Gas was quoted as a second guess by 6 % of the sample
for THT and TBM, 4 % for S-Free®, 2 % for tar and 1% for
goat urine.
The synthetic indicators of the answers about the
pleasantness of the odours were low from 4 for TBM
to 18/19 for goat urine and tar. THT and S-Free®
ranked 10 and 11. Thus it can be considered that all
odours were unpleasant and no hedonistic bias
should be observed.
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 31

REPORTS
Gas quality
Table 1. Level of danger for the odours (1 to 10)
Odour All Gas as first Other guesses
guess
THT 7.3 8.7 5.9
TBM 6.4 8.5 5.2
S-Free® 5.3 7.9 4.6
Tar 5.3 8.0 5.1
Goat urine 4.5 6.9 4.3
Average 5.76 8.02 5.48
Figure 5. Position of the odours in a danger vs. action domain.
3.2.3 Perception of danger and action
The appreciation of the danger associated with the odour
was very dependent upon its original identification as
shown in Table 1.
In general THT was the odour recognised as the more
dangerous, goat urine being the least dangerous. However,
the sense of danger is much higher, whatever the
odour, when it is associated with gas as first guess than
when it is not spontaneously identified as gas.
This dichotomy is also seen when analysing what type
of action is prompted by the odour. The answers of the
seven questions about "What would you do if you smell
this odour?" have been interpreted by:
■ Adding their synthetic indicators for the actions that
would be advisable in case of a gas smell (Open the
■
windows/Call the emergency services/Exit the premises/Try
to find the origin).
Subtracting them for the ones that would be detrimental
(Don't do anything/Spray deodorant/Wait
and see).
Thus the higher the resulting figure is, the more
adequate the actions would have been if the odour
was the indication of a gas leak. Figure 5 is drawn
to place the different odour in a similar representation
as that of Figure 2. The filled circles correspond
to the answers of those having spontaneously
identified the odour as gas at their first guess.
The empty circles correspond to those that haven't
spontaneously recognised the smell as that of gas.
The size of the circles represents the percentage of
the sample in each case.
The answers are clearly distributed in two groups. If
the smell has been identified as gas, then the people
are feeling that is dangerous and will take action more
adapted than when the odour is not identified as gas.
For people associating THT or TBM with gas, both
odours are giving similar results with the highest level
of danger and adequate response to their perception.
If S-Free® is associated with gas, the feeling of danger
and the adequacy of the actions is slightly less. As for
the other smells the number of people having associated
goat urine or tar with gas is very small so the
information is not very relevant.
When the odours are not associated with gas, the
level of danger with THT is slightly higher than that of
the other odours. TBM and THT are inducing more adequate
actions with the three other odours being in a
similar position. Clearly S-Free® is giving a similar
response than the other bad smells.
3.2.4 Assisted identification
The assisted identification results are presented by plotting
for each odour the synthetic indicator reflecting
the degree of agreement adhesion with the smell proposed
(see Figure 6).
THT is strongly associated with gas and nothing
else. For TBM a strong association with gas exists
but the possibility of rotten egg is not totally
rejected (SI ≈ 45). For S-Free®, people are loosely
associated the smell with gas (SI ≈ 50) but not
strongly rejecting the possibility of garlic. Tar is not
very much associated with tar and more with
burned material. As for goat urine, no positive association
has been made.
A focus on the answers for gas is given in Figure 7.
The positive values correspond to yes probably and
32 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Gas quality
REPORTS
yes certainly. The yes responses for THT or TBM are
significantly higher than that for S-Free® in turn significantly
higher than that of tar of goat urine.
Furthermore, only 16% for THT and 29 % for TBM
are rejecting the association of these odour with gas
whereas 45 % are rejecting the association of S-Free®
with gas, to be compared with the 53% that are
accepting it. Goat urine and tar are much more
rejected as gas smell. A comparison of the answers to
this question for people using gas for cooking and
the others has shown no significant difference for the
two populations.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The spontaneous association of THT with gas is high
but still is not an evidence for a majority of the people.
Although TBM is also readily associated with gas it may
be identified with other products with a repulsive
smell. S-Free® even if it is more associated with gas
than the control smells is also leading to association
with several other odours a number of them being in
the kitchen universe.
The assisted association of THT with gas is very
high and a majority of the people are sure of this. A
significantly lower majority of people are associating
TBM with gas and one person out of three is rejecting
this association. This is probably related to the bimodal
response to TBM, a fair number of people relating this
smell with rotten egg or sewage smell. S-Free® is raising
ambivalent answers. Although a short majority
agrees that it is or could be gas, 30 % of the people are
sure that it can't be.
The perception of danger and actions elicited by
the perception of the different odours are clearly defined
by the identification of the smell to gas. Nevertheless,
THT and TBM are both leading to a slightly higher perception
of danger and elicit better reaction even if there is no
association with gas.
Thus it can be concluded that THT and to a lesser
extend TBM are quite adequate to give the characteristic
odour that people are expecting for gas.
Although S-Free® is slightly more efficient than the
control odour as for being associated with gas it is
often confused with other odours and does not give
much more sense of danger nor lead to adequate
actions than the control odour.
As the identification of the different smells to the
gas smell are not different for gas users and non gas
users it seems that no bias has been introduced unless
one assumes that all French people have the same
proximity with THT as the gas smell regardless of the
fact that there are using natural gas or not. To test that
Figure 6. Assisted identification of the odours
Figure 7. Assisted association of the odours with gas.
hypothesis it would be useful to conduct a similar
study in other countries where gas could be odorised
with different odorants.
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 33

REPORTS
Gas quality
REFERENCES
[1] ISO TS 16922 "Natural gas — Guidelines for odorizing
gases"
[2] UNI 7133, "Gas odorisation for domestic and similar uses
– Procedures, characteristics and tests", Italian standard.
[3] Cagnon F.; Hagge E.; Heimlich F.; Kaesler H.; Kuiper
Van Loo E.; Lopez Zurita J. M.; Rijnaarts S.; Robinson
C.; Salati E. and Vinck H.: “New testing method
helps optimize odorization levels”, IGT Symposium,
Chicago 2000.
[4] Cagnon F.; Louvat A.; Coffinet-Laguerre D. and Maxeiner
B.: "Olfactory evaluation of the smell of a gas: A round
Robin test based on the AFG Specification", Natural
gas odorisation conference, Houston 2010.
[5] Graf F.; Kröger K. and Reimert R.: " Sulfur-Free Odorization
with Gasodor S-Free: A Review of the Accompanying
Research and Development Activities ", Energy
& Fuels 2007, 21, 3322–3333.
[6] Schunk C.; Bernhart M. and Reimert R.: "Schwefelfreies
Odoriermittel – Steigerung der Umweltfreundlichkeit
unter Wahrung des Sicherheitsniveaus", Gas-
Erdgas, 140 (1999) Nr. 10.
AUTHORS
François CAGNON
GDF SUEZ
DRI CRIGEN
St Denis La Plaine | France
Phone: 33 1 49 22 52 06
Email: francois.cagnon@gdfsuez.com
Amélie Louvat
GDF SUEZ
DRI CRIGEN
St Denis La Plaine | France
Phone: 33 1 49 22 56 45
Email: amelie.louvat@gdfsuez.com
Véronique Vasseur
GrDF
Direction réseaux Ile de France
Paris | France
Phone : 01 53 25 41 42
Email: veronique-v.vasseur@erdf-grdf.fr
MEDIA
Book review
Energy Technology Perspectives 2014 –
Harnessing Electricity's Potential
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increasingly important vector in energy systems of
the future, Energy Technology Perspectives 2014 (ETP
2014) takes a deep dive into actions needed to support
deployment of sustainable options for generation,
distribution and consumption. In addition to
modelling the global outlook to 2050 under different
scenarios for more than 500 technology options, ETP
2014 explores the possibility of “pushing the limits” in
six key areas:
■ Solar Power: Possibly the Dominant Source by 2050
■ Natural Gas in Low-Carbon Electricity Systems
■ Electrifying Transport: How Can E-mobility Replace Oil?
■ Electricity Storage: Costs, Value and Competitiveness
■ Attracting Finance for Low-Carbon Generation
■ Power Generation in India
Since it was first published in 2006, ETP has evolved into a
suite of publications that sets out pathways to a sustainable
energy future in which optimal policy support and
technology choices are driven by economics, energy
security and environmental factors.
■ Topic-specific books and papers explore particularly
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■ Tracking Clean Energy Progress provides a yearly
snapshot of advances in diverse areas, while also
showing the interplay among technologies.
■ Supported by the ETP analysis, IEA Technology Roadmaps
assess the potential for transformation across
various technology areas, and outline actions and
milestones for deployment.
IEA Studies
Subject: Energy Projections,
Natural Gas, Sustainable
Development, Technology;
382 pages, ISBN 978-92-64-
20800-1, paper 150,– €, PDF
120,– €, 2014
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PAHEAT2014

REPORTS
CHP
The regional virtual power plant
- a potential contribution to the
energy sector transformation
Energy analysis of CHP systems in buildings
by Joachim Seifert, Jens Haupt, Felix Glöckner and Jörg Hartan
Virtual power plants provide a way to merge a number of decentralized generation units into a significant
generation capacity. Regional, Virtual power plants are taking this idea further and account for additional
requirements from the electrical distribution network. In the following paper, this technology will be introduced
especially in combination with micro-CHP systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
With the energy transition introduced by the German
federal government fundamental changes are occurring
within energy provision in Germany. This primarily affects
the electricity market, which in future will be organised in
a way that is much more decentralised. Decentralisation
arises first and foremost as a result of the different locations
of renewable electricity generation through solar,
wind and biomass facilities.
Figure 1. Costs for power and natural gas in Germany [2].
The heating market is currently not yet the immediate
focus of consideration. This is rather surprising as most of
the primary energy is consumed in Germany by the housing
sector. For this reason it would be advantageous for
the success of the energy transition to have a stronger
link between the electricity and the heating markets. One
way of doing this is through virtual power plants based
on mini- and micro-CHP technology, which is to be the
particular focus of the following publication.
2. INITIAL SITUATION
The housing sector in the Federal Republic of Germany is
largely made up of existing housing stock. New builds
account for a tiny percentage of the housing stock (less
than 1%). If we look at residential buildings, then these
can be broken down into about 3.1 million blocks of flats
with an average energy consumption of 145 kWh/m²a
and about 15 million one-family houses and duplexes
with a current average energy consumption of 172 kWh/
m² [1/2]. One family houses and duplexes are particularly
likely to experience redevelopment in the next few years
due to the high energy consumption and the high costs
resulting from the same. Typical in this context is a modernisation
of the cladding as well as a modernisation of
the systems technology. There is a great deal of freedom,
particularly in the case of systems technology. In terms of
heat generation
36 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

CHP
REPORTS
■■
■■
■■
gas condensing and low temperature boilers (also in
combination with solar heating systems),
heat pumps,
and different types of CHP system
are available. The last-named generation units also offer the
advantage that, in addition to supplying the building with
heating they are also able to provide electricity. This is an
advantage given that the end-user prices for electricity have
risen sharply in recent years compared with natural gas and,
according to current forecasts, will continue to rise 1 . Figure 1
shows this on the basis of German Ministry of Economic
Affairs and Energy figures [3] for the years 2005 to 2013.
Other technologies exist to combat the documented
cost increases for electricity, in particular where one-family
houses and duplexes are concerned. Notable here are first
and foremost small PV solar power systems which nevertheless
demonstrate the drawback of fluctuating electricity
generation. Also conceivable are small wind turbines
which, however, similarly demonstrate the drawback of
unmanaged fluctuations cited above. It would be possible
using an electricity storage system to uncouple electricity
generation and electricity consumption. However, currently
this is not yet possible to demonstrate commercially.
Hence this particular class within the housing sector
possesses enormous potential for the use of CHP systems.
Technically, CHP systems are available based on
■■
■■
Stirling and combustion engines
as well as fuel cells.
As a matter of principle, one needs to bear in mind that, in
regard to the electricity grid, from a certain level of transmission
the facilities should be coordinated so as to avoid operating
conditions becoming critical [4]. This type of coordinated
operation can be achieved within a virtual power plant.
3. VIRTUAL POWER PLANT
What is meant by a virtual power plant (VPP) in the context
described is the pooling of decentralised electricity
generation units in such a way that the total output of
electricity achieved is considerable, reaching megawatt
figures at different voltage levels. The decentralised generation
units may at the same time be installed in different
distribution grids also at large distances from each other.
A particular form of the virtual power plant is represented
by the regional virtual power plants (RVPPs) which
are an attempt to concentrate the decentralised generation
units in one place and where possible to organise them
within a single electricity grid [4]. Since mini- and micro-
CHP systems are located exclusively within low voltage
1 A reduction in the power consumption by the end-user would result
directly in a commercial advantage here.
Figure 2. Concept of a regional virtual power plant.
electricity distribution grids, these generation units are particularly
suitable for a RVPP (cf. Figure 2). For the IT interconnection
of the different micro CHP systems efficient internet
technologies have recently become available.
In relation to Figure 2, Level 0 describes the local housing
level in which, e.g. the CHP system is located. Level 1 encapsulates
the individual outflows of a low voltage grid whereas
Level 2 contains an overview of multiple regional low voltage
grids and sets out the regional virtual power plant.
The allocation of the individual levels within this hierarchical
approach is not chosen arbitrarily but is guided by the
substantive constraints. Thus at the local level the supply of
thermal energy is significant which on the other hand plays
no role at the next level up. Here, the electricity grid restrictions
are important which in case of non-compliance could
lead to various generators being disconnected. Necessary
for the coordinated operation of a RVPP is the provision of
different status information at the individual levels. Figure 3
sets out a corresponding signals flow chart in this respect.
Figure 4 documents the fundamental connection of
the decentralised generating units to the primary energy
network (e.g. natural gas, biogas, hydrogen) as well as to
the electricity grid. The IT connection (in both directions)
to the RVPP HQ is documented in addition.
In order to be able to offer electricity that is predictable
and marketable, the information from Level 0 on the
minimum and maximum potential electricity production
must be available over a pre-defined period of time. It is
crucial that, in so doing, the immediate connection to the
relevant building’s heating requirement is taken into
account since ultimately this is key. This requirement can
be determined sufficiently exactly by means of a predictive
analysis taking into account meteorological conditions
and, by using thermal storage tanks installed in the
building, this may - within certain parameters - be decou-
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 37

REPORTS
CHP
Figure 3. Information flow between the individual
levels of a regional virtual power plant.
Figure 4. Connection and flow
of information within a
regional virtual power
plant.
pled from the demand for electricity. Furthermore, the
status of the technical device (on/off) at Level 1 needs to
be communicated. A further pre-condition to the physical
functionality of the RVPP is that sufficient primary
energy e.g. in the form of natural gas is available under
real time conditions. This may generally be provided by
the existing natural gas infrastructure, such as transmission
and distribution grids as well as natural gas storage facilities.
This data is summarised at Level 1 and, combined
with the electricity grid figures, forwarded to Level 2. At
Level 2 the data is then again bundled and prepared for
marketing. By implication the transformation back i.e. the
drawing up of the schedule for each device at Level 0 is of
key importance. Here too, a performance specification is
given in each case from one level to the level below. The
relevant devices at Level 0 must then comply promptly
with this performance specification. To this end the RVPP
represents the global balancing group. It is responsible
for allocating individual schedules to the subordinate
levels and for guaranteeing the greatest possible efficiency.
Based on the data delivered to the levels below the
RVPP must properly market the available service and with
it the electricity which may be generated. Thus, it
amounts to direct competition with established market
participants. Figure 5 demonstrates this schematically.
The marketing strategies of a regional virtual power
plant may at the same time vary greatly. Fundamentally,
the option exists of
38 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

CHP
REPORTS
■
■
■
■
maximising the degree of RVPP system’s level of selfsufficiency
in terms of electricity (minimal energy
procurement/association of electricity users)
supplying electricity for sale to the EEX,
offering electricity for sale in the control energy sector or
generating electricity for direct sales.
Above and beyond this, other target functions may be
present from the point of view of the electricity grid
operator, which are unrelated to the monetary marketing
strategies listed. Worthy of mention here are e.g. as consistent
as possible a level of transmission via the grid, creation
of transport capacity for electricity from PV solar
systems (in the course of the day) or safeguarding of a
balancing group with even levels of electricity, which can
be performed as system services. At the same time the
commitment to a corresponding target criterion is largely
dependent on the local constraints, on the (framework)
political constraints and on the RVPP operator itself.
4. SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS
FOR A RVPP
Following the introductory explanations and the theoretical
observations the next section should look at the
effect of a RVPP in a specific example. The starting point
for the examination is a RVPP system constructed as follows:
■ 100 one-family homes
■ Method of construction of the one-family homes: 80%
in line with German Thermal Insulation Order (“GTIO”) 77;
10% in line with GTIO 82, 8% in line with GTIO 95,
2% in line with passive house construction methods,
■ Thermal storage tanks: Buildings in line with GTIO 77
have 800 litre capacity, all other buildings with CHP
systems have a capacity of 500 litres
For the CHP systems motorised cogeneration-type power
plants were used, the performance of which is geared
towards the individual housing types [5/6]. The electrical load
profiles for the buildings are based on the specifications in
[7]. Figure 6 shows significant parameters for the cited constraints
2 on a winter’s day. The assessments are based on an
uncoordinated or strictly heating-based mode of operation.
If one looks at the red curve in Figure 6, then one initially
identifies a sharp increase in performance after midnight.
That is explained by the activation of appliances. Just
as the electrical power increases, the available thermal storage
potential (blue curve) falls or the stored thermal energy
increases (green curve). This occurs until the storage tanks
reach their maximum capacity. In terms of time, that is the
same in the case of all co-generation systems used due to
the underlying meteorological conditions. Thereafter the
RVPP’s electrical power falls sharply. After the stored thermal
energy is discharged, the given cycle begins anew.
Figure 7, on the other hand, shows a coordinated
operation on the same day in which the storage load
status has been deliberately varied. The RVPP’s entire
thermal energy storage capacity is by turn discharged or
loaded. What is significant about this is that the devices
with a variable performance category were nevertheless
not altered i.e. the devices’ thermal and electrical power
was set at constant. The curves allow us to see that upon
the “Empty storage” signal clear breaks are evident in the
electrical power delivered, and particularly in morning
hours this can lead to circumstances where the RVPP
electricity is no longer able to cover power consumption
(RVPP balance limit). Nevertheless, it is also evident that
the detection of the storage load status alone is not
2 Shown here is a winter’s day in February on which heating is also required
at night.
Figure 5. Market participants in the environment of a virtual power plant.
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 39

REPORTS
CHP
Figure 6. Daily results for significant curves of a regional virtual power
plant - uncoordinated operation.
Figure 7. Daily results, significant curves for a regional virtual power plant
- coordinated operation (charging state).
enough to explain the courses of the electricity parameters.
Rather, the level of demand in the building for thermal
power must also be taken into consideration 3 .
To conclude, a further coordinated operation for the
said day should be discussed, where the focus of consideration
was not just the storage load status but the electricity
generated. Figure 8 shows the representative diurnal variation
for this operation. To understand Figure 8, it is important
to note that in the case of RVPP min the control instructions
are set in such a way that there is the minimum possible
output from the RVPP system without endangering the
building’s heating supply (matches the “Empty storage”
instruction under Figure 7). In the case of RVPP max the regulation
occurs in such a way that a maximum level of
energy generation is demanded from RVPP. Taking account
of the courses of the parameters, the minimum power output
in the early hours of the morning is particularly easy to
identify. Here the individual co-generation systems are virtually
entirely on standby. In the warm-up phase that follows
a minimum level of performance by the RVPP system
is still required centrally. However, this instruction is overridden
by local requirements, since in the morning hours
there is a great need for heating. It can be clearly seen that
in the following phase of maximum electrical power there
is still thermal storage capacity available. The micro CHP
systems are able to produce more electricity once again.
Within the framework of this publication the courses
of all documented curves have not yet been optimised to
specific operating scenarios. As set out at the start, the
target functions can be very different and vary from one
operator to the next. In [4] different operating strategies
and the optimisation thereby achieved are described in
detail, as a result of which they do not need to be discussed
again in the context of this publication.
5. CONCLUSION
Figure 8. Daily results, significant curves for a regional virtual power plant
- coordinated operation (power control).
The present publication examined virtual power plants and
in particular regional virtual power plants based on miniand
micro-CHP technology within the low voltage grid. A
fundamental clarification of the technology and of potential
marketing strategies was given in the first section. In the
second section a fictitious regional virtual power plant was
analysed. As a result of these analyses it can initially be
determined that algorithms are now available using which
it becomes possible to achieve coordinated operation of
small decentralised units. The greatest advantage of a coordinated
mode of operation consists of the deferment of the
electricity load/adjustment of demand. At the same time,
the deferment potential lies in the case of typical one-family
homes in the area of 0.5 hours ≤ τ ≤ 2.5 hours. Along
3 Underlying the analyses is the constraint that the building’s demand for
thermal power must always be covered.
40 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

CHP
REPORTS
with the meteorological conditions this deferment potential
is significantly influenced by the size and capacity of the
thermal storage. This deferment potential in the case of
one-family homes and duplexes is generally sufficient to
combat peaks in electricity demand in a targeted fashion.
LITERATURE
[1] Federal Statistical Office: Bautätigkeit und Wohnungen
– Bestand an Wohnungen, 2014 [Construction
and housing - housing stock, 2014]
[2] BDEW [German Association of Energy and Water
Industries] 2013: Set of slides on the heating market,
Bundesverband der energie- und Wasserwirtschaft
e.V. [German Association of Energy and Water Industries]
[3] BMWi [Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy]
2014: Zahlen und Fakten Energiedaten – Nationale und
Internationale Entwicklung, [Energy data Facts and
Figures - National and International Development],
Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie, [Federal
Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy] 26/02/2014
[4] Seifert, J.; Schegner, P.; Meinzenbach, A.; Haupt, J.; Seidel,
P.; Schinke, L.; Hess, T. and Werner, J.: Regionales Virtuelles
Kraftwerk auf Basis der Mini- und Mikro-KWK-
Technologie - Intelligente Vernetzung von thermischen
und elektrischen Verbrauchersystemen; Technische
Universität Dresden, Forschungsvorhaben
- dritter Zwischenbericht 2014 [Regional Virtual
power Plant based on mini and micro CHP technology
- intelligent interconnection of heating and electricity
consumer systems; Technical University, Dresden,
research project - third interim report 2014]
[5] Seifert, J.: Mikro-BHKW-Systeme für den Gebäudebereich
[Micro co-generation systems for the housing
sector], VDE-Verlag 2013, ISBN 978-3-8007-3475-7
[6] Hartan, J. and Seifert, J.: Erfahrungen mit Mikro-BHKW,
insbesondere dem L 4.12, im Feldtest für Einfamilienhäuser
[Experiences with micro co-generation, in particular
L 4.12 in a field experiment for one-family
homes]; gwf-Gas-Erdgas; Volume 7-8, Page 530–538, 2012
[7] Dickert, J. and Schegner, P.: A Time Series Probabilistic
Synthetic Load Curve Model for Residential Customers,
IEEE Power Tech, Trondheim, Norway 2011
SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATIONS
τ time h
P el electrical power W
P el,akt current electrical power W
P el,ver,akt current electricity consumption
W
Q th,akt current stored heating kWh
Q th,akt,pot Potential for thermal energy storage kWh
S Facility Status of the facility (on / off)
Status of the electricity grid (e.g. utilisation)
S Grid
W el,max,A maximum electricity to be supplied
from the facility
W el,min,A minimum electricity to be supplied
from the facility
W el,max,N maximum electricity to be supplied
from the grid
W el,min,N minimum electricity to be supplied
from the grid
φ min load factor
RVPP regional virtual power plant
VPP virtual power plant
NOTE OF THANKS
kWh
kWh
kWh
kWh
VNG AG Leipzig initiated the research project and supports
this financially. More extensive support will be provided by
the Federal Ministry of Economy and Energy under the number
03ET1042A.
AUTHORS
Dr.-Ing. habil. Joachim Seifert
Technische Universität Dresden
Institut für Energietechnik, Professur für
Gebäudeenergietechnik und Wärmeversorgung
Dresden | Germany
Phone: + 49 351 463-34909
E-Mail: Joachim.Seifert@tu-dresden.de
Dipl.-Ing. Jens Haupt
Technische Universität Dresden
Institut für Energietechnik, Professur für
Gebäudeenergietechnik und Wärmeversorgung
Dresden | Germany
Phone: + 49 351 463-35177
E-Mail: Jens.Haupt@tu-dresden.de
Felix Glöckner
Student des Maschinenbaus der technischen
Universität Dresden
Dresden | Germany
Dr.-Ing. Jörg Hartan
VNG Gasspeicher GmbH
Leipzig | Germany
Phone: + 49 341 443-2477
E-Mail: joerg.hartan@vng-gasspeicher.de
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 41

PROFILE
GasNaturally: A unified
voice for gas at EU level
WHAT IS GASNATURALLY?
GasNaturally was founded by seven gas associations representing
the entire gas value chain, from research and
innovation to exploration, production, transportation
and transformation, and finally distribution. As such, it
brings together the knowledge of more than 130 European
companies to showcase the role that gas can play in
making a clean future for Europe a reality.
The issue of climate change is a global one, and everyone
has to rise to the challenge by thinking of new
ways to reduce the carbon footprint of human activities.
The European Union has set for itself an ambitious
greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction target of
20 % for 2020, and is looking to double this by 2030.
GasNaturally fully supports this objective and is convinced
that natural gas can greatly help in reducing
emissions across different economic sectors (buildings,
transport, industry, power generation).
Now in its third year of activities, the organisation has
developed into a respected reference point for the provision
of information on gas and the different parts of the
gas value chain. It has also played a key role in promoting
the benefits of natural gas in the current and future European
energy mix towards European Union policymakers.
GasNaturally’s efforts are taking place at a very relevant
time, as the gas industry is faced with a major challenge
– and an opportunity to address it.
THE CHALLENGE
Unfortunately, the 20 % GHG emission reduction target was
accompanied at the end of the last decade by a set of overlapping
policies which have produced unintended consequences.
Renewable energy capacity has increased at a fast
pace in the past few years, but this was only made possible
by spending billions in subsidies, the cost of which have
been passed on to end-users. As a result, European consumers
have seen their electricity bills rise to record levels
while the price of gross electricity has remained the same.
The arrival of this huge load of low-carbon energy and its
priority dispatch on the power market have resulted in an
excess of emission quotas in the Emissions Trading Scheme,
provoking a drop in the carbon price which has led European
utilities to turn to coal for their power generation!
In other words, not only has Europe not been able to
give its citizens access to a more affordable energy, but its
CO₂ emission reductions are decreasing much slower than
what was initially predicted. Germany, one of the EU’s leaders
in the fight against climate change, has actually seen its
GHG emissions rise by 2 % over the past two years.
THE OPPORTUNITY
In this context, GasNaturally’s goal is to provide EU policymakers
with a solution to get out of this ‘Coal +
Renewables’ paradox in which Europe seems to be
trapped. Upcoming decisions on the design and content
of the ‘2030 Climate and Energy Framework’ offer a
unique opportunity to move away from this inefficient
energy paradigm. It is therefore GasNaturally’s role to
show policymakers how natural gas, an abundant
source of energy of which 56 % is produced in Europe,
can in fact help the EU reach its objective of a sustainable,
affordable, and reliable energy system by providing
the necessary flexibility to integrate renewable energy
into the market in a cost-efficient manner.
For power generation, renewables are a fantastic
source of carbon-free energy, but they are also highly variable
and can lead to power drops when they don’t produce
at all. Unlike coal plants which take around ten hours
to start producing electricity, a CCGT plant can be up and
running in less than an hour while emitting 50% less CO₂
and no fine particles, avoiding severe air quality issues.
This makes CCGTs extremely reactive to power drops,
therefore reducing the risk of blackouts and brownouts,
while drastically reducing the pollution and carbon intensity
of power generation. And finally, power-to-gas technology
provides a unique way of storing the excess electricity
produced by renewables by transforming it into
synthetic methane and injecting it in the gas network.
But the role of gas is not only limited to that of power
generation; it can also help the EU achieve its objectives of
energy efficiency in the residential sector. The gas industry
continues to work with appliance manufacturers to
increase the "market roll out" of gas heat pumps, fuel cells,
and micro CHP. The technology is ready; we just need the
will and the support to spread it. In the transportation sector,
gas can be used in the form of LNG for trucks and ships
to reduce their environmental impact, but also in the form
42 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

PROFILE
making a clean future real
SUPPLY
Europe enjoys varied supplies of gas, with a majority
coming from European countries (including Norway). Europe
will continue to diversify its gas supplies via new significant
sources such as the United States, and in the long term
Azerbaijan, East Africa, Eastern Mediterranean, etc.
Developing untapped domestic gas resources will
reduce Europe’s import dependency. Europe’s potential
to diversify its natural gas supplies will further be
realised through deliveries of liquefied natural gas (LNG)
from all over the world.
DOMESTIC GAS
PRODUCTION
GAS +
SOLAR
COMBINED CYCLE
GAS TURBINE
Switching from
coal- and oil-fired
power generation
to best performance
CCGT plants 2
vs.
1990 levels
CO 2
EMISSIONS
INDUSTRIAL
PLANT
GAS & RENEWABLES
Gas-fired power generation is well suited to provide flexible
generation to complement variable renewable energy
sources as it is capable of rapid response to changes in
demand. If the necessary market conditions and policies
are in place, the increased use of natural gas for power
generation will help the EU achieve considerable
emissions reductions by 2030. In such a scenario, gas
and renewables will grow together, displacing coal from
the fuel mix for power generation.
CARBON
CAPTURE
& STORAGE
IMPORTS BY PIPE
Regasification
capacity expected
to rise in Europe 1 .
199 bcm/year
369 bcm/year
LNG
GAS AT THE CENTRE OF OUR
ENERGY SYSTEM IN 2030
sources (biomass, organic waste) and is
already injected today into the gas grid
2013 2022
LNG TERMINAL
GAS IN TRANSPORT
In the future, natural gas has the potential to play a greater
role in transport, in light of lower CO₂ and other emissions.
According to industry estimates, LNG heavy-duty vehicles
could reach more than 50,000 units per year by 2020. By
then, they could represent 10-15% of the market. 7 Today,
there are however only 38 filling stations for LNG for
heavy-duty vehicles in the EU. 8 Refuelling infrastructure
therefore needs to be developed to allow the technology to
grow. There are also interesting prospects for LNG in
maritime transport, with a clear environmental case of 25%
lower CO₂ emissions and very substantial reductions in
emissions of sulphur, nitrogen oxide and particulate matter. 9
$10
LNG
$17
SHIP
HEAVY
FUEL OIL GASOLINE
LNG
$20-24
Biogas can be produced from various
GAS
STORAGE
BIOGAS PLANT
LNG can deliver
50% savings for
the shipping
INFRASTRUCTURE INNOVATION
industry.
February 2013 prices
CNG
The current gas infrastructure can be used for the future energy
system without any fundamental modifications beyond 2050.
However, further investments will be needed to safeguard secure
supplies, provide alternative supply routes and integrate growing
variable renewable energy sources. Investments needed by 2020
are estimated around €90 billion for transmission, storage and
LNG. 3 For comparison purposes, it should be noted that the
transmission of gas is up to 20 times cheaper than the
transmission of energy in the form of electricity. 4 Gas storage
offers seasonal and short-term flexibility in a fully functioning
European gas market, as well as security of supply.
5
The priority use of renewable energies in the future will
require a very flexible storage of excess electricity since a
constant balance between electricity production and
consumption is technically needed. The ideal way could
be Power-to-Gas, which allows for the storage of
renewable electricity in the natural gas grid. Electricity
can be converted to hydrogen (H2) via electrolysis, a
proven technology in the chemical industry. The
hydrogen produced is either fed directly into the gas grid
or turned into methane (CH4). Finally, by 2030 and
beyond, CCS should be an important option to reduce
carbon dioxide emissions. The CO₂ captured from power
generation or industry can either be stored underground
or reinjected into the gas system as synthetic methane,
using Power-to-Gas facilities. End-user technologies
such as condensing boilers, gas heat pumps,
micro-CHP and fuel cells in space heating & cooling are
continuously improved by the industry and will make gas
use even more efficient in the future.
Figure 1. Infographics developed by GasNaturally on the vision for gas in 2030.
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 43

PROFILE
Figure 2. Annual Member States Gas Forum.
Figure 3. GasNaturally members.
of CNG in cars, providing them with a sustainable and
practical fuel compared to electric vehicles which take
longer to charge and have very limited autonomy. Finally,
biogas is another clean way of converting organic waste
into gas and injecting it into the grid.
GasNaturally has recently summarised this vision for
gas in 2030 in an infographics (Figure 1) and an animation
available on its website. It has also alerted Heads of
State and Government about the urgency of the situation
in an open letter. 1
GASNATURALLY ACTIVITIES, TODAY
AND TOMORROW
GasNaturally has actively promoted the role of gas in a
clean European energy system over the past few years.
1 For more information on GasNaturally’s 2030 vision, visit www.gasnaturally.
eu/gas-at-the-centre-of-the-energy-system-in-2030.
First of all through its website, www.gasnaturally.eu,
hosting relevant materials and information about the
benefits of natural gas, and placing them in the context
of current policy discussions. It is also present on Twitter
(@GasNaturally) to further disseminate its messages.
The association also organises various events throughout
the year to showcase the benefits which could result
if European policymakers were to recognise the merits of
gas. Just a few weeks ago, it held its annual Member
States’ Gas Forum which brought together representatives
of more than 20 European Member States, highlevel
EU officials, as well as academics, experts, and major
industry actors (Figure 2).
In November this year, GasNaturally will also hold
its annual Gas Week, an event held in the European
Parliament which will give the opportunity to showcase
the industry’s efforts in research and innovation
in order to make gas an ever cleaner fuel, as well as
the solutions offered to renewables in order to help
achieve a truly low-carbon energy system. The organisation
also launched last year ‘GasPractically’ visits to
key European gas infrastructure sites such as the Zeebrugge
LNG terminal, where policymakers can get a
concrete idea of how gas is brought to Europe before
being dispatched throughout the continent - and into
their homes.
The organisation also believes it is part of its role to
undertake dialogue with the renewable energy sector. In
2014 GasNaturally wishes to demonstrate that a fruitful
collaboration between gas and renewables will not only
be mutually beneficial but also help Europe become
more competitive and sustainable.
Policymakers are starting to realise that energy and
climate measures of the past few years were filled with
good intentions but produced unfortunate results. Gas-
Naturally has recently noticed a shift in opinions in the
European Commission, where there is a growing understanding
of the benefits of gas for security of supply and
European competitiveness. GasNaturally still has a lot of
work to do but is confident that natural gas will soon be
recognised as one of the keys to solve Europe’s energy
problems and spark the renaissance of its industry by
providing it with a competitive, sustainable and reliable
source of energy.
Contact:
GasNaturally Secretariat,
François-Régis Mouton, Chairman of GasNaturally,
Square de Meeûs 35, Brussels 1000, Belgium
Phone : +32 (0)2 234 68 97,
E-mail: info@gasnaturally.eu
www.gasnaturally.eu
44 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

ASSOCIATIONS
CEE publish their Gas Regional Investment
Plan 2014-2023
The Transmission System Operators (TSOs) of the
CEE region are pleased to release the second edition
of the Gas Regional Investment Plan (GRIP) which
was prepared following the requirements of Article
12(1) of the Regulation (EC) 715/2009. The aim of the
CEE GRIP is to provide a detailed insight into the natural
gas infrastructure in the CEE region and it serves to
promote transparency by delivering updated information
on technical characteristics of infrastructure currently
under operation and investments foreseen in
the upcoming decade. Additionally, it is aimed at sharing
information and in doing so providing further
decision-making in the investment processes.
Furthermore, another goal of the CEE GRIP is to provide
a focused view on security of supply and market
integration on a regional level. For these purposes,
demand, supply and capacity developments are assessed
and current and future investment needs in the CEE
region identified. The plan also endeavours to capture
wider gas market dynamics by looking at various supply
scenarios. The CEE GRIP 2014-2023 was jointly coordinated
by the Polish TSO – GAZ-SYSTEM S.A. and the Austrian TSO
– Baumgarten-Oberkappel-Gasleitung GmbH (BOG).
The CEE GRIP 2014-2023 with the Annexes can be
downloaded from the ENTSOG website and the websites
of the involved TSOs.
ConferenCe - exhibition - networking
2nd european Shale gaS and oil Summit 2014
29 th - 30 th September, london
“implementing SuCCeSSful Shale gaS projeCtS”
+44 (0) 203 131 0048 enquirieS@CharleSmaxell.Co.uk www.eSgoS.eu
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 45

ASSOCIATIONS
ENTSOG launches consultation on capacity
booking platforms
Under article 27 (3) of the Regulation (EU) No 984/2013
establishing a Network Code on Capacity Allocation
Mechanisms (NC CAM) the European Network of Transmission
System Operators for gas (ENTSOG) has the task to
carry out a public consultation to
identify the market needs with
regards to capacity booking platforms.
After analysis, the results of the
public consultation will be published
by ENTSOG in a report. The targeted
audience for this public consultation
are network users who book capacity
at interconnection points.
ENTSOG launched the public consultation on booking
platforms in accordance with article 27 (3) of the
CAM NC. The questionnaire of this public consultation
consists of two parts. The initial consultation questions
one on temporal characteristics and the second on
regional characteristics of booking capacity on IPs will
allow ENTSOG to group the respondent’s views. The
second part consists of open questions. Based on the
grouping of respondents views, ENTSOG will analyse
whether or not there are differentiated market needs
that arise from the responses
received on the open questions.
This analysis will be published
together with the public consultation
results in the ENTSOG booking
platform report. The consultations
start 19 May 2014 and will be open
until 30 June 2014. The foreseen
publication date of the ENTSOG
booking platform report is 4 November 2014.
The consultation questionnaire on capacity booking
platforms can be found on: https://www.surveymonkey.
com/s/RPDTVJC
ENTSOG also encourages all network users to participate
in this consultation.
Naftogaz of Ukraine joins Gas
Storage Inventory (AGSI+)
Gas Storage Europe (GSE) informs that the GSE Transparency
Platform (AGSI+) has been extended to
include storage data for Naftogaz of Ukraine. With the
data from Naftogaz AGSI+ for the first time expands its
coverage beyond EU 28. For Ukraine in total 13 storage
facilities representing a working gas volume of 32 BCM
will be reported disaggregated on a weekly basis.
The GSE AGSI+ platform is accessible at: http://
transparency.gie.eu
GSE is continuously working on improving and extending
the AGSI+ platform following the positive feedback
from stakeholders who deem it a useful tool allowing to
keep track on storage use across Europe. During the recent
weeks GSE has invested a lot in its transparency work:
■■
AGSI+ delivers for almost all member states disaggregated
data per storage facility or group of storages
■■
■■
■■
■■
The coverage within the EU has increased with several
new contributors; even non-GSE members increasingly
use AGSI+ to provide transparency
Several features were developed to allow interested
parties to extract data or create individual graphs
AGSI+ provides for the first time an European overview
of operational availability of storage
Access to AGSI+ is still free of charge
As on 5 May 2014 the GSE Aggregated Gas Storage Inventory
has reported the total volume of gas in stock at
around 50 BCM. Out of this 41 BCM are stored in EU 28.
The current storage level is above recent years mainly
due to mild winter and lower underlying demand but is
also a result of the positions taken by storage users.
46 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

PRODUCTS & SERVICES
Gas leak monitoring
at natural gas plants
The GasCam SG model, from Esders, offers
methane emissions inspection at natural
gas and biogas plants. The GasCam SG, a
mobile infrared detector measuring unit, offers
a far quicker solution than conventional detection
techniques by diagnosing gas leaks at
plants in real time and providing the user with
moving images of the escaping methane cloud;
leaks, and the associated point of escape, are
therefore discovered immediately. GasCam SG
can be up to 100 m away from the object being
measured.
Measurement results are provided as an infrared
image which is superimposed with an
enhanced colour image of the detected gas
cloud. The cloud can thus be visualised against
different backgrounds, even on non reflecting
areas, such as the sky. The detection limit depends
on temperature difference between the gas and
the area in which it has leaked.
A gas outlet in a freestanding line or storage
system can be discovered at a great distance
just as quickly as, for example, a leak in the fermenter
of a biogas plant. Trials have now
proven that very small gas releases can be discovered
reliably by GasCam SG, at locations
where it was previously very difficult to determine
methane emissions. The GasCam provides
a visual illustration of the gas leaks, which
allows a reliable assessment to be made.
It is often desirable to be able to measure how
much gas is escaping – to quantify the detected
leak. Although this is not easy, even with the Gas-
Cam, the visual representation of the gas emissions
has the advantage of providing an immediate
estimate of the amount of gas released. Concentration
measurements made using suitable
monitoring devices can be taken to provide further
information regarding the magnitude of the
gas leaks.
Contact:
Esders
www.esders.de
New basic course "Electromagnetic Flow Meters" available on the learning
platform KROHNE Academy online.
New eLearning course
"Electromagnetic
flowmeters"
new basic course on flow measurement is available
A on the KROHNE Academy online learning platform:
Participants of the course "Electromagnetic flowmeters"
will find a broad range of topics related to this flow measuring
principle in three modules.
The first module deals with the history and the
general areas of application, the measuring principle
itself and the construction of an electromagnetic
flowmeter. It is followed by the second module with
the material selection and special types of electromagnetic
flowmeters, the sizing, the measuring
accuracy as well as the calibration of an electromagnetic
flowmeter.
The third module covers the topics installation
and grounding, limitations and advantages, and the
industries and applications in which electromagnetic
flowmeters can be used. The course is available in
English, German and Russian, a French version will be
soon available.
Contact:
KROHNE Messtechnik GmbH
www.krohne.com
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 47

DIARY
• NGVA Europe International
7.–10.7.2014, Brussels, Belgium
www.igrc2014.com
• IGRC International Gas Union Research Conference
17.–19.9.2014, Copenhagen, Denmark
www.igrc2014.com
• gat/wat 2014
29.9.–1.10.2014, Karlsruhe, Germany
www.dvgw.de
• KIOGE 2014
30.9.–3.10.2014, Almaty, Kazakstan
www.kioge.com
• InOGE
7.–9.10.2014
www.inoge-expo.com
• Renexpo
9.–12.10.2014, Augsburg
www.renexpo.de
• EAGC European Autumn Gas Conference
28.–30.10.2014, London, U.K.
www.theeagc.com
• 3rd Annual Small Scale LNG Forum
5.–6.11.2014, Rotterdam, Netherlands
http://oilgas.flemingeurope.com/small-scale-lng-forum
• European Gas Conference
27.–29.1.2015, Vienna, Austria
www.europeangas-conference.com
• E-world of energy &water
10.–12.2.2015, Essen, Germany
www.e-world-essen.com
• The 26th World Gas Conference
1.–5.6.2015, Paris, France
www.igu.com
48 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

uyer’s guide
A close-up view of the
international gas business
Gas transmission and distribution
Gas-pressure control and gas
measurement
Gas quality and gas use
Gas suppliers
Trade and information technology
DVGW-certified companies
Please contact
Andrea Schröder
Phone: +49 89 2035366-77
Fax: +49 89 2035366-99
E-mail: schroeder@di-verlag.de
www.gas-for-energy.com

2014
Gas transmission and distribution
Buyer’s Guide
Pipe penetrations
Pipelines and pipeline accessories
Valves
Please contact
Andrea Schröder
Phone +49 89 2035366-77
Fax +49 89 2035366-99
schroeder@di-verlag.de
50 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

Gas transmission and distribution
2014
Active corrosion protection
Corrosion protection
Buyer’s Guide
Passive corrosion protection
Issue 2/2014 gas for energy 51

2014
Gas quality and Gas use
Buyer’s Guide
Filtration
Gas preparation
dVGW-certified comPanies
Pipe and pipeline engineering
Filters
52 gas for energy Issue 2/2014

IMPRINT AND INDEX OF ADVERTISERS
IMPRINT
gas for energy
Magazine for Smart Gas Technologies, Infrastructure and Utilisation
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Farecogaz – Association of European
Manufacturers of Gas Meters, Gas
Pressure Regulators, Safety Devices
and Stations
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Recherches Gazieres
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Cover
Buyers Guide 49 - 52

The Gas Engineer’s
Dictionary
Supply Infrastructure from A to Z
The Gas Engineer’s Dictionary will be a standard work for all aspects of construction,
operation and maintenance of gas grids.
This dictionary is an entirely new designed reference book for both engineers with
professional experience and students of supply engineering. The opus contains the world
of supply infrastructure in a series of detailed professional articles dealing with main
points like the following:
• biogas • compressor stations • conditioning
• corrosion protection • dispatching • gas properties
• grid layout • LNG • odorization
• metering • pressure regulation • safety devices
• storages
Editors: Klaus Homann, Rainer Reimert, Bernhard Klocke
1 st edition 2013
452 pages, 165 x 230 mm
hardcover with interactive eBook (read-online access)
ISBN: 978-3-8356-3214-1
Price: € 160,–
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