Air pollution

Air pollution 

apl. Prof. Dr. Cornelia 

Herschbach 

Institute of Forest Botany and Tree Physiology, Chair 

of Tree Physiology, Georges-Köhler 

hler-Allee 053/054

Air pollution 

Basic literature: 

Air Pollution and Climate Change: The Biological Impact. 

Ed. A.R. Wellburn, , Addison Wesly Longman Limited, 

London 

Luftverschmutzung und Klimaänderung 

nderung, Auswirkungen auf 

Flora und Fauna und Mensch. . Ed. A.R. Wellburn, , Springer, 

Berlin

Internet sides with relevant 

• http://www.epa.gov/air/ 

literature: 

• http://www.greenfacts.org/air-pollution/index.htm 

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain 

• http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/air/air.htm 

• http://www.nationmaster.com/cat/Environment 

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Aim of the session 

• Critical reading of the literature 

• assessment of the source 

• credible and neutral / value-free source? 

• You can not discuss a fact without 

background knowledge 

Very important: acquire of background 

and basic knowledge 

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Air Pollution 

1. General aspects, including same data 

2. Uptake by plants via stomata 

3. Examples of air pollutant 

4. Limit values 

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1. General aspects 

1. Clean air 

2. Mayor pollutants 

• NAAQS: National Ambient Air Quality 

Standards 

3. Smog & Inversion 

4. Sources of mayor pollutants 

5. History of air pollution 

6. Dry and wet deposition 

• Acid rain 

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. 

1.1. Clean air 

The gaseous composition 

of unpolluted air 

The Gases 

Parts per million (vol) 

A 

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Nitrogen 756,500 

Oxygen 202,900 

Water 31,200 

Argon 9,000 

Carbon Dioxide 305 

Neon 17.4 

Helium 5.0 

Methane 0.97-1.16 

Krypton 0.97 

Nitrous oxide 0.49 

Hydrogen 0.49 

Xenon 0.08 

Organic vapours 

ca.0.02

What is an air pollutant? 

‘The presence in the atmosphere of one or more 

contaminants in such quality and for such 

duration as is injurious, or tends to be 

injurious, to human health or welfare, animal 

or plant life.’ 

An air pollutant is a substance in the air at the 

wrong place at the wrong time and the wrong 

concentration which damage the biosphere. 

‘Alan Wellburn’ 

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. 

1.2. Mayor pollutants 

SO 2 

Primary air pollutant 

NO 2 - NO x 

CO 

Pb 

VOC – ozone O 3 

Secondary air pollutant 

PM 

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. 

1.2. Mayor pollutants - NAAQS 

NAAQS: 

National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

US EPA 

!! Reference 

credible ?? 

United States Environmental Protection Agency 

http://www.epa.gov/ 

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Pollutant 

Carbon Monoxide 

Lead 

Nitrogen Dioxide 

Particulate Matter (PM 10 

) 

Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 

) 

Ozone 

Sulfur Oxides 



Primary Stds. 

9 ppm (10 mg/m 3 ) 

35 ppm (40 mg/m 3 ) 

1.5 µg/m 3 (6 µg/m 3 a) 

0.053 ppm (100 µg/m 3 ) 

Revoked (2) 

Annual (2) (Arith. Mean) 

150 µg/m 3 24-hour (3) 

15.0 µg/m 3 

Annual (4) (Arith. Mean) 

35 µg/m 3 24-hour (5) 

0.08 ppm 

0.12 ppm 

0.03 ppm 

0.14 ppm 

------- 

http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html 

Averaging Times 

8-hour (1) 

1-hour (1) 

Quarterly Average 

Annual (Arithmetic Mean) 

8-hour (6) 

1-hour (7) (Applies only in 

limited areas) 

Annual (Arith. Mean) 

24-hour (1) 

3-hour (1)

. 


Source: 

EduGreen 

Not an official 

organisation, only 

a public side 

!! Reference 

credible ?? 


Pollutants Average Time Concentration 

SO 2 

Annual average 60 µg/m 3 

24 hour 80 µg/m 3 

NO 2 Annual average 60 µg/m 3 

24 hour 80 µg/m 3 

SPM 

Suspended Particulate Matter 

Pb 

CO 

RPM 

Respirable Particulate Matter 


24 hour 200 µg/m 3 

Annual average 0.75 µg/m 3 

24 hour 1.0 µg/m 3 

Annual average 2.0 µg/m 3 

24 hour 4.0 µg/m 3 


24 hour 100 µg/m 3 

http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/air/major.htm

How can we say that SO 2 as an 

example is really an air pollution 

after this definition?

1.3. Smog & Inversion 

London 1952 

Visibility was below: 

• 500 m for 114 h 

• 50 m for 48 h 

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London 1952 

Death 

SO 2 

Smoke 

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Development of Smog 

Hot air 

Boundary layer 

Cold air 

Sampling of smoke & emissions 

like under a bell 

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1.3. Smog & Inversion (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 

& organic 

compounds 

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NO 

NO 2 

PM10 

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1.4. Sources of mayor pollutants 

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1.4. Sources of mayor pollutants 

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Origin of CO emission 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 


http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/co/what1.html

History of Pb origin 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

What is the reason for 

such a dramatically 

reduction? 

221000 tons 

3915 tons 


http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/lead/what.html

Origin of NOx emission 

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Origin of SO 2 emission 

!! Importance of 

population density 

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Particulate matter - PM Sizes 

PM varies widely in its 

physical and chemical 

composition 

• elemental carbon 

• heavy metals 

• organic carbon 

• sulphates 

• nitrates 

• soil particles 

• biological particles 

PM

Particulate matter - Origin 

• PM 2.5 - PM 10 : 

– road dust 

– pollen grains 

– spores, plant and insect parts 

– uncovered soil 

• PM 0.1 : condensation of low-vapour-pressure 

substances 

– gases are converted to small liquid drops – nuclei 

– including: elemental carbon, heavy metals, organic carbon, 

sulfates and nitrates 

– by coagulation and condensation nuclei can grow up to 1µm 

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1.5. History 

Acid rain was first reported in Manchester, 

England, which was an important city during 

the Industrial Revolution. 

In 1852, Robert Angus Smith found the 

relationship between acid rain and 

atmospheric pollution. The term "acid rain" 

was used by him in 1872. He observed that 

acid rain could lead to natural destruction. 

Though acid rain was discovered in 1852, it 

wasn't until the 1970s that scientists began 

observing acid rain. 

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1967 Svante Odén, a Swedish researcher 

documented acidification of rain. 14000 lakes were 

acidified, and fishes died and were no longer 

observed in the lakes. 

During the 1970s Sweden and Norway tried to stir up 

international attention to this problem. 

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Consequences of acid rain 

kills trees and forests 


Fichtelgebirge, Germany

Consequences of acid rain 

kills trees and forests 

Acid fog and dead spruce trees 

along the coast at West Quoddy 

Head. 

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1967 Svante Odén, a Swedish researcher 

documented acidification of rain. 14000 lakes were 

acidified, and fishes died and were no longer 

observed in the lakes. 

During the 1970s Sweden and Norway tried to stir up 

international attention to this problem. 

Only after pictures from dying trees coming around the 

world the problem of acid rain gets public. 

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History of air pollution emission – 

SO 2 as an example 

B. Lomborg described the emission of air pollution in 

a popular scientific manner. 

So what is really true? 

Critic comes to this graph 

in respect to several aspects 

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Critic to this picture 

Smoke and SO 2 

µg / m 3 

Wrong calculation 

http://www.lomborg-errors.dk 

P. Brimblecombe 

10-20 µg / m 3 C. 50 µg / m 3 

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Sulfur Dioxide in Great London, 1931-1985, 

1985, 

Duncan et al., 1987, Environmental Pollution 43, 103-114. 

114. 

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History of air pollution emission 




Duncan et al., 1987, Environmental Pollution 43, 103-114 

114 

30-40 µg/m 3 

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History of air pollution emission 




Peak values!!! 


Duncan et al., 1987, Environmental Pollution 43, 103-114 

114

The reality in United Kingdom 

but 

• How looks the reality in other countries 

and continents? 

• For an example China 

• Other countries please tell from your 

countries!!! 

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The important energy source in China 

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SO 2 emission in past and future 


http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag/40/i02/html/011506feature_larssen.html

Acid rain in China 



Air pollution in China 

S 

Hub: Hubbard Brook, U.S., 

New Hampshire (1979-1983) 

Lys: Czech Republic (ca. 1980) 

Sud: Sudbury Ontario Canada (1970) 

Ca 



1.6. Dry and wet deposition 

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1.6. Wet deposition – fog, rain & snow 

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Damage on buildings 

!!! Not mentioned 

by B. Lomborg 

today 

1880 

Cleopatra's Needle in New York 

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Damage on buildings 

1968 

!!! Not mentioned 

by B. Lomborg 

1908 


Sandstone figure over the portal of a castle in Westphalia, Germany

Acid rain - overview 

Formation 

Deposition 

Emission 

Sources 

Consequences 

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Consequences of acid rain on lakes 

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Rain composition today 

Natural rain composition 

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Consequences of acid rain on lakes 

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Ca/Al in the soil 

consequences of reduced SO 2 deposition 


This ratio is used as an indicator for potential long-term forest damage.

B. Lomborg says ( 

says (page 172): 

• The regulation of SO 2 emission was 

primarily a consequence of the anxiety 

in the 1980s about acid rain and its 

effect on forests and lakes in exposed 

areas. Even thought it later proved that 

the effect on forests was extremely 

slight or even non-existent. 

Wrong !! 

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Acidic rain is still existing 

Lomborg stated (page 178): 

Today we know that acid rain 

was nothing like a problem it 

was made out to be in the 

1980s. 

myth and reality 

T h e E c o l o g i c a l C o u n c i l 

The Ecological Council (Det Økologiske Råd) 

is a Danish NGO founded in 1991. Our main 

objective is to promote sustainable patterns of 

development, where environmental concerns, 

social justice and human well-being are main 

focal points. 

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SO 2 emission in China 

Primary Chinese energy 

sources in 2003 

annual emission 

1991 16.22 million tons 




http://www.cestt.org.cn/English/projects/rains-asia/situation.htm 

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Acid rain 

Air Pollution in Cities of Different Size 


http://www.zhb.gov.cn/english/SOE/soechina2002/air.htm

Grading of Urban Air Quality in the Country 

Acid rain 

Percentage Population under Different Air Quality 



Acid rain and SO 2 - China 



What can we do?? 

Desulphurization 

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Emission and deposition of air pollutions 

Long Range Transport 

flue gas 

stack 

Short Range Transport 

Lackes 

Natural forests 

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S- 

Deposition 

in Europe 

(1999) 

& 

grade of 

forest 

decline 

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An 

existing 

problem: 

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Acid rain risk in Europe 

!!! Important is 

the main wind 

direction 

Project: 

European Atlas of 

Environment and Health 

Date of creation: Jan 98 


http://www.grida.no/db/maps/prod/level3/id_1177.htm

Acid rain and SO 2 - China 

Main wind direction 



The world 

Wind direction 

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What can we do?? 

globalization 

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Experiments with acid rain: 

• How was the experiment 

performed? 

• Only acid water to the roots? 

• Precipitation by spraying the 

leaves? 

• Duration of the experiment? 

• Pre-deposition of the 

forest? 

• Nutrient status? deficient – 

sufficient – surplus? 

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Forest damage and growth 

• In the 80th forest died due to acid rain 

• Prognosis about forests was very bad 

• But, the widespread death did not 

occurred 

• Instead forest growth increased 

What's happed and what is going on? 

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Air Pollutions Elevated CO 2 

SO 2 

NH 3 

NO x 

Nutrient availability 

Ozone 

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Forest damage and growth 

• SO 2 could be a nutrient !!! 

• NO 2 could be a nutrient !!!! 

• CO 2 may improve growth !!! 

Sulfur deficiency in sugar beet 

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Some basic knowledge on the 

uptake of air pollutions by plants 

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Atmosphere 

Laminar boundary layer 

Apoplastic fluid 

Substomatal cavity 

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Which parameters are involved to 

take up air pollutants by stomata? 

Stomata 

Resistance 

- 

Stomata 

conductance 

open 

closed 

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Atmosphere 

Mesophyll 

resistance 

Laminar boundary layer 

Apoplastic fluid 

Substomatal cavity 

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Mesophyll 

resistance 

- 

Uptake into the 

cytosol by active 

and passive 

transport across 

the membrane 

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3. Examples of air pollutant 

1. Nitrogen oxides - NO & Ammoniac - NH X 3 

2. Ozone - O 3 

3. Carbon monoxide - CO 

4. Sulfur dioxide - SO 2 & Hydrogen sulfide 

- H 2 S 

5. Acid rain 

6. Particulate Matter 

7. Lead - Pb 

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3.1. Nitrogen oxides - NO x 

a. Appearance 

b. Seasonal and daily variation 

c. Reactions of NO 2 in the atmosphere 

d. Deposition & uptake by plants 

e. Consequences to plants 

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Appearance & diurnal rhythmic 

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Reactions of NO 2 in the 

atmosphere 

Lightning 

Burning 

Dry deposition 

Wet deposition 

Soil 

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First consequences to plants 

Uptake of 

NOx 

by leaves via 

the stomata 

Increased NO 3- contents in leaves 

OH - production, alkalinisation 

Increased nitrogen metabolism 

Increased growth 

Nutrient imbalance 

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Trees and nitrogen deposition 

Increased photosynthesis, enhanced stomata 

conductance, i.e. higher transpiration 

A higher sensitivity against drought 

Additional N 

must be 

assimilated, 

i.e. also detoxified 

Increased photosynthesis until autumn 

Reduced frost hardening 

Additional amino acids 

Higher attractiveness for pathogens 

Reduced assimilate availability to produce wood 

and protection tissues 


Reduced mechanical & 

diminished pathogen resistance

Forests and nitrogen deposition 

This Douglas-fir 

tree was cut when 

it was about 30 

years old. When it 

was 20 years old, 

the tree was 

fertilized with 

biosolids, resulting 

in the wider growth 

rings. 


http://dnr.metrokc.gov/wtd/biosolids/Forest.htm


NO 

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Pollutant or Nutrient ??


NO 

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3.2. Ozone - O 3 

a. Origin, appearance & formation 

b. Seasonal and daily variation 

c. Uptake by plants 

d. Consequences to plants 

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Appearance 

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Ozone in the 

atmosphere 

- History 

stratosphere 

troposphere 

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Seasonal variation 


troposphere

Daily variation 

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Formation of ozone 

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Ozone levels in United Kingdom 

But B. Lomborg states 

(page 173): 

‚In the 1997 UK ozone 

review it was concluded 

that there was clear 

evidence of a reduction in 

peak concentrations.’ 

(see also B. Lomborg fig 93) 

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Ozone & Photochemical smog 

Chemical reactions in the atmosphere 

VOC 

Formation of aldehydes 

PAN = peroxy acetyl nitrate 

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Photochemical smog 

volatile organic compounds (VOC) 


Time of the day

Plant injury by ozone 

Ulmus 

Prunus serotina 

Fagus sylvatica 

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Ozone uptake by plants 

atmosphere 

laminar boundary layer 

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Ozone reactions 

Chemical 

reaction with 

amino acids 

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Ozone reactions 

Chemical reaction with 

lipids 

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Ozone reactions with cell components 

Membrane from animals 

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B. Lomborg says (page 

173) 

• Ozone is not believed to have any actual 

life-threatening effects 

Wrong !! 

Ozone is highly reactive!!! 

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Duration of ozone exposure 

Acute ozone exposure: 

Change in membrane permeability 

unregulated cell death 

Elicitor release increased 

programmed cell death 

cell repair mechanism 

cell protection mechanism 

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Ozone injury of poplar 

mature leaves 

(5 th and 7 th ) 

young leaf (2 nd ) 

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Duration of ozone exposure 

Acute ozone exposure: 

Change in membrane permeability 

unregulated cell death 

Elicitor release increased 

programmed cell death 

cell repair mechanism 

cell protection mechanism 

Low level-long term 

ozone exposure: 

Scavenge of AOS with antioxidants 

detoxification 

Elicitor release 

accelerated foliar 

senescence 

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• Ascorbate (Vitamin C) 

Antioxidant 

• Carotinoide 

• Xanthophyll 

e 

• Tocopherol (Vitamin E) 

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Secondary ozone effects 

at the example Betula pendula 

The cell: 

• Increase of repair and defence reaction - Respiration 

• Increased PEPC 

• Reduced photosynthesis, RUBISCO 

Leaf tissue: 

• Reduced leaf area 

• Reduced stomata conductance 

• Increased stomata density 

• Reduced transpiration 

• Reduced foliage area 

What happens with ecosystems? 

The whole forest? 

Agrosystems – Crop yield? 

Whole plant: • Reduced carbon allocation for growth 

• Reduced brunching 

• Reduced leaf turnover 

• Reduced transpiration 

Reduced biomass production 

Reduced fitness due to a changed pre-disposition 


Kolb & Matyssek 2001, Environm Polution

4. Limit values 

1. Definition of limits 

2. Limit values to protect ecosystems & 

WHO 1996 - Air Quality Guidelines for 

Europe 

3. AOT40 

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4.1. Definition of limits 

Critical level 

General term referring to the 

concentration limit beyond which a 

substance can cause dangerous 

effects to living organisms. 

Limit values 

The European Commission today 

adopted a proposal for a directive 

setting new ambient air quality for 

SO 2 , NO x , PM 10 and Pb. 

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4.2. WHO 1996 – 

Air Quality Guidelines for Europe 

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AOT40 – How can we understand 

Accumulation over one day 

Ozone concentration (ppb) 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

!!! Sum !!! 

208 ppb h 

accumulated 

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

Time of the day (daylight hours) 

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4.4. AOT40 

Accumulated 

dose Over 

a Threshold 

of 40 ppb 

Parameter used to represent the accumulated dose : 

AOT40 is the sum of the differences between the hourly mean 

ozone concentration (in ppb) and 40 ppb for each hour when the 

concentration exceeds 40 ppb, accumulated during daylight hours. 

40 ppb Ozone as background 

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AOT40 - Accumulated 

ccumulated dose Over 

a Threshold 

of 40 ppb 

The long-term critical level of ozone for crops: 

An AOT40 of 3000 ppb.h accumulated over 3 months. 

This critical level was derived experimentally using open-top 

chambers to expose field-grown wheat to ozone. 

The data from spring wheat experiments in 6 countries, 10 seasons 

and with 10 cultivars were used to derive an exposure response 

relationship with an r 2 of 0.88. 

The AOT40 associated with a 5% reduction in yield, 3000 ppb.h, was 

accepted as the critical level of ozone for yield reduction in crops. 

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AOT40 - Accumulated 

ccumulated dose Over 

a Threshold 

of 40 ppb 

The long-term critical level of ozone for beech: 

An AOT40 of 10000 ppb.h accumulated over a 6 month growing season and 

calculated daylight hours only between April and September. 

The critical threshold of 10 ppm.h: 

relates to an estimated 10% reduction in growth of young beech trees 

exposed to O 3 for 1 and 3 seasons 

based on 5 studies of above-ground growth and 

based on 3 studies of above ground biomass increment (Fuhrer et al. 

1997). 

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Critic on AOT40 definition 

• The value was achieved from few studies with 

young beech under controlled conditions 

• Beech have been used as an example for all 

forest tree species 

• AOT40 does not consider tree species, 

genotypes, site conditions, and tree age 

• A link between the occurrence of O 3 and 

forest damage is not unequivocally 

established in Europe 

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What says B. Lomborg about that? 

nothing 

What says B. Lomborg about 

combinatory effects by multiple air 

pollutions? 

nothing 

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What says B. Lomborg about long 

term effects on earth forests? 

nothing 

What says B. Lomborg about our 

biodiversity? 

nothing 

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Air pollution

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