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A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fuuilmen! aJ' ehe Requiremenis 

loo ihe amard o j the Degree GI 

DOCTOR OF PH11050PHX 

IN SANSKRIT 

5 Y 

I. SAMPATW KIJMAR, M,A.,M.Phil., 

Under the guidance of 

Prof. C. BANDURANGA BHATTA, 

DEPARTMENT OF SANSKRIT 

SEPTEMBER 2000

my Parents

Bssf. C. Pandaaranmga Bha~a, 

Department of Sanskrit, 

Pondicherp 't'niversity, 

Pondichsxp - 605014. 

Ths is to certify that the thesis enntled 

~ ~ B H I D H ~ ~ A R ~ - ~ .A TCUETX-R4L Y ~ ~ ~ L SWDP." & . subrn~tted to the 

Pondicherrq. Unlvers~ty in pmal fulfilment of the requrrernents to tbe sward 

of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sanshr. is a record of research 

mork done bj. Sn L Smpaeh Kumar. dunng the penod of his stud? m the 

Department of Sanslmt. Pondicheq Univers~~, under my supemslon and 

gmdance 

it has not formed the basls for a~ard of an5 Degree' Diploma 

Associateship or other similar title of any Lru~ersrt) 

\ 

C . ?.%-.; 

-\-..\-pt 

i"> !-,/ 379 

j Prof. C.Panduranga Bhatta ) 

Sup elms or

Sri. L. Sampath HCrumar, 

Research Scholar, 

Deprtrnenl of Sanskrit, 

Pondicherql University, 

Pondicherry. 

DECLARATION 

I hereby declare that the thesis entitled 

b ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ A CULTURAL m m STUDY' ~ , submitted ~ ~ m 

to the Pondicherry University in partial fulfilment of the requirements to 

the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sanskrit, is a 

by 

record of original research work doneArne under the supervision and 

guidance of Prof. C. Pa~duarnga Bhatta, Department of Sanskrit, 

Pondicherry University, Bondicherry. 

The conten;t embodied in this thesis has not submitted in part or 

full for any o kr Diploma or Degree of any other University. 

Place : Pbndicherry 

Date : 2.8. 04- 

@ - !lwTI~iJE. L. 

( L. Sampath Kumar )

... 

111 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

I would like to register my deep sense of gratitude to my 

supervisor, Prof C. Panduranga Bhatta, Department of Sanskrit, Pondicherry 

University, but for whose help this work would not have been completed. It is 

his valuable suggestions and motivation that have embellished the present 

thesis. 

I thank Prof. V. Kutumba Sam, Head, Department of Smluit 

and Dr. J. Krishnan and Sri Chakradhar Behera, Lecturers, Dept. of Sanskrit, 

Pondicherry University, for their encouragement through OLI~ tithe course ofthis 

work. 

I remain grateful to my Prof S. Ramaratnam, Head, Dept. of 

Sanskrit, Dr. K. Srinivasan, Senior Lecturer, Dr.V.Abhirama Sundaram, 

Senior Lecturer and other staff members, Dept. of Sanskrit, R.K.M. 

Vi~ek~annanda College, Madras - 4. 

I am also thankfill to the authorities of the Pondicherry 

University for having allowed me to carry out research in the Department of 

Sanskrit. 

My thanks are also due to the authorities of the Ananda 

Rangapillai Central Library, Pondicherry University, French 

Institute of 

Indology, Pondicherry, I( S R I, Myiapore; K. I(. M. Vivekananda College, 

Department of Sansht, Mylapore and Adyas Library and Research institute, 

Madras, for allowing me to consult their libraries. 

My special thanks to Sri R'm~an for a neat presentation, through DTP 

work, of my thesis. 

I am also indebted to niany souls both in Pondicherry and Madras 

without whose help and encouragement my work would not have been 

completed.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Dedication 

Certificate 

Declaration 

Acknowledgement 

i 

ii 

iii 

Chapter I INTRODUCTION 1-8 

I. Subject and Nature of the work 2 

II. Plea for Cultural Study and Scope of the work 4 

111. Author and Date 5 

Chapter 11 SOCIAL ORGANISATION 9 -80 

I. Caste system 

XI. Ajrama system 

111. hliirriage sild Y;imily systeni 

IV. Position of Miomen 

V. Religion 

Chapter 111 1W0D AND 1lRINli'i 81 - 145 

I. Cercals and Pr~lses 

11. Dairy Products 

111. Food Items 

IV, Salts and Spices 

F7. Oil Seeds 

FrI. Fruits, Vegetables, Flowers and Honey 

VII. Beverages 

VIIf. Art of Cooking 

IX. Disease and Remedy 

Chapter IV C:OSTUME, COIFFURE, CDSMETICS 146 - 213 

AND ORNAMKN'I'S 

I. DRESSING 146 

1. Materials of Garments 

2. Types of Dresses

II. COIFFURE 

1. f ile Hiir Dressing 

2. Female Hair Ilressing 

111. COSMETICS 

1. Materiais ol'Jewels 

2.Tyges OF Jewels 

Chapter V ARTS AND ARCHI'TECTURE 

I. Sahgita §%istra 

II. Gaja ~astra 

111. ASva ~iistra 

IV. Architecture 

Chapter VI %VARFARE AWD WEAPONS 

I. CatnraAga Sen2 

11. Units of Army 

111. Weapons of Offence 

ZV. Weapons of Defence 

V. PIqs 

Chapter VII RETROSPECT

Indian languages have a long and glorious tradition of 

lexicographic works. We have enough proofs of this in ancient Sanskrit and 

Greek literature. Ours being an oral learning tradition, the education is 

transmitted through a never ending teacher-pupil relationship. In the 

IWahabhdsya of PaMjali we come across a story that B~haspati, the preceptor 

of Gods, started teaching Devendra, the ~abcl~nususana i.e. the recitation of 

vocabulary in Sanskrit. The study lasted for 1000 divine years, even then 

Indra could not come to the end of his aim. Thcrc is a lot to discuss about this 

story. First of all, the study of individual words of a language needs a careful 

analysis of the form found in it. When a speaker receives a literature, oral or 

written, which exhibited forms and expressions which were obviously new to 

hun, he was forced to investigate the problem relating to the origin of such 

forms and expressions. This results in the development of a new branch of 

technical literature called Vy&aruv or grammar. 

The lexicographic tradition in India closely follows that of vedic 

and classical Sanskrit tradition. Thus in India, in so far as vedic litahre is 

concerned, the Nighan&-s were compiled as an ancillary branch of vedic 

tradition. These texts were orally transmitted in regular vedic schools and 

became the basis of Yaska's Nzrukta. The -re 

of glossing may be seen in 

the development of the Bramaw literature. Panini's analysis of Sanskrit not 

only indicates that it is the result of a continuous process of analytical study but 

also attests a collection of analysed material into systematic groups such as 

garppd#a and dhdtupiifia.

The later lexicons in India are all set in verse 

In no 

language, but for Sanskrit the versified vocabulary has been successfblIy 

accomplished. The importance of lexicographical study can be understood 

fi-om the educational system. of olden days. They initiated the study with 

Pgnini's grammar and Amarasimha's N~rnalifigunuS~sana, one of the most 

celebrated Sanskrit lexicon. Bli&sa poetidly corroborates the above said 

view of inseparable nature of grammar and lexicography in hs Raghuvam2 - 

'v~garthiiviva sarizp?kfau .....' etc. The same idea is hther stressed by the 

popular saying - AsWhydyS juganmafd AmarabSo jagatpita. 

Though 

AmarakoSa had eclipsed all the lexicons written before and after it, 

Abhidhdaaratnarnalu of Halayudha is an equally popular and widely quoted 

lexicon by commentators like Ujjvaladatta, Mallin&ha, 

Mediniirq 

IL?layavema (on S&itala), Jayamahgala (on Bha@ kcivya) Narahari (in his 

Cii-i), 

Niiriiywa (on theUttararcZmacarifa), Padman;?bhadatta (on the 

BhuvaneSvari stofra) Bbratisena (on the Bhatp' kaya), Bhiinuji Diksita (on 

Amarkoia), Ratiganatha (on yikrarnowaiiyu), myamukta (on Amarakoia), 

~ivadatb (in his Sivakoh) and a number of other scholars. 

I. Subject and Nature of the work: 

The Abhidhunaratnam~lu is a vocabulary of small extent 

containing about 900 stanzas and it is divided into five kiin&-s as follows: 

(1) Svargakcin& (2) Bhthikcinqb, (3) PiitciIakcZqt&, (4) S8manyakun& 

and (5) AnekathakaM. The first four of these deal with synonyms while the 

last one is devoted for homonyms and the indeclinables. In the very second 

verse of Abhidh@naratnamdld, Halayudha describes the nature and purpose 

of his work. AAer having compiled the previous works of Amaradatta,

Vwmci, Bh;iguri and Vopalita, he compiles his work namely 

AbhidhcZnaratnarndu, in order to help the poets. It is a basic necessity of a 

poet to be very rich in vocabulary. So, keeping this point in his mind 

Halayudha has attempted in compiling only essential words that required more 

importance and terms of technical value. Hence his dictionary is concise and 

less copious. 

Halayudha's style is very simple and straight. He will give one 

emple and on that basis the reader should guess other words which are 

needless to include as it will make his work voluminous. For example, while 

mentioning the synonyms of Brahmi, the four faced God, he has just 

mentioned the word padmabhu?z, the rest of the words like kamalabhuh or 

abjanma etc., should be coined on our own. In this aspect Hal2yudha's KoSa 

is handy and gives room for the creativity of the reader. It does not mean that 

Halayudha has carelessly omitted these words but he considered them pointless 

of mentioning. He did not, obviously, wanted to increase the number of entries 

in his work, which may cause the reader a sort of boredom and who will 

gradually give up studying his work. If a work is short and sweet it will be 

easily followed by every one. Therefore, Haliiyudha has adopted this 

technique and he had the faith in his readers that they will be able to coin other 

like words on their own. 

In the same way, the work of Halayudha does not stress too much 

the gender and number as Amarakoia, however, in other respects it generally 

follows the latter, as the gender can be easily inferred by the way the author 

has arranged. For example, in the following 3okn: 

svah svargah surasadma tridaiuvasas trivi$apam iridivam / 

dyau h gau h amartyabhuvanam n&uh sysd urdhvalokuica //

we can easily lnfer that svalfi, svargah tridaiavdsah dyau.$ gauh n&uh 

and zirdhvalokah should be used in masculine gender, and the words 

trivisppum, tridivam and arnartyabhuvanarn in neuter gender. Thus making 

simple the task of building up one's word power. 

11. Plea for Cultural Study and Scope of the work: 

It is the well known truth that India is the birth place for many 

civilizations, religions and philosophical systems. She is not only rich by 

means of natural resources but also with cultural heritage. Though she has 

mothered different types of customs and habits, arts and architecture, language 

,md literature, she still remains as a whole, the reason for which is the natural 

unity underlying the diversified culture which has nourished her in turn. So 

this factor is always compelling to study her culture which is of interest taking 

from the researchers to the laymen. 

It is proper to undertake a cultural study on a lexicon because, 

language is the main phenomenon which reflects the culture of a particular 

people by means of literature and the language is well preserved in unbiased 

manner in the lexicons, for there is no scope for exaggeration or hyperbole in a 

scientific or technical treatise. So a study of a particular culture can be more 

thoroughly executed from the lexicon than the literature where the author is 

tend to fancy and exaggerate. 

As it is established doubtlessly that lexicons, which preserve the 

culture of the period to which they belong, are best suited for a cultural study, 

again it is proper to resort to a lexicon penned by a Hindu author. Because the 

chief religion of India is Hinduism and to study the Hindu culture through the

eyes of a Hindu author will be more relevant. So, on this basis 

AbhidhGnarutnarnala (here after AM) has been selected as a treatise (from 

the Hinduism point ofview). 

In Sanskrit the Koiu lltcralure is dominated by a group of Jaina 

authors lke renowned Amarasimha, Hernacandra etc. It is Naliiyudha , who 

bravely sets his feet in the zone much alien to Hindu authors, and fmds a way 

to establish his own place for himself and his work. 

111. Author and Date: 

Hal2yudha the author of the present lexicon is said to have 

flourished by the middle of 1000 AD. ~.~.~handarkar,' identifies him with 

the author of Kuvirahasya, a grammatical work written in honour of the I(mg 

Krsna 111 (AD 940-56) ofthe RIlgpakilta family.' Halayudha is also said to 

be the author of three works viz., (i) Abhidhanarutnumdu (ii) Kavirahasya 

and (iii) M~safijivin i, a commentary on the Chandahszitra of Pingala. The 

last is said to have been written in the reign of King Muiija V~kpati of ~h31-a.~ 

Th. Aufrecht has expressed his view that the Haliiyudha who 

shares with our author the epithet of Bhatta' composed a commentary on the 

Pingalachandas. He may, perhaps, be identified with the writer of KoSa; 

chiefly on account of the many artificial meters which he uses, and which no 

lexicographer has taken the liberty of employing for such a dry subject as a 

string of synonyms. But Dr. C.P. ~hatta~ comes forward with an irrefutable 

argument to prove that both these Hal8yudha-s are different. 

In the 

Mfiasafijtvint, Hal2yudha refers to 'caturariga' and a game-board with sixty

four squares. fis was considered to be a reference to chess. But there is no 

reference in the ARM either to cahirariga or to as@pada (a board with sixty 

four squares) in the sense of a game board. The word asgpada, has, however, 

occurred in the sense of 

Fwther there is no allusion to the lexicon in the 

work Mpusafijivini. So, on the basis of dlcse two instances, C.P. Rhafta 

rejects the identity of the authors of these two works. This argument also 

receives support &om the 'India Office Catalogue' where the a~ztflors of the 

ARM and Kuvirahasya are regarded as identical and the author of 

Mflasafijivin t as a different person. 6 

~.Krishnamach~~ says that DhtCipala the author of 

TilakamaAjari was a contemporary of Hal;lyudha, the author of Kavirahasya; 

and the date of Dhanapala, he determines as 1000 AD, for one of the work of 

Dhanapala, named Paiyducchi NdmarndrZ was composed by him in the 

samvat. 1029 (c.972-73 AD). Etlis Halayudha is identified with the author 

of ARM[, then his date can be assigned to the lot11 Century AD. The fact that 

Kuvirahasya was composed as a metrical guide to poets in the employment of 

verbal farms, as well as an eulogy of Qsna 111of the R@p.aku@ family who 

lived in 940-56 AD: gives strength to the above said view. 

There are few more evidences to prove that Hal2yudha , the 

author of ARM must have lived before 11th century AD.' The ARM was 

commented upon in Karma& most probably by N2gavarman - I1 long ago. He 

flourished in 1145 AD. Secondly a work namely Abhinav8bhidhanam was 

composed by Maiqpraja on the model of Ha13yudha7s ARM, in 1398 AD." 

M. Mariappa Bhat says that there are evidences in the work to show that

Nagavam's commentary of AbhidhBnaratnamGlc?. 

incorporated in many places. 

have been bodily 

Unfortu~latefy there is no direct reference to the date and other 

works of Hal2yudha in ARM. Among his authorities Halayudha mentions 

Amaradatta Varmci, Bhiiguri, and Vopalita.12 

In the absence of direct 

evidences, we are, therefore, compelled to be contented with the available 

infomation recorded above. After considering all the above said arguments 

we can e v e at a conclusion that the author of Kavirahasya can be identified 

with the author of ARM where as the Halayudha of Mflnsafijivin t is distinct. 

Regarding the date of the a~tthor, we have enougli proof to believe that 

Halayudha has lived in the late 10th century AD, and we shall hardly go too 

far back if we place him in between the 10th to 1 lth century. 

In the following pages an attempt is carried out to make a cultural study 

ofAbhibhc2naratnamaId under various topics.

NOTES 

Report in search of Mss. for 1883-84, p.9. 

Keith, History of Sanskrit literature, p. 188. 

Kaipadrukoia, Introduction, XXVI. 

Bhatta, C.P., Contribution of Kannataka to Sanskrit. 

ARM, 2. 18. 

India Office Catalogue, 11, Part, p. 1340. 

Krishnamachary, M., History of Sansht Literature, p.474, para.477. 

Gupta, S.N., History of Sanskrit Lit., p.336. 

Bha;tta, C.P., op.cit., p.242. 

Marigubhidhanum, en. Mariappa Bhat, University of Madras, 1952. 

Ibid, Introduction. 

ARM, 1.2

SOCIAL ORGANPSATZON 

I. CASTE SYSTEM 

Vary - caste and Airsoma are the two important features of 

Indian society right from thc age of Rgvcdic Rryws. Prcse~itly Ihe cmtc 

system is an inevitable part of our society. Halayudha has recorded some 

information regarding the social organisation prevailed at his time. It is very 

much interesting to note that the society was still following the four fold 

classification of Vcrr y-s during the time of Halayudha. 

It is stated by Manu that the Brahrnanu, the Ksatriya and the 

Vaiqa castes (vorpo) are the twice born ones, but the fourth, the Slidra, has 

one birth only; there is no fifth caste. 

Regarding the origin of caste Narada says, 'at first only one 

vary, the Brdhrnav was created by Lord Brdung, but it split itself up into 

four due to the different pursuits followed. 

Originally there was no 

classification of people into Varga. For, the whole universe is a form of 

Brahman, the Supreme Being. But later different varv-s arose depending 

upon the deeds of the people. The twice born who, giving up their duties, 

sought pleasure and were characterised by red colour, anger etc., became 

Kgtriya-s. These twice born giving up their duties pursued agriculture and 

cattle rearing and were characterised by yellow colour became Vaiiya-s; 

whereas, twice borns, dark in colour, violent and miserly following all pursuits 

and devoid of cleanliness, became the ~tdms'.~ This view is expressed in the

The allegory regarding the origin of the var? is explained as 

follows: The seat of the speech, the br&mup-s born from the mouth were 

to be the teachers; the arms, the symbol of strength were to be the ksatriya-s, 

who were to protect the people; the thigh, the lower portion of the body, whch 

consumes food, gave birth to the vaijlu-s to provide food for the people and the 

Sara, born &om the feet, was to be the foot-man the servant of the other 

Significance of Vn~n 

: 

The word 'Var- 

' does not mean caste in most of the passages 

of the Rgveda. In some verses it stands for colour? It was never associated 

with the words brdzmap and ksatriya which are of fkequent mention in the 

6 

&gveda. 

In the age of the later Sumhit&-s, the term 'varw' is used 

definitely in the sense of 'caste' without rcferetlcc to colour. The caste system 

developed in various directions. Occupations became more or less hereditary, 

7 

e. g. chariot makers (ratkukara), smiths (karmara) and carpenters (tuk~un). 

Marriage connections were regulated by making it a rule to marry in one's own 

caste but not of the same gotra. The male of the higher var* 

could marry a 

female from my of the thee lower var%-s (anuloma). But the reverse i.e. 

marrying a girl of higher vary bratiloma) is prohibited. 

The status, 

functions, duties and privileges of the four castes were being minutely 

differentiated. 

Varying sizes of fimeral mounds are prescribed by the 

~arqatha ~rrihmo~ for the four castes.' Also the degree of politeness in the 

modes of address for the four castes varied. The Gdra was looked down upon

and was assigned a veny low position. The Aaitareya Brdhmaw remarks that 

the Sdra is at the back and call of others (the three varpa-s), he cm be made 

to rise at will, he can be beaten at will. 9 

The position of vaiga was also deteriorating. They performed 

sacrifices, reared cattle and engaged themselves in agriculture, industry and 

trade. They paid triblitc to ff~c king 

bruhmav-s and ksutraya-s. 10 

noblcs, and were obcdient to the 

?he ks~triju-s who constituted the hng, his relatives, nobles, the 

chiefs of the states and the King's retinue, fought for the protection of the 

kingdom and maintained internal peace for which they received revenue fiom 

the people. The brunt of this taxation was borne by the vaiiya-s. '' 

The 

brdhumay-s and the ksatriya-s have precedence 

over vaiSya-s and Sdra-s in this period. But as to the relative position of the 

brc?.hmuru-s md Ihc ksatriyu-s nothing dcGnilc cm bc said. According to Ilt~c 

$atapafho Bruhniano, a brlihma~ is superior to a king though he takes a 

lower seat by his side.12 This common view that the brdhrnav is superior to 

the king is supported by VtZjasaneyi Sawhit&, Aitareya and Ttipha 

-Mahdbruhrnaq.a-s. The other view that ksatriya is superior to a brdhmaw is 

held by the Khtyciyana ~arnhith.'~ The brcihmay class received preferential 

treatment and enjoyed privileges denied to other castes which are reflected in 

the Athnrva veda, Taittiriya Somhitti etc.14 Many of them deserved the 

highest position they held in society by dint of their characters and intellect

though there were few kings too, who were seers of 

I5 

also instructors of brkhrnaw-s in the Brahmanical lore. 

and sacrificers and 

In the Sgtra period, the caste system hardened. It also witnessed 

the further dctcriorrdion of the position of vai$ru-s and Stidra-s in society. 

The power of brahma~, the prestige and the influence of 

purohrfa in the state increased. They were exempted fiom taxes. The G$ya 

siitra-s drfferentiated the four castes in matters both spiritual and secular even 

in such minute details as the girdle, the ,M, the skin and the gmient to be 

used by the students, anulepana etc. Brdhmaw-s grew into a well organised 

priest hood. Study and teaching of the Veda-s, sacrificing for themselves and 

others and receiving of gifts became their privileges. 

Feeding of learned 

bruhmapz-s becanie the concluding feature of every sacrament. The r(.janya 

or the k~atriya class closely followed the bruhmay class in power and 

prestige. But the cultural and social status of vaiqa-s deteriorated due to the 

occupations and contact with Srjdra-s. A wide gulf separated Stidra-s fiom the 

higher classes. The idra was robbed off the privilege of perfbming the 

sacrificing sacraments excepting marriage ~Yhich in his case took place 

without chanting mantras. Still he eiijoyed his sbtus as a member of the 

household having access even to the kitchen. 

During the period of Dharmase2tra-s, even the civil. and criminal 

law was regulated by caste distinction. For a crime where a StZdra was given 

capital punishment the higher caste was let off with a lighter

Inter maniage between the three higher caste ad with the SGdru-s 

gave birth to mixed caste. The Dhurmasufra-s give the names of mixed caste; 

i.e. can&lu - off spring of a SEZdra male and a brcihrnu~ female who 

17 

according to Yasistha Dharmasiifra is ari out caste. 

The Jafaka stories 

describe how the ca~&ta-s were treated as depised out castes doomed to live 

outside the city or village. Their very sight was regarded as impure.'* The 

Agni puruv assigns to them the execution of criminals. They had to wear the 

clothes of dead.'' Strict rules were laid down by the SmF-s for preventing 

pollution of other classes by the touch of can@la-s.20 For the f& time, the 

question of impurity caused by can&lcr's shadow is taken up for discussion 

and purification by bath is prescribed for crossing a canela S shadow.21 

Sources of Dharma: 

Dharma is that which is enjoined by Sruti and Sm p. The Srauta 

and smarta are the two divisions of dharma founded by BrU. Wthese the 

Sraufa is more officious and has the authority of Veda-s. The Brahmaw-s 

contain the Siskkrira, which is followed in ?he absence of &-ziti and SmN. The 

Purdw-s and Dharrnaidstra-s contain all the principles propounded by the 

Veda-s. These are the sources of dharma. 22 

The ARM abounds in valuable and interesting details regarding 

the social life, manners and customs of its time. Halsyudha as we see was well

acquainted with hdia and its culture. His master-mind did not fail to observe 

critically the characteristics of social and economical life in different regions. 

Society in his time was based on VarMip.arnadhnrma i.e. on 

castes and d5-ma-s or stages into wlzich life was divided. Halsyudha uses the 

term varF and jdn to denote a ca~ie.'~ In between these two terns, j&ti seems 

to have a more comprehensive sense so as to include both gob-a and carqw 

indicative of natural and cultural lineage. 

The Bruhmana-s formed the highest caste and they enjoyed a 

highest status in the society. Right from the ancient time, the order of status of 

the four castes were stated as brdhrnaw, ksatriya, vaiQa and Sara. 

Gtyiiyana, while commenting upon PcZ@w'niyas&a (11. 2.34) stated definitely 

the order in a vdrtika - 'var@ndrn dnztptlnyew pdma nipc2taP. P'atafijali 

too reiterates the order clearly. 24 

Interestingly, Amarasimha changes the order. He deals first with 

ksatriya then with brahmapz. But Halayudha does not change it. He begins 

the topic of caste system with brkhmay-s. He refers to ten words to denote a 

~rahmh.~~ Further he gives a brief account on different kinds of Brahmins. If 

a brdhmaqu is well acquainted with all the four Veda-s, he is called as 

antican4 sarvavedn, irot~iya and chdndasa 26 and the son of 

such a 

celebrated father is called as lirnus~rina.'~ The brtrhmavarcas is considered to 

be the wealth of a Brahmin, which could be attained by good conduct, regular 

practice of religious ordinance and by mastering the Veda-s. A bruhrnaw

possessed with such a brahmavarcas is saluted in a described manner i.e. by 

means of abhivd~nca. It is a salutation and self introduction given to 

respectables. 28 

Duties of a Brahman&: 

'To brahmaw, he assigned teaching and studying (the Veda), 

sacdicing for their own benefit and for others, giving and accepting (gifts)' 

says ~anu." A Abrdhmap wl~o departs tiom the rule of conduct does not reap 

the fmit of the Veda, but he who only follows it will obtain the full reward.30 

The people of first three vary-s dischasgitlg their prescribed duties should 

study the Veda-s but among them the brahmay done shall teach it not the 

others two, that is an established 

These we all the must-do-duties of a 

Brahmin and failing in this he is treated as a samsk&r~zhina.~~ Manu, 

however, has declared a severe punishment for a brdhmaw who fails in his 

duties. According to hm a brdhmav who has fallen off &on1 his duties 

becomes an ulkdtnukhapreto who fccds on what 11w been w)rnil~d.~~ Bcncc a 

Brahmin should not lose his title to cast in consequence of the neglect of 

sacramental rites in his youth, lie should not break his vows by inconsistency 

during his student hood and should afso not neglect his household fxe, unless 

he will be considered to be sinful and wicked.34 If a brdhmap exploits the 

rites and ~ituals for his purpose he is called as dhurmndhvajn - a religious 

hypocrite.35 The term dhomadhvajiz literally refers to a person who hangs out 

the flag of righteousness for selfish purpose; sinlilarly one who bears all the 

symbols of sanctity for selfish purpose, one who has not read the Veda-s 

previous to his investiture, one who neglects his duties like not undergoing a 

regular course of studies and who earns his bread by the profession of arms are

all religious hypocrites says ~ al~yudha.~~ One who does not attend to his 

observances may be a brdhmaw by caste but not in a true sense. He is a 

j3tim&fropqjivi i.e. brahrna~ by mere namz. 37 

Bruhmasutra, the sacred thread, is the mark of a Brahmin, 

though all the people of first three vurv-s wear it. The sacred thread should 

be won1 ovcs thc It& sl~oulder and iindcr the ridit. This is the nonnal position 

and is known as upcrvita, but at times it is worn just in opposite position - 

38 

prGicinavita and like a garland hanging down the neck - mvita. 

The upavita 

position is thus changed according to the situation during some religious 

observances like tarpay etc. 

A brdzrna~ is supposed to be clean and pure always. 

39 

Acamna, snana etc., are some of the means of purifying oneself 

Particularly acamana-sipping of water for three times before and after any 

religious ceremony, is very important one. Performing y@a - sacrifice is an 

important duty of a brdhrnay. The ~ a~cial fire will be churned out of the 

aralyu' wood and the fire will be concectrated by prayers and other rites. The 

agni thus purified is called as pranitdgni. The y&ga is performed on a vedi, a 

raised piece of ground, purified for ritual purpose. The utensils like sruk etc., 

will be used in yuga. Cam is a pot wherein oblations concectrated by prayers 

were offered. The substance offered as an oblation during sacrifices like 

melted butter etc., are tenned as havis. Amik;d is another kind of oblation 

prepared by mixing curd with boiled milk. Sometimes animals are also offered 

as an oblation. The immolated animals after previous solemn payer is called 

up&m paSu. Thc oblations will be burnt in die fxe with the exclamation

'vasa! i.e. may he cany it to the gods. A supplementary sacrifice will be 

made to atone for any defects in a principal and presiding one. 

40 

supplementary sacrifice is known as avabhpha. 

This 

Mer this yajarnana, the 

one who institutes the sacrifice will take a bath called avahhria sndnina." 

A man who performs bhdrhasparisavn sacrdce is called as 

sthapati and a man who at the conclusion of viivajit sacrifice divides all his 

properties among the priests is called sanlavedas. The y~ljarndna should give 

dam-& at the end conclusioil of ail sacrifices to the priests and brcihmana-s. 

The person who institutes the performance of a sacrifice is called as yajamcina 

or yastd and the one who has commenced the preparatory rites for a sacrifice is 

called as diksiita. TJydSila is one who perfoms sacrifices fieqwently and 

dsuttvala is one who causes a sacrfice to hi= performed on the day of the new 

or ~1 moon.42 

ii) Kgatriya: 

Kgtriya comes in the second place of the cGturvary system. 

Halayudha mentions twclve words for a king. As fn as the iiSrcrrncr systems 

are concerned a king can follow all the first there airama-s whereas he cannot 

43 

become a sanyasi. Halayudha stresses this point as a mle. 

A king is 

endowed with a title 'sumrcif provided he successfully perfoms the rGjasGyu 

sanrfice. A Universal monarch is called as ccuL~uvartin and survabhauma. A 

madhyama or a mandleivara is a king or a Governor of a district or 

44 

province.

Duties of a K~ntriya: 

g&, 

To the Ksafiiya-s, he commended to protect the people, to bestow 

to offer sacrifices, to study (the ?re&) and to abstain from attaching 

himself to scx~~al plcasurcs. 

45 

Passing from the hrdhmay~c~ to thc k.:utrO?u, 

three acts incurnbed on the former sue forbidden, viz., teaching, sacrificing for 

others and thirdly the acceptance of gifls,nh 

To carry arms for thowing and striking is prescribed for 

47 

ksatriya-s as a amem of subsistence. 

A ksairiya who has received according 

to the nlle of sacrament prescribed by the 17eda must duly protect the whole 

The king has been created to be the protector of the caste @or%) 

49 

and orders. 

'Let him cause ithe annual revenue in his hngdom to be collected 

by trustees (officials), let him obey the sacred law in his transactioii with the 

people and behave like a father towards all men'50 says Manu. A king duly 

protects his subject, receives from each and all the sixth part of the spiritual 

merit. If'hc docs not protcct tl~mz, 111c sixth part ofthc domcrit will also frill 011 

51 

him. His peculiar duty is conquest and he must not turn back in danger. 52 

A king should, after rising early in the morning, worship 

brcihnraw-s who know the Veda-s and are pure.53 A king should offer 

various (Srauia) sacrifices at which liberal fees are distributed and in order to 

acquire ~ncrit he shall give to brdhmoq-r enjoynents and ~ea1t.h.~~ A king 

shall bestow, as is proper, jewels of all sorts and presents for the sake of 

sacrifices on brd~nzu~-s lramed in iledu-~.~~

Froni these versed in the three Veda-s let him learn the three fold 

(sacred science), the prirncval scie~lcc of Governmen< the science of dialectics, 

and the kr~owledge of tile Supreme Soul; from the people the theory of the 

56 

various trades and professions, says Manu. 

Regarding the appointment of ministers it is stated in the 

Minuvadhurrna Siistra, let him appoint seven or eight Ministers whose 

ancestors have been royal servants, who are versed in tlze sciences, heroes 

skilled in the use of weapons and descended from noble families and who have 

been tried. Let hran daily consider with them the ordinary business referring to 

peace and war, the four subjects namely sthunu, the revenue, the manner of the 

protecting himself and the kingdom and the sanetitication of his gains by pious 

5 7 

gifts. 

He must also appoint other oEcials, Inen of integrity, who are wise, 

fm, well able to collect money and well triedns8 Let lGm also appoint an 

ambassador who understands hints, expressions of the face and gestures, for, 

the ambassador alone makes kings' allies wd separates allies.59 Let him 

appoint a domestic pries? (purohitu) and ogciatillg priests (,fvig); they shall 

perform Iis don~estic rites and the sacrifices. 

60 

Royal Attendants: 

Door keepers are employed for tlze protection and safety in the 

royal houses. He is provided with a long stick. There are eight diEerent words 

to denote a gate-keeper mentioned in ARM.^' A spy is an important employee 

of a government. His duty is to go in disguise and to collect the important 

rnessagzs to the king either hm his own kingdom or from the izeighbouring 

country. A counsellor or a minister is one who helps the king in 

administration by his valuable suggestions. A King also appoints some

domestic priesb and their duty is to calculate the auspicious time for the h g 

62 

for his success in expedition, war, sacrifices etc. 

A king has also many dose friends. Anujiva-s are his helpers, 

who will foIlow him wherever he goes. A Principal officer of the womcn's 

chamber is known as sauvld~? or sauvidalla. An aksad$ 

is a judge who is 

given the responsibility of upholding justice. The ant&zrvimSaka is the guard 

(superintendent) of antahpura i.2. hiuern. Only impotents are appointed as 

attendants in the harem. Several cooks who are all well versed in the art of 

cooking are appointed in the royal houses. The yaurogava is the chief cook 

63 

among them. 

Jesters and buffoons are appointed to entertain the king and his 

circle by means of jokes and playfbl things. The soldicrs appointed for the 

protection of the king and his fiunily are collectively called as vakGvarga 

(body-guards). Vdhiniputi is the commander-in-chief or the lender of the 

soldiers of war-fare. 64 

The income of a State is lalown as artha or dya. The main 

source of income is hx. AII offerhg or present given by a king is called as 

65 

prabhyta. It is very interesting to note that bribing was known in those days. 

LaEcG and utkoca are the two words to mean bribing. Among these two terms, 

laficd is still in the use in Tiu~il language as laficam. 

66 

A vaitalika 

is a bard who wakes up the king early in the 

morning by his song. He will also sing to announce the time by noon, after-

noon, evening etc. He is by bdt an off-spring of k~atriya and vaijla. He is 

an important altcndant of king in cvcq royal housc. 

Hunting is not only n pass time but also at1 important duty 01' a 

king to protect his subjects from the dangers of the wild animals. Halsyudha 

rncntions livc dilkmnt words to denote hunting." 

Sonlc of the in~porta~~t possession of a king is his royal urnbrella 

2tc. TIE royal umbrella is called as uluputru or chatru. Thc fan for a king is 

designated as caut~aru 'and prakirvurt~r. Efis royal throne made up of gold is 

termed as sznzhasana and bhadrasaiza. 68 

Horses are also the chief possessions of a king. Having a good 

number of well bred horse is a prestigious matter for kings. Usually the horses 

are named after the country to which they belong. They were used as a main 

source of travelling besides in army. Apart fiorn palanquin^ and mules, 

chariots driven by horses were also used as the important means of travelling. 

The chariots used in war-fare was quite different from that one used in sports 

and travelling. The charioteer is called as Sufa in general. A charioteer who 

stands on the right side of his master is known as dak.$wstha and the one 

stands on the left is so~~esfia.~~ 

Flags decorated with uccr2ia aiid crvacula, armours, shields, iron 

corselets etc., were used by the warriors at the time of battle. The ucczila arid 

uvactila were the ornaments tied upwards and downwards on the top of a flag 

or banner. A king defeated in a war is called as grhitadik and the victorious 

- ,- 70 

one is hailed as jrtakasz.

A vai@a is allowed to undergo the f it three i+-nmn-s. Trading 

and businzss is his main profession. The dutizs of a vui j a are to tend cattle, to 

hestow gih, to offer sacrifices, to study the Veda, to trade, to lend money and 

to cultivate 

To a vureu thee acts of' teaching the Vedu-s, sacrificing 

for others and the acceptance of gifts we 

A vaiiyc who has fallen 

73 

off &om his duty becomes a mai~r.&sajyotiku pvefa, who feeds on pus. 

vaiqa doing business is addressed as parlydjiva - a merchant. An userer is 

74 

called a vddhbjtva. The debt given is known as and the interest upon 

lent goods is termed v@d~i.~' In those days the exchange system or the barter 

system was in practice. Tile system wizs ktlown rrs parivflti or vinimaya. 76 

A 

iv) ~iidra: 

77 

U . 

A StZdra is also called as an antyavary, vysaln, pndya and 

IIi~l3~\1dhil gives no rcfcrcnct: about ~mtouc11:iI)ility wkcrci~s a iridru 

is allowed to become a sanycisi. He should be a house-h~lder.~~ But 

Somadeva has mentioned about the practice of untouchability in his 

Yaiastilaka, and the children of Sidra-s are considered unfit to take part in 

79 

some spiritual rit.es and rituals. 

One occupation only the Lord prescribed to 

the hi&, 

to serve meekly even these other three castes.80 He can also follow 

those mechanical occupation and those various practical arts by following 

81 

which the twice born are best served, says Manu.

The ?J6radapu~.cLpa contains only scanty references about 

canddla. A dvi~cr who kkes to the vocation of a Sudra, though in adverse 

82 

conditions, becomes a cunddu. 

purup, car~dilu's birth is by thrce ways, by bcing (i) 

Elszwhzre it is said that according to the 

born of kanyci, (ii) born 

of sugotrcr marriage and (iii) born of bruhr?zup woman from a Sdra. ARM 

mentions eight words to denote a c~nddla. From this it can be known that 

candcila caste has become a fifth caste during his time.83 

The Indian society is composed not merely of four varw-s but 

also of certain untouchable castes vr713ich constitutes the component pats of the 

Indian social organisation. It should not be supposed that this is sornethng 

confined only to India. Even the nations that have no caste system at all have 

oRen carried out complete segregation of certain people dwelling in their midst 

which is essentially the same as the system of' untouchability in India. 'Ilus 

phenomenon is denoted by the term 'usp~ata' and the term aspr$?a means 

an untouchable in general. There is hardly any vedic passage which supports 

the theory of untouchability even though in the vedic literature several of the 

names of the castes that are spoken of in the S~nflj-s as antyuja-s occur, e.g. 

~~pra - i!vo;@ - carpenter or maker of chariotY5 carmnmnir - 

86 37 

a tanner of hides, ca?zd&la etc., Even in the most ancient Dhurmasatra-s, 

the only caste that is said to be untouchable by birth is that of can&l~-s and 

88 

the word can&la has a technical meaning in these works. But gradually the 

spirit of esclusiveiiess and the ideas of ritual purity were carried to extreme and 

more and more castes become untouchable. .Among the earliest occurrences of

the word asp~cs (as meaning untoucilable in general) is that in Yis- 

Llharrnasuutr~.~~ 

Ultoudlability does not arise by birth alone. It arises i1.1 various 

1;1id ~ I ~ O I I 

~Y:I~S l~~r~l[)l~;~si~ ic; ~ I I ~ t~ot ~ o!d;l ~ ~ 111 110t cot~~ilip ill co~~t~tcl v,lifit 

certain persons, but also wit11 arlirllals and even inanimate objects e.g. on 

touching a memtruous woman, a horse, (z 

(unlyiivusay~n-s) a man canying a corpse etc. 90 

jackal. low caste people 

Tllese restrictions were not inspired by any hardness of heart or 

any racial or caste pride as is often said, but they were only due to 

9 1 

psychological or religious views and the requirements of hygiene. 

The ARM 

does not evcn gi~le a glimpse of untouchability. It is silent on this topic. It 

merely mentions about the antyaja-s and the ant;vajdti-,s. So it is difficult to 

arrive at my conclusion regarding ul~touchability fro111 -MtM. 

Slavery: 

Slavery has existed as a constant element in the social and 

economical liik of all nations of antiquity such as Babylone, Egypt, Greece, 

92 

Rome and also many rlations of Europe. 

The word d&a which is of Rgvedic antiquity is met with in the 

ARM. The Rgvedic 

make it clear that the dksa-s and dasyu-sg4 

formed the opposite camp against the Arym. The vanquished d2sa-s who 

were taken as prisoners, might possibly htve been treated as slaves.95 The 

Chandogyopanisad (5.13.2) the Brahadara?zyakopanisad (6. 2. 7.) and other

vedic 

refer to d&i-s, 2nd on these passages Dr. Kane comments, 

'these passages show that in the vedic period men and women had become the 

subjects of & and so were in the condition of slaves".97 The A4ahribhd~irata 

frequently mentions the gdls of dksa-s and dGsi-s. 98 

In ff~e AR,M the mde and the female slaves are referred to, and 

99 

the son of a dGsZ is called gopya. These slaves were rxppointed as servants. 

SOlME OTHER CTTIZENS: 

100 

farmer. 

i) H~sb~mdman: K;~fr~/Tt~ct is the word mentioned to denote a 

The land fbr agriculture, plough, plough share, yoke etc., are his 

main instrunlents for his profession. The ksetr@iva will sltnash the clods of' 

earth by plough. Thus he will prepare the bare land for cultivation. At the 

right time he will sow, irrigate and reap the grains with a luvitra - a sickle. 

'I'hen the grains will be brought lo tlic tl~oshing lloor, wlticrt a post will be 

fixed in the centre to which the cattle are attached as they go round to tread-out 

101 

the corn. Then he will split the grains from the wastages (husks). 

ii) Copyist: Lekhaka is a copyist or a clerk. His duty is to copy 

the poetries and some official orden in a palm leaf and like materials. Me is 

called as Itprka~a, kayastha and ak~nrigi~zcrka. He belongs to the .fdru 

102 

caste. 

iii) Cow-herd: 

He is called as rnah&lldra, vaEEava and 

gopiila. lo3 His duty is to look aftc the cows.

iv) Carpenter: Tvasfd is a capenter. His other names are 

kusbtlrt, tuk+cr, rtrthukcira and vardhuki. IIis duty is to make utensils, 

furnitur-zs &c., out of wood. Particuiuly he is engaged to make chariots for 

104 

king iu~d his 10r.c~. 

V) Gold-smitlil: He is popnlxly known as ~Gidindhama. his 

other names are ki7lnda. szivnr~tk&m. and musfikn. He is mainly employed 

to do designer jewels besides some utensils. 105 

vi) Jeweller: I/aik@ic-u is a jeweller who makes the jewels in 

gold and silver by studding precious gems into them. Hence he is also called as 

vii) Black smith: Black smith is how11 as lohakara, doing 

utensils, things and particularly weapons by using iron and like metals. His 

other name is dhrniikiiru. 107 

108 

cirn@lu and ~ ~ ~ P I I I u . 

viii) I

and rich have their oiw 

sii) Samvahaka: I-Ie is a massager. LTsually royal personalities 

massagers. His other rlame is al;igumardi. 

112 

xiii) Tulmaviiya: A tailor is called as itunnavaya. As his main 

instrunlent is needle - s ki, he is also blown as saucika. 113 

xi\?) Lxpaka: He is a plasterer. He makes a mortar or plaster, a 

mixer of earth, lime, cow-dung and water. The plaster will be applied over the 

body in order to cure some diseases. This act of plastering in known as pusta 

karma. The other name of the plasterer is palaga?z&. 114 

AT) 

Rang2jiva: A painter is rightly named so, because he earns 

his bread out of colours-rariga. I-Ie is aIso called as citraklf. 115 

mi) S&&: 

He is an actor-cum-dancer. His other names are 

Sai laa, kus'iiava; cara?y, k@Zvi, j&ycZjtva, b harata and 17atn. Among the 

names, the term jayajiva is an interzshng one. An actor always, in those days, 

had to rely upon his wife who will invariably a drmccr, fix his catning. His 

wife, an actress-cum-dancer is called na#i. 116 

xvii) silPi: AII artisan is called as Silpi, karajra and prakfli. He 

will do mainly sculptors and sometimes inscribing workr that are entrusted 

with him. l7 

xviii) Rajaka: He is a washer man. He will wash the dirty 

clothes of the people 'and will be paid for it. His other nme is nir?.wjaka. 118 

xix) Kalpapala: A distiller of spirituous liquor is named as 

kalpapdla and Sau ndka. 119

xxf Dhivara: Dhivura is a fisherman. 

kcirvurlu, di~scl, mai~yobanci'ht and jcilifci. 

rinaya. He keeps a basket, to store the fishes called kuveni 

His other names are 

IIis instrument net is known as 

xxij Vaitmsika: fZe is a butcher. He will sell the meat of beasts 

and birds. He is also called as scrunzkc~, k-c~upku and muiinsavikrayi. His 

slaushter hourc is known as sdnd, md the scissors to cut the meat is named as 

kpa?~iI~ and icurturz. 12 1 

sxiij 

Cannab-t: A shuc: maker is narnect as carrnakj and 

pddukl;lkurcr. in those days lentl~er was used to make shoes. The leather s-traps 

used to make shoes are called naddh~i and ~ udclhri.~~~ 

xxiii) Vyadha: He is a heultsman. He will hunt the animals 

using traps and nets. His only instrulnent is rope. It is knoun as St~lvti, rajj'u, 

t'urdg, vu@funtri, guru ilfld PGIAS~J. Eie will make snares using the ropes 

123 

namely bundhanugranthi, vcigura and n?g$ijl;?l~ka. 

siv) Can&la: 

He is treated as an out-caste. He is socially 

ranked at the fifth category, next to Siu,clr.cr. A cnn&lu is born from a Sdra 

father- rmd brahmav mother. Mostly the cunddla-s are appointed at the 

cemeteries to cremate and bury the corpse. He is also called as antyaju and 

124 

anlyavas@)i. 

xxv) Nis2da: It is the nme of a. barbarous tribe, said to be the 

off-spring of brdhmaw and idri 

These nisda-s live in forest?. There 

are also some more trilxs of this category namely Svapaca or pc?hwlrSa a~ld

xxvij Kirata: He is a hul~tter, living in forest. He will hunt the 

aninlals by mans of bow and arrow. Iris other names are Subara, ni~dya, 

pulrnda, ntihala and bhata. 127 

xxvii) I3ilia: 'l'be tril~cs t)cionging to this calcgory rire un- 

civilised. The people of this barbarous tribes arc called as mula, mleccha etc., 

12s 

They are treated 2s pcople of anljl~aj&~tz. 

MEANING OF D HAM: 

The word asi.amu is derived fronz Sanskrit root "rum' to exert 

oneself. Hence it may mean, (i) a place wlca-e exertions are perfbrmed and 

(ii) the action of performing such exertions. 12' 

Literally it means a holding or 

resting place. Thus ffle cSrarna-s are regitrded as resting places during one's 

journey on the way to final liberation - mokg, which is the aim of life. 

Accordirlg to Vy2sa, the four stages of life form a flight of four steps by 

ascending which one reaches the region of 'Brzthman'. Each of the Zrama-s is 

a stage of life in which the individual trains himself how to order his life and 

makes preparations that are required to attain film1 goal. 

The word 

'uirama' does not occur in the Samhita-s or 

~rahn~a?lo-s."* But it occurs in the above sense in the Slitra-s 13' This does 

not mean that the &Puma systems of life %were uurklown to vedic people; for the 

word brtrhr-tlac~rzn occurs in the RgveiIa and Athurvavedu. 

132 

Thc earlicst rcferenccs to thc Sour hirrarna-s, though obscurc, 

occurs in the Aitareya Bruhmav - 'what (use is there) of dirt-mulam, what 

use of antelope skin, what use of(gowing) the beard and what is the use of

30 

tapas ? Oh! brnhmac-s desire a son, he is the world that is to be highly 

133 

praised'. 

Here it is clear that 'ajina' refers to brahmacalya, SmaSruy to 

vt5nuprasthu-s (since the vd~aprasiha-s according to Manu and Gaut;uma had 

to grow their hair, beard and nails), "4 molam (probably sexual intercourse) to 

grhustha and topus to sanycisin. 

In the J~balopanrsucd also suny&a is refered to. Janaka aslcs 

Yajiiavalkya to sspound safinyd,sa and then the four GZSrama-s are distinctly 

set out in sequz~ltial fonn; aRer finishing tttc stage of srudcnt Itmod, one should 

become a house holder; &er becoming house holder one should become a 

forest dweller; alter being a forest dweller one should renounce the world. 135 

This makes it clear that all four akama-s nrere hlowrl in the time of 

176 

Jubalopa~i~~ud. 

The word dharma is used in a few passages ofthe RgvelzTa in the 

137 

sense of up-holder or susbiner or suppoxles. 

138 

religious ordinances or rites. 

'fixed principles or rules of conduct'. 

In nlost other cases it means 

111 some other places the meaning seems to be 

At1 important passage in the 

Chundogyopunisad says, "there arc three branches of dhcrrma; one is 

constituted by yajana (sacrifice), udhj~uyuna (study) and ddna (charity) (i.e. 

the stage ofhouse holder). The second (is considered) by tapas (austerity) (i-e. 

the skge of being a hemlit). ?he third in thr: stage of a brahmacdl-i dwelliag 

in the house of his teacher till the last; all these attain to the worlds of 

meritorious men; one who abides fiimly in 'BraImsm' attains immortality. 139 

It becomes clea that in this passage the word 'Q'hnrma' stands for the duties of

cZSrama. Thus ultimately the word dharnla has come to mean the privileges, 

duties and obligations of a r nrq his starldard of conduct as a ulernber of Aryan 

co~m~unity, as a member of one of the caste and as a person in a particular 

stage of life. It is in this sense tl13t the word is used in the BhugavadgttcZ, 

hhnusrnrt~, i'djAuvo~i;);usl??1fi etc. ?'hc Tuntravurtrk~i also says that all the 

D~~~~IcIs~~~TG-s 

are concsrncd witla inlparting instructions in the Dhnrmn of 

140 

vuv?-ur-s and us~uina-s. As we have already seen the dhurma of varv, 

now let us consider the dharmn of dSr.mnn. 

The word brahrnacarin occurs in the ggveda. l4I 

The 

upana)iana ceremony introduces the young boy into the brahmacary&Srama. 

1'he Apusramb~w Charr?lnsGtra says that upanc-ryanu is a saritskara laid 

142 

down by revelation for him who seeks learning. 

Between eight to sixteen 

years &er co~~ception or birth for a br&hmam, eleven to twenty two fur a 

k.ptrzya and twelve tu twenty four t'or a tlariya is the right time for upavayancr. 

The INIC'JG~UIU girdlc pscscsibcd for i'~i.lihi~icr!~cr is of ~~~rifij~i gash, for a Is,scririj~u 

of bow string and for a \:ai@a of avr-wool. The skin to be worn by the three 

respective varp-s is thd of enu-black antelope, raurava - a kind of deer and 

aja-goat and wood for the da&-stick 

is of palSa, udumbara and bilva 

respectively. It is stated by Manu that a brahmu~ sllall carry according to 

idstra-s a staff of bzlva or pcilZ~.'~~ 

The clan& of brdhmana is to reach 

upto his hair, upto the fore-head for a ksatriya and upto the nose for a vai9u. 

The clothes prescribed are a keiiya-s&on 

madder and haridra- yellow colour respectively. 

colcrur, rnaajis?ha-dyed with

It is mfed by %fanu that a t.ri ice born is called upnvitln, when his 

fight m is raised and the sacrificial thread passed under it and rests on the le9 

shoulder, when his lefl arm is raised and ille string passed under it, rzsts on tile 

right shoulder he is called prlZci~d;i\ik2in: and nivilfn when it hansq down 

~lritij;I11 li0111 II

-denthood 

and 

like &amma, guru~h-tiqa, vdsamyamana etc. The S;cZtra-s 

Smp-s lay down many rules about these and observances llke 

agniparr'caya, bhiksg, sundhyopc3sanu, study of Veda, avoidance of certain 

food md drinks, the special vr~ta-s of br+uhmacirin etc., of which a brief 

sumtnary is given below: 

The first md foremost duty of a student is, he should pdonn 

sandhyoprisana daily in the morning and in the evening t~i1ight.l~~ The 

study of Vedu was considered to be tho highost fapas for every twice born 

person. 

Manu recommends the study of whole Veda together with the 

146 

Upanigd-s for every dvijdi. 

The h.fah#bharab says that by the study of 

the Vedo-s a brdmaq accomplishes his duty.ld7 The rules concerning tbe 

conduct of a brahmucl3rin towards his teacher, teacher's wife and son, 

concerning the method of salutation, food, drinks and actions allowed or 

prohibited to him are dealt with by the Dharmasiitm-s of Gautama, Ma, 

Apas~ambha etc. 

The brahmac&in-s were of twrr kinds upakrrwaw and 

naisthika. The naisfiiku bruhrnacdrin stays with his teacher till his life lasts 

serving the gum and repeating the Veda-s. After the death of his teacher he 

stays with his teacher's son or teacher's wife or worships the fire kindled by his 

deceased guru.148 The upakurvd?p is a student who offers some return to his 

teacherld9 after fishing the vedic study and takes the ceremonial bath on 

returning home from the teacher's house. 150 In this context Manu dictates that 

a student should not present any giR to his teacher before the samavartana, but 

when with the permission of his teacher, he is about to take the final bath let 

him procure a present for the venerable man according to his ability. 151 A

person who has taken the ceremonial bath is called a sniitaka (till rnaniage) 

152 

and after marriage he comes to be called as a grhastha. 

Agrama system in 

The society at the time of Halayadha was still following the rules 

arid regulations laid damn by the Veda-s and Susfra-s, as far as the &ama 

system was 

Though there is no detailed refmence to the 

system, yet we have enough information about the Brahmucava, @hastha, 

Viinaprasthu and Sanyasa - a religious order of four kinds according to the 

different periods of lif'e. According to , the b&lydvasthG - childhood is 

meant to be a period for education, youthhood for earning and the old age for 

renunciation. 

A teacher and the gurukula were the .Iwo sources for education. 

The childhood was considered to be the golden time for one to get educated. If 

one misses this period, then it becomcs almost impossible for him to acquire 

knowledge. The fd stage of acquiring knowledge is known as 

brahmacaryliirama. This is common for the first three varp-s. Only 

Gflasth&arama can be undergone by all the four vary-s. While the S&ra 

is denied the vanaprastha and sanyasa cSSrama-s, the ksatriya-s and vai@a-s 

are not allowed to take up sanya. Only a brahmav is allowed to undergo 

all the four aama-s. Hence, it seems that by the time of Halgyudha, aama 

system is more or less confined only with the Brahmins. It can be observed 

from the references he offers.

The brahmacarya is considered to be a vrata which is must for a 

br and it lies in the comglete control over the entire sense organs. If one, 

Ulus could succeed in controlling all his sense organs, then he is known as 

khta and irinta.154 The one who endures with resigning the privations 

imposed by austerities is called d~nta.''~ 

156 

Sdtravit. 

A brdmap skilled in sciences is called an anfarvdni and 

A teacher who teaches the Veda-s etc., is known as 

157 

updkfhydya, and his explanations are called vivaraw. lS8 His disciples are 

named as Psyo-s, anievasin, chdtra, soiksa and prdfhamakalpika.15g There 

will be innumerable inlpedhsnts and obstacles in the course oftheir study and 

they have to overcome all of them s~ccessfblly~ 

A complete perusal of a book &om all angle is called 

pd.rtiyo??a.160 Oral transmission of sacred books and scriptures were the 

prevailing traditional method then 16' 

The holy Veda-s are thus handed over to 

a disciple through a preceptor and this process is termed as gurukrama. 162 

At the time of learning, the students should maintain their 

morality and a strong determination towards the studies is necessary. ARer he 

finishes his study he should take the final bath before takmg leave of his 

teacher. After this till he gets married he is called a snafuka. 

The stage of house holder is well known to &gveda. Manu 

states that on the wife depend the procreation of sons, the pe~olwlances of

eligious rites, service, highest pleasure heaven for oneself md for one's 

163 

ancestors. 

Hence, it is the wife that makes one a house holder. Dharma, 

Artha and Kama are attained during this stage. One should earn wealth 

through professions like teaching etc., and should settle down with his wife. 

Duties of a house-holder: 

164 

The N&ada pzlra~ hrnishes the duties of a house-holder in 

full length. ARer completion of die study of the Veda-s, Dhumaiustra-s and 

vedc2riga-s a twice-born shall perform agnjparigrahn (keep garhapaiya fire) 

and enter the house after paying the teacher the due fees and with his 

permission. He should marry a girl who is sugu@ (virtuous) etc. 

After marriage, the house holder is to wear an uttarpa - upper 

garment, two yajfiopavitu-s, ear-rings and a pair of white garments. We should 

file his nails neatly and should arrange the hair, use ointment, cany a bamboo 

stick, a kamanbla-water jar, an umbrella and wear an usnisa-turban and foot 

wear. He should daily perform vedic studies, sl~ould not eat other's food, avoid 

calumny, should not cross over other's legs or remnants of food, should not 

scratch his head with both hands simultaneously, should not circumbulate in 

the anticlockwise direction a temple or a place of worship, cow, aivatta, caitya 

vha a holy fig tree, fire, mountain, a king etc. Drinking of liquor, gambling 

etc., are to be prohibited. 

The g+astha is obIiged to perform the dark and paurqzrnusa 

sacnfices and fic5ddha-s on appropriate days. Waking up during the brahma 

muhurta, he should think over the ways and means of his livelihood which are 

not against the four human pursuits. Then he should clean his body. The 

g-hastha, brahrnacdrin, vanaprastha and yati should clean once, twice, thrice

and four tines respectively. These nrles are relaxed during he times of 

darngers and sickness. 

After cleaning, he should perform aamana - sipping of water 

and rnarJuna - sprinkling of water over Ihc body with specified lingers. The 

stages of a house-holder is held to be the source and support of the thee stages 

of life, for the brahmaccirin, parlvrdjclka etc., are sustained by the alms 

offered by a house holder. By the perfomlance of the mahidyajfia-s namely the 

libation of water, vedic study, and muring the continuiq of the family line 

through the progeny, a householder gratifies the gods, sages, manes and 

prajdpatj . 

The Anuidsana pawa of MahdbhGrata holds that ahimsu, 

satyavacana, sarvabhutaukampu, iarna and d&a according to one's ability 

to be the higher dharma for a gfiastha.165 

Apart from these general duties every house holder has to 

perform the paficarnahayajia-s every day. The haput ha BrLihma?za 

enumerates them as bhtitayajfia - sacrifice to the beings, rnunuga yujfia - 

to men, pitlyajfia - sacrifice to manes, devayajAa - sacrifice to gods 

166 

and brahmayajiia - samice to Brahman i.e. Veda-s. 

Devayajfia consists 

of offerings made into the fire and pit~yajAa consists of tarpa- where 

offering of water is made to his manes. Bhutayajiia consists of offering of food 

to the beings, manusyayqj2a is performed by feeding the guests and the 

brahmayajzia consists of the study and teaching ofthe ~eck2.I~~

A g@astha is a house holder who having finished his studies 

perfom the duties ofthe head of a family. Ifthe wan belongs to the fust three 

classes, he is invested with a second sacred thread. His main duty is not to 

neglect the house hold fire. Failing in his duty he is addressed as fyakrdgni. 16' 

With the sacred fire kindled at the wedding a house holder shall perform 

according to the law, the domestic ceremonies and the five great sacrifices and 

with that he shall daily cook fbr hihis food. '' 

The house holder enters the next stage of life i.e, vanaprastha 

after leaving his wife in the care of his sons or taking her along with him to the 

170 

forest. Vinaprastha seam to be the later vaxiant of Vizikhgnasa. Gautarna 

uses the term Vaikhrinuso for the aSrama of v~nuprastha. 17' A vcinaprastha 

according to the Bnudhllyana Dharmasutra is one who follows the practices 

laid down in the Vaikhanasa Scistra; according to Manu he is one who follows 

the views of Vaikhanasa. 172 

The rules concerning the stage of vunaprastha are given in detail 

by works like Gautama, Vasistha, Manu and many others. A vd~aprastha 

may or may not be accompanied by his wife.'" He has to take with him the 

three vedic fres, the gfiya frre and the utensils necessary for pedorming 

sacrifices. Manu arid Ygjfiavalkya enjoin upon him the performance of Srauta 

sacrifices of new moon and full moon, the agr(?.yaw i@, the cafurmlZsya etc., 

whereas some other writers are of opinion that he has to sacrif'ce in a new fire 

kindled according to the rules of Vaikh&nasa after giving up the Srauta and

171 

grhya fires. He should daily perEom the pclficamahdyajH~.-~ and should be 

contempt with food fit for muni-s or with vegetables, roots and hits growing 

175 

in forest. 

The vdnaprasthu is to take bath thrice a day, allow his hair and 

nails to grow, sleep on ground, obsave celibacy, pedorm the five daily 

sacrifices, eat only hits and roots and engage himself in vedic studies. He 

should avoid flowers and hits: of the village and eating at night. He should be 

kind to all beings, limit the intake of food to eight mouthfuls, avoid oil, 

exertion, sleep and indolence. Always contemplating Nirayaw, he should 

also perfonn austerities like ckndrycr?, bear heat and cold and tend the fie 

daily. The vlZnaprastha is to visit the various holy places, perform penance, 

avoid worldly dresses and practice Yoga. 176 

The principle of the aged people is to leave the entire family and 

to take up the l$e of an ascetic. During this period of life probably people 

leave their home and resort to forests . Hence this ahma is called as 

~~no~rastha.'~~ The sole aim of this Girama is to achieve the fourth 

puruskrtha namely mokqa. Though youngsters taking up the life of a hermit 

was in practice, yet it was not widely encouraged. Before entering the third 

dirama, people, in particular ksatriya-s, should &om their family members, 

friends and relatives and get their 

The stage of vdnaprastha was open to all the higher varws. A 

Siidra could not become a viinaprastha.

The Chl.Snd~gyopani:ad was aware of atleast three &am-s, 

though it does not make a clear demarcation between the d.i?ama-s 

179 

vanuprasthu and sa*nyGsa. It has also been shown that the 

Jubalopanisud was aware of all the four aS'rama-s and gave an option to the 

brahmac~rin either to renounce immediately &er completing his studies or 

after the house holder's stage of life. 18' 

When the vunaprastha becomes gradually disinterested in 

worldly diings he should take to suzbnyasa. He should study Yedd~raphilosophy, 

He should be @nta - mild, d6nta-self controlled devoid of 

haughtiness and ego. Be should not bidlnlge in pleasures or get angry. He 

should be completely nude or may wear a tattered loin-cloth and should have a 

clean shaved head. 181 

A person entering sarnnydsa had to perform a sacrifice to 

Prajdpafi and give away all his belongings to the priests and poor. 182 

According to Iratidharmasahgraha he has to perform the pr~ijlzpatyesti to 

He should leave his home, wife, children all possessions should 

make his stay outside the village and should always be in the move. 184 

According to Daksa contemplation, purity, begging and staying alone are the 

five proper actions of an ascetic.185 He is allowed to beg and should eat only as 

186 

much is suficient for his survival. Similarly, he should wear garments only 

for covering his private parts. 187

To him there is no distinction fi-orn friend md foe or praise and 

insult. As an eternal wanderer, he should not stay in a village for more than a 

night and in a tom more than three nights. Alms collected from a twice-born 

of good conduct are his only means of livelihood. He shouId bathe thrice a 

day, chant the prawva and with all senses controlled he should meditate upon 

'Nar2yqa7. The ynti then attains ~rahrnaloka.'~~ These ideas given by 

Ndradapurli~ are similar to that sfMaht2bharaba. 

i 89 

According to some, the airama of safinyasa was allowed only 

to brahmana-s. Their arguments mainly depend upon the use of the word 

'brahmav' (instead of dvijcr) by the Upanisad-s in connection with this 

aiwma. In the Brhaddrapyakopanjsad, for example, we come amoss the 

190 

worcls 'brcFhmav-s seek to know this self'by the study of Veda-s'. 

Manu 

also begins his description of the fourth airarna as 'a brcihrnaw should leave 

191 

his house and go into the world as a wandtsra'. Others are of opinion that 

any twice-born can resort to the dSi.ama of saliznyusa; they hold that in the 

Upani~ad-s the word bruhmav' is used only as an illustrative and not in an 

exclusive sense.lg2 Yijfiavakya while describing the rules of sali2nyriso 

employs the word 'dvija' and not 'br~ihmapz'. He also holds that sariznyusu 

is a means of purifiicaio~~ for all the twice born classes.193 A &dra was not 

allowed sa&nylisa about which theMahdbhdrata is quite ~1ea.r."~ 

Snrhny%a in ARM: 

According to ARM, samnyi-sa is the last and fourth &?tima 

wherein one enters casting off all worldly shackles and lives as a religious

mendicant. ?'his particular dirama was permitted only to brahamap-s and 

the brGhmaw is calied as sannyasi or yufi. 195 

Even after becoming a religious mendicant, a BrGhrnaqa has to 

follow certain n~les and regulations. He should be engaged in the observance 

of any particular religious pledge, should earn his bread through ah, should 

follow the dharina of fourth order i.e. sanyds8irarna and should concentrate 

on meditation and penance. Re is also restricted in connection to his dressings 

and possessing. His upper garnzenz is known as vaikakqku and that worn 

around loins is known as paryasrikd. Besides kaupf~a - a piece of cloh worn 

to cover the privates, kaman&la - a water pot, &a&a - a stick of palGia 

wood carried on the hl1 moon day of u.$a%a month and v ~i- a seat are the 

196 

limited possessions of an ascetic. 

There are nine words mentioned in ARM 

197 

to denote an ascetic. Though all the words rare synonyms yet they have some 

significant nieaning. 

i) Parasari: Though the word p&dari generally means an 

ascetic yet it is particularly applicable for the pupils ofR$ ParaSara. 

ii) Tapasvi: A man wearing kM;raya is not a fapczsvt but he 

whose mind is always shining with knowledge, with good character and senses 

well controlled, is called as tapasvi. 198 

iii) Karmandi : P%nini has mentioned about sage Kmanda. 199 

Probably, as the pupil of Pm3Sara is called pLZr&arE so the pupil of Karmanda 

is called karrnandi. It is known fkom Yaiastilaka that karmandi-s were 

always contemplating for moksa and were unattached towards worldly

iv) Yati: h ascetic who is very strict in observing his niyama 

md anus@&na is called yuti. It is mentioned in the khlpasutra that he who 

strives to get rid of the bondage of sin is called ycari. 20 1 

He is also called as Sunta. 

muni. Aman 

the ~alpustitra.'~~ 

v) Sarhyata: He is an ascetic known for controlling his passion. 

vi) hluni: A holy man who has made the vow of silence is called 

concentrating in at~zavidya is also kplown as mzlni - says 

vii) Vrati: A man engaged in the observance of any particular, 

religious pledge is called so. He carries a da.qzcia namely, @&&a of paisa 

wood on the day of full moon of the @&&a month. His seat is called as 

- 203 

vrsz. 

111. NAjRRIAGE AND FAMILY SYSTEM 

a. LAGE: 

Marriage is one of the fundamental institutions of human society. 

The circumstances and conditions of such unions necessarily react on various 

facts of the social organisation and hence the study is very important for our 

understanding 

and evaluating the spirit of its culture and civilization. 

According to Hindu view of life matrimony is a holy bond md not a contract. 

204 

From the times of Grhyusiitra-s, Dharmasastra-s and Smti-s 

the ancient Indian law has recognised the followi~lg eight forms of marriage 

which differ in ritual and mode:

i) Brihma, where a father gives his daughter, decked with ornaments 

and jewels, to a Ieltrncd man of good condud, invited by him. 

ii) Daiva, where the father gives his daughter, decked with ornaments, 

to a priest, who duly oificiates at a sacrifice during the course of its 

pcrbmmec. 

iii) Arso, where the father gives his daughter, after receiving hm the 

bride-groom a cow or a bull or two pairs. 

iv) Pr&jt?papa, where the father gives his daughter &er addressing the 

couple with ths text 'ssuha ubhau caratam'. 

V) Aniru: where thz bride-groom receives a maiden after having given 

as much wealth as he can afford to the kinsmen and to the bride herself 

vi) Ghdharva, or the voluntary union ofa maiden and her lover. 

vii) R&.psa, or the forcible abduction of a maiden from her home. 

viii) PaiSdca where a. man by stealth seduces a. girl who is sleeping, 

intoxicated 

or disordered of intellect2o5 

206 

dserent law givers, 

The fd 

three, four or six forms of marriages were approved by 

whereas the last one is universally condemned. There 

is, however, a great divergence of opinion as to which of these are approved 

ones for the members of the dBaent varws. 207

Though Hd~juclha ha not given a11y direct reference to 

marriage system it can be inferred from the words like voryci, po~irnvarciZo8 - a 

gul who chooses her husband, punarbhtih didhiStih209 - a woman marrying 

second time etc., that several types of marriages took place besides the existing 

210 

system. Halayudha altogether mentions five words to denote a marriage. 

A family is the starting point of the social evolution, the most 

hdarnental and basic unit of all htm~an irlstitutions aid its study is an 

absorbing interest frain the sociological point ofview. There is a vast literature 

on the family and researches are being conducted still with regard to the 

different problems collnected with it. 

In this section, the infomation of the ARM about the concept of 

the family, the status and position of the fither and the son, the interpersonal 

relations of some of the members of the family and their behavioural pattern 

with each other i.c. the interplay ofthe relations of the husband and wife, father 

and son, brothers - elder and younger and brother's wife and the modes of 

relation of the daughters-in-law, parents-in-law and others are examined. 

The concept of Fdy: 

The ARM does not state directly the concept of fmily but it can 

be reconstructed &om the informatioll about the words denoting different 

relations. Joint funily sys4ein was prevalent at tl~e Gme of Haliiyudha. A 

family was consisted of many members, There are numerous terms to mention

each md even1 relation. It is very ddifcult to find an equivalent word for 

certain tern, because such relationships are rarely found, now-a-days. 

Status auld Bositisnl of the Fatiller: 

fit: Rgvedu refers to f.he father as the type of all that is good and 

kind.2" 

The ARM aiso considers thc fathcr who is the head of the family as 

the causs of his children's happiness and joy. Such a frtther who is diligent in 

supporting his family is praised as ub hyagarika and k-ugm bayup@. 

212 A 

ma. who is incapable of supporting his family is severely censured as 

gehenardi, geheizlrir and pir~diara meaning a poltroon or a dunghill-cock. 213 

The status of the father is held high in honour and respect by Haiiiyudha as he 

deals first with the word denoting a father (1.49). Then he mentions the couple 

i.e. husband and wife (I. 120). Then onwards he introduces other relations like 

son, brother etc. 

Status and Position of the son: 

Ihc primary object of marriage in ancient India was the 

propagation of the family; hence a son who acted as the continuer of family- 

214 

line was the primary craving of every wedded couple. 

This is e-+en the 

feeling now-a-days. The necessity of having a son was also emphasised fiom 

the religious point of view. The son was believed to rescue his parents as well 

as his ancestors fiom the hell called 'put' into which they might otherwise fall 

without his 

A son from a well known family is praised as 

cimvv~Ya?za2'6 and intum the family is praised by the conduct of a son as a 

217 

good race - var+u, gofra etc.

The strength and excellence of ~e man culture lay in the 

domestic virtues of its adherents. The 

contains glimpses of unity and 

affection prevailing throughout the Bnliay eirclc. Pr'ricndly relations rmiolzg thc 

different members of the family like the children, aged ones, wife and husband 

and other kinsmen were highly es-teemed. Seniority of age and relation were 

the matters of high respect as is also forrnd in modern times in good and 

cultured fiunilies. Those who are to be saluted respectfully are branded as 

218 

upasangrc?.hyu-s, 

means of abhivd~na.~ l9 

and they are properly saluted by the younger ones by 

The husband md the wife: 

The ARM gives glimpses of ideal, devoted and loving relations 

between the husband and wife. A wife's duty is to accompany her husband in 

it11 his endeavours. She has to give a hiu~d in his duties (L-lharmu). Hence she 

220 

is called suhucari and sahadharmacarini As the foremost duty of the 

wife is to honour and serve the husband, she must always stay with him and she 

had a right of residence in the house. A wife was entitled to be maintained in 

Ule house by tlie husband. 

A huslxmd, on the contrary, who earns his 

livelihood fiom his wife is criticised as jdyZijivo.22' Both the husband and wife 

have to bear ea.ch othzr. Thus the spirit of tolerance was required on the part of 

both and accommodating nature was considered to be highly essential for the 

stability of the family We. 

The position of the eldest son is peculiarly in~portuit in the Hindu 

family. He occupies the status equal to his father. Hence he is called ugraju,

pun,uja and ,r2;zs?ha. The younger one is called as kanisfia, uvaraju and 

onujo."' 

Words like sodora etc., are used to denote a brother (having the 

same mother) in general. A brother's wife is called as prajavafl. A brother's 

son is ki~own as hhrc-;ltriyn. There are four words mentioned to denote a 

daughter-in-law as sn~~i, 

jon< plnfruvadhfi md vadhu. Duhira, fanaya and 

puhi are the three words to mention a daughter.223 A sister is denoted by three 

words like bhag.int, jarnr and svcrsa. Her son is indicated as svusriya, jumeya 

224 

and bhhgrneya. 

725 

yhfura. 

The wife of the elder and younger brothers are called 

Apart from these, there are ninz worcls mentioned by Halayidha. 

like bhlindhava226 etc.. to mention a relative in general. 

The more,s of 

and other hr-laws: 

relation sf the Daughter-in-law, Parents-h-law 

Early in the history of our civilization brides received affection 

and respcctcd trc;itmcnt in their rzcw houscs as thcy were grown up itnd 

educated at the time of marriage. The elders of the vedic age treated the wives 

with very great consideration, regard and affection. They on their part used to 

observe proper dccoru~n and treat their elders with utmost deference and 

227 

reverence. 

EIalgyudha, while introducing the topic of relationship gives first 

inlportatlce to daughter-in-law, then to sistcr-in-law. Only then he mentions 

daughter. From this it can be inferred that daughters-in-law are treated more 

cordially than one's own daughters. Similarly a son-in-law is mentioned ahead 

of son.

Thus it is seen fiom the glimpses of AIltM that the honour and 

respect for the parents, love for the childrcm, section for the sisters, brother's 

wife and son-ila-law, mutual love and respect of the married couple, regard for 

father-in-law's relations etc., were the common bonds that held the members of 

the family together. 

The attitude of a community towards woman has a great social 

significance in any society. Some of the aspects of their position have already 

been treated under the discussions an 'Marriage' and 'Family'. Some further 

aspects are discussed herein the following pages. 

Women and Higher Sfnrdies: 

Women were permitted to the higher studies in the vedic times, 

but with the lapse of time the situation changed. The cause of women's 

education suffered a good deal aRer about 300 BC when the practice of early 

marriage came into vogue. Even the upanayana cerenxony was now reduced 

to a mere Sonnality and the11 was: droypcd altogctiler putting 

end to llcr 

education.228 Till the beginning of the Clxistian era, the upanayana ceremony, 

which was followed by a period of discipline and education was common for 

both boys and girls. Lop$mudrB, ViSvavarS, S&, 

Nivfivari and Gk~osfi are 

the renowned vedic poetesses.zzg The names of Maitreyi and Giirgi of the 

Upanisad-s are too well known to need mention. The ancient grammarians 

230 

were also fasniliar with women teachers. 

There are no direct references of women's education in ARM. 

But it can be inferred fi-om the words like vidagdha and vuwni'ivhich means a 

clever or intriguing women, that education was not prohibited for women-folk.

Moreover the words like iramapi and bhikqki suggest that even they are 

allowed to become mendicants and to lead the life of a sanyasini. 

The choice of the Mate: 

In early times, maidens appear to have had more or less effective 

voice in the selection of their pCartners in Me. Ksalriya circle in society even 

conceded to growl up brides the exclusive right of selecting their otvn consorts 

as is proved by the custom of svayntilvara or se&choi~e.'~~ But HalPyudha 

did not spec@ anything about svayarizvara restricted to a particular varv. 

He generally mentions that a girl who chooses her husband is called as varya 

232 

or putimvara. 

So, it can be understood that some girls are given the liberty 

of selecting their life partner, irrespedive of their varw-s. 

Wonlm as wife: 

The ideals of relation between husband and wife are already 

noted. The wiii who is always inodest and devoted to her husband's service. 

who keeps aloof from associating with disreputable women and eats the food 

that has becn 1e.R by the family and the husband, is highly esteemed. This is a 

common thing in India. Though this matter is not literally mentioned yet 

Halayudha suggests these things through the words like putivratcZ, sucaritd, 

sdhvi and ~afi.'~~ 

Woman as Mother: 

Motherhood has been the cherished ideal of every Hindu women 

and the apotheosis of tlle mother has reached a greater height in India than 

anywhere else. The Manusmpi says that one aarya excels ten upddhydya-s

in glory; a f-'ather excels a hundred dear-va-s in glory; but a mother excels even 

a thousand fathers in glory. 234 

I%e tradition is well followed by Haliyudha who first records the 

synonynls of a mother ahead of father.'35 

Further Hal2jqdha records some 

interesting details regarding the pregtlancy and pregnant women. A pregnant 

ulomer~ is krlo~vi~ as Clp~~nnusatliVa 2tc. The longing of that lady during that 

period is called as dohuda etc 

'i'he last rnonth of pregnancy is denoted as 

sutrmasu, .h exclusive house is dcvoted for assisting the lady during delivery 

of the haby, like our modern day's nursing home, and is called angagrha or 

se~tlkiibhni:unci.""" 

Halaylidla rilso fumishcs hr: tedmical tcrnls to denote the womb, 

the foetus and the embryo. It seems from the infarmation of Halayudha that 

pregnant women were taken with total cue arid hygienic facilities were 

available for delivery of the baby by providing maternity ward - 

sutilciihha~~onn. So mother hood was given the due importance and cnrc. 

Wid ow-Remarriage: 

The widow remarriage prevailed in vedic society side by side 

with niyoga, but it gradually came into disrepute during the period of 300 BC 

to 200 AD 'and fiom about 600 AD the prejudice against the widow remarriage 

began to become dceper and deeper. Sm?h writers from this period onwards 

condemned thein vehemently and passages in earlier works clearly permitting 

237 

them began to be explained away as refining to a by gone age, 

casually merltiolxi two words for woman who 11% 

The ARM 

married a second time as 

punarbhrih and didhi;~h.~~~ So the second marriage or rerna.rriage was not

totally prolzibited. It mus?: have take11 place laere and there. But the more 

Inportalt point is thal IIltla~rildlla did not disi~gprove widow remarriage 

Wonlen and Religion: 

Wonlen were eligible to participate in sacrifices 

independently 

and jointly with the husband upto 300 BC.'~' As the vedic sacrifices became 

more complicated at~d as the vedic studies declined among women owing to the 

practice of early marriages coming in vogue and also as the society was not 

prepared to tolerate the dilettante vedic studies obviously fmale vedic scholars 

began to become rarer and the unhealthy attitude ofthe law-givers to women's 

role in the pwticipsltion of the vedic sacrifices resulted in the prohbition of 

their part in the vedic sacrifices. But this did not produce a long standing 

hardship. This rcligious disenfranchisement had crcated a vacuum to be fillcd 

by the bhcrktl puurd@ku religion. As duly as the 400 l3C women are seen 

performing a ntlnlbzr of vratu-s. 

240 

The ARM shows a favourable attitude towards women, 

cspccially tl~c wiSc ;ls 311 assistat~t in rcligious rnattcrs (suhadhur~nacari~ti). 

Without her a householder becomes unfit to perfirm his daily duties, hence she 

is called as gp'~ini.241 The ARM severely rriticises a man who abandons or 

does not take care of his wife (family), and who depends on her for his survival 

Cj&.yaJiva). A wife is called sahadharmac5ri~i as he helps the husband in 

satisfying his pil'r-s with progeny, the guests with food and the gods with 

worship. A man should protect his virtuous wife. Only the first (married) wife 

is considered to be worthy of accompanying her husband in religious matters 

and she alone is entitled as 

A women who follows her husband in all

233 

his adions is called a pulivrcrti;.. 

The hduhabhdram and the par-8~-s 

contain a number of hypothetical descriptions of the power of the pativrata. 244 

General ~1Hftradc to~vards wornear: 

Ilindu sociely has a strong f eling that a woman cannot survive 

on her- ol~n. Shz shorild be supporfed either by her Ifiusbatld (jivatpatl) or by 

her son Obutoka). A woman without her husband and children is a pitiable 

one called mivi~r."' Our ancient society believed that self reliance is the 

quality of men; women-obokih are always dependent on others246 and ARM is 

no exception to this. 

The word s~idhuna is derived from stri-woman and dhana- 

propoel-ty, and literally means women's property. 

217 

pcrpctual tutl;lagc of womcn, 

While declaring the 

and their gcneral incapacity lo hold 

248 

propoerty, the Hindu law concedes to them the privilege of holding property 

of certain descriptions with absoltrte power of disposal. It appears also to have 

regarded their interesb in prescribing the order of succession to women's 

property, as may be seen fi-om the very pron-linent position therein assigned to 

the daughter, who in many cases inherits her mother's property the exclusion of 

male issue. The law of strahana stands, therefore, in favourable contrast with 

the general spirit of the Hindu law, which in other respects is, no doubt not very 

equitable towards women. So, it will not be out of place here to investigate 

upon the concept of stridhanu as depicted in ARM. 

The strdhana is constituted of six-fold separate property and 

according to Manu the six-fold are - that was given before nuptial frre -

adh;1*6gn:. thrtz was given on tile bridal procession - adhydviihuntka, that was 

given in token of love - prifldcitra, and that was received &om a brother, a 

mother- rind a M zr are considered as spidhana. ARM gives one more word 

iulku2'\l' ftlc samo scnsc. Dul hcbnicillly speaking .+&a is very much 

different from sfriu'huna. That which is given to bring the bride to her 

husband's house is called 5diko according to ~~lsa.~'O Later in due course 

stridhanu was included with Sulks apart from its original six fold sources. 

Religion is the next tide in the steam of Hindu society. hght 

fiom the age oflpgvedn, it can bz observed that religion and phlosophy have 

been part of the hdian culture. Here a humble effort has been made to study 

the religioustic society at the time of ARhd under the light of its sources. 

Thc 111dus Vallcy finds do not throw iLny light on anytl~ing 

connected with Vaisnavisrn. In the vedic age, Visrp, the paramount god, who 

held an impoi-tant position in the BrcZhmap-s occupied but a subordinate 

position in the Kgveda. Though generally recognised as aa aspect of the Sun 

in the figveda Visnu is found more associated with sacrifices than with 

25 1 

devotion and grace in the later vedic texts. 

The Sntapatha Brahma?p makes him the personification of 

753 

sacdice."' The Aitoreya Brdhmow- places him at the top of the Hindu 

pantheon. By the elid of the BrGhrna~ period, N2rZtyqa is considered the 

Supreme God. He is directly related to Vi.yp in Tnittjriya ~ r a ~ a k a . ~ ~ ~

In the ffs!c?,dyri.i of PBnini? the formation of the word 

'Visudavn' d~ows that Vasudeva became well kl~own during the period.255 In 

the epic period V:lsudevn was identified with Narhyqa. 

J'hough the deification of'the Visr~u was complete before the date 

of hfuclilbuharafo, the l$e sto~y of Krs~a is narrated in the Hurivnfiicr, 

probably the rmliest authority in this matter.256 The same is exhaustively dealt 

with in the Visritl and Bruhnlupurii~ru-s in similar terns. The Bhiigavata and 

Bruh~nnvnivarfu pliiitu-s describes this story in detail. The accounts of the 

story in tbc rliflbrcnt purrry~i-s arc, h,wcvcr, incorlsistent ald col~trzdi~tory.~~~ 

Gradually, during the period of puruy-s, Visnu occupied a 

dominant pnsilioli w11c11 Clle secttasi;in works .cx;crr: in the offing. Though those 

works preach sectarian exclusiveness, they also encouraged tolerance for other 

sects. The conception of 'Trinity' is a best esanple of this. According to this 

conception the Supreme God manifcsis himself in tllree forms, viz., Erahn~a, 

Vi~nu, and ~iva, in order to perform the hnction of cseation, preservation 

and destruction respectively. While worshpping the deity of one's own choice, 

one's right to worsfiip other gods was also respected. 

Vai ~qnvisrn i11 ARM : 

According to ARM, Bralma, Tiisnu and ~iva are only three 

manifeshtions ol'thc Supreme God, for I-Ial.;lyudha applies a single adjective 

'~arnbhu'~~~ to all three gods. He derives the meaning of ~ambhu 'as the one 

fiom whom the auspiciousness springs or one who produces auspiciousness'. 

Known as Jardana, Hari and so on, he is called ViSvarOpa (whose form is the 

whole universe). Dharaqidhara (supporter of the earth), Jagann~tha (Leader of

the ~~rlivesse), Vidhi-creator of the universe sanatana eternal etc, The superior 

position of trisry unongst the dcitics xllzntioned in ARM is best reaIised fi-om 

the number of adjectives given to cach EhhrnB. Visqu and ~iva. ?'here are 20. 

56 ;tncl 4 5 sy~lonyl~ls it1 trihrltcd 10 c;rch /:"(I respc:clivcly. Morc!ovctr-, 

I-Ials>vdha goes 01.1 referring to dle K.rs~~nvutara and details regading 

Visuclova. Dal:uama, (I;aru

to be scen ill the section called ,

Rina ai~d Ulnv;ibhi~ti invah ~ix;:~'s hlessing in their works. 

The many 

temples of ~iw constr~icted by the early Ckjlukyas and Rqtrakuta-s, the 

Kailasa and other cave temples excavatzd by the latter, contain no indication of 

their b~ing intended for a specific ~aiva sect and therefore they may be 

regarded as pointing to lhe diiliision of' tile general worship of ~iva LI 

,kdahirb hiirotho from 700 to 1000 AD. ~hus;~~' it is evident that the worship 

of Siva \,as widely pscvslent, thou$ not mcess;uily as a specific sect. 

In the ;1RM ~iva is referred to as ParameSvara the Supreme God 

and is treated on par with Visnu, though he is attributed with a less number of 

synonyms, but Hal3yudha is very keen in recording the in~portant and 

significant epithets of Lard Sivzi like VirGpBksa (diverse-eyed), Nilagriva 

(blue-nccked), PaSl~pnti (I.ord of beings) Mahfideva (peat deity) c~c.~~' I-Ie is 

characterised as tile holder of Pjndkn - bow, iula - a trident and Kfttivssa 

dressed with the skin of elephant etc. At the same time it might be interesting 

to note that Halaydha did not mention about Linga worship. Among the 

members of ~iva's family Parvati is ascribed with 21 synonyms, GweSa with 

nine and Kartikeya with twenty. 

The cult ofiakli or Mother cm be traced back to the worship of' 

Mother goddess or Nature goddess of the pre-vedic age. In India every village

is consiticrctd 10 l~c gt~;trdctl 1)s 

(;rrii~ltrt!wrrtn c;tllcci by names like Mita, 

knba et~.'~~ 

374 

cult is associated. 

In t11c e~;vcvicr, F'!lhv~ is thc pjuasdiai~ deity with wllotn the other 

Sarasvati, itn important aid sacred river in the ipguedic 

age has bear praised as tile best among the mothers, rivers and goddess and she 

iiad an evs11 shax in the oblation offered in sacrifice^.'^' The ,?ris~ktu 

describes the origin of 

The Devi sc3ktn and the RdirisGkta may be taken 

as the origin of n~olhcr cult of India. 'IIlc hfuhnhh~ratu dcscrihes the female 

deities such as tllc &cnclfUl Kdt, goddess Katyiiyani, Durga etc. 

In the 

Mahubhurnta we also come across new names that arc given to her like 

Mahisf~surstmardi~l~, liargli, Mah?~k:ili, Car,qli etc., and tfie forest tribes like 

kiram-s barbarous and pulinda-s are described as her devotees.277 Thus 

S~ktisrn seems to be an off-shoot of the Mother cult. It gained importance next 

only to the cults of Vis~u and ~iva. 

In the RGmiyav, she is Um2, &zughter of Himavan and sister 

of Garigi~. In the HarivnniSn ure get a description of A.paq2, the daughter of 

Himav~n, gained the izme of Umi from her mother Men2 because of her 

austerities performed desiring M&deva as lzer liusband. Though in the 

Mahdh.iratu Durg2 is refelred alternatively as the wife of Visnu 

(Vird@parva) and of Siva (Bhipa parva), later she is increasingly associated 

with ~ i v a She . ~ is ~ also ~ aid to have her own female followers designated as 

'Mothers' still occupy the position oi' village goddesses and are found 

worshipped as such in many of the villages of South ~ndia.~~'

iT:hcn we reach the age of pfrra?~a-s, we find a general tendency 

280 

to regard all thi: mothor goddzsscs associntcd with ~ikti. 

In ARM the mother cult plays a very little role. ilnlong the 

mother goddesses Rudr2ni or 

ti figures as the most prominent deity with 

21 synonyms and tt reftreilce lo four h~cxt~lations of Durg9, Laks~rii and 

Saravati are the other pronitlent faale deities mentioned by ~alay-udha.'~' 

Durga is referred to in the lihiln of the Ryvedcz. The Taittil-ij~a 

drayaka mentions her as the con5ort of ~iva. The Rdmdyqa reflects the 

same idea. The 1MLJhiibhurafa contains two important hymns addressed to 

hrg:. 

3[13 the Kf~n~cirnsu~n b h a she is known as Unla, Parvat1 and Pgaqil. 

Directions fbr carving nine differa.lt tntmifostiitions of D-rlrgj lit-c: givcn in thc 

282 

Agnipuray. 

The reference to Durgg worship in some of her many forms 

are made in the ?~dsuvudatt(l, Kndambari, Hursacarita, Gaudavaho and 

Maluti~zt~dhava. 'l'his shows that at least between the first and the sixth 

centuly AD, Durg2 worship bec'vne popular. 

The NcZradupuruw mentions that Chinnamasta, Ram% 

Tripurabhaiavi, Matarigi and Dhomavati are the the four incarnation of 

~>ur~i."~ Thollgl~ Halapdha gives the details ahout Laksrni and Sarasvati, 

yet it becomes clear fiom him that ~akti or Durga occupied the mast of the 

portion in Iht: motller cult prevailed in his time,

d. The Clult ctf Sun-God: 

.AdL>rcztion of tlle Sill1 god was a co1-nnlo11 practice with the Vedic 

ikyarm; arid we find in the Br&Ftrr~ar/cr-s that offerings were made to the Sun 

for the re~~lovrtl of' S~IIS."~ 

'1'11~ Il/l&ndogyopuni;ad, however, refers to 

Devakiputra K.r+ga was a disciple of Ghora hgirasa, a priest of the SLJ~."~ 

Elit we have, however, no evidence fi-om the vedic literature on a special sect of 

Sun god. 

The earliest reference to a sect worshipping the Stin God is found 

in the account of tile classical writars wlao reler to the bldims as worshippjng 

286 

Soroadeios or SOlya deva. 

The *adition of the divine nature of the Sun was 

contitlucd with somc modifica~iolzs ru~d figures oi' a human bust of'the Sun 

appears on a Barhut medallion of 300 BC."~ The popularity of the Sun 

wolshrp can be gauged from tl~e suprewe position held by tile Gkyairi mnnfrm 

among the vedic prayers and also fr.0111 

(sundhyopfisunfi) of the twice born. 288 

the morning md evening worships 

This popularity of ihe god was greatly enhanced by the 

infiltration of the Persian Solar cult into North India by the first century An 

TJms the Bhnvisya, Samba and Vardha pray-s contain stories about the 

irltroduction of this cult into hrdia by the Mags-s of Sakadvipa (Eastern 

iran).289 Bhovi~o plrriiqa illso gives an account of the Solar festivals, llis 

shows that during the period ofpura%-s the Saura sed extended its sway and 

gained considerable inlportwce. Numerous Sun temples sprouted up and 

many lungs became devotees 01' Surya (e.g. ancestors of King Harsa who are 

specified as Parom dd~tp~b hokta-s in Haqa7s i~~cri~tions). 2g0 

In the 

Traipurusudevn tell~plas, SQrya displaces Brahrna and forms the prominent

membcr oi'tl~e 'l'rinity. But in Soutll India, Brabrnj still holds his place again$< 

SGrya. But SLII?~ is also iirund cc~lnhined with the three pronlincnt deities 

namely Hra11m:i. Vi:,rp a~d ~iva, in thc tvaPls or porch of the Pallava temples 

iit I'it-uttani. Ncui ;issnci;ttes like tftlr Aiiicyn-.r. the planets, the seven Ipsi-s and 

19 1 

the seven mat7ka-s also are assigned to him.- 

hauiil\i;i rcfcls lo lllc ~ CIII~~CS OS ofh~r dcifics blif 12ot thiit of Sun 

god. 'I'ht: prcvatcnce of Sun wtn.st~ip is Ibund frotn the inscriptions of the 

>

'Bnlhmun ', the cr-c'iitit.r' principle, the cause of all existence and is called 

~c~~rnhliu.'" Soii~etimcs he is considerad to be differed from 'Brahman7, 

b

the Iot~ls of I'~s;~LI's navel. Still in the period of epics arldpztr&i+~n-s he had a 

small folloriing which is rzvealcd in the B?hafsarithitd, Padma and 

1. i.~~~~cdhurr~~ilotfura~~~i~'~i?~a-.~. 

Thus he figt~red as oat: of' the three members 

which lrlnlie tflz triaity. But as a sectiuian dcity it was the origin of the 

i'uiicr~y~iiancl ibml o1'~vorslrip that he lost his position. 

30h 

BrakM in ARM: 

'4s one of the deity fbming dre trinity, Brallnu occupied the 

position of creation. Halapdha gives thc due importance to RrahmJ by 

dealing with him ;lhead of Visqu and ~iva.'~' Ilul, l~owcvcr. he is dominated 

by the t\tf0. 

ii) Slwttln: 

The earliest reference to Skarlda is found in the 

Ch~ndog.yopunisod where he is identified wiui Smat k~rniira.~*~ PaMjali 

mentions the images of Siva, Skanda and ViSlkha as being worshipped in his 

titne?O7 and the existence of tlze worship of this god secms to have developed 

&-her in the days of ~uptas.~~* The names of the Gupta emperors such as 

Kumara Gupta and Skanda Gupta are addused as evidence indicating the 

flourishing state of Saivite sect in which Skanda had entered as a pet deity. It 

should be noted that even the seven mat?kd-s the female attendants of Skanda 

have become objects of worship in these days.3o9 It may also be noted that the 

3 10 

name Brahmanya of the god is mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions. 

In 

North Iizdia, he is popularly known as Kum2ra and considered as a 

Brahmac&rin wliereas in South India he is too popular with his two consorts.

6 5 

-Illr metltiun of' Skancia aficr CianeSrt by Haligrudha shows that 

he uas accepted LS the youtlgsr brother of Lord ~eneia,~' however, his 

popularity was greater thin his elder brotl~er. 

Itr tllz I kda-s we find Rudra with his hosts called gaga-s whose 

leader was Gappati. The Tmrrrriya Bmharna?~~ mentions a god 'Dantin' 

along with E;:~rtikcya and the ic'aldin and. it is possiblc that tixis Giixltiti was the 

3 12 

sarnz as t116 latcr crlepha~t fafaced god. 

GwxSa is mentioned o11ly at a few 

places in the .blal?crbhArut~r and here hc is not the god GaneSa, for Visnu 

himself is tllentio~led as GaneSvara. 

3 13 

'I'hcsc is no dclinitc cvidcncc ol' C;itnc~a cult in India bchre 500 

AD. There is a sculptural evidence of his popularity from the 500 t4.D. 

anwards, although rzo in9cription has been found referring either to GaneSa or 

3 14 

to Uanapati as a god ulltil afcr thc Uuptn period. 

12.C;.Shanclarlciu. says that 

thc god Oanapati-viilayake w:. 

irltroduced iiboot thc 600 A.D.~'' The popular 

story about GaneSa acting as the scribe ofVy3sa found in the Mahubharata is 

proved to be an inte~~retation.~'~ But this god began to come into prominence 

at the end of the Gupta period. 

The mi, wherein he appears as fir11 fledged god with all 

mythological details, mentions him as h e son of ~ivand Parvati and elder 

brother of ~kanda.~'~ But dtuing the tLnc of ARM, GaneSa seems to be less 

popular to Skanda.

I I;il:iy~!d~a does 11~11 silotv much jrrtcrcst it7 recording tile details 

of'rcligiow othcs than Iiitlduism. !Iis castla1 ine~ltian about Buddha in a verse 

imd a p:tssing r-dkrst~se to Snina religion reveal the fn~th that Haliyudlla does 

31s 

not care too much i'ur this religion.

hlahabharata (Mbh), SII.181 -i-29; Critical edn. HORI, Poona. 

l'nibl-lu. I'.N .. I Iindu Social ( )~-g:i~~isation. Rotnbiiv. 1953; P.284. 

Ibid, p.45 1. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Sat. Bra., 1.2.3.3; cE Vedic Apc, p.45 1. 

Vedic Age, pp.45 1,52. 

Ibid, p.509. 

Vasistha Dhar. Su., 18., 

Age of Imperial Unity, p. 544. 

Agni yurana, 1 5 1.16-77. 

sat3tapa, U ~~MS, Sumantu and Kajyapa quoted by .AparBrka on 

Y2jfiavalkya, 111. 292.

:ltri saniIlit;i, 288-89; Aigiras quoted by Vijfislissvara 011 

Yrijfinvalkyn. III.30, satjtapa qrrotcd by tlparc?rka on Yajfiavalkya, 

111.232. 

Yataiijali, B~fahiibl.~~lsya, 1.436; Agamal, V.S., India as luktlown to ?mini, 

p.75. 

Ibid. 2.240 

Ibid. 2. 2-18. 

Ibid. 1.109. 

Ibid. 8.1. 

ARM, 2.249. 

Ibid. 2.250 

Ibid. 

Ihid, 2.25 1, 

Ibid, 2.252. 

Ibid, 2.253 

ARM, 254-269.

0%) 

Ihid, 20.3-2bE. 

I; wtri>~> rlrr tscltlr hjl~\+ef - ?\Rki. 2.238. 

.ZI

Ibid, 2.280. 

Ibid. 

Ibid, 2.268 

Ibid, 2.293-94. 

Ibid, 2.324. 

Ibid, X.78. 

ARM, 2.416. 

Ibid, 2.41 8. 

~aro g$usfha evo sydt / Ibid, 2.238. 

YaSastilaka of Sornadeva, Nirnaya Saga press, Bombay, 190 1, 1903; 

porva., p.459. 

Manu, 11.91; VIII 410. 

Naradapur., 1.24-32. 

ARM, 2.443. 

RV, X. 142-4. 

Ibid, 1.161.4, VII.32-20. 

Ibid, VIII. 5.38. 

V2jasaneyi Sam., 30.17. 

For the technical meaning of can&3la, vide Kane, P.V., History of 

Dharma S2stra, V01.11, p.8 1. 

Visnu Dhar, SO., 5.104.

MBrkwdeya pur., 32,30-42; 61-69. 

Kme, op.cit., Vol. 11, p. 173f. 

Bid, Vol.11, p. 180. 

For the mention of various passages and discussions, vide Kane, P.V., 

Vol.11, p.25 fl:, p.33. 

In the ARM the word dasyu occurs in the sense of a robber, 2.183. 

Kane, P. V., Op.cit., Vol.11, p. 180. 

Ibid. 

Ibid, p. 182. 

Mbh., Crical Edn., 2.48.29. 

ARM, 2.346. 

Ibid, 2.419. 

Ibid, 2.420-23. 

Ibid, 2.43 1. 

Ibid, 2.432. 

Ibid, 2.432. 

Ibid, 2.433. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid, 2.434. 

Ibid. 

Ibid., 2.435. 

Ibid, 2.435. 

Ibid. 

Ibid.

114. %id, 2.436. 

115. Ibid. 

116. Ibid, 2.437. 

117. Ibid, 2.438. 

118. Ibid. 

3 19. Ibid. 

120. Ibid, 2.439. 

121. %id, 2.440. 

122. Ibi42.441. 

123. Ibid, 2.441-42. 

124. Ibid, 2.443. 

125. Mmu,V.8. 

126 ARM, 2.443. 

127. Ibid, 2.444. 

128. Ibid. 

129. Prabhu, Pandhari Nath, Hindu Social organisation, p. 83. 

130. Kane,P.V.,0p.cit.,Vol.II,Part.Iyp.418. 

131. ~p.Dhar.Su.,II.9.21.1;VideKane,P.V.,Op.cit.,Vol.II,pt.I,p.116~ 

132. RV,X,1O9.5;AVyV.17.5,X.7. 

133. Ai.BrA,33.11. 

134. Manu, VI.6; Gau-a, nI.33. 

135. Kane,P.V.,Op.cit.,Vol.II,pt.I,p.421. 

136. Ibid, p.422. 

137. RV, X.92.2; I. 187.1

138. Ibid, 1.27.18; V.26.6; VIII 18.24 etc. 

Ch2nd. up., 11.23.1. cf Kane, P.V., History of Dharma hs., Vol.1, 

pt.1.p. 1. 

Kane, P.V., Op.cit. Vol.1, pp. 1-3. 

RV, X. 109,.5. 

Gaut, 3. 4. 8; xp. Dhar, Su., I. 1.1.27; V&is&a., 7.4.6; Manu., II., 

243- 44,47-49, Yidj., 1.49-50. 

Manu, 11.245. 

Kane, P.V., Op.cit, Vol.11, Pt. I. p.408. 

Brahmacarylidayo vede prokfas catvcZra &amuh / ARM, 2.23 8. 

Ibid, 2.244. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Yo 'dhyupayed skadejam Srutera~g~,nyathupi vd /

158. ARM,2,245. 

159. Ibid. 

160. Ibid, 2.246. 

161. Ibid, 2.247. 

162. Ibid. 

163. Manu, IX. 28: Kme, Op.cit., Vol.11, pt. I., p.429. 

164. Ngrada Pur., I. 07.1084. 

165. Mbh, Anu., 128,25-26. 

167. Mmu,IIZ.68-71;Kane,Olp.cit.,Vol.II,pt.I.,p.698. 

168. ARM, 2.249. 

169. Manu, 111.67. 

170. Kane, Op.cit., Vool.11, pt.11, p.799. 

17 1. Gautama, 111.2. 

172. Baud.Dh.Sii.,II.6, 11-16;Manu,V1.21. 

173. Mmu., VI,3; Y3j., 111.44. 

174. Ibid, V1.4,9-10; Ibid, IIL44. 

175. Ibid, VI.5,7; Ibid, 111.45. 

176, Narada pur., I.27,85-91: 44, 120-122. 

177. Manu,VI 1-32. 

178. Cf. Dajaratha's asking for permission in Ayodhya Gin* of $rimad 

Vdmiki R3mayaqa. 

180. Kane, Op.cit, VoI.11, pt.1. p.43 1.

75 

Narada pur., I.27,9 1-104 

Manu, V1.38; Y~J, 111.55; D*a, VII. 1. 

Manu, VT.41,3,44; Vasista, 10.12-15; Laghu Visnu S tM, Iv.5. 

Daksa, VII. 3 8. 

Manu, VI. 57 59. 

Gautama, 3.18; Visnu smi, 96-13. 

Narada pur., 1.43, 122-127. 

Mbh., XII, 18 1 - 185, BON. 

Bshad. up., IV.4.22; Kane, Op-cit., Vol.11, pt.11, p 942. 

Manu., VI. 38, 97; Kane, op.cit., Vol.11, pt.11, p.943. 

Kane, Op. cit., Vol. 11, pt.11, p. 943. 

Y2j., TI. 60.32. 

Mbh., ~anti., 18.32. 

ARM, 2.238, 39. 

Ibid, 2.255, 256. 

Ibid, 2.254. 

KalpasQtra, 44.3 1.877. 

Papini, IV. 3.1 1. 

YaSas., p.408. 

Kalpasiitra, 44. 8 1.862. 

%id, 44. 91.861. 

ARM, 2.256. 

Kane, Op.cit., Vol.II, p.516. 

Majumdar, R.C., Pusalkar, AR., The Age of Imperial Unity,

76 

pp.559-60. 

Ibid, p.559. 

Kane, Op.cit., Vol.11. p. 521 E 

ARM, 2.328. 

Ibid, 2.330. 

Ibid, 2.340. 

RV, IV. 17.17; VIII. 86.4 etc., 

ARM, IT 202. 

Ibid, 11.212. 

Em, Bala, 38.12. 

Ibid, Ayodhya, 107.12; Mbh, Cr. Edn., 1.147.5. 

ARM, 2.240. 

Ibid, 2.241. 

Ibid, 2.243. 

Ibid. 

Ibid, 2.339. 

hid, 2.437. 

Ibid, 2.351. 

Ibid, 2.349, 50. 

Ibid, 2.352. 

Ibid, 2.353. 

Ibid, 2.354. 

Altekar, AB., Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, p.91. 

Ibid, pp. 18- 19.

77 

Ibid, pp.11-12. 

Kane, Op.cit., Vol.11, p.366. 

Altekar, Op.cit., pp. 77-78. 

ARM, 2.328. 

Ibid, 2.340. 

Manu, 11.145. 

BRM, 2.349. 

Ibid, 2.343,44. 

Altekar, Op.cit., pp. 150 ff. 

ARM, 2.230. 

Altekar, Op.cit., pp.229-236. 

Ibid, p.239 E 

ARM, 2.339. 

Ibid, 2.325. 

Ibid, 2.340. 

Kane, Op.cit., Vol. 11, pp. 567 E 

ARM, 2.331. 

cf. na bhajef stri svatantratarn / Manu, V. 148. 

Ibid, IX.3. 

Ibid, VIII.416. 

ARM, 5.42. 

Dayabhaga of VyAsa. Ch. IV., sed.111, 19.21. 

Majumdar, R.C., and Pusalkw, AD., The Age of Imperial Unity, 

pp.43 1-32.

252. sat. Brg., ed. Weber, A, Berlin - 1855; XVI. 1.1. 

Ai. Br., Ananda Asrma Press, 1896; I. 1. 

Tait. Ar., Anandahma Press, 1898, X. 1 1. 

Piinini, IV. 3.38; Majumdar and Pusalkar, Op.cit., p.432. 

Bhandarkar, R.G., Vaisnavism Saivism and Minor Religious System, 

pp.49,5 1. 

Pusalkar, AD., Studies in Epics and Puranas of India, p. 6 1. 

ARM, 1.7; 1.25; 1.11. 

Majumdar and Pusalkar, Vedic Age, pp. 186-87. 

Macdonnel, A. k ., Vedic Mythology, p.74. 

Qggayajur Veda, W.5, 

AV, IV. 28; VII.87 etc., 

Chattopadhyaya, S., The Evolution of Theistic Sects in Ancient India 

upto the Time of ~arik~~c3lr~a, pp. 20,21. 

Bhandarkar, Op.cit., pp.151, 152. 

Ibid, p. 165. 

Mbh., anti, 337-62. 

Tantrgloka, ed. Pandit Madhusodan Kaul ~gstri, N.S. Press, Bombax 

pp. 27,22,23 vide History of ~aiva culta in Northern India, 

Pathak, V.S., p.5. 

Taltraloka, ,XI, p.396. 

Pathak, V.S. ., Op.cit., p. 8. 

Pusallcar, AD., Op.cit., P.XIIX. 

Bhandarkar, Op.cit., p. 169. 

MM, 1.11-13.

Majumdar and Pusakar, Op.cit., pp. 186, 87. 

Hastings, James, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, IVY p.706. 

RV, 11.4 1.16; Macdonnel, A. A, Op.cit., p.86. 

RV, V; Swami Madhavananda and Majumdar, R. C., Great Women of 

India, p.58. 

Majumdar, R.C., and Pusakar, AD., Age of Imperial Kanauj, p.467. 

Majumdar, R.C., and Pusalkar, AD., Classical Age, p.440. 

Ibid. 

Swami Madhavananda and Majumdar, Op.cit., p.57. 

ARM, 1. 15-17. 

Gyani, S.D., Agnrpur3na : A Study, pp.276. 

N5radapur., 1.87, 1.8; 41-62, 100-130, 156-160. 

Bhandarkar, Op. cit., P. 15 1,52. 

Ch. upa., 111. 17.16. 

Chattopadhyaya, S., Op.cit., p. 5 8. 

Majumdar and Yusalkar, The Age of Imperial Unity, p.465. 

Fquhar, J.N., An Outline of the Religious Literature of India, p.15 1. 

Ibid. 

Majumdar and Pusalkar, Classical Age, p.437. 

Majumdar and Pusalkar, Age of Imperial Kanauj, p.333 E, p.335. 

Banerjee, R.D., Age of Imperial Guptas, p. 125 ff. 

Bhardrtrkar, Op.cit., p. 158. 

Ibid, p.155. 

ARM, 1.35-39. 

Majurndar and Pusalkar, Vedic Age, pp.444-45.

80 

Hastings, James, Op. cit , Vol.11, p. 811. 

Majumdar and Pusalkar, Op.cit., p.444. 

Majumdar and Pusallcar, Age of Imperial Unity, p.464. 

Hastings, James, Op.cit., Vol. 11, p. 8 7 1. 

vet. Up., N 10; Majumdar and Pusalkar, Vedic Age, p.494-495. 

Majumdar and Pusalkar, Age of Imperial Unity, p.464. 

Majumdar and Pusalkar, ClassicaI Age, p.435. 

Ibid, p.436. 

ARM, 1.6-7. 

VenkaWamayy a, ~udra-~iva, p. 71. 

Bhandarkar,, Op.cit., p. 1 50. 

Saletore, R.N., Life in Gupta Age, p. 50 1. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

ARM, 1.19, 20. 

Getty, GaneSa, pp. 1-2. 

I-Iopkins, F. W., Epic Mythology, pp. 106,206. 

Getty, Op.cit., p.212. 

Bhandarkar, Op-cit., p.212. 

cf. The Prolegomena to the Adiparva of the MahabGrata, 

BORI. edn., p.lXXV. 

ARM, 1.18. 

Ibid, 1.85-86.

Of the hndarnental needs of a man foool, clothing and shelter, 

food occupies the first place. In the early stages of civilization man was 

essentially a food gatherer and lived on the flesh of animals he killed and the 

wild routs, fruits and Dowors which hc galhclved. But later, lnalcing use of' 

his superior itltclligence, he began to tame wild animals and raise crops. This 

was a great step forward in solving the ever present problem of food. With the 

advancement in civilizatio~~ he began to improve his food bod1 with regard to 

its taste and its nutritive value. Complexities of life led to complexities of 

food. Mm began to prepare delicious foods and dishes by mixing various 

articles of food arid by cooking them in different ways. He began also to 

bring together articles of food fkom didit lards. 

Ancient Indians cared for the spiritual advancement of the people 

but they were not averse to worldly enjoyments. They wanted to maintain a 

harmonious balance between the different aspects of life. They hlly realized 

that they could not fi~lfill their other-worldly Ip~ralaukrkcr) d~~ties unless 

they had the minimum of the necessities of life in this world. It was this out 

look 011 life which made them attach considerable importance to the matter of 

food. 

In the Chdndogyopanisat it is said that it is food which enables 

a man to use all his faculties.' 

Purity of thought, according to these sages, 

depends on purity of food. Purity of thought leads to good memory and when 

good memory does not fail, all die knots which bind a man to this world are 

loosened.2 Food is called panacea because all creatures depend on it3 In 

the ChcZndogl~apani~at we fmd that ~vetaketu's father cuts off all food to his 

son except water to show that all knowledge disappear when one is not 

permitted to take food."

The organizers of the Buddhist and Jaina shrines also had 

realized the importance of food, and laid down explicit rules as to what should 

be eaten and what should be avoided. The Sum-s also laid down food 

suitable for students, widows, hermits and people observing vows.' Even 

works on politics like Arthaiustra of Kau~ilya and the writers of 

YuSastilaka and MdnasollcEsa discuss the question of food and drinks at 

length with relation to health6 

There are enough irIforrnation about the science of cooking and 

food habit prevailed at the time of Ilalayudha in the ARM. There are many 

methods adopted to prepare food like preparing it with @lee - sarpi~a, 

preparing with curd - ddhiku, preparing with brine- udalciva@ka, roasting 

in fire - aligurapuI~kva, cooking in a pot - ukhp and cooking in a spit - 

7 

Siilya etc. A big list of edible items are also furnished therewith.8 

The 

ramnant of food which have been offered to the gods, deceased ancestors, a 

guest or a spiritual guide is called ~ i~hasa.~ The leaving of food is called 

10 

phelika . 

Halayudha altogether compiles 11 verbs for eating and four 

words for satisfaction - tPti.l1 In this connection it will be appropriate to 

study the food articles and the food items found in AKM. 

I. CEREALS AND PULSES : 

a. Cereals: 

i. Didivi : This is a high quality rice and very long in size. 

Somadeva the author of YuSastiEaka has mentioned that the didivi is very long 

and shining like the eyes of loving damsels.12 This word is found in the 

Rgveda in the sense of shining.'' It is also used as an adjective to Agni and

14 

Brhaspati. 

Halayudha has mentioned it in the sense of cooked rice.15 

Probably the anna was prepared in the variety called didivi. 

ii) Kalarna : It is a special species of good smelling rice. This 

variety is seeded at rainy season. And it is enrouted when they grow one foot in 

height. Then they are planted in other place. It will be ready for hx-vest by 

winter season. Actually kalarna is a variety of iulz rice. In the Jaina literature 

three varieties of iuti is found mentioned - i) rakta Sdi, ii) kalarnai&li and 

iii) mahcrSali. According to ~v&a~adasa,'~ kcllama was produced in 

Magadha country. The kalama stalks grow very long and they will bend at 

17 

the ripened time. 

When kalama reaches die climax of ripening, it should 

be protected well. K2liasa mentions the women guarding the paddy fields of 

18 

kalamo, sitting in the shadow of sugarcanes. E3haravilg and ~ 2 ~ h a ~ too 

have mentioned about safe guarding the kalama field. The kalama becomes 

pale ~vllea it ripes. 2 1 

iii) Karigu : GSyapa in his Bhojanakalpa says that the people in 

South India were fond of food grains as kavigu, cifiatoko etc." 

But generally it 

is used by foresters. According to the Dictionary of Economic Products it is 

probably indigenous. The sarizhitu-s of Ycrjurveda mention karigu. A dark 

variety of kangu with large grains is called varaka by Kau~ilya. SuSruta 

mentions kangu offour types as black, red, yellow and white. Probably the 

brown variety wall called Kuruvinda by Caraka. Hal2yudha treats kangu and 

23 

priyatigu as one and the same. 

iv) Kodrava : It is an inferior cereal, mostly used by poor people 

and ascetics. Vhayapifaka mentions its use by n~onks.'~ Kauiilya has 

mentioned that kodrava is one among the pt'irvavdpa i.e. grains of the first

25 

crop. Mdhabharata denies kodrava as an offering ai the time of Srddha. 26 

A wild variety of kodrava is called driraka by ~aufil~a.'~ Halayudha says its 

is an inferior sort of grain. 28 

V) Koradusuku : SuSruta says that korudu.yka is an infer;or 

variety of grains, comn~only used by poor people and ascetics.2g It was not 

regarded a sacred grain. Halsyudha identifies it with kodrava. 3 0 

vi) Nivara : It is a very popular inferior variety of cereals. It's 

use can be traced back to the Vedic period. It is also called as wild rice and 

usually foresters eat it.)' It was also used by poor people and ascetics. It is 

a tern dhunya as mentioned in the Yujar veda. Apastambha calls it an 

uncultivated grain and it is considered a sacred grain hence it seems to be 

indigenous. Darunivdra and praScZvltiku were its two varieties. Halayudha 

also calls it as t~ dhdnya. 32 

vii) Priyarigu : It is a kind of inferior cereal. SuSruta has 

33 

counted przyafigu under kudhcitzya category. 

Yuyapurupz mentions 

priynrigu as one of the cultivated grain." HalZiyudha identifies it with 

knngu . 35 

viii) ~gli : It is the best variety of rice. In the period of Sfitra 

literature barley and rice seem to be common. A fine variety of rice, idi is4 

distinguished from the ordinary vrihi variety. According to Panini, Sdli was 

grown in winter while vrihi was grown in autumn.36 Cakrapil~i while 

commenting upon Caraka also opines the same- Sdi hairnuntam dhanyam

+a~pkdayal ca gru2ynokdh vrihuyah idrnd~@.~~ He further adds that the 

most popular varieties of Skli are raktaiali, nzah&dli and kalamu. Caraka, 

however, has mentioned some fifteen varieties of Sdli rice, and a five inferior 

38 

varieties. 

In tile ~hojanakal';~ KaSyapa refers that jdli rice was the 

favourite one ofthe people in Eastern part of India. Halsyudha mentions only 

the thee varieties of iGli - raktaidli, ~nahaidli and kalama. 40 

ix) Sa~tild : It is a variety of rice mentioned by P8nini which 

takes sixv days to ripen." Patanjali also refers to it4' 

Cakrapsni while 

commenting upon caraka says that snstika ripens in sixty days in summer. 43 

According to A+fdrigu snltgraha it is considered to be highly nourishing.44 

From ~abara's cotnmc~~tary on Jaimini's Minlunzsk sz2tra (1.31) it appears that 

parched sastika rice was eaten with milk. Halayudha calls the land sa~#kya! 

where sasfika grain is cultivated. 45 

x) Syiimnka: lt is an iderior variety oS ifnudhcinya. It is 

46 

mentioned in the Sumhlta-s of Yc~jurveda. 

Apastambha calls it an 

uncultivated grain hence it seems to be indigenous. It was probably used 

by hermits. We luve two varieties of @dm&# - rL?ja@cZm&u and ambhafz- 

Sy6m&o or foyujldrndka. A third variety called hastjjzckuka is mentioned 

by VBgbhat-a I. As?a.rigah@aya mentions about iyamuka along with other 

48 

tnu2dhanYa-s.47 According to ARM it is also called as jydmaka. 

xi) Vrihi: The common variety of rice is called vrihi. There are 

numerous theories regarding Ule origination of ~rihi.~' There is no definite 

evidence to show that it was grown in the Indus Valley and the word is not

mentioned in the Rgveda, but is mentioned in the Yajuweda. The grain has 

been identified at Maheshwar, Nevda, Toli excavations and the rice'husk was 

used in mud plaster at ~ astir~~~ura.~~ It had become the staple food of the 

Indians even before the beginning of the Christian era. Its wide popularity is 

evident from a number of varieties mentioned in the Sam hitd-s of Caraka and 

Susrut. StiSrata mentions about sornc 39 varieties of vrihia5' Kaulilya says 

52 

.that vrihi is a piirvavdpa. 

Caraka says that vrihi ripens at the time of 

53 54 

autumn. Halayudha says vrihi means grain in general. 

wihi rice is grown is called vraiheya. 55 

The field where 

i ) Java: 

Atlio~lg cereals the most important place was 

occupied by yava - Barley. Yava is 111 use from the vedic age. Athawa veda 

mentions about it. j6 It has been identified in the Indus Valley 57 and was the 

staple food grain of the 8gvedic Aryans. An inferior variety of barley is 

mentioned by Pagini as yuvkni.58 KauUlya calls it yavuka. Probably it may 

be identified with oats. A large variety is called atiyava by SuSruta. The 

two varieties of barley, one cultivated O/ava) and the another uncultivated 

(yavdni) were co~nmonly used in preparing a mess, a pel, grout and 

5 9 

cakes. 

Of the barley preparations grout, yavagd, dhunc-i, yavaka and 

apupa-s were very popular. A$#riga Sa~grahu refers to two other varieties of 

barley, ayyuvu - inferior variety of barley arid vewyava - bamboo seeds 

60 

which were used as articles of food. Hal~yudha informs about the usage of 

fiied barley as a chief food item, and it is called as dhdnri6' The field of 

62 

barley is known as yatya.

i. &&ah-: It is a most popular pulse used from a very earliest 

63 

period. SuSruta has mentioned it. KaSyapa in his Biiojanakalpa records that 

61 

the people in South India were very fond of ad~akz. 'Tile grain has been 

identified at Mahcshwar, Nevda, Toli (1200 RC) but is mentioned for the first 

time by Caraka. It is also called tuvari, The Munasollasa mentions a 

dark variety k~~dhaki. Halayudha also mentions that n&uki is called as 

fuvari. 65 ii) Kalaya: Pea is called kcr2dya. The sacred Books of 

Buddhists refer to kalciyo one of the most popular pulses.66 Besides old 

pulses kaluya seems to have become popular at the time of Patafijali. I-Ie 

expressly mentions about a soup prepand from it.67 While referring to 

vegetables, Kautilya says that among beans kalciyu was used as vegetable. 68 

Caraka also includes kaldya under the list of vegetables. According to him 

Krrl@u was also parched and eat- 

besides being made into soup.69 

Charred peas fiom Harappa thou@ to be of cultivated variety. The grains 

have also been discovered at Maheshwar, Nevda, Toli (1200 BC). According 

to the Dictionary of Economic Products of India, the grains originated 

from Italy but existed in India before the time of Aryans. We come across 

three varieties of peas as s&tina, khan&k& and hare?. Halayudha 

mentions only the sritino and khav4ikc-i varietie~.~' 

iii) Khapdik: It is a well known pulse used from the early age 

in India Caraks has mentioned about it." 

tripugzka. SomeSvara calls it vat@du. 

Khan@ka is also called 

Halgyudha identifies it with

iv) Masiira: It is a most popular variety of pulse. Even early 

Dravidians were uwd to pulses like rnm, mudgo and rna~rira.~~ The 

excavations at Maheshwar and Nevda Toli have shown that the people in 

that region were using wheat rice, masura etc., as early as about 1200 BC. 

The Taittiriya ~r~ihrnuqu~~ mentions musGya, which seems to be a 

misreading for masura. It is said in lh?m Dharmasutru that in a k&idha, 

preparations of masiira should not be sewed.75 h1 the Bhela samhifa it is 

mentioned that knmbhoja-s were fond of preparations of rna~rira~~. The use 

of riijum@a, maszira and .niqdva is interdicted in a Srddha by 

77 78 

Puruys. SuSruta mentions a variety called maligalya. Halayudha 

mentions that it is also called marigalyaka. 79 

80 

variety of moslira. 

v) Marigalyaka: It is a lcind of pulse. SuSruta had treated it as a 

But Hal~yudha identifies it with maslira.81 

vi) Mssa: The kidney beans are called m@a. it has been 

discovered at Maheshwara, and Navda Toli (1200 BC), and has been 

mentioned in the Yajuweda. According to the Dictionary of Economic 

Products, it originated from Egypt or Europe. The prohbition against its use 

in Srczddha shows its exotic nature. On the basis of Dr. J. Burrow's studies of 

early Dravidian consisted of boiled rice (kura) and fried barley (vupa). Ofthe 

pulses (jimbi) they used mcisa, mudga and nza~rira.~' But for some reason or 

83 

other the use of m&a is indicted for sacrificial purpose. 

Apastambha too 

forbids the use of dark grains like m@a beans in a ~ rddho.~~ .1t appears from

the Greek sources that there were two main crops, one ripening in winter 

@uwavdpa) consisting of rice and millet, and the other ripening in summer 

@aScd vapa) the chief' products there of being wheat and barley. But from 

Kaucilya we learn that there was a third crop which was grown in between tl~e 

two main crops (madhya vapa). It dlieily produced bem such as mudga 

85 

'and mdsu. 

Tllc medical works rcgard rnciso as the worst pulsc hecause it 

was dficult to 

Hal2y~dh;t rzf~rs to the field of kidney beans as 

vii) Mudga: ibiudgu is also a popular pulse lu~ow~ to India froin 

a remote time of early Dravidian invasion to India. In vedic period rice was 

Lkcn duty will1 iiivdgii boua and is kr~uwn xi ,nv&uudunu." 

Ki

96 

under pulses category. 

90 

ix) Siltina: It is a variety of kalkya. SuSruta has included it 

In another place he says that satina is considered to 

be the best among pot herbs. Halsyudha identifies it with kalGya. 97 

TI. DAIRY PRODUCTS : 

The da j products are generally called gavya padurtha-s. 

Among the gavya puddrtha-s milk, butter, buttemilk and ghee are chiefly 

used. 

Halayudha as 

i) Butter: Butter, the essence of milk is rightly named by 

~kdhisrira.~~ It is also called as novnnita and 

haijw~igavina.~~ Though navonifa and haiycirigavina are treated as 

synonyms yet there is a subtle difference. The fresh butter is called navanita. 

It was very commonly used both in food preparation and in spiritual rites 

like yaga etc.loO In the time of Suiruta it meant fresh butter.''' 

Later the 

word was used in the sense of butter in general. Haiyahgavina is the butter 

churned fiorn the curds of previous day's milk.102 Yuan Chwang states that 

butter and milk formed the important food articles of the students of Nalanh 

~niversity."~ Some people were excessively fond of butter. arva6i the 

divine nymph is said to be lived on butter alone. lo4 Clarified butter was 

considered a germicide in the gurdw-s. 

According to SuSruta the mixture 

of cl&ed 

butter and curds were eaten as a food item.lo6 

ii) Butter milk: There are some varieties of butter prepared 

depending upon the ratio of water and churned curd. Butter milk with fourth 

part of water is known as takra.lo7 Butter milk with equal proportion of water

is known 

as ~daivit'~~ ayarnukta while commenting upon Amarkoiu 

109 

corroborates the same view. 

Halgyudha has no difference of opinion on ths 

definition He mentions six words for fakru. 110 

iii) (&@a: Ghce is a nourishing lbod itcm, llencs it is 

celebrated as the very life itself - d pr vcii gh~am. Snrpith ,oh yata, 6jyu and 

dghara are the words to denote the ghee in general.111 Haliiyudha also 

names the coagulated ghee as Sku, the boiled one as Sfla and the melted one as 

112 

dmta. 

iv) Milk: Milk is considered as the very fife itself, as it becomes 

put of our life righi fro111 the hir-111. IIznce I-Ialtiyudha calls milk as pty@a the 

113 

nector, besides mentioning other five words. 

111. FOOD ITEMS : 

a Vegetarian : 

i) Abhpsa : Green barley or wheat in ears when parched and 

hcaten with a pcstlc md mixed with gu&r is callcd ubl7yug;cr. l"r?ini has 

mentioned abhyt7.p in his upupkdivurga. In the period of Gupta, Abhyea 

was a most popular sweet preparation. 

ii) limik@: Amik~d is prepared by adding curd into the boiled 

milk.l14 Mahidhara siys when curd is added to boiled milk it splits and the 

thicker portion is called amiksd; the thinner or liquid (remaining) portion is 

called vdjina. 'I5 Amik+ri is found mentioned in Veda-s. There are 

frequent references about it in Yajurvedn Salhhitu and intapahto B~rirnaw. 

A rnik?~ is used as an offering into fire during rituals,

iii). Apiipu: It is a kind US cake. It's history starts fi-om vedic 

116 11 7 

age. It is a round shaped cake of barley or rice flour, baked in clarified 

butter on slow fire.l18 Honey was added to it. It is probably the earliest sweet 

known to us. P2qini mentions about cG~@r~ptZp~ in whch wheat flour, &ied 

in clarified butter, mixed with sugar was used as stuffing - priraw. 'lg 

During 

the epic period the npiipo-s have become the most common sweets.''' 

Caraka 

121 

also refers to them. 

Cakes prepared with broken pieces of rice are also 

mentioned in Jaina ~iteratutre. lZZ 

Caraka mentions ptipa-s prepared with the 

addition of Inilk and juice of sugarcane - k~irek.n~ras@~pak~.123 Besides its 

usual mode of preparation, apiipa was also prepared by cooking in pit, 

heated with chaf'f fire - kakiila pah, cooking in an earthen pot - kGZrpara 

pakva, coohg in a bhy~pa - bhy;fruplrkva, cooking in a kcmdu - karrdu 

pakva and cooking on live charcoals - urigara pakva. Halayudha gives 

ap r2.a 'S one more name pupalr'ka. 124 

iv) Avad~Sa: Th.Aufiecl~t, in his glossary of words found in 

ARM has translated the term nvadarhia as n stimulant to 

It is a 

spicy item like chips etc., taken along with liquor. ~rutasg~ara while 

commenting upon the YaSastilaka opines that the mixture of boiled rice and 

some cooked vegetables (vynfijano) is ovadam~a.'~~ M~nsoll3sa gives an 

elaborate account of preparing vya2jana. 

iadulu &ditarn toyam cin"c&lew virniiritam / 

@at takrew saniyuktam sitayu saha yojitam // 

eEa ctirw sam@uk.tam &drakasya raseqiz ca / 

127 

dhupitam hirigund samyag vyaZjunurn pariktrtitum.//

93 

Hemacandra clearly says that avadafiia is a spicy item eaten in 

128 

between liquor. It is also called as upudurizia and caksalyr. 129 

v) Bhakta : The cooked rice is called bhakta.l3' Halgyudha 

gives six other words to denote the cooked rice.13' (Also see kzira and odana, 

below.) 

vi) Caru : Cooked rice from which water was not strained, the 

grains became soft but remained disti~lct."~ This is known as cam. But 

according to ARM caru is a vessel lke pa$ or an oblation consecrated by 

prayers, or ihe vessel in which such an oblation is 

Probably this 

item was not eaten during the time of Walayudha, however, its use in the 

rituals was in vogue. 

vii) lDh21~. : Parched barley are called dhdnd. This item is 

known to vedic people.134 During the Pgvedic period parched barley was eaten 

either with soma juice135 or ground into meal which was mixed with curds, 

136 

clarified butter, soma juice, water or milk. 

this.'" He also refers to the sprouted barley being 

139 

also mentions the use of parched barley. 

Caraka mentions about 

Haljyudha 

viii) Kaiiljika : It is a kind of sour gruel. Accordirig to 

Dr.Bunow, sour rice gruel was used by Dravidians. It was very popular in 

Kaiici and Avanti. Two varieties of kcziijikti are mentioned by Sus'ruta, 140 

one prepared with the husk of cereals - Tu.;iimbu and the other prepared with 

the food grains - dhanycimla. Suiruta also recommends that the sour gruel

14 1 

was good for sea - titring men. Hal2yudla, altogetlzer, nlentiorls nine types 

of sour plel known to him and they are dhcipimla, GrnnGla, sandhanu, 

kafijik6, sauvira, abhisava, nvunftsomu, tusodaku and Siikta. 142 

is) Kilfita : Mrhcn the milk is inspissated thc liclilid part is 

called kilci@.14) But Dalhwa uses the word to denote the solid part of 

inspissated milk. According to HalSyrdha liilafn is the liquid portion and 

krircikka is tile solid part of inspissated milk. 144 (Also see kzircikd. below.) 

x) KGsa : It is the sane as bhakia. The Afigavjj'a mentions to 

145 

rice cooked with oil, with mustard and with leaves. 

above and odana below ) 

(Also see bhakta 

xi) Kiirciki : Tlie solid portion of inspissated milk is called 

kurcika. Kautilya lays down that the solid part of inspissated milk (kiucikd) 

should be given to the soldiers with the food and the liquid part (kil&p) to the 

cows with fodder.146 It's daily use is not recomncnded by SuSruta, kIe also 

147 

refers to the sweets prepared from it called krirciku viw. FIalayudha says 

that the solid portion of inspissated milk is hovn as klir~iltd,~~~ (Also see 

hlag above). 

xii) Laja : The parched rice is termed as 2gu. It was in use 

fiom the vedic period itself In Sutra period IGja was used in the rituals of 

marriage.149 Tl~e reference to laja is also available in the Rimdyam 150 

and the ~ahlibhdrotn. It is mentioned in the Rlim~j~a~ 

that idja was 

eaten with 

Silyqa opines that lala was made out of frying vrihi 

rice.'*) Hal2yudha gives a broad sense to this word. According to him any

parched grain is called as ldja. 154 

xiii) Mathita : Curds churned without water were called mathtta. 

155 

Amara also gives the same e~pl~t~~i~tiofi. Ti is illso menfionctil in Ihc 

~~nosol~sa.'~~ Hal2yudha also opines the same. 157 

xiv) Mistgnna : A savory food or a dainty dish is called 

158 

mi;@urla. It is mentioned in the Rdmdyana. 

Probably it was the most 

favoulite iten? of the ancient time. Halayudha mentions it's other name that is 

vyafijana. 159 xv) Odana : Odanu is the main food of Indians. It is same as the 

hhakta or kara. We I~ave ~tzin~erous references about ndann it] Tyedu-s. It is 

prepared by boiling the rice in water. San~etimes the rice was also cooked in 

milk and oil. The variety preparation of odanrz mentioned in Veda-s are 

Ksirodanu, dudhyoduncr, filaudanci, ghflaudana, tnudgaudana and 

mdlnsaudana. It was also cooked with pulses.160 By the time of epics 

odana has become the part of the life of Indians.l6' According to Dr.Bunow, 

the Dravidians used boiled rice. In the ~~,,eda,'~* it has the sense of a mess, 

but in the ~tharvavedal~~ and in the later literature it meant bailed rice. 

Suiruta mentions two varieties of o&na one in which rice was well washed - 

164 

dhautu and the others in which rice was not washed before cooking. 

Odana was prepared with clarified butter, meat, hits, tubers, pulses and 

milk. Hal~yudha treats odana, bhakto and krira as synonyms.165 (See also 

bhakta and kdra, above). 

mi) Paramiinnu : Paramilnna is widely known as payasa. It 

is prepared with milk, rice and sugar. Four portions of rice is cooked in twelve 

portions of milk and six portions of butter and three portions of sugar is

I66 

mixed to it. 

Hal~yudha gives it's other name sls Jcsazreyi 107 

wii) Papa : It appears frotli Y,d.jfi~~~~kya~m?il that p&yasu 

made with sa~tikd rice was considered the best.168 It is prepared with rice 

cooked with milk and ~nixcd will1 s11~;11.. 11;ll:iytldh~ tI.~iit~ it ilS ii ~yt~~;ly~il it 

ycrrcrridilna. 169 

xviii) P$iuka 

: Sdli rice seeds, when moist are slightly 

parched and flattened by the strokes of pestle, are called pythuka. By the 

time of Satra literature pflhukcr hw become more popular. From the 

Baudhuyann g~hya satm, we, learn tlmt ppythzlka-s were given like an 

170 

offering or presentation to the elders. Caraka mentions p?huka prepared 

with barlg.17' 

Flu1;iyudha refers to mother kind of preparation of pphuka. 

According to liim the rice which has first beell scalded with hot water, then 

dried over the fire and lastly ground in a mortar is the way of preparing 

xix) Pupalika : It is sa~r~c as the up@a. But according to 

Caraka pripalikd was a snlall cake of rice or wheat flour fried in @lee with 

gudo hide and coated with 

174 

piipalika made of wheaten flour. 

Halgyudha too mentions about 

xx) S@ : Boiled milk as distinguished from fresh milk is called 

Spa. 175 xxi) Upad~Ga : It .is more or less similar to nvadu7izSa. 

Haiduyudha treats both upadalhia and ovadarizia as synonyms. 176 (Also 

see avudaea 

above).

177 

Pagini. 

xsii) Usn& : It is a peya variety of barley gruel, mentioned by 

Though ~al~yudha'~~ treats ugzik~ as a synonym of yav&gli - 

gruel made up of yova i.e. barley, 

rice p el in his gIossary. 179 

Th. Aufiecht has given the meaning as 

xxiii) Yavag : It is an usual item in the Indian tradition right 

from the vedic age. It is a gruel made ofyuva gains. In the Mahavagga it 

is mentioned that yavigii is a nutritious food.180 Pgnini mentions that 

yavc2gu was a favorite food of the people of Alwar - Bikaner region. 181 

According to him yavagii had two varieties one of which was licked and the 

other was dntnk, and they arc called nakhclmpaca and upp'ka respectively. 

Patailjali also refers to it.182 SuSruta names all the gruels according to the 

proportion of water they contained. They are either drunk or licked. If the 

quantity of water mixed for cooking was four times that of food grains, it was 

called vilepi, if five tiines it was called anna, if six times yavuga 

and if 

fourteen times it is known as man&.'83 The Arigavijia mentions yavigri 

made with ghee, oil or vinegar. lR"~;rl~yuyudha refers to two tnore varieties of 

185 

yavGgt2 namely S rGy rvld tnrald otller than usruku md vilepik-Lz. 

b. Non - vegetarian prepmation : 

i) Anga~apakva - rndxfzsu : Meat roasted on live charcoals is 

said to be arigirap~~kva. It is also called as prutapta. Hah yudl~a mentions 

three varieties of meat preparation roasted on fire - bhgtl, bharrfi~aka and 

bhnta.186 In these types of preparation meat is well fied in ample quantity 

of clarified butter.187

ii) Bhuatra : According to ARM, the pieces of clean meat bored 

with some holes and filled with spices, were roasted on spits and some spices 

188 

were mixed with them were called bhclptra. It is mentioned in the 

Mrinasollasa that some times bhugt~a were dried &er cooking and then 

fried in ghee ' *' 

iii) Siiiyn : Meat roasted on spits or spikes are called 

iGlya. 

190 

This kind of meat preparation was lcllown to Ryvedlc people. 

Parjini also 

mentions about this.Ig1 Hal2yudha treats ililya and bhaqfra as synonyms. 192 

iv) Ukhya : Meat boiled in a pot is called ukhyarn&3sa. 193 

IV. SALTS AND SPICES : 

a. Salt: 

Salt is not mentioned in the Pgvedu although the salt range 

exis& in the Saptasindhu, the region occupied by the Bgvedic Indians. In 

the rest of the vedic literature salt is frequently mentioned.194 The Jaina 

works mention two varieties of salt - suuvurcala and pdlir5~kSa'ra.'95 The 

yinuyupi*aka mentions five varieties of salt - sea salt, black salt, rock salt, 

196 

kitchen salt and red salt. 

Sitline preparations were not allowed to students, 

ascetics, widows and to newly married couple for three nights as it were 

197 

colisidered exciting. 

Kautilya mentions a Superintendent of salt. 

(lova@~~ak~o)'~~ and six varieties of salt. lg9 It appears from the epics and 

SmM-s that besides ordinay salt sauvurcala, bib and black salt were in 

common use, but the use of bi& and black salt is interdicted in a 

tddha.200 It is also laid down that a brcihmaw should not deal in salt 201

and people should avoid eating salt in the palms oftheir hands or at night. 202 

Cmaka mentions five varieties of salts - rock salt, .t,azlval-cala, 

bi&, audhbido, and sea saltZo3. Subruta adds some more varieties. 204 

Haliiyudha mentions only four varieties of salt and they are sindhdtta, 

mapimantha, suindhava 205 and saiivarcu~a.~'~ Of all the salt varieties, 

Hal~yudha considers saindhova as the best one.207 SuSruta also feels the 

208 

same. Probably this salt is prepared eurn the river Sindhu. The 

sindht2tta, a river salt mentioned by Hal2yudha crtn also be of the same 

variety. The rna?zlmunthur salt is brought from the mountain 

called 

ma~itimantha. Sauvarcaia is a sort of salt prepared by fusing fossil salt with 

embolic rnyrobalm.zOg KautiIya has mentioned it. It is used in seasoning 

foods. Sauvarcala is also referred in the ~ ~ m + q zHalayudha a . ~ ~ ~ gives the 

211 

other name of sauvarcala as rucaka. 

b. Spices : 

i) Agaru : The Aloes wood is called aguru. It is mentioned in the 

Rrjrndyqm that agnm was used in preparing seasoning food.212 We do not 

know of its use as a spicy element from ARM. Since Halayudha has 

mentioned it along with the make-up items, probably it was used as a 

213 

cosmetic item, owing to its fiagrant smell. 

ii) Ajaji : It is cutnin seed. It is also popularly known as 

Jimka. According to the Dictionary of Economic Products, the term jiraka 

seen~s to have been derived from the Persian word ziru, hence it seem that 

it was introduced to India f?om ~ersia.~'~ Kau~ilya enlists ajaji into ka&ka 

vargu, 215 Even from the omliest days ojdji was a chief spice used in

preparing food. According to ARM ojaji and jiraka are synonyms. 216 

iii) Ardraka : Ginger in its undried state is called drdruka. Ii is 

appreciated in the medicinal works for its imedicinal qualities. In the 

217 

Atharuavecla it is called ad&ra. 

Caaka calls it S?%gavera. Kaucilya hm 

included this into kuplkn vurgu. 218 

I-Ial~yudlia also mentions its another 

2 19 

name i~tigavera. 

iv) I-Iir'igl : Hiriyu was one of the chief article used in seasoning 

food. We have a reference on hlgu in the ~rihdbh&roto.~~~ The 

Kdyupasamlzitr;d calls it bukliku which shows that it was imported fkoni 

22 1 

Afghaninsinn. It is also called as riirrlirlhrr hy ITal~~yur~hn. 

v) Karpura : Camphor was used to increase the aroma of food 

items. Particularly it was Laken along with betel leaves, after meals, in order to 

do away with its bad smell. Su5'nttrr has mentioned it."' 

According to 

Halayudhe it is also known a5 ghanoscira."" 

vi) Kast~rika : The musk obtained from a, kind of deer (musk 

deer) is called kusfdrikd. It was mainly used as a beauty cosmetic. People 

decorate their forehead \with the tilaka uf kasfiiriku. SuSruta has mentioned 

itZz4 May be it is used in food to add its flavour. Halayudha calls it as 

225 

mgamada. 

vii) Kesara : SaEon is krown as kesara. It is ,also called as 

kun:~kuuria.'~~ It is used to add colour to the food iterns. It is mainly used in 

sweet preparations. Besides its use in food, articles like kumkuma, kesara 

and kasturikd wcre used as beauty 

cosmetics. Halayudha names it as:

Kautilya 

229 

viii) Kustun~buru: It is the coriander seed. Par) ini22X 

and 

have mentioned it. It is also known as dhdnyuka. 230 Its seeds 

and dried leaves are used in cooking to add special taste. 

ix) Marica: Pepper is one of the most important and common 

spice used in seasoning food. We have the earliest reference of rnaricci in the 

dpastambha ~harrnasrirro.~~' It is also referred in the Rrimmpx 232 

Probably it grew in the region called Dhar.mapu;gv as Arnmasimha calls 

it &er the palce.233 Kautilya has dso 

mentioned it in the kokka 

vorga.234 11 is also called as vellaja and risann by ~ al~i~udha.~'~ 

x) Pippzli : Long pepper is one of the inipo~tmt spices used by 

the ancient Indians. It is mentioned in the ~thuwavedu.~~~ It is called 

@a@ 

in the Sntpathabrcihmano.237 Kau~ilya and the authors of medical 

works mcntion it as: onc; of the very iniportant spices. According to the 

Dictionary of Economic Products, it is indigenous to India. Besides its 

medical purpose it was also used in seasoning food. Walayudha inentiolls 

about some of' the varieties of long pepper, k?@, 

238 

maghadi, pzppali and ka@. 

upakulyu, vazdeht, 

xi) Trikatu: Tlze aggregate of three spices namely black pepper, 

long pepper and dry ginger is called trika@, It is also known as try@a~ and 

vyosa. 239 

xii) Vatsadmi: It is a lea@ vegetable used as a spice. Caraka has 

mnem~tioned it. Suiruta calls it gadiki. Halgyudha adds one more name, 

umrfu. 240

xiii) Visvabhesaja : Dry ginger, the best medicine of the 

unival.se, is rigl~tly named ss vi.+ivohhcsuju. Caraka also calls it a panacea 

because of its medical qualities. It is also used as chief spice in preparing food 

item fi-om a very remote time of India. Hal~yudh also gives the other name 

V. OIL SEEDS: 

The main oilseeds, fiom which oil had been extracted for 

the use of cooking, me~ntiolled by Ilalayudha were mustard, sesan~e and lin 

seed. He also refers to two types of sesame - tzla and four varieties of mustard 

- sar.yap(7. 1-Ierewiih a bricf note is given on each and every variety of oil 

seeds mentioned in ARM. 

i) Asu1-i : Black musbrd is called dsuri. According to Caraka, 

lisuri was used as a most common vegetable.z42 Perhaps the leaves are eaten 

besides its sceds being used to extract oil. I-lalayudha says, both Zsuri and 

rdjikii are called rdjcrsursapu. 243 

ii) ~4tasi : We have enough reference to prove that oil was 

extracted &om atnsi - lin seeds. 

~au~il~a,'~~ Angavijjh and early Jah 

canonical works mention it. Umd and Icglmd were the two other nmes of 

245 

linseeds mentioned in ARM . 

iii) Jdtila: A wild variety of sesame is called jnrfila. 1t is used 

as an oil seed as well as a food article. A kind of porridge were prepared from 

jar ti it^.^^^ According to Vtiyupurdw it is an uncultivated grain.247 Halgyudha

nanles it as a wild variety. 2.18 

249 

valley. 

iv) Rajika : It is a. species of black mustard grown in the Indus 

It seems to hnvc been med hy non-Aryans, as Amwasirnhu 

calls it suitable for a~ura-s.~~' It w ~s known to a Kaucilya. A variety of 

rG.jlkd is called baja in the Athurvaveda. 

25 1 

In Carakrr samhitii also it is 

called as asuri, probably it cvas nlainly used by ~~ot~-Aryals. In Hindi it is 

denoted as rdyi. Halayudha also calls it as lis~ri.'~~ 

v) Siil-~apa: 'fit: siipcrior viiricty of ~llushrd is caUcd sia.su~~cr. 

On the basis of philological studies by Jem Pnyluski, Jules Bloch and Sylvan 

Levi, we can say that the proto- austroloids, the second immigrants of India, 

hlew how to prepare mustard ~il.'~"t is found mentioned in Brcihmopz-s, 

Upanzsad-,r and SLltro-s. TIE white vasiety was considered as best as it is 

called ,siddhcirt,kn, Mustard was used as powder and oil. Kaurilya mentions 

254 

about the use of guzlra sarsapa In tht: spices categoly. 

The red variety 

was also known to hirn. The AriguviJa mentions a variety called raja 

sarscrpa. Yuan Chwang has noted that mustard oil was in common use. 

I-Tsing l~as also melltioned that ~nustard oil was in general use 

as frying medium.2S5 Viq~u in his Dhamaidsna prohibits the use of 

mustard seeds in kdddha. Kamusutra melitions tlie comtnon spices used for 

256 

seasoning namely dry ginger, cumin, mustard etc. 

Mustard stalks were 

generally eaten in winter.257 According to Kaulilya the importmt oil seeds 

known to him were sesame, safflower, linseed and mustard.258 Halayudha 

calls it ~iddhlirtha.'~~

vi) Siddhartha : It is the white mustard, also called as guara sarsapa. 

According to Halayudha it is the another name of sursapa. 

vii) Tila : Ofthe oil seeds, sesame was the most important article of 

food. Besides il was also used to prepare food items like gruel and porridge. 

Cakes made up of rila called Saqkul* were liked very much.26u Some of the 

monks were so fond of cakes prepared with sesame that once a Buddhist 

monk specially requested a house holder for it and had to express his regret for 

doing so in the assembly of monks.261 Sesame powder and sesame papads 

262 263 

were also eaten. Sesame oil was used by poor people. Kau~ilya 

264 

says that tila is a piiwavGpa ripening in winter. According to the 

Dictionary of Economic Products, 265 it was originally a native of Africa but 

brought to India before the advent of the Aryans. A lump of charred 

sesame was discovered in the Indus region. The word is used in the Yajur 

veda and Atharva veda. It was used both as an article of food and for 

extracting oil. But it seems that in the begbring it was used mainly by the 

non-Aryans. It is probably the earliest oil seed in India as the word taila is 

derived Born it. A wild variety called jartila is mentioned in the Taitfirga 

sathhite.266 Three varieties of sesame - white, red and black are mentioned in 

the Arigavijjd. Caraka considers the tila oil to be the best of the oils. Eating 

rice with sesame was very common in the vedic period and it is called 

ti~auduna.~~~ Sesame was also used in the Srddha and other ceremonies. Its 

oil was regarded as a substitute for clarified butternz6* The Greek writers 

state that oil was extracted fiom sesame and exported from India.16' From 

Kaucilya we learn that sesame oil was kept in wooden or earthen vessel and 

used in fi-yit~~.~'~ Sesame torn the earlier age continued to be used as an 

offering to the forc-fathcrs. Mahr.ibhuratu says that ihc tilu was crcilted by the

lord to propitiate our 

It is laid down by Manu that preparations 

of sesame should be avoided &er sunset.272 

VI. FIWI'I'S, VEGErl'AULES, FLOWERS AND IIONEY : 

a, Fdts : 

i) Amalaki : It is a well known hit consumed from the 

earliest period of vedic age." 

It is recommended for its medicinal quality. 

Suhta has also mcntioncd dmolaka in phalavorga.274 Kaucilya mentions 

that drnahku was preserved in vinegar in his time.275 Halayudha mentions 

about three varieties of dmalaka. harirtaki, umaEakE and kuli, and all the three 

species of myrobalan are collectively called as 'triphala'. 276 

ii) Arnra : The first reference about mango is available in 

$arapa2ha 

~rdhrnap~.~~~ The hit is also mentioned in the 

BIJtadaranyaka upaniqd and by ~ ~ ~ i*has n i included . ~ ~ it ~ in the 

279 

phalavarga. 

Kautilya records that mango was preserved in vinegar in his 

He also mentions its another name crira. A green mango (hit) is 

called koiuru in the medical works. Halgyudha gives three names for 

281 

tnango tree - 1Zrnra, ctZta and sahakdra. 

iii) Aris~a : It is a kind of neem tree. Kautilya calls it a 

tincture of medicine.282 Halsyudha calls it picumandu.283 

iv) Bab- : It is of three varieties; (1) badarf - large sized, (2) 

kuvali - average sized and (3) karkandhu - small sized. A lot of reference is 

available in the Yajur veda, about badari and its variety.284 Kaufilya also

efers to it.285 From the epics we how that the hermits generally lived on 

fruits,roots and tubers. The hits in coinrnon use in the forest were jujube, 

286 

i@udi etc. 

It is mentioned in the Ramuyapz that Rrima, in the 

fjrest performed the funeral rites by otl'ering the hits like irigudi, badari and 

bilva etcSZg7 From Vl~zudharmastitra we come to know that intoxicating 

288 

drink was also prepared from jujube. 

However, its use was prohibited to 

the Bralunins. Halayudha mentions all the three varieties of jujube namely 

badari, kuvali and karkandh~.~~' 

v) Bilva : Bilva hit is mentioned in the ~thawaveda.~~~ In the 

Aamayay it is mentioned that Rarna performed funeral rites by offering 

fruits such as i~lgudo, jujube and bil~a.~" Caraka also has included bilva 

into the phalavarga.292 It is also called as iriphala by ~ ala~udha.~~~ 

vi) Jambira : It is the common lime. It is mentioned in the Yajur 

veda. It is also mentioned in all the medical works and was very popular when 

Yuan Chwang visited India. Jambtra was very largely used during his time 

that he has written about it. He says that he used to receive one hundred and 

twenty Jnmbira-s every day.2g4 Karupa is the other name of lime mentioned 

vii) Kadali : On the basis of the philological studies of Jean 

Przyluski, Jules Bloch md Sylvan Levi we can say that banana were used by 

the people of proto-~ustroloids.~~~ The word Kadali seem to be of Austric 

origin. It was probably, grown in the Indus valley but there is a general 

unanimity among the Botanists that banana is native of India. It is mentioned 

by Kau$lya and in the early medical works.2g7 Rombhd and mocd are the

two other names mentioned by ~alayudha.~~~ 

viii) Karaija : It is the Indian beech hit. It is mentioned by 

~araka.'~~ Halayudha calls it nokfamlila.300 

ix) Karira : It is a kind of hit grown in shrubs.301 It is very 

commonly used but interdicted in a ~rckldha.~~~ 

x) Mrdvika : It is cultivated in the North-west India in a larger 

scale. Kautilya has mentioned it,303 while Pg*ini calls it drczk$&. Caraka 

mentions both the words mnlvSta and drd~~~?..~'~ In the Barhut railings 

there is the figure of an Indo-Greek lung holding a bunch of gapes with a leaf 

attached to it.305 in the stzipa-s of Sanchi there is a figure which holds a bunch 

of grapes in the left hand.306 Gostani and hrirohcira are the two other 

names mentioned by Halayudha. 307 

xi) Nicula : It is a kind of dry fruit mentioned by ~u5rut.a.~~~ 

Caraka also refers to it.3og Haliiyudha calls it 

xii) Nirguna : It is also a commonly used fruit but prohibited in 

bddho by Vis~u in his ~harmasriho.~" Sinduvdrira is it's another name 

recorded by ~alayudha.~~~ 

xiii) Nyagrodha : It is mentioned in the ~ ~veda."~ From the 

Yap purur/a we learn that the people of Ramayku varg liked the juice of 

nyagrodha hits. The Jains avoided five kinds of hits such as udumbara, 

aivattha, plaba and nyagrodha which are the breeding 

ground of 

various living organisms visible and invisible.314 Caraka says that the

leaves of the nyagrodha were used like vegetables.315 It is also called as 

vap by ~ ala~udha.~'~ 

xiv) Pilu : il was used by the hermits in the 

Cmka 

includes this into his phalavirrga.3ix 

xv) Puguphala : It is not a %lit in its true sense but usually 

mentioned as ptigaphala. Tn Kaucilyas time powdered areca nub were used 

to flavour certain varieties of liquors. It is a native of Malaya and seems to 

have been introduced to India by Austric people.319 It's use along with betel 

leaves is a known one. It is also called as gt2v&u by Halgyudha. 320 

mi) ~lcsrnataka : Though the fruits of SZesmrZtaka are commonly 

used, it is forbidden in a Briddha ceremony. Caraka mentions its3" It is 

also called as Selu by ~ a l ~ ~ d h a . ~ ~ ~ 

xvii) Tala : We get the earliest reference of palm fruits in 

early Buddhist and Jaha 

Palm hits were used in preparing 

325 

liquors according to the Greek Caraka and Kautilya 326 

327 

mention it. Halayudha calls it tmrdja. 

b. Vegetables : 

i) Alabii : Bottle gourd is known to India from the remote time 

of proto-austroloids. This alGibu was used as a chief vegetable by these people. 

Even it is used by Rgvedic people.328 Caraka refm to it.329 Ws~dharma- 

szifro fwbids its use in b~iddha.~~' Turnbi and dugdhik6 are the other

names of aldbB mentioned by ~a12~udha.~~' 

ii) Edagaja : It is a ringworm - shrub. Caraka has mentioned 

332 

about it. It is also called a% prapunLip, dadrrrghno and 

~ukrarnardaka.~~~ 

ii!) Ewiru : Cucumber is called ervau. Kurnas&-Q mentions 

this one of the vegetable known to its 

Caraka also refers to it.335 The 

other varieties of cucumber are cirbhop, viiiuki' and 

The 

cirbhag was cut in to pieces, dried and fiied in oil or ghee to be taken as 

dainties. Kautilya refers that cirbhifa and urvdruka, the other species of 

337 

cucumbcr were prcscsved Ill vinegar. 

iv) Ms1n;1*& : Caraka has referred it.338 It's use is interdicted in 

kddha by k ah cib hrjratn."' 

From Kciinuslitra it appears that pumpkin 

340 

was it7 common use. Its hit is cooked. It is collsidcred the best 

vegetable. On the basis of the philological studies of Jean Przyluski, Jules 

Bloclz, and Sylvan Levi we can say that pumplun and brinjal were used as 

common vegetables by the Proto - ~ustroloids,~~' Halsyudha mentions its 

342 

other name karkdru. 

v) Kusumbha : Saower has been mentioned by ~araka"~ 

Kautilya has also referred to it. A kind of oil is also extracted from it but it is 

considered worst by Vagbhata-I. Halayudha calls it rnah~rajann.~~~ 

vi) Patoli : It is also called as koidtaki. SuSruta cmiders it as a 

good vegetable.345 Even medical works like A~tdllga Sahgraha consider

snake gourd as good vegetable.3" It was used by early Dravidians. Halayudha 

rnentiatls its other numc koiiitaki. 347 

c. Plowers : 

i) Kovi&ra : butilya says that the flowers of kovidiira were 

348 

used as vegetables. But its use in irddhn is interdicted by 

Mahiibh~i~ur~i.~" Caraka has included it in his lid of vcgctablblcs.3s0 It is 

also called as kriricanmoko by ~ala~udha.~~' 

ii) Mgpadl~ : Suimla lllentions it as a food article.35Z It is also 

called as y ilthika by ~ al~~udha~~' 

iii) MAIati : An intoxicating drink was prepared from this flower. 

It is also used for seasoning food.354 it is also called asjdti. 355 

d. Honey : 

Honey was probably the earliest sweet thing Indians knew. We 

356 

get ttie earliest reference of honey from figveda. 

It was collected from two 

kinds of bees, one big - the ara?zglZra md the other small - suraghu. The 

latter kind was considered better than the 

It was used to sweeten 

articles like apipa-s. Its use is tabooed for women and students.358 Honey 

was extensively used in many ceremonies in tlie Siitru period, and was 

invariably used in welcoming guests. The common preparation used for such 

purpose being a mixture of honey with curds or 

ghee (madhuparka). 

Especially honey was used with parched rice. But its daily use is interdicted 

in ~ahribhrirata."~ SuSruta mentions eight types of honey-mdkgka, 

360 

bhramara, kpdra, pauttika, chatra, arghya,auddh alika and dala.

111 

Halayudha mentions five types of honey- sdraga, mdsika, kpudra, rnadhu 

and puqarasa. 361 

Of the beverages known to vedic Indians, soma juice was the 

most important one. Another hevcragc of thc vcdic period was sur6, a 

spirituous liquor, which was prepared from fmented barley or wild paddy 

tter distillation. But while the use of soma juice was Ilighly commended, 

that of sur8 was condemned. Drinking sur~ gave rise to brawl in the 

Its popularity in the later vedic period is however, evident fiorn 

a verse in the Atharvaveda where it is mentioned as a reward for the 

performance of sacrifices.363 The praise of surd in the Aitareyo Brrihmnv 

and tllc placing of sura vcsscl in iho hands of a 

king364 makes us 

conclude tktt the k~cltriya-s were generally in tile habit of drinking surd. But 

the evil effect of drinking were also kaown. It is regarded as one of the seven 

sins forbidden by the Veda365 and is classed with anger, senselessness and 

Realizing its evil effeds thc br cihmaw-s avoided drinking367 and 

good kings like &vapati proudly declared that there was no drunkard in 

their kingdoms.368 

Another common drink was parijnlta.369 It was prepared 

either from flowers or by fermenting certain grasses. From the Buddhist and 

Jaina works we learn that liquor was manufactured and consumed on a 

370 

large scale. Taverns and drinking shops are frequently mentioned. 

the time of festivals feasting and drinking were resorted to and fiends were 

invited. From the Jataka-s we lem that even women and hermits drank hard

371 

on some occasions; 

but people were well acquainted with the evils of 

drinking. The Princes of Baravai, it is stated, were ruined because they 

were addicted to drinking kddambori 

Even dealing in strong liquors 

is forbidden. The Buddha and Mahavira did not allow their followen', 

cspccially monks' indulgence in wines. 

Strong liquors are called madya but the general word for all 

kinds of intoxicating drinks prepared &om cereals is surci. Megasthenes 

states that the Indians drank only at the religious ceremonies, but this does 

not seem to be the actual state of 

affair in view of the account of 

Kautilya There was a Superintendent of liquors.373 The liquor shops had 

tnanjr rooms provided with beds, seats and other cornforts such as scents and 

According to Megasthenes rice beer was the common drink in 

India but Kautilya gives a detailed account of the method and ingredients of 

various other intoxicating drinks. 

FrornRamayap we learn that drillking was common in Ayodhya. 

After the departure of Rama the city of Ayodhy~ has been compared to a 

tavern deserted by drunkards.375 The same inference can be deduced from the 

remark of Bharata on the absence of aroma of varu~i after the death of 

~aiaratha.~~~ Sia herself enjoyed maireyako variety of wine.377 The 

conditions described in the Mahdb hurata are worse. We are told that ydavu-s 

were killed in a d rihg The Aivaivomedha sacrifice of Yudhisma 

has been compared to a sea of liquor.379 Virtuous ladies like Sude~~g drank 

380 

wine. 

But even the kqrriya-s, so much addicted to drinking considered it 

as an evil. Driig is fi-equently 

Even dealing in liquors is

considered improper for brdrnaps. 

Interestingly all the medical works prescribe a limited use of 

wines and consider this habit good for health, especially in the winter 

382 

season. 

Caraka regards drinking as pleasing, digestive, nourishing and 

383 

providing intelligence if it is indulged in a proper manner. 

Excessive use 

of intoxicating drinks is interdicted, pru-ticularly in the summer and rainy 

season. 384 

From the Arigaviya it appears that many varieties of intoxicating 

drinks were in use. Kalid2sa's works have sirnilarIy many references to 

e n g . It was believed that intoxication gave a special charm to women. 

Isdies of royal families, therefore, enjoyed drinking. l'n the 

,Vdlavlkagnrrnrfra, ksvati indulges in drinking. Indumati, the queen of Aja 

liked to receive wine ft-om the mouth of her husband.3g5 The Mandsore 

inscription 386 mentions a phrase- 'like the cheeks of intoxicated womcn'. 

The after effects of drinking on women are described in the 

Kun~h~usarhbhuva. The ~ ar~acanta,~~~ also mentions beautfil ladies who 

had wine. 

brdhrnay 

Kumarila mentions that in Ahicchatra and in Mathurg even 

women indulged in drinking. Yuan Chwmg states that the 

ksatrrya-s used intoxicating drinlcs prepared f?orn the juice of grapes and 

sugarcane, wlzilc the varj/a-s used strong fermented drinks. The Srarnana-s 

and the Brahrnana-s drank only syrups prepared with the juice of grapes and 

sugarcane. 

a Drinking Water : 

Water is described as nector, (ampa) and a remedy 

(bke~~a).~~~ The main so.urces of water were rivers, wells and springs. Rain

390 - 

water was also used for drinking. Apastambha lays down that it is the 

duty of a house holder and his wife to see thit the water vessels in the house 

39 1 

are never empty. 

This shows the importance attached to drinking water in 

this period. It was purified in the filter before use.392 SuSruta considers that 

water of rivers flowing towards the west was esrsily digestible while that of 

livers flowing towards the east was difficult to digest.'" 

Water having small 

insects, foul smell, thick, dirty or sticky was considered unfit for drinking, 391 

but dirty water can be purified by mixing it with kutuka, gorneduka, lotus- 

root, .farvula mula, pearls or alum and straining it in a piece of cloth. 395 

In the Harsucarita we kd 

a special officer in charge of drinking 

water.'" Iin the medical works water is called the very essence of the life. 397 

Somadeva lays emphasis on the proper use of water. Transparent water, 

without any taste and smell and swept by wind and sun shine is beneficial. In 

all other cases water should be boiled before 

Mdnasollasa 

mentions all the sources of water mentioned earlier and calls water inside a 

coconut bit vdrk~a water. 399 It recommends the use of water punfied with 

spices, such as cloves and camphor and firnigated with a piece of clay baked 

in fire of khadira wood.4W HalPyudha mentions fieen words for water, like 

401 

am Tfa, jivantya etc. 

b. Intoxicating Drinks : 

i) Asava: Kautilya mentions m dsava made of hundred pala-s of 

the extract of kapittha, five hundred pula-s of inspissated juice of sugar cane 

and a prostho of honey.402 Caraka mentions to a surtisava. 

403 An 

intoxicating drink in which the liquid part predominates is called dsuvu, one

in which the solid ingredients predominates is called as arjs@ and the liquor 

in which both are equally important is called rnadya - dravyapradhanam 

arisfam, dravapradhunarn &saw& ubhayapradhdnafi mudyarn. 404 

ii) Gaudi : It is a kind of rum distilled from 

Manu 

has also mentioned that it is prepared from gn &. 406 

iii) Hgrahtira : The wine prepared from grapes is called 

hlvahara. Kaunlya refers that hdrahrira was imported ftorn ~fshanistan.~'~ 

Halayudha says that h&ahura wine is prepared &om a variety of grape 

called harahura.408 

iv) Kadambm- : It is the liquor produced fiom ripe kadambu 

Halgyudha says that it is a kind of spirituous liquor. 410 

v) KapiS2yana : P2nini says since the wine is imported &om 

IZpiSi (North of Kabul) it is called as ~t%pi~i.ana.~~~ Hal2yudha has referred 

it. 41Z Kaufilya records that KripiScZyana was imported from Afghanistan413 

415 

refers to it. 

414 

vi) KaSya : Vap puru? mentions kaQa. Halayudha also 

vii) Madhvasava : It is a kind of dsaw prepared from honey. It 

is mentioned in ~limtiya~.~~~ Caraka says that it is an intoxicating 

drink prepared from rnadhlika flowers,417 Ilal2yudha has also referred to 

it. 418 

viii) Madira : The cream of surri is called rno~lirri.~'' Cw&a 

also refm to it.420 It is also called madi;#ci by ~ ab~udha.~~~

ix) Madya : Strong liquors are called madjra. In i4 both the solid 

and liquid part will be in equal proportion.4Z2 HalByudha has counted it in 

his liquor category. 423 

x) Maireya : llt is a spiced liquor prepared with gu& or sugar. 

424 

Pgnini ha referred to it. Maireyu was a decoction of the bark of meqaS?7igi, 

gu@, powdered long - pepper and black pepper or powder of haritaki: 

425 

arnalaka and vibhitaka instead of Iong pepper. 

in R&rnGyapz it is 

mentioned that SiG wm fond of maireyo type of wine.426 The ESP 

Dhurma SGfm lays ail interdiction of the use of maireya wine by 

brdhmuw-s. Haliiyudha also has mentioned it.427 

xi) M3dhavaka : It is an intoxicating drink prepared &om 

rnudhdca flowers. Caraka has referred to it.428 Hakydha calls it 

xii) Madhvika : It is a licpoluor prepared from honey."30 It is also 

43 1 

called as &sava by Hal2yudha. 

xiii) Parisrug : it was a common intoxicating drink in vedic 

period.432 It was prepared either from flowers or by fermenting certain 

grasses.433 It is also called as parisrut by ~ al2~udha.~~~ 

xivdv) Prasan.3 : It is a variety of sxra prepared with rice meal 

and spices. The main ingredients of prasannci variety are twelve u&uka-s 

of flour, five prastha-s of fermented honey with some spices, 

bark and 

putroko. It is called the cream of s ~rri.~~~ ~alq~dha also refers to it.436

v) ~idu : It is prepand with the juice of sugarcane and 

dhGtaki flower. It seems to have been a favourite drink of non-Ary~ns.~~~ 

Two kinds of fidhu-s are menioned by Cnrakg one prepared from boiled 

juice438 and the other from unboiled juice.439 Halgyudha has enlisted it 

one among the spirituous liquor. 440 

mi) Sura : The well iulowrl drink next to soma, in the vedic 

period, is sz~r&!. It was prepared from, fermented barley or wild paddy after 

di~tillation.~~' But while the use of soma was l~ighly commended that of surl 

was condemned. ?'he Rarnayay mentions two varities of sura ordinary and 

fermented one. 442 

xvii) Varuni: It is prepared from dates. It is a very strong 

liquor. This seems to be very popular during the time ofRc?md.u~ as it could 

be inferred fiom the remark of Bharatha on the absence of aroma of vt?mnt 

after the death of king ~ajaratha."' 

c. Other Beverages: 

Besides the spirituous liquor and drinking water there were also 

many beverages prevailed in India fiom the ancient times. Soups made 

from pulses, cereals, vegetables and milk products were also in common 

use. The Buddha allowed eight kinds of beverages to his followers. Syrups 

were prepared with ripe mango juice, rose apple, plantain fruit, grapes, edible 

root of wafer lilly, honey and coconut.444 All time beverages were used in the 

evening as the followers of Buddha did not take their meals in the evening.445 

The Jaina works mention some panaka-s such as those prepared gorn dates, 

pomegranates, green bamboo, jujube, myrobalans and tamarind.446 The

everages mentioned by Kau~ilya were curds, butter milk, sour gruel, fmit 

447 

juices and a syrup prepared from molasses. 

PaMjaIi refers to it as 

g~ 

The Mahabhurata refers to many beverages prepared at the t he 

of feasts. Some of them are prepared from food grains or flour. 449 A 

prepasation of juices kom fnuits ssrich as pomegranates and raisins was 

called raga, if it was liquid in form, and @&va if the juices were reduced to a 

thick co~lsistency. Besides usual beverages there are some other beverages 

which were used to aid digestion.451 The Bhela solirhitri gives the recipe of 

a beverage which was very effective in quenching thirst. It was prepared 

with poul~ded berries, treacle, black pepper, saffron, cardamam and the juice 

of j&i flowers.45z Another syrup called krjjmarya prinaka was given to a 

person who drank liquor e~cessivel~."~ Vdiyuprrrdpu mentions about juices 

prepared from sugarcane, lakuca, nyagrodha, jambu, bread fruit and 

454 

parusulcr. 

Drinks were afso prepared with some spices such as dry 

ginger, asana and ja~ada.~~~ Syrups are frquently mentioned in other works 

like Kiirmapurdv, Kdmaszifra etc. Preparation of special beverages is 

described in the Manasollt3m. It was prepared by mixing some acid hit 

juice with boiled milk. Then it was filtered; sugar and powder of cardamom 

were mixed. The mixqure was strained in a piece of cloth again and again. 

Roasted .tamarind ,hit with the juice of some other fruits was mixed with this 

strained 

Halsyudha mentions some stimulant to drink - upada*a 

and avadurhia. The beverages mentioned by him are dhlZnyamla, dranala, 

kaijikd, sauvira, ab hzgva, avantisornu, tugdaka and &?eta. (They are 

explained under the heading of food items.)

119 

VIII. AR'F OF COOKING AND IITELYSILS : 

The art of cooking ww well dcvcloped as early as the Rgvedic 

period. The process of cleaning food gains with a sieve and grinding them 

457 

were known. 

Preparation of food articles as kpura and plfhuka shows a 

very high stage of development. Meat was not only roasted and cooked in the 

form of a soup but also cooked with rice. There were cooks (st@nkura) and 

458 

servers of food. I-Ialstyudha mentions four words for a cook. 

~nentions a Superintendent of kitchen @uurogava). 459 

He also 

The preparation of pz4ro&Sa and uptipa shows great skill in 

culinary art. During Kautilya's time the art of cooking was so developed that 

he states the increase in daerent gains after cooking and the quantity of oil 

which one could get Gom different oil seeds.460 He mentions the quantity of 

spices and fat9 required for cooking meat, and states that half that quantity is 

required for cooking pot herbs and double that quantity is required for 

461 

cookilzg dry vegetables. 

Kaucilya lays that the kitchen should be in a safe 

place and the superintendent of the kitchen should taste every preparation 

462 

before it is served. 

He also mentions the symptom of poisoned food 

articles.463 The authors of medical works knew the value of cooking on slow 

464 

f~e. Caraka says that spiced soups and the spiced items are mare dZicult 

to digest.463 The same writer states that preparations fiied in oil or clarified 

butter are dficult to digest while those parched without these fats are easily 

digestable. 466

The art of cooking was considered so important ihat it is 

regarded as one of the sixty four fine arts. The various processes in 

cooking such as mixing various substances, fi-ying in oil or clarified butter and 

467 

filmigrttion rnml ioncd in the Amcrmko.\'t;r Somndevn in his Y(~i~1~riil7k~ 

refers to some vegetarian dishes while the MLinasollasa describes in detail 

some delicious meat preparations and dismisses the vegetarian dishes in one 

468 

vcrsc. 

f hlhyldha also was aware ot'vru-ious methods of cooking such as 

boiling, fqing, roasting etc. It can be known from the food items mentioned 

by him that the art of cooking was at its best during his time. 

Many implements and uteisils were used in cooking. Some of 

these were made of clay, wood and stone while others were made of metals. 

hather vessels were also used to store liquids. Some of the common cooking 

implements were a cooking pot - sthriii, 469 a ladle -sruk '" and a spoon- 

471 

darvi. Cups -iaiarriva 472 were used to measure grain$ a grindstone and a 

mortar were regarded very important. A piece of broken jar - kopda It* 

used for baking cakes. Spits-SGla 

474 

was 

were used to roast the meat. 

According to Kautilya the corlmon kitchen in~plernents were a weighing 

balance, weights, grinding stones, pestle, willnowing basket, .sieve, broom, 

basket, and a small box for spices e t ~ Manu . ~ ~ prescribes ~ that utensils of 

stone should be cleaned with ashes, of gold and silver only with water, of 

other metals only with alkaline substances. Wooden implements were 

cleaned with warm water and earthen ware with another burning. '76 

The 

kitchen was to be clean and uncongested. Clarified butter should be served 

in a vessel of iron, beverages like meat soups in asilver vessel, hits and

sweets on lzaves, seasoned and fhed ineat prcpnration in vessels of gold, 

all kinds of Guit preparations in vessels of stone, boiled milk in a copper 

vessel, water, syrups and intoxicating &Inks in earthenware and rtjga, 

saftcika and ~n@va in vessels of glass or precious stones. 

477 

Halayudha calls 

the goblet used for drinking wines as anufarjcz and ~a~nka.~" The other 

iniplements of kitchen mentioned by Halayudha are -the pan, oven, stove, 

479 

etc. 

c. Betel chewing - A note 

On the basis of phlological studies, scholars ( Jean P~zyluski, 

Jules Block, and sylver Levi) hnk that the two words rdmbula at~d guuv&u 

(areca nut) are of Austric origin, hence it seems likely that proto-Austroloids 

fust used these articles.480 Another ward piga (areca nut) seems to be of 

Dravidian origin. There are two possibilities either the custom originated on 

the coasts of Southern India or it must have been imported fiom the East 

Indian Archipelago where the custom is prevalent even today. According to the 

Dictionary of Economic Products of India., 481 the betel leaf is probably a 

native of Java. Sri. J. S. Pade thinks: that the word nugdvalli used to denote the 

betel leaf may signifj the creeper growing in the country of elephants and 

482 

serpents and perhaps refers to South India, the home of these creatures. 

Tllere is no reference to tdmbulu in the Veda-s. Even the 

Rumdya?w, the Mahdbhdrata and Ihe Smfii-s of Manu and Ygjfiavalkya 

111ake no Illention of it. According to Dr. K.kN.SasZry, the habit of eating 

betel leaves with lime and areca nut perhaps came into practice &er the 

Sangarn Age. 483 But the custom may be prior to 200 BC as there are some 

references to it in the early Buddhist and Jaina works.484

Kau!ilya mentions betel nut hut doeslKl refer to tllc custom of 

betel chewing. Caraka, KaSyapa and SuSruta refer to the practice and Caraka 

maitic~ns all thc iligcdicnls uscd ill thc ~)t.cpal.alions 01' tu~rrbt~iu sucll 

areca nut, pepper, camphor, cloves, nut rneg md cardamom.485 in the Gupta 

period the custom seems to have become colnmon as it is mentioned in the 

K~wzasiitra, the R.jlatsarlzhlrd, the nlcdical treatises and the literary works 

of that period.4" 1111 the post -Guptu period tho practice is refmd to by 

Nberuni aild in the k'u~fanir?~criu and llnost or Uic litcrary works of thc 

,287 

period. 

as 

Tlic custom may bbc Trultric: onc. Sri. J.S.Pnde thinks that it was 

prevalent among the SGdru-s tiom the earliest 'rimes but was adopted by 

the k.yf~iya-s a d vc~isj,n-s when they gave up vedic samskdra and were 

initiated by brcihmaps into Tantric cult."' 

According to Sri.Pade, since 

then the use of tcimbula became popular trunong all section of Ihc Hindu 

society. 

Haliiyudha does mention about nrrgavaliP89 the betel plant, 

pirga4g0 aareca nut while mentioning other plant and tree. In other place he 

mentions rambri~a~~~ along with the fragrant elements. So it can be understood 

that turnbula was used as a make up element as it is believed that the 

tdmbula raga adds one's bea~~ty, besides it is 

mouth refreshener. 

also used ar; mukhnvdva - a

E. DISEASE AlUD REhIEDY : 

A good health has got a close relationdup with food and diet 

control. It is said in Upmrsad that a man becomes dra.&, 

SrotG, mantu, 

boddha, kurt~, jAdu oidy duc b, lbod."" Man springs nut of unno - 

food and he lives because of the same. So a ~lutritious food prepared in a 

hygienic manner will keep a Inan distant li-om disease. In the same way 

prescribed cpiantity of intake of water can also contribtite fbr good health. 

That is why water is called U P ~ Z as ~ U well as visa in Sanskrit. Tlre reason is, 

the water taken at a right time in a right quantity becomes amcu and in vice 

versa, becomes venom. Iience IIaIayud~a prefers to 

493 

jivaniya, 

call water as 

meaning the very life. He compiled 29 words to denote water. 

Halaylidha classifies the diseases into four major 

grorrp. They are 

ksavathu - cough, vepathu - shivering, davathu - fever and k2umathu - 

fatigue."94 The other disease>" known to his time were: 

1) ksuya - pulmonary consumption. 

2) ,fopha- swelling, turnesce~lce kurn disease 

3) Sosa - Consumption 

4) Svayathu -murbid intumescence 

5) Kilaa - cutaneous eruption 

6) Pama - scab 

7) Jagaryd - sleeplessness 

8) Pi~ka - a boil, blister 

9) Svitra - white leprosy 

10) Slipuda -elephantiasis 

11) Pf~lhagranthi - hump on the back 

12) .Ke.

13) ArSu -piles 

14) PEtta -bile 

15) Ytnasn - catarrh ailkcling the nose 

1 6) Vdturqa- rheumatism 

17) Aitsaru - dianhea 

18) Sidhrnala- cutaneous eruption 

19) Slemula -phlegmatic disease 

Dadruw - afr'licted with ring wonns 

Kqdrandsikti -small nosed 

Yilla -blear eyed 

Picu?z&la - gorbellied 

KhnLcrti -bald headed 

Andha -blind 

Badhira - deaf 

M&a -dumb 

Kallamiika -ded rind dumb 

Yarigu -lame 

Tu ~4-prominent navel 

Kgra - noseless 

Kubja - hump backed 

Vii~nana - dwarf. 

Halsyudha also mentions about many kinds of herbs. They are 

like pzppuli, iunfii, madhuka. amlfa, urdraku, liraka, mnrjcu, 

saztvarcala, kusrumbunl, trikap, hirigu, G~nalaki; akw, triphala, eqlagaja, 

ab h iru, kan@kL11:1:k&, puro, mahdrajana, hiriguia, modhu, uii~a, and 

mustakn. (All these have been expl~iued already.)

IIal:i yudha mentions livc 

bhz~ak, vazdya. do~aj2a and crhtsaka to denote a physician. 

diffcnlct words tikc ayurvedt, 

496 

A doctor who 

$1 9.1 

is a scpcialist in treating poisonous bile is called jurigzlbku. 

438 , , 

Treictmcnt is called clkitsu or 11~7ac:~7ry&. i he primiv cause of' disease is 

lcno~m as nrrlai?o and hctz~.~~~ 

Ausirdha is the popular term for remedy or a 

500 

medicament. It is also known as bhesnja, jnjru, agnda and tanpa. 50 1

NOTES 

AthGSnnasyai draq@ bhavati .Sr;otc? bhavati manta bhavclti 

boddhd bhavati hrtu bhavati vijE6ta bhavati annarn 

upasvefi / Chand. Up., VII,9.1., Grta press, Gorakhpur, V. S.20 1 1. 

smflilambha sawa granfhtn&n vipralz~ok~ulzl Ibid., VII. 26.3 

Ann& vai prujdh prajciyan fe, y#h k& ca p flhzvZm ritab 

athdnnenaiva jivanti ... tasmcSt sarvau~adamucyate /'rait. Up., 11.2. 

Chd. Up.,VI 

(i) Students - nu madhu mhrizse prfi@& k~ara lavae ca /Manay. 

@.SCi., 1.1.12, GOS No. 35, Baroda, 1926. 

(ii) Widows - akdrn lavaqurn bhu%dnd/ Vasis$. Dhar. Sti., 

XVI1.55, Ed. Buhler, S.B.E-14, 1879. 

YaSastiCaka ofhmadeva, 111 aa 329-352, Ed. SivadaSta, Bombay, 

19 16; Miinasollcisa of Somesvara, 111.13, Ed. G.K. Shrigondekar, 

GOS. Vol. 84, Baroda, 1939. 

ARM. 2. 16768. 

Ibid, 2. 164-69. 

Ibid, 2.171; cf Manu., 3.285. 

Ibid, 2,171. 

Ibid. 

Dr. Gokula Chandra Jain, Yaiastilaka ka krnskpka adhyayana, 

p. 92. 

RV, I. 1.8; Max Muller, London, 1890-92. 

Apte, Sansrit English Dictionary, p. 1 13. 

ARM, 2.164.

Uvasagadasa, 1.35. 

Raghu., of Gli&sa, 4.37, Ed. Shankar P. Pandit, Pts. 1-111, Bombay, 

1935. 

1k.p~ chdya nisdinyah SrlZig~pyo jagur ya3a h/ Ibid, 4.20. 

Kirsta., of Bhravi, 4.9; Allahabad, 1958. 

SZU., of Magha, 6.49. 

K-mta., 4.34. 

Bhoj. kaI., 51-52. 

ARM., 2.427. 

finayapi@?ka, 11.21 1. 14; Ed. Oldenberg, Vols. I-V, London, 1879 - 

1883. 

Artk S~S., of Kaufilya, 11. 24. 16-1 8, Ed, Shanlasastry,R., Mysore, 

1919. 

Mh., Anu., 91.38, Poona Edition, 1929-36. 

Arth. &s., 11.24. 16-18. 

ARM, 2.425. 

SuSru. Su., with tne commentary of Dalhaqa, 46-2 1 ; Bombay, 193 8. 

ARM, 2.425. 

Pa~ini, &pdhyayi, III. 3.48; Ed by Devendra Kumar Vidyaratna, 

Calcutta, 1 9 12. 

ARM, 2.429. 

SuSru. Su., 46.21. 

Vayu pur., ch. WI, 153-4; Anandil~rama, Pow Saka, 1827. 

ARM, 2.427. 

Piinhi, V. 2.2, also see V. (7). 

Caraka Sarhhitii with the commentary of Chakrapanidatta, Bombay 

1941, So., Ch.27; . 

Ibid, Su., 27.7 - 8, 11.

Bhoj. kal., 49-50. 

ARM, 2.425. 

Panhi, VII. 3. 1, also see V. 1. 90. 

Patdjali, M&%bE~ya, IV. I. 93; Mimpur, 1855. 

Caraka Sii., ch. 27. 

AstAliga Sariigraha of V2gbhat.a - 1, V1 I. 10; 'I'r. by Altrideva Gupta, 

Benaras, 195 1. 

ARM, 2. 8. 

Ref. On1 Prakash, Fwd and Drinks in Ancient India, p.26 1. 

&tanga mdaya of Vagbhata - 11, VI. 11-12, Tr. by Attrideva Gupata 

Benaras, 1950. 

ARM, 2.429. 

For details on vrihz, see Om Prakash, Fwd and Drinks in Ancient 

India. 

Journal of Gujurat Research Society, Vol. Xxi, No 4/84, p. 332. 

Culture of Maheshwara, Nevdatoli by H.D. Sankalia. 

SuSru., Sa., 44.12. 

Arth. S~S., TI. 24. 16. 

Caraka. SO., Ch. 27. 

ARM, 2.424. 

Ibid, 2.7. 

AV, XI. 1. 42. 

Marshall, MahmjoQro and Indus Valley Civikation, V0l. I, P. 27. 

Piinhi, IV. 1.49. 

MG Chdle, Ancient India as described in classical Literawe, P. 127. 

&r. sarfi., VII. 19,2 1. 

ARM, 2. 430. 

Ibid, 2, 8. 

SuSru. Sii., 46.332.

Bhoj. kakal., 5 1-52. 

ARM, 2.429. 

Sacred l3ooks of Buddhist, V. 176; Vinayapicaka, I. B. Homer, Vols 

.X & XI; Vols. I& 11, London, 1940, 49. 

Patafijali, V. 1. 19. 

Artlh. gas., 11. 12. 19. 

Caraka, cikits2,20.37. 

AM, 2.427. 

Caraka, Sii., 27. 28. 

ARM, 2.427. 

Nilakmtha SasLry, K. A, A History of South India, p. 62. 

Tait. Br., with the commentary of Siiyqa, 111. 8. 14.6. Anan& 

Poona, 1938. 

Vi~u Dhar. Sii., LXJIIX. 18. 

Bhela sari.1., p. 22; Calcutta University, 1921. 

Matsya, 15.36-38; Ed. Khemraj Sri Krsnadas, Bombay, 1980. 

SuSru. SG., 46.27. 

ARM, 2.426. 

SuSru. Sa., 46.27. 

.ARM, 2. 427. 

Bulletin of the School ofthe Oriental and African Research, London, 

1948, pp. 371 - 93. 

( i ) me2nam akQt5d ayujfiiyA vai mas#& - Mait. sam., I. 

1.10. iripada ~arm~i Satavalekar, Aundh. 

( ii ) nu mwnum ajnlyd arnedhyci vai me&@ - Ka@ . Sam., 

84. Ap. Dh. SQ., with the commentary of Hwda.w 1.5.16.1;Benaras-1932

Mudga mci+ .?aimby&@ madhyavupu~ - Arth, as., 24.16 - 18. 

Caraka Su. 25. 

ARM, 2. 8. 

~arikha~ana Aranyaka, XII. 8. 

As!. Sm. SO., VII. 

MBnasoll&sa, 111. 1367, 68. 

Caraka cikitsg, 20.37. 

ARM, 2.7. 

Matsya, 15. 36. 

ARM. 2.429. 

SuSru. Sii., 46. 27. 

ARM, 2.427. 

Ibid, 2. 119. 

Ibid. 

Ap. #. Su., 1. 15.9, Tr. by Max Muller, S. B, E,Vol. 30,1892; 

SuSru. Su., 45.92. 

P2nini, V. 2. 23; Raghu ., 1.45; Amara, wittithe commentary of 

Ks?rasv~rnin, 

11. 9. 5 1; Ed. Sharma, H. D., and Sardesai, N. G., Poona - 1941. 

Yuan Chwang, Si - yu - ki, vol. 1, p. 88, London - 19 16. 

V2yu pur, 91.11. 

Mafsya, 227.39. 

S~S~U. Sii, 45.94. 

ARM, 2.120. 

Ibid.

Rsyamukta on Amara :( i ) yatpdddmbu ghularn tat takram, 

bhagafrayum yatra dadhanai cahtrtho bhago jalasya tat takram / 

(ii) ardham dadhi urdham jalam yatru tad udaivlt/ 

ARM, 2.120. 

Ibid. 

1bi4 2.121. 

Ibid, 2.119. 

Ibid, 2. 261. 

Mahidhara on Vajasaneyi Sariihlu, XIX. 22; Bombay, 1929. 

sat. Brs. with the commentary of Siiyaqa and Harisvami, II. 2.3. 13 : 

yavamayam apaparn kytvd ... / Bombay, 1940. 

Ibid, 11. 2.3.12 :vrihimayam aptipum kmd ... / 

RV, X. 45.9 - yaste aadya kvvat bhadraioce apdpam deva 

ghmvantam agne / ghflavantam - in clarified butter, bhadraioce 

on slow - fire, 

PBnini, IV. 4.23. 

Mbh., Anu., 53. 18. 

Caraka SO., 27.265. 

Kaqapuvam, I. 109, Ed. Fausboll, V, Vol. I - VII, London, 1877. 

Caraka SU., 29.265. 

ARM, 2.164. 

Ibid., p. 142. 

See Dr. Gokula Chandra Jain, Yaiastilaka kd S&sk@ka Adhyayana 

pp. 101,2. 

Miinas., 111. 1578 - 79. 

Abfxi. cinG., 3. 571; Ed. Dr. Namichmdra Sastri, Vara~gsi, 1961. 

A.RM., 2.173. 

Ibid, 2. 166.

132 

Ibid. 

1934. 

on J e ' s Mimm siltra, X. 1.42; Ed. G.N. 

Bmoda, 

ARM. 2. 261. 

RV. I. 16. 2. 

Ibid, 111. 35. 7. 

Ibid, X. 86. 15. 

Caraka SO., 27. 264. 

Ibid, 27.267. 

ARM. 2.430. 

SuSruta so., 45. 216. 

Ibid, sii., 45. 21 16, 

AXM. 2. 163. 

Caraka. SO., V. 9; SuSruta su., 46. 

ARM, 2. 169. 

Ibid, 2. 164. 

Arth. Gas., 46.403. 

SuSru. SO., 46.403. 

ARM, 2.169. 

Bau&yana C?q. SU., 1.4.25; Ed. Shamasastry, R. Mysore, 1920. 

Ern% Ayodhya, 91. 56, Ed. Sarma, D.P. allahabad, 1950. 

Mbh., ASva. 65.5. 

Rimii., EBla., 53.2. 

Sayea on Tait, Bra., II. 6.4. 

ARM, 2.430. 

Amara,. p. 585, verse - 53 (ed. Prof. A k Rammathan). 

Mgnas., 111. 1571 - 73. 

ARM. 2. 120. 

Ram., Bala., 53. 3.

ARM, 2.166 

ASvalByana @. Sii., 1I. 3; Ed. Ravi Tirtha, Adyar, 1944. 

au., Bala., 53.3; Mbh., Mva, 65. 12. 

RV, VIII. 69. 14. 

AV, with the corn. of Sa ywa - SBE, 42 Oxford, 1977; IV. 147. 

SuSmt. Sii., 46. 

ARM, 2. 164. 

Arigavijj2, p. 220, Ed. Muni Sri Pmyavijayaji, Pr2Iq-t Text series 

Varanasi - 5, 1957; Bhojana kumhala, Raghungtha, pivatldmm, p. 28, 

1956. 

ARM, 2.165. 

Yajfia. Sm. with the corntnentaq of Aparaka, 1. 103., 173; Ed. Apte, 

H,. N. Anancia Ashrama, Poona, 1904. 

ARM, 2. 165. 

Baudh., 1. 16.34. 

Caraka Su., 27.66. 

ARM, 2.430. 

Caraka SQ., 27.66. 

ARM, 2. 164. 

Ibid, 2. 121. 

Ibid, 2. 173. 

Psnini, V. 2.7. 

ARM, 2. 165. 

hid, p. 167. 

MahZlvagga, 6. 24. 5; SBE - 17. Oxford, 1885- 

Panini, IV. 1. 36. 

PaMjali, 11. 2. 36. 

Suata So., 46. 

Atigaviljja, p. 181.

ARM, 2. 165. 

Bid, 2. 168 

SuSrOta Sii., 46, 353. 

ARM, 2. 168. 

Manas., 111. 1462 - 65. 

RV., I. 162. 1 1. 


ARM, 2. 168. 

%id. 

Brhat. Up. with the commentary of S2yqa TI. 4. 12; Gia Press, 

Gorakhapur, V. S. 20 12. 

DaSavaikalika SO., iii. 8 ; N.S. Press, Bombay, 19 18. 

Vinaya., Makd Vagga, VI. 8. 

Uma SO., of Vgtsygyana, 19 1.1;Ed.Goswami Damodara Sastri, 


~rth. gas., 11. 12. 

Ibicl, 11. 15. 16. 

Mbh., Anu., 91. 41. 

Ibid, Santi., 78. 4, 5. 

Ibid, Anu., 161.99. 

Caraka Su., I. 88 - 89. 

SuSru. Sii., 46. 320 - 22. 

ARM, 2.459. 

Ibici, 2.462. 

Ibid, 2. 459. 

SuSru. Su., 46. 336. 

ARM, p. 387. 

Riima., Sundara., 11. 13. 

ARM, 2.462.

&ma., Araqa., 25.22. 

ARM, 2.390. 

Dictionary of Eco. Fro,, Watt Czorge, Vol. 11. Calcutta, p. 643, 1929. 

~rth. gas., 11. 15.2. 

ARM, 2. 46 1. 

AV, IV. 35. 5. 

Arth. gas., 11. 15. 21. 

ARM, 2.461. 

Mbh., Anu., 91. 38. 

ARM, 2.462. 

SuSm. Su., 46.202. 

ARM, 2.390. 

Su5ru. $ti. 44.204. 

ARM. 2.389. 

Amara, 11. 6. 124. 

A1RM, 2. 388. 

228. Panini, VI. 1. 143. 

229. Arth. 52s. 11. 15.21. 

230. ARM,2.246. 

231. Ap. Dh. SO., I. 7. 12. 

233. Arnara, 

234. Arth. sa~, 11. 15. 21. 

235. ARM, 2.461. 

236. AV, VI. i07.4. 

237. Sat. Brii., 111. 4. 3. 13. 

238. ARM, 2.459. 

239. Ibid, 2. 462.

Ibid, 2. 469. 

Ibid, 2. 459. 

Caraka Su., 27. 86 - 121. 

ARM, 2.462 

Arth. 5% 11. 15; 11. 24. 18. 

ARM, 2.427. 

sat. Br2., IX. 1. 1. 3. 

Vayu hr., ch. VIII. 153 - 54. 

ARM, 2.428. 

Piggot, Prehistoric India, p. 153. 

Arnara, p. 563, V. 19. 

AV, VII. 6.3. 

W, 2. 426. 

Bagchi, P. C., Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India, Calcutta, 1929. 

Arth. Siis., 11. 15. 16. 

I-Tsing, p. 44. 

Grna., IV. 1. 6. 

Eivyamir&sa of Rajasekhara, p. 245; Ed. Kedaranath Sarma, Patna, 

1954. 

A&. S~S., 11. 15; 11. 24. 18. 

AIM, 2. 426. 

Dhammapada pi, 11.7.5; Ac~rai~astitra, I. 15. 152; Ed. ~rnolaka 

Rsi Hyderabad, 1920. 

Cullavagga, I. 13; SBE - 20. 

Ac3ra1i~asiitra, II. 1. 527. 

Cullavagga, IV. 45. 

Arth.Sas., 11. 24. 16. 

Dicy. Eco. Pro., Vol. VI. p. 5 10,

Tait. Sarjn, with the co~mnenatry of SZiya~a, V. 4.32; 

Anmda Asharama Poona, 1 940. 

Brh. Up., VI. 8. 17. 

Apastarnbha Dh. SG., 11. 8, 19. 18 - 19, 

Ibid: 11. 8. 18. 1. 

Arth. Sas., 11. 15. 84. 

Mbh., Anu., 66. 7. 

Manu, IV. 75. 

Jaim&ya Upmisada Brahmaga, I. 36. 6; Ed. Oertel, H. Lahore, 1921. 

SwSru. Su., 16. 335. 

Arth. as., XIV, 7. 1.41. 

ARM, 2.463. 

sat. Bra.,XIV. 7. 1.41. 

paw, vrrr. 4.5. 

Caraka SQ., 27. 122 - 62. 

Arth. Sas. 11. 15. 

ARM, 2.37. 

Arth. Sas. 11.25.2 1. 

ARM, 2.41. 

sat. Bra,,V, 5.4. 22; XII. 9. 1. 5. 

Mbh., Ann., 53, 19; salya., 37.61.62. 

Ram%., Ay., 103.30. 

Visnu Dhar, Sa. 22.83.84, 

ARM, 2.39. 

AV, XX 136. 13.

Rsma., Ay., 103-30, 

Caraka Sd. 27. 122 - 62. 

ARM, 2.39. 

Beal, Lief of Yuan Chwang, London, 1914. 

ARM, 2. 39. 

Bagchi, P.C., Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian. 

Caraka SO, 27. 122 - 62. 

ARM, 2. 48. 

Caraka SO., 27. 122 - 62. 

ARM, 2. 48. 

Ibid. 5. 42 

Mbh., Anu., 91. 39. 

Arth, Gs., 11. 24. 31. 

Caraka SG., 27. 122 - 62. 

Cunningham, The Stupa of Burhut, Landon, 1979. 

Grindwedel, Buddhist Art, p. 34. 

ARM. 2.38. 

Su5ru Sii,, 46. 187. 

Caraka SO., 27. 122 - 62. 

ARM, 2.40. 

VQnu. Dh. Su,, LXXtX, 17 - 18 

RV., 2.24.7. 

YaSastilaka, p. 330. 

Caraka Su. 27.86-121. 

ARM, 2.41. 

Mbh., salya, 37.61-62 

Caraka, 29. 322 -62; ARM, 5.47.

Dic. of Eco. pro., Vol. 1 p. 291; Vol. VI (iii),p. 323. 

ARM, 2.45. 

Caraka, 27. 122-62 

ARM, 2.42. 

Fausboll, Jatakas, P. 160; IV. 158. 

Mc Crindle, J.W., Ancient India as described by Megathennes and 

Arrian, London, 1877. 

Caraka So., 27.122 - 62 

ARM, 2.37. 

AV, VIII. 10. 29.30. 

Caraka SG. 27.86 - 121 

Visnu. Dhi~. Su., L m . 17 - 18. 

ARM, 2.54. 

Caraka SO., 27 - 28. 

ARM, 2. 464. 

IGmasOtra, IV. 1.29. 

Caraka SQ., 27. 86 - 121. 

ARM, 2. 

Caraka, 27. 86 - 121. 

Mbh., Anu., 91.39. 

Kamastitra, IV. 1.29. 

Bagchi,P.C., Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in Indai. 

ARM, 2.54. 

Caraka SQ., 27.86 - 121. 

ARM, 2.465. 

SuSru. Su., 46. 337.

&t. Sam. Sa. VII. 134. 

ARM, 2. 47. 

Arth. 43s. 11. 12.7. 

Mbh., Anu., 91.39. 

Caraka Su., 27. 86 - 12 1. 

ARM, 2.51. 

SuSru. Su., 46.337. 

ARM, 2 51. 

&ma., Aranya, 25.22. 

ARM, 2.50. 

RV, IV. 43-5; 45.3. 

sat. Bra., 111. 1.3.13. 

Jairn. Upa. Ba., 1.55.2. 

Mbh., Anu., 161.99. 

SuSru. Sii., 45. 133. 

ARM, 2.466. 

RV, VII.2.12. 

AV, VI. 34.6. 

Ait. Bra with the commentary Sa ywa ,XXX3"II. 4; linan&$rma, 

Poona -1931. 

RV, X. 5.6. 

Ibid, VII. 86.6. 

K~thaka Sam. XIII.2; Ed. sripi?ida Shvalekar, Aundh, 1943. 

CUnd. Up., V. 1 1.5. 

AV, 111. 12. 7. 

JiW, I. 1 16. 25 1,268; VI. 328, 545. 

SurBp3na, Jatakas, 81, Jgtaka, 5 12. 

Uttaradhyayana Satratika, 2, p.36a; S.13.E. - 45.

Surgdhyalqa - Arth. Gs., 11. 25.1. 

Ibid, II. 15. 12. 

Ram?i., Ay ., 114.14. 

Ibid, Ay., 114 - 20. 

Ibid, Uttara., 42.18. 

Mbh., Maus,, 16. 29. 

Ibid, Anu., 89.39. 

Ibid, Vir2ta, 15.10. 

Ibid, hnti, 165.10. 

Bhela. p.32. 

Caraka Sii., 27.191 - 193. 

hid, SO, 27.323. 

Raghu., WI.68. 

Fled , Corpus Inscription Indicarurn, 111.18, p. 81. 

Harsa, p. 82, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay - 1937. 

Watters on Yuan Chwang's travels in India, I, p. 17; Vol I & 11, 

London, 1904 - 05. 

AV, I. 4. 4; Tait. Brii., I. 7. 6. 3. 

Ibid, XIX. 2.1-5. 

Ap. Dh. Su., 11. 1. 1.15. 

Katy. Sr. Su. with the commentary of Karka, XIX. 2. 12; parts I & 11. 

Benaras - 1928,39. 

SuSru. SO., 45.21. 

Caraka SO., 27. 213-214. 

Su4ru Sa., 45.17. 

Hqa, V. 

&t. Sam.Su., VI.30. 

Y&astilaka,III.370-71.

Manasollasa, 111.16 15. 

Ibid, 111.2 6 19-20. 

ARM, 3.26. 

Afi, s&. 11.25.19. 

Caraka, SC~~27.185. 

Dalhaqa on SuSruta Su., 45.194. 

ARM, 2.169, 

Manu, XI.95. 

Arth, s~s., 11.25.25. 

ARM, 2.38. 

Amara,II. 10.40. 

ARM, 2.174. 

Panini, IV.2.99. 

ARM, 2.175. 

Arth, Sas., 11.25.25. 

Vayu, 65.1 16. 

ARM, 2.175. 

I&-mii., Smdara,II.23. 

Caraka, Su., 27.185. 

ARM, 2.174. 

Mbh, sinti. 24.20. 

Caraka Su., 27. 178. 

ARM, 2.174. 

SuSrzl SG., 45. 194. 

ARM, 2.175. 

Paqini, 2.70. 

Arth. SaS., 11.25.22. 

R&~A., Uttara., 42.18.

427. ARM, 2. 175. 

428. Caraka, 27.184. 

429. AKM,2. 174. 

430. Manu, XI.95. 

431. ARM,2. 175. 

~ata. Brs., VX1.9.1.1. 

AV, XX. 127.7-8. 

ARM, 2.175. 

Arth. Sas.II.25.18; SriSru SO., 45.178. 

ARM, 2.174. 

Mm;i., Sundara, 11.26.32. 

Caraka SQ ., 27.182. 

Ibid, 27.183. 

ARM, 2.174. 

RV, VIII.2.12 

Ram., Ay., 52.89. 

%id, Ay., 114.20. 

Vinaya pi@., 1.246. 

Ibid; M&vagga, VI.66. 

Acarariga, 1.599. 

Art. Sas., 11. 15. 20. 

Patafljali, 1.4.3, 

Mbh., Anu., 53.17; 136.9. 

em&, Sundara,II. 18. 

SuSru., Sa., 46.419. 

Bhela, p.218. 

Ibid, p. 2 19. 

Vayu, 49.9; 46.12; 43.4; 38.65.

ASt Wr., 111.23. 

Manasoll%a, 111. 1581 - 84. 

'Saktamrva htauna punantu' - RV X.71.2. 

ARM, 2.276. 

Tbid. 

Arth. $as., I1 15.27-48. 

Ibid, 11.15.68-69. 

Ibid,I.2 1.8-9. 

Ibid, 1.21.10-19. 

Caraka Su., 27.270. 

Ibid, 27.257. 

Am~4 11.9.46-47. 

Mai~asollasqIII. 1549. 

ARM, 2.159. 

Ibid, 2.160. 

Ibid, 2.157. 

hid, 22.160. 

Ibid, 5. 18. 

fiid, 2. 168. 

Arth. §2s, 11.15.82. 

Manu, V. 111.1 1 5. 

SuSru Sii., 46.446, 450-53. 

ARM, 2. 172. 

Ibid, 2. 178. 

Bagchi,P.C,, Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India. 

Dicy. Eco. Pro, of India, Vol Vi (i) pp.247-256. 

Introduction to Tambula MaSiljafi, Journal of Oriental Institution, M.S. 

University, Baroda Oriental Series, Vol.VI1, 1957 - 59.

Ni~aka~tlza Sastri, K.A., A I-Iistory of South India, p. 130. 

Jatakas no.5 1 & 52; Dhanlmapada - Afthakcitha, p.49; 5 Vois. Pr* 1 

Text Series, 1906-19 15. 

Caraka Su., V. 75-76. 

&t. Hr. Su., XI1.83-85; Brhat San., 77.35-37. 

Sachau, E., Alberuni's India, London, 1887, p.68; Katha Sarit S2gara 

of Somadeva S~ri, Vol. VI. p. 23; VTI.p.74; VIILp.4; Ed. D. Prasad & 

K.B.Parab, Bombay, 1903. 

Introduction to TSmbula Maiij rtn. 

ARM, 2.45. 

Ibid. 

Ibid, 2.390. 

Clsn.Up., 7.9.1, 

ARM,3.26. 

ARM,2.446. 

Ibid, 2.447 - 456. 

Ibid, 2. 457. 

Ibid, 2. 458. 

Ibid, 2. 457. 

Ibid. 

Ibid, 2. 458. 

Ibid.

COST 9 

ORNANHENTS 

9 COShlETICS AND 

I. DRESSING : 

It is a pitiable truth that Indian dressing style and clothing are 

not often regarded as the part of Indian culture. Most of the scholars we of the 

opitlion that there is no certain improvement or development in the Indian style 

of dressing. The dress of present day like 'dhoti' 'ccidar' and 'pagag' had 

been c~stumes of the past 2000 years. So, where there would be the history of 

dressing? It is one another reason why scholars did not much regard the history 

of Indian dressing that it was and is believed by everyone that stitched clothes 

were introduced to Indians at 16' 

century AD by Muslims, but both the 

opinion of the scholars in connection with Indian dressing is wrong. It is true 

that we still use clotl~ings like dhoti, cddar etc., which were in use 2000 years 

ago; but the similarity of ancient and modern hdi

duence of Yunan, Iran, and central Asia, because the people in this region 

had a close relationship with these foreigners. Under these circumstances 

cultural exchange is quite cornon. 

In most of the atsc our litentturc give ismd ill idcntilying iuld 

namitig the clothes. Such names of' clothes are safely remaining in vedic, 

Buddhis* and Jaina literature, fables and fairy tales, and in lexicons. 'The 

bha~ya-s and vyakara~-s which came through this mighty system of 

literature, hfurther described the cloths. From the literature we come to know 

where the clothes of good quality were produced and from the lexicons we 

come to know about the dresses made up of jute and bark, which were most 

commonly used by ascetics and poor. Here we also get information about 

leather garments. Kpzdjinn etc., were used by ascetics with the view of 

serenity while the other leather garments might have been exported to foreign 

countries for the use of leather garments in this hot climate-prevailing country, 

is host chanceless. 

It is hard to say how our ancestors dressed in those days. Till 

date we do not know fiom our researches whether they used clothes or not. If' 

yes, whether dresses were made of leather or leaves ! It is known fkom the cave 

paintings of pre-historic period that man was naked and it was not considered 

unculture. In this context, it will be appropriate to mention some of the 

traditional seds which support nudity. There are lots of reference regarding 

naked sdhu-s in Buddhist and Jaina literature. Probably their nudity is an 

attempt to re-live the past tradition of primitive age wherein the awareness of 

dressing was absolutely absent. Gradually when the society pew more 

civilized, people becanie more inseparable fiom clothes while th&x spiritual 

preceptors maintained the age old tradition of non dressing which was quite 

common once upon a the. The reference about the dresses made up of leather, 

bark and grasses found in vedic and later literature, also indicate the primitive

tradition. The point to be considered is when a society gradually develops, not 

everyone folIows it. A certain group of people remain undeveloped and 

uncivilized. They are later treated as tribes. However, we can draw the clear 

picture of ancient culture by thoroughly studying the believes and habits of 

these tribes, 

We get the first pre-vedic reference about Indian dressing fi-om 

the Indus Valley. Later, we have countIess information in vedic and later 

writings. Here, a humble effort has been taken to study the dresses, their types 

of materials etc., found in ARM. 

1. MATERIALS OF GARMENTS : 

Dress indicates the refmed taste of men. For a study of the dress 

besides other facts, it is necessary to know which were the materials used in 

making clothes. For knowing the names of materials us4 in making cloth in 

ancient India, a study of ancient literature is essential. We frnd names of many 

kinds of clothes in the vedic, Buddl~ist and Jriina literature, friblcs and lexicons. 

AX places not only names of clothes but a detailed description of the materials 

are given. There was a tradition that man wore difrlt'erent clothes suitable for 

1 

different seasons. 

Fine, soft and cool cotton and silk clothes in the summer 

season, thick and heavy silk and woollen clothes in the winter season were 

worn by Indians, Similarly dresses differed fiom man to man according to their 

d8erent professions.2 Hermits, nuns, hunters and foresters wore clothes made 

up of barks and leaves. Kings and economically well-off individuals wore 

precious silk and gold-ernbroided clothes. In the same way, the dress of the 

people of one class differed from that of the other classes in one respect or the 

other. 

In the early age man used barks and leaves etc., to cover his 

body. With passage of time the kinds of clothes changed and man began to use

clothes made from cotton. wool, silk md fibres of various hits and barks. 

From a study of this literary evidence, we can know about the ancient Indirln 

style of dressing, and how far Indians were technically advanced in the art of 

weaving . Halayudha gives a classification of clothing into four major 

divisions as cloth made up of leather, cotton, silk and wool. 

i) Cotton: Probably cotton clothes originated in India. 

Excavations at the Itldus valley sites have lcd to the discovery of some 

appliances such as spindles which were used it1 spinning and weaving. This 

shows that the process of spinning and weaving had started in this age. A pink 

cotton piece of cloth was found in the excavation at one of the sites of this 

3 

culture. 

This is a testimony to the fact that the use of cotton cloth was in 

vogue even in the prehistoric period in India. Mackay had also discovered 

wound cotton thread at one of the sites of this culture. This also supports the 

view that cotton existed in this period. According to Sir John Marshall, the 

4 

word 'sindhu' is used in the sense of cloth in the Babylonian language. 

This 

leads us to the conclusion that cotton clothes were used in this region in this 

period. 

Probably we find the earliest literary evidence of the existence 

of the cotton cloth in the Srauta Si&ra-s of A~vabyana and ~ j~~~ana.~ In the 

list of clothes mentioned in the Ac~rli7iga szitra, cotton cloth is called 

khomiya. It was used for making a civara - a garment of a Buddhist monk6 

In the Vlnayapipka it is named as k~pprisikam.7 For making cloth, cotton 

was first ginned, later it was changed into fine thrd8 The process of making 

cloth was the same as is adopted in making with the handloom these days.' 

According to Anian, Indian cotton cloth was whiter and brighter than that

made in other countries. Lucien was of the opinion that Indian cloth was lighter 

and soltcr than cven Greek cloth. 

We do not have many references to cotton elo111es in the Gupla 

literature. There can be two hfkrences for the non-mention of cotton clothes, 

either cotton clothes were used only by a few people or the use of cotton clothes 

were so common that the writers considered it unnecessary to make a mention 

of their use. 

1 I 

phala, knrpusa and bdara. 

The Amurakoia mentions three words 

for cotton clothes 

Dr. Motichandra feels that the words garjabha 

and sphatika in the Ac~rangasutra have been used in the sense of the variety 

of cotton clothes. l2 Halapha gives the two words kdrpirpdsa and bddara to 

denote a cotton cloth.I3 

ii) Wool: Woollen clothes were called as kambala. It is stated 

in Divycivadcina that u variety ofthread called tungkela was made fi-om a tree 

named Kalpadea in the Uttara Kuru country. With this thread were made 

14 

woollen clothes of many colours such as blue, yellow, red and whlte. 

Beautiful cloth was also made by mixing wool and d~ktila.'~ Ordinary 

blankets and those made with the hair of camel were woven for trade as well. 

We come across the following varieties of woollen clothes in -4RM - uvika, 

16 

urabhra, rallaka, ur@p and kam baku. 

iii) Silk: It is a controversial matter when silken cloth began to 

17 

be manufactured in India. According to Dr. Sarkar, 

the term pGZn&iva 

mentioned in the vedic literature means silken cloth. But according to Dr. 

18 19 

Motichandra and Monier Williams the term means woollen cloth and not

silken cloth. h the absence of any definite evidence it is dacult to determine 

the correct meaning of the word p&n&va. 

20 

vedic literature is tipya. 

Another word mentioned in the 

Dr. Sarkw thinks it was a thick silken ~10th.~' 

Sayiuja and Katyaydna have irhorprctcd it it1 thc scn:ic o["a limn' (;I;:)UUMLI), '21 

piece of cloth dipped in clarified butter', 'a cloth made with a kind of grass 

called tlpa', or 'a piece of cloth dipped three times in the clarified butter'. 

From this it is quite clear that the commentators were not quite sure about the 

meaning of the 

Dr. Motichandra has not expressed any definite opinion 

about the correct meaning of the word. There is a reference to a garment made 

with kuia called ~a~dc2taka.~~ According to Sayqa, in this context Kuia 

means silk and so according to him candataka was a silken cloth. Thus If we 

take tlic t he words piirt&rvu, tapya and can&tuku in the sense of silken 

clothes, then it can be said that the vedic people were acquainted with silken 

clothes. 

It can be said that most probably silk was used in India in the 

5*' century BC as Paqini has mentioned thc word kanieY.yrr." Silken clothes 

(kauieya) are also mentioned in the ~rim~Z~d~,2~ and in the Buddhist 

literature. Besides kauieya, two other words used in the sense of silken clothes 

26 

werecinumiukuandpatfa. IntheSubhcZparva ofMuhabharara two other 

27 

kinds of silken clothes namely kotaja andpa@ja are mentioned. 

In the literature of the Kusgna and Gupta ages silken clothes of 

a number of varieties are mentioned. Haliiyudha interprets amiuka and 

kzuuieyu in the sense of a. silken cloth. 

a. Amhtka: It is a type of silken cloth widely used by the 

people of ancient India. The a,rit.Cuka was made both in India and China.

According lo the corntnentary of Niilthacuraqi, in tlae decoration of en 

a&ka gold thread was used to make beautiful designs.z8 In the 

B~atkalpasutro Bhcipa it is said to bc a soft and bright silken cloth.29 

V.S.Aganua1 also thinkr that it was a silken ~10th.~' 

Many varieties of a,~kare mentioned on the basis of 

31 

different colours. Kglihsa has referred to sitGhSuka, am@kSuka, 32 

33 - - 34 35 

m&amSldka, nelanihku, and jlarniihiuka. Actually the aniSuka-s 

were once produced in white colour. Later they had been coloured with 

diflerent types of colours. Gtyayana also refers to, two arizhka-s - ScSkalika 

and krirdamika coloured by iokala and k~rdama.~~ Another variety 

mentioned was pa@?ni5nka. According to Dr. Motichandra it was white and 

plain silk ~ 10th~~ Another variety of a ~ kwas cinri-ka. 

it was the variety of silk imported from China. 

Most probably 

According to the 

B~hatkalpasiit~a Bhasya it was made from a silk worm named kosak2ira or 

cloth made fiorn very smooth Chinese silk.38 According to the commentary of 

Niiithaclira~i, very fme silk or Chinese silk was called cindliri~ka.~~ On the 

basis of these commentaries it can be said that probably very fine Indian silk 

cloth and Chinese silk were called cinLzriziuka. 

B2nabhatta refers to amiuka many a times. In his opinion 

a-ka 

is a very thin and white ~10th.~' In another context he refers to an 

a-ka made up of fibre of stalkIk4' Bans has also referred to the o ~ k a 

decorated with designs of flowers, leaves, birds etc.42 In the works of Praw 

the word a&ya 

occurs in many a place. In Acarariga stZtra there is a 

43 

reference of ahuka and cincMhka. 

B~atkalpasufru BhQa also refers

44 

to both the varieties of aHzi-uka-s. 

In ancient India a~Suku was the most 

liked dress, next to dukt2la. P&icularly in the 10~ Cen. AD a*ku 

prominent g'ument. 

dhauta kauieya and a*.hka. 

also blown as patror?za. 45 

was a 

Hal~yudha mentions two types of silk cloth, they are 

Dhauta kauieja is bleached silk cloth. It is 

b. Kauieya: Kauieya is made from the silky threads produced 

by the worn. Silk is a very costly, beautfil and sophis$icnted kess. Since it 

is a costly one, ordinary people cannot afFord to use them regularly hut they 

used them in some important occasions like festivals etc. According to Dr. 

Motichandra the silk made fiom the cocoons of a silk worm, which subsisted 

on the leaves of rnulbeny trees was called kouiqx~.~~ 

Kautilya has given an elaborate note on kauieya. The silk 

worrns were cultivated in the trees of ndgav$sn, llikucu, vakula and vafa. 

The kauieya was also of four types accordingly. The kauseya made from the 

silk wonns of nuguv&a was yellow in colour. The knuieya of likuca tree 

was in the colour df wheat, kauieya of vukula tree was in the wlite colour and 

that of vafa was in the colour of fresh butter.47 KauSeya was also produced in 

The tern1 kauieya has been mentioned in the Modhyamavydyoga, 

49 

wherein a yellow coloured kauseya was worn by a brdzrna~. In the 

50 

Amarakoia the term dhautakauieya has been interpreted as 'washed silk'. 

~a12yudha calls it pa~orw.51 

iv) Leather: 

Most probably skin of deer, goat and cow was 

used to make leather garments. The skin of a deer is considered to be a 

52 

garment of ascetics in the Kirdtarjuniya, 

~mdrasam bhava, 53 

and

54 

Kudam bar i . The deer skin was used at .the time of sacred sacraments such 

as the vidycl..ranzbha etc. The slcin oftiger and deer were used on seats to cover 

55 

the bare ground. 

56 

as Kmvasas. 

Skm of elephant was also used. Lord Siva is often descried 

Dr. Motichandra mentions the use of the skin of a sea otter as 

57 

it was very thin and h e. 

-4part from this, the skins of animals like camel, 

leopard, were also used5' HaJayridha has not mentioned that the leather of 

which animals were used for preparing dresses during his days. 

v) Garment of Bark: The garments of tree barks are usually 

known as valkala-s. Monks, ascetics and foresters were expected to wear 

valkala garment. It was worn by women while practising penance or visiting 

We have also a reference to a bedding rnade of tree barks.60 It is 

6 1 

stated in the Vumana para% that vatkala-s can be cleaned with water. 

HaQyudha also calls it valka. 62 

vi) Cloth made with some other materials: 

a. Saw: Probably cloth made with hernp is called Sam. In 

Divyhvaduna there is a nmtion of a cloth measuring 36 feet long and about 

64 

24 feet 3 inches wide made of Sarees were also woven with hernp. 

Probably poor fmers put on dhoti-s made of 

66 

Chwang monks used to wear deep red garments made of hemp. 

According to Yuan 

b. I'halcrka: It is probably a cloth made fi-om fibres of some 

hit. Dr. ~otichandra~~ opines that it was most probably rnade with thin chips 

of a particular kind of timber. It can also mean clothes made with the fibres of 

some fruit.

68 

garments made of muija. 

ropes. 

c. Mufija: Monks, sages rutd ascetics used to put on girdles and 

MaEja is a kind of long seed used for making 

d. Uurbha: It was a kind of grass which was considered, 

according to Monier Williams, sacred and is also called ~ufa.~' It was used by 

70 

monks and ascetics as a gamlent. E3h;ls.a calls these garments kiriucira. 7 1 

vii) Otllcr miscellaneous gmmcilts: Here are listed somc of the 

clothes for it is doubthl to concludc with which material they were made of: 

a. Patroma: It is called paplnnu in the Jaina literature and is 

mentioned in thc list of costly varieties of clothes.7z According to Dr. J.C. Jain 

it was made with the fibres of the bark of a 

In some dictionaries 

pulrorrux is considered a cotton textile, but Dr. Motichandra has expressed 

doubts about the interpretation of the word.I4 According to him patrorF 

variety were named after the regions where they were made (like Maghada, 

Paun&, 

Sauvarqakla@~ka then, lakt~ci, biikgli etc.,). In the A~nurakoia it 

is called washed silk.75 It is possible that it may have been a wild variety of 

silk. According to Ksirasv2mi, the commentator of Amarakoia, this variety of 

silk was produced by those worms which subsisted on the leaves of va@ and 

lahca 

The meaning of the word urqa is wool. In the Rgveda sheep is 

77 

called urpzvari. On the basis of this evidence Dr. Gayatri Varma thinks that 

patrorw might have been woollen ~10th.~~ In the M&lavikljgnimitrca we have 

a reference to kauieya-patrorw (Act V). Dr. Gayatri thinks that the phrase 

Kauieya-patror- may mean a beautal and a smooth variety of cloth made 

of mixed yarn of silk and wool of putrorv. According to Monier Williams

156 

79 

pulrorruz was a variety of silk. 

In the opinion of IIalayudha it is bleached 

silk8' 

b. Dnkula: IlzrktZlu is a tvoven silk garment. In olden times the 

royal flags were nude in dukuiu and omiuku. ,fdankucajya ihe commentator 

ofA~uru%a 

opined tliat dukulu is a peculiar clotii madc up of Lhc: special 

8 1 

variety of cotton threads produced in Bengal. 

The iViSithactim?;r?k~r has 

told that dukrlla is made up of the threads produced fro111 the barks of a tree 

called dl,dkrlia.82 We get q 1 e information about dukda in Arthaiiist~a, 

Kautilya says that dukiila made in Bengal were white and soft that of Paup&a 

deia were of deep blue colour and shining, and the same of Sauvcrrwkud)a 

were red in co~our.~~ He has also told that duklila were weaved in three styles 

and they were named after their weaving as ek&?f&ka, 

aghj~ardhcirizSuka, 

dvyaliliuka and tryalithlka." 

In the Jaina literature dukBla is called dugrilu and it is 

mentioned with other costly varieties of clothes.85 In the Acdn&?tga sritra it is 

86 

stated that the cotton growing in the Arigu country were called as dukala. 

According to Divycivaduna a fine variety of cloth is made by mixing wool with 

the fibres of d~ktila.~~ A variety of cloth 

dukrila mentioned in the 

89 

,LalitavistarasG was a white cloth made with tlle fibres of dukrila. 

According 

to Dr. Motichandra, tlie explanaltion of tlie word dukulu given in the 

commentary of NiSZtha ctka~i is correct, which says that for making dukula 

cloth, the bark of the duktila tree is soaked in water and pounded in a mortar to 

separate its fibre. Later these fibres are spun.g0 In the AmarukoSa, dukala is 

given as a synonym of ksauma (linen). B2na has used both the words dzlkda

and dugtila. According to Dr. Aganval both these words were synonyms. 91 

According to Bana, dukfila was made in the country of Puv& 

(Bengal). 

Baqia mentions many dresses made of duktLla such as rn upper garment, 

sarees, bed sheets, pillow covers et~.'~ Dr. Aganval comes out with a 

farfetched derivation ofthe word dukda. Probably cloth was called as kula in 

the local dialect, or in the primitive language fion~ which is derived the word 

Kolika (weaver). Probably the cloth was brought for sale in two layers so it 

was called dvikda or dz~ktila.'~ 

In the Gupta ,4ge weaving dukiila with the design of 

hamsamirhzrna, in the border was a fashion. Bana says in Kdumbari- that the 

dukda of ~udraka was white like the foam of nectar and its border was 

94 

decorated with the harnsa-mifhuna marked by gorocani. 

Harsavardhma 

too wore a pair of duk2la with the design of h~7msi~mithuncr when he was 

going to the battle field.95 It is said in Acicrdllgo that the prir of hmsa 

dukrila given to Mahavira by ~3kra was so thin that it could be blown away 

even by a gentle breeze. Any weaver skilled in his profession will appreciate 

its quality. The dukula was weaved along with the threads of Kaldvaifu and it 

is decorated with the design of swan.96 According to the Antoga& daslio, 

97 

costly dresses were given as dowry along with a pair of dukula. 

Kfili&sa also refers to the homsa d~krila.'~ But he did not 

mne~ltion that tither it was single or pair. In Bhafti KUI~CT the word duktZla 

occurs two times. But the references did not show any light to know if it was 

single or double." In Gitagovindo there are some refet-enes about dirklao for

more than lb'our times. There is also a reference of the dual form of usage as 

ciukdu. loo 

From thi: abovc rcl'ircnccs LVC can co~lfinll !hat dtik;lilu was also 

i~sed as a pair - one piece to wear and the another piocc to cover Ihc upper 

portion of the body. Some other dresses were also designed out of duktiln. 

Bana refers to utmriya, sarees, pcrlarigu posa dc., made up of duktila. 101 

In the above discussion we have tried to make out the meaning 

of the word dukula. Keeping in view the great popularity of it, we may 

conclude that the material with which the cloth made was easily available in 

the various forests of India. Illis fine and rxttractive cloth must have been very 

pleasant in the summer season. 102 

There is one more thing to be cl&ed 

about the word dukula 

that is the later authors and the lexicographers have treated k.pzdn2a and dukGtn 

103 

as synonyms. Amara has sa.id k.yurncim duki2lorn synt. 

Hal~yldhn, also 

104 

says u'ukularn kqumamiycxte. 

But actually both were not the same. 

Kautilya has treated both dukula and k~aurna separately. Rana compares the 

whiteness of k+aurna with knrasdgaralo5 and the softness of nrnhka with 

duktila.lo6 Hence it becomes clear that technically there were some minor 

differences between dukula and kpuma. Dukula and kquma both were made 

up of the same material. The only difference between them is - the thicker one 

was k~auma and the thinner one was dukulu. Galapathy Sastry has clearly 

mentioned that the thick dukrila was called as ksaurna. lo7 

Hemacaidra has strived hard enough to solve tlie problem. He 

says utasi - linseed is called as k+xmcS. Halayudha also says : afasb s yd uma

108 

k~umd. The cloth made of k.pmc?. is ksauma. In the same way the cloth 

made from the fibres of k+md is dtcklilc~."~ Sgdhu Sundara Gani has also 

110 

mentioned that the cloth made up of atasi is krlown as dukula. 

namcly kpmd or rrtasE was cultivated in tf~c piu4 of I'aslcm India. 

and ksauma must be the products ofthe fibres or threads of these grasses. 

111 

The grass 

DuE:~ikr 

Somadeva has referred to dukeZla many a times in his 

Yaiastilaka b~lt he did not use the word ksauma even a single time. Probably 

even before the time of Somadeva both the words dukela and ksuuma must 

have become synonyms. Hence Somadeva has used the word dakela alone. 

But it is very clear from him that dukda was very much in use up to his time 

(I 0' 43) and it was treated as a majestic and costly dress. 

c. Ksaurna: It is also called as khomiyo."' According to Dr. 

Motichandra it was made with the fibres of the bark of linseed. "3 

According 

to Dr. J.C.Jain it is a cotton textile.'l4 It was used for preparing civara, a 

garment for Buddhist monk.'15 According to the explanation given in the 

Niiitha csruni it was made either of the cotton or with the fibres of tree bark 

116 

of a banyan tree. 

2. TYPES OF DRESSES: 

i) Nudity: Halayudha refers to the Buddhist mendicants as 

nagntifa and digvdsas. Regarding the origin of clothing and its development, 

we have no evidence of dress in the sketch of krfa yugu. Like houses and 

dwellings, dresses too had its origin in the Pefu age. This was an age of 

luxuriant vegetation and the trees offered man his requirements of clothes and

ornaments. ' l7 When we come to the chapters on Srddhu we fmd clothes as a 

primary necessity of men. It is stated that without clothes there can be no 

activity, no sacrrfrce, no knowledge of Veda-s, nay penance; so should clothes 

be givcn to hrcihmay on thc time of irrrddtzu as a highly comcn&ble 

118 

act. 

ii) Anmya: The B$af KaEpa SGfra refers that it covered the 

waist and the upper half of the thighs. It was worn while changing garments. 

(It can be compared to our modem tinles towel). Though Hal3yudh.a has 

counted both antorip and nwasnnn as they are ddlierent. I- 

Tsing, the Chinese traveller has given at some Imgth the description of tlle 

layrncn as wcll LL~ of the clergy. Dcscribiilg 

costu~nc of the clergy of thc 

Mt%lasarvG,~itiv&in school of Buddhism, I-Tsing observes that their costume 

was made up of sornc ar-ticles like antcrnuisa and nivnsunu ctc. Here, I-Tsing 

opines that antarvGsa is an inner garment, whereas nivasana is a lower 

120 

garment. 

iii) Nivasana: I-Tsing int-'oms that the Buddhist of Gupta age 

wore the lower gamed or nivt~sana in four different ways. 

121 

Halgyudha 

mentions the words like upsakv)%nu, paridh&na and antartya as synonyms 

of nivasana. 122 

iv) Upsasfivysna: It is a kind of lower garment. Somadeva 

refers to upasarizvydna twice ill Yafastiluka. In a pczrtictilar context, a guru 

lalls his ii.9" 

to tie tl~e god with his r~pusuri7~y&rzino.1z3 Hcre the Sanskrit 

commentator says that upsa?hvy&a means uitariyo 

125 

the Rajumutu is described to be wearing the upasn?izvyuna. 

In another place 

Here the

wrntnentator gives 'the 

tlpsa~vdna is 

as synonpous to paabdhha, antartya and njvasana. 126 

v) Pddhana: It is one another lower garment. Halaymdlra has 

liatcd thia word with ~~~orhv~&o.''~ Amiuauimha ha also (Tcatcd both 

128 

upasa?hvycZna and paridhdna as adhovastra. 

129 

are lower garments. 

Mewandra says tbat both 

The Sanskrit commentator of Yaiastilaka has given the 

meaning of adhovastra in one place and uttariya in mother place for the same 

word Amara says upsarhy&a is lower and sa?fwyana is upper garment. 

Probably the commentator should have been confused by these two terms. 

allowed to use three pieces of cloth as upper 

rqbhara pu, and mukhovastrikd."* 

: Dr. J.C. Jain i&om that Jaina mints are 

ent. They are pracchikiana, 

131 

of a curtain. 

vii) Mvarqa: It is mentioned in the Arthaiatra in the sense 

In the ~ oh~iva~~a,'~~ it is mentioned that the bhikkus used 

uttar&o@a or mantle. In the ~hikkunipatimokkha'~~ it is described that the 

uttarusariga is worn in different styles such as hastiiau @ka - elephant trunk 

in which the pleated end was made to fall down in the same way as the pleated 

end of the wee of the women of Cola country; in the mafsyavdlaka style the 

long and short borders were pleated in the shape of fish-tail; in the 

catzi&arquku style four ends ofthe garment were shown. This is only possible 

either in the case of uttarksariga or kaiicuka cut at sides. 

viii) Watiya: Habyudha has included uttariya in the group of 

upper garment. The shawl used to cover the upper portion of the body is said 

to be an uftar@a. Arnara has included the word into the group of dresses &ed

134 

to cover. Bu&& mrsnks and nuns mainly wore these gments - satigh&i, 

ontorvlisoko, md uttarrisafiga (ment~e).~~~ In the works of Midasa we have 

m e 

reference to ladies wearing an uttariya. 

zltprij,a is generally not in vogue. 

136 

But ladies wearing an 

ix) Arcilhowka: In the Mathwa museum an idol of Vigu 

belonging to the Gupta period figures with a petticoat which can be identified 

wiah ardhoruka. This lower garment is transparent and is slicking to the body. 

In some garments of this kind circular designs are shown. This lower garment 

has tied round the waist with the help of a silk doth cded pa&u. It seems that 

is was stitched as a modem lower garment is sewn these days. The only 

difference in a modem lower 

and ardhoh was that the present 

day's lower garment has a stitched hollow strip ia the upper part wherein a cord 

is passed for tying round the waist. Wle the crrdharuka was kept in position 

round the waisr with the help of a 

In the Bfiatkolpasrina 

~h@ya,'~* the description of ardhoruka and its mode of wearing are given. It 

covered the avagraha and the pa,@ therefore the whole waist. It was shaped 

like the wrestler's &orts (jiirtghiy4 malla calandkflh) except that its broad 

end was firmly tied between the two thighs (iimdvaye ca kaiuvabaddhah). It 

resembled like the madern lap@. It was mainly used by Jaina nuns. 

In the Har~carita the word CanpZtaka occurs and Cowell has 

translated it as a petticoat139 Amarakoia says that the women's petticoat 

reaching to half the length of the thigh was known as co&tcrk~.~~* 

Halayudha also says that ardhoruka is the dress of women folk also known as 

cag&taka. 14'

x) Kaficuka: It is a type. of mat va has used the word 

entator sf YaSasalaka says that 

Kafimka means ko2rprisaka. But kt;ip&aka is different fi-om kaficuku. The 

lMah1zvuggu mou 

s should not use the kaf cuka befitting the 

laymen.142 The Bhikhnipotimokkho says that the kaiicuka-s were wan in 

different styles like hasti h u ~ k a 

in the Sornoyornritlk4 emenha 

observes a typically miser shop-keeper wearing a torn, woollen cckiar over his 

long and thick k~iicuku.'~~ in the ~mara'~' the meaning of a kaficuka is an 

armour. On the basis of its description in various literary works, Dr.Agarwal 

thinks it was a long coat which came down to the feet, had full sleeves and its 

collar was closed in fk~nt.'~~ According to Dr. Motichandra the kaRcuku of the 

waniors was like a modem kurrri - loose upper 

Dr. Indu Rabha 

Pandey opines that the kaiicuka was worn by bth men and women. The 

kaAcuka worn by women mostly came down to their feet while that worn by 

men came down to a little above the knees. This type of kaAcuku can be seen 

on the ordinary coins of Samudra Gupta. On these coins Samudra Gupta is 

shown wearing half-sleeved kalicuka. 148 

xi) V8rab2na: HalQudha says that both kaficuka and 

vrirablina are synonyms.149 Amamirnha also treats the two words as 

samrin~rfhu?~u-s.~~~ Dr. Aganual thinks that it was a garment of the same kind 

as kalicuka but somewhat shorter in length and came down to the knees. A 

statue made up of marble stone, belong to the 4' cent. AD is found out near 

Kabul. The statue is wearing a long coat which more or less resembles the 

~drobri~.'~~ There is also a toy of Ahicchatra found out wearing s similar 

coat.lS2 But Dr. Agarwal has not clearly stated the difference benveen a

vcZrabdw and a kaficuka. The kdcuka was of many types. Some came 

down to the thigh, others to the knees still others to the calves, still others to 

the heels. 

Therefore it does not seem proper to distinguish between the 

kaficuka and ~e vdrubup~ on the basis of its length. Dr. Motichandra states 

that a varabaw was made Erom a variety of 40th called stavaraka, which 

were stitched with bunches of pearls.lS3 According to him stnvurnka is a word 

of Pahlavi language which means a wstly 

On the basis of the 

mention of stavaraka Dr. Motichandra was ofthe opinion that it was not an 

amour made of iron. It was a coat stuffed with cotton which was most 

probably worn to protect the body fiom the attack of sword. In this connection 

we may also mention the views of Dr. Agarwal. He 

that the over coat in 

the dress of the Sun and his attendant Dq& and Pirigala in the Miithura style 

of sculpture is vkubaya. On the basis of the decoration on the coat of the 

Sun, he was of opinion that it was viirubdv made fkom a variety of cloth 

called stavaraka. 

A h a mideration of the views of Dr. Motichandra and Dr. 

Agarwal it seems proper to come to a conclusion that varubu~ was a 

kcriicuka made fiom a variety of cloth called stavaraka. Probably this kind of 

cloth was used for garments worn in a battle field. For the sake of convenience 

in fighting and to keep the body agile, probably viirab5q.u was comparatively 

a close fitting gment. It might have been either closed or open in front, and 

sometimes with full sleeves and the other times with half sleeves. 

The reference to v&abdw is very less in Sanskrit literature. 

Kaufilya has included vdrabdy with woollen dresses.154 IGli&sa describes 

that the soldiers of Raghu were wearing the v~rab liw-s. 155 Malliniltha gives 

the meaning of vlirnb5~ as koiic~ka.'~~ Baqa has mentioned that some of

165 

the kings in the army were wearing ~rirabri~-s.'~~ The body guard of 

Dadhici was also wearing a white vdrablina. '58 Bgqa has also refmed about 

varubup in Kaumbari. When Candrapi& started for hunting he wore a 

159 

varubay. 

ARer returning &om hunting, he seated on the seat brought by 

his servants, removed his varabaw. 160 

From the above reference, it can be known that the v&ubdy 

was not only used as an amour, but also as an ordinary wear. According to 

Kau~ilya vurabc2.w was made in wool also. It is very difficult to find out 

when the dress would have been known or introduced to India. But fiom the 

reference available, one thing is certain that vdrabdw was in use in the royal 

houses and just like kaiicuka, vrirabap was also worn by both men and 

women. It can be assumed &om the meagre reference of vdrabupa in Sanskrit 

literature that it was used by royal personalities alone. It is possible that, as it 

was too expensive, it was not in use among ordinary people. 

xii) Nivi: The one among the three garment. worn generally 

during vedic age is nivi. It is a loin cloth or a piece of cloth tied round the 

waist like a dhoti. Both men and women wore this garment. Dr. Motichandra 

also opines that ntvE is a kind of under garment used by vedic Indim. He also 

opines further that nivi and paridhdna probably consisted of simple apron 

worn by the men and women alike. The nEvi has been explained by Sucar as 

wider border of the cloth. He also gives the origin of the word nivi &om the 

Tamil word 'ney' to weave.l6l But Halayudha says that nivi means the knot 

which fastens the lower garment round the loins. 162 

xiii) Niwlaka: Sometimes it was called as Cinnacolaka. On the 

basis of its literal meaning of the word Dr. ~~arwal'~~ has connected this

garment with China. It was worn over all other garments such as a tunic. It 

has been identified with the garment carved on an image of Kani~ka, in the 

Mathura 

which belongs to the Kyn~a 

period According to Dr. 

Aganval this gannent was worn in the Kusaqa period and it continued to be 

worn even in the Gupta period. According to Dr. Motichdra it must have 

been a fblI sleeve coat stuffed with cotton which is worn even up to the present 

day in the Central Asia. It should have been worn over other garments like a 

tunic. Indian soldiers have worn this garment in the 7" Cent. AD. Halayudha 

has given the meaning of nicoiaka as a jacket.165 Amara gives the meaning of 

166 

nicola as a pracchadapap i.e. coverlet. 

JQirasv8rni has also explained it 

clearly that nicolo is that spread on the bed etc. 167 $abdararn&ara also gives 

the five words nicoli, rzicuiaka, nicoiu, nicoli and nicula in the sense of a 

168 

coverlet. 

There is a reference of nicula in the beautiful description in 

Yaiastilaka. The black-clouds were spread over the earth as if a black cloth 

169 

was spread on the earth. 

the jacket and bed-spread. 

So it can bc unde&ood that nicolaka means bod1 

xiv) Kurpasaka: Both men ad women wore this garment. The 

1 70 

Kurpdsaka worn by males were like half sleeved coats stuffed with cotton. 

Dr. Agarwal has pointed out two special features of this gannent. It came 

down only upto the waist and was generally without hll sleeves. No doubt it 

must have been called as kzirpusaka because the sleeves came only upto the 

elbows. It is considered to be a garment which was originally worn in Central 

Asia. This was brought to India by Uzgar Turks and Hunas who had settled in 

Chinese, Turkistan before they came to 1ndia.17' HalQ~dha treats both 

172 

kurpusaka and nicolaka as synonyms.

xv) Avika: It is a woollen garment. It is men~oned in the 

SabhZparva that Yu+@a 

was presented with woollen cloth-avika, 

manufactured fiom the soft wool of the sheep.'73 The earliest reference to 

uvika is found in the vedic literature. The wool was obtained from the sheep 

(avi) for spinning and weaving. So it is called as ri~ika.'~~ The ArthaS'sfro 

of Kautilya refers that the woollen fabrics (avika) were usually made of 

sheep's wool and were either plain white, deep red, or light red. 175 Halsyudha 

simply mentions that it is a type of woollen garment. 176 

xvi) Rallaka. In Kavy~~mimcZmsa, it is described -that the 

women of LampGZka wore their hair fiee and their dresses were made of thick 

woollen cloth (rollakam u ~ l a ~ ~ ~ ~ Ra11ak.a y a n means ~ ~ ) a . kind ~ ~ of ~ wild 

goat. The blanket made up of its wool is also known as rallaka. Somadeva, 

while describing the jungle refm to the rallaka goats being disturbed by a 

Amara says that rallaka is a type of kmbala (woollen cloth).179 

During the time of Yuan Chwang, the Chinese traveller, the rallaka was very 

common among the people. He has mentioned about 'Hulul;I1Z ' or 'Rallaka' in 

lris work as follows - the rullaka is made om the wool of some wild animal 

and this dress was quite expensive.180 Somadeva has clearly mentioned in 

another place that the woollen blanket was made h m the wool of rallaka 

goats and were used in the cold season.181 HalGyudha treats rivika, aurcrbhra, 

rallaka, u rw. and kum bala all synonyms, meaning a woollen blanket. 182 

. wii) Kambala: It is mentioned in the Athorva ~eda.'*~ It 

formed part of the ordinary domestic outfit of men and women. Hahyudha has 

counted it under the category of woollen garment. 1 84

It is the basic tendency of human beings in all ages and climes 

to arrange their hair in one way or the other. The practice of hair dressing was 

in vogue from very early times as is evident from the antiques unearthed from 

the Harappa and Mohenjadaro. These antiques reveal that men had varied 

style of hair dressing Their hair was taken back &om the fore head and was 

either cut short behind or coiled in a knot or a chignon at the back with a fillet 

to support it. 186 

In the vedic period men wore their hair long or short according 

to the fashion or pleasure. In the Pgveda reference has been made to Vasigha 

having long hair, braided and coiled on the right lg7 Further, Gods Rudra and 

Pusqa have been described as arranging their hair in the fonn of a conchshell.lH8 

In the time of Rgvedo women dressed their hair in braids, so did 

men. 18' 

The Gjtyastitra-s, however, contain two sothskoro-s (the 

cu&arman and the goduna) which give numerous prescriptions regarding 

the arrangement of the hair. 190 

The ArthaSGstra of Kaufilya goes a long way in supplementing 

the history of hair-dressing by men. Kautilya says that a man with shaven head 

or braided hair desirous of earning is a spy under disguise of an ascetic.1g1 He 

has mentioned the term Kapalaka which probably corresponds to the barber 

class.192 This m8y indicate that 'to have hair mts' was considered as an item of 

personal decoration. Manu and Y2jfiavakya says that snataka-s are allowed

to keep long and beautihl hair, while elaborate fashion of hair-dressing was 

known among laymen. 193 

Pataiijali, the author ofhluhiibhd~ya has given some details of 

the ways in which the people dressed their hair during his time. It was arranged 

with a parting line in the middle and the mass of hair was gatfiered logether at 

the back and plaited into one or two long rolls hanging down as low as the 

waist or twisted and tied into a large knot at the back.Ig4 In the Raghuvaliria, 

Kali&sa has alluded to the hair dressing by the term Sikh& which was probably 

locks of hair coiled on the apex of the head. lg5 

Kdi&sa probably refers to the 

top-knot fashion by his time. He has also mentioned the tenns sihan&vo196 

and k&~~ak~a'~~ probably corresponds to the hair in locks resembling the 

wings of a raven. This type of hair style was popular among chldren. This 

shows that during the time of mlidiisa it was the practice among men to have a 

tuft of hair which, if long, was tied with a tape. Boys also wore long hair in 

locks. 

The Amarakoia, also adds some information regarding the 

method of hair arrangement. Different terms are used to denote different types 

of hair-style such as cikura, kuntala, keh, kaca etc. The mop of curled halr 

has been alluded to by the terms Kaiiika and Kaijla. Curled locks have two 

designations as ataka (curled locks) and cww kuniala (curly ringlets), the 

latter being the favourite practice of hair-dressing in this period. The fore lock 

or the lock of hair falling on the forehead has been alluded to by the term 

iikhanhku. Sikha or hair-lock worn by men at the top of the head has been 

198 

described by the terms cu& and keiupasi;

The practice of arranging the hair prevalent in the Gupta period 

must have continued to survive in the succeeding periods. This fact may bz 

corroborated by the literary accounts of fie post Gupta period. Baqa has 

furnished many interesting infomations as regar& the hair dressing of the 

P 99 

males and females. 

As regards the arrangement of the hair by the males, he 

says that, Bhanl~, the brother of the Queen Yaiovati had side locks of curly 

hair at the rge of eight. The chiefs who had come to visit Harsa had peacock's 

feather stuck in the top-knot. In the Kdambari, Miitarigaka, the Sabara chief 

had thick locks curled at the end and hanging on his shoulden. The hair of the 

king bristled like an array of arrow-heads shot out in hundred to lighten him for 

hy.200 Bans hrther says that the students wore long trofts of hair.'" 

Children 

probably wore matted hair.202 

Yuan Chwang on refering to the customs of non-believers, 

relates how some pull out their hair and cut off their moustaches, some mat 

their side hairs and made a top knot wilUZo3. 

The above literary accounts test@ to the practice of adorning 

the hair and arranging it in different ways. 

2. FEMALE HAIR-DRESSING: 

The appearance and attractiveness of women depend very much 

on their hair and the style in which they arrange and adorn it. In fact there is a 

hair style to suit every age and every face and a beautifid hair style enhances 

the beauty. It appears fkom the antiques of the Indus valley that the females 

were very fond of arranging their hair in different ways. But according to 

~acka~:~~ more is known of the styles of hair dressing by the men than of

those in vaogue among wornen, for the head dress worn by the female figurines 

prevent their hair i?om being seen. 

In the vedic period women dressed their hair in various ways as 

is evident fiorn the literature. It Ins been dcscribcd by the terms stuka, kurira, 

op& 

iiad kakardrdo.205 These terms probably denote different styles of hair 

dressing. Young ladies probably dressed tlleir hairs in four braids of kaparda-s 

which dangled at the back. In the opaia style the hair was arranged in a loose 

topknot, but A.C.D~S~O~ has identified it with the plaits used in dressing the 

hair especially of the women. Patafijali also conforms that the arrangement of 

207 

the hair was not so simple. 

He says that it was parted in the middle or the 

rnass of the hair was gathered together at the back and plaited into one or two 

long rolls hanging down as low as the waist, He also says that some times it 

was twisted and tied into a large knot at the back of the head. 

?'hc Nu@uStistru also co~fimq that proper attention was given 

by women towards arranging their hair.''* 

It is mentioned there that women 

arranged their tufts of hair in well drawn up positions. Regarding the female 

209 

hau dressing Glidisa says that women grew long hair; 

combedz1* and 

parted211 and then ht 

them in long 

They wore flowers, pearls and 

gems in their iong hanging tresses and on the p&g 

line.213 It is mentioned in 

the Meghadiita that the separated wives neither coiled nor combed their hair 

nor did they undo their tresses in order to knot them afresh which consequently 

grew rough and dry.214 In times of mourning also they did not comb their hair. 

They tied their tresses in one knit and put it at the top of the head, and it was 

called ikhikhci or cli&.215 They also knit the mass of hair in a single long braid, 

- 216 

technically known as ekavent. 

It was probably a simple style of arranging

their hair which was worn at the time of sorrow as well as the ple~re.~~~ 

in 

the ,$ci~unlula, it is mentioned that ~akunta~ appeared before the kmg with a 

218 

single braid, 

\vl~ili: in the Rlusuri~hhra, a wife sepw:itited from her husband 

719 

has been described as wearing ekaveni.- 

Probably the chief element in 

women's glory lay in dark and glossy locks hanging down to the hip,220 which 

may be proved by the fact that the poet refers to it more than once and uses it 

in simile. 

In the ~ ndambarc~~ Blna has mentioned the tying of the 

hair. Besides this he has mentioned that hair net was also used by the females 

222 

to make it more attractive. 

of flowers were used on the top. 223 

The hair was sleeked with oil and a thick bunch 

Thus it appears that various types of lkair dressing was known to 

the people of this period. Hence it may be suggested that people of this period 

showcd much intcrcst in decorating tllcir hair in diKercnt ways. Majurndar, has 

rightly observed that particularly women took more care for their hair 

dressing.224 Other learned historians like G.H. 0jha2" and C.V. ~ a i d ~ a 

have also opined that people during the period 6" -1 zLb cen. AD used to give 

special attention to hair dressing. 

There are some interesting references about the keia-vinyasa in 

the ARM. Haliiyudha mentions the following words keSa, Sirasrjh; murdhuja, 

koca, cikura, .firomha and vda, to denote the hair.227 Mer bathing the hair 

will be dried by the fragrant smokes. Then it will be arranged or decorated 

with fiagrant oil, sprouts, flowers etc. The decorated hair lock had different 

names according to their style of arrangement. Veni; dhammilla, kuntala and

kavart were the bandha viiesa-s mentioned by Hal2yudha. The mode of 

arranging hair is quite interesting in the research point of view. 

At frrst, the wet hair aRer bath will be dried with the fragrant 

smokes. mlidasa has described about the drying procedure. While drying the 

hair in smokes, the fragrance will pass into the hair. Kali&sa refers to the hair 

dried in smokes as liiycina - beautified.228 Since the hair is scented by the 

smokes, it is called as ~ihii~avlira.~~~ Ths method is known as ke3a 

230 

saniskGra. 

The heroincs of Blicbsa, sitting on the ups~irs, near the 

windows used to dry their hair, and from the smokes escaping out of the 

windows, the people passing through the'house will easily infer that a certain 

ndyikd is doing keia sn~kskrira.~~' After this keia sathskriro the hair lock is 

arranged in different styles. IIal2yudha refers to some hair styles prevalent in 

his time. 

i) Kuntala: It is a type of arranging the lock of hair.z32 It is also 

known as kuntala kaldpa. Kaldpa means both a peacock and a multitude. 

The word kalapa in kuntala kalupa has got the suggestion of the above said 

meaning. Arranging the hair, to appear beautifully as the feathers of peacock is 

known as kuntala kaldpa. According to McZnascEra, kuntala style of hair 

dressing will be done to the images of Goddesses LAqmi and ~arasvati."~ 

ii) Dhammilla: It is another type of hair style. According to 

Arnara the lock of hair combined collectively as a single braid is known as 

dhamrni~la.~~~ This type of hair style is adopted by both men and women. 

Men's hair style is called mauli and that of women's is called dhammi2lu. The 

hair will be collected and grouped, then it will be tied with wreath of flowers. 

Flowers are also kept inside the lock of hair. Glidiisa mentions about this in

the ~a~huvalizsc~.~~~ Bgga refers to the release of the knot of hair. This art of 

dhummilla vinydsa can be seen in the Ajmha paintings. There are several 

types of dhammilla vinyaa-s are figured in the toys of Rajghat. Ths hair 

style is also figures in the stone image of Gupta period. 236 

There are also hvo more varieties of hair dressing is mentioned 

in the ARM. They are veni or ve?zidun& 

and kavar~~~~ Tying the lock of 

hair in a single knot is called veni. KavarE is the arrangement of hair in a 

simple style. 

111. COSMETICS 

It is the basic tendency of human being in all ages and climes to 

use cosmetics and to decorate one self in a way or other. ff a man of present 

day decks himself with various means of cosmetics and clothing in connection 

to his civilization and culture so did, the man of stone age, decorate himself 

with a feather into his hair, as his possessions were limited and whose main 

profession was hunting. 

In the Indus valley civilization, the finds of 'Kohl' - (collyrium) 

pots iud vases reveal the tnitll that kohl was applied to the lashes, eye-lids, the 

part immediately below the eye-brows. It was applied for both beautifjrlng and 

auspicious purposes as it was and is used by some sections of the Indian people 

to guard against thc evil-eye at marriages and other rituals. 

Cosmetics played an important part in the rituals while they 

also satisfied the variety of men and women by adding charm to their 

personality, increasing their natural beauty by artificial means. This is the 

purpose of various recipes and formulas for cosmetics in ancient India.

In the hdus valley civilization which flourished at the most 

conservative estimate about 2500 years before the Christian era, ornaments 

have been found; gold, silver, copper, ear rings, nose studs of blue glaze and 

bracelets of metals, shell and pottery. Hair pins, combs and mirrors are the 

important articles of proof for the make-up and the arrangements of coiffures. 

Bath farmed a very important part of the daily routine of the 

vedic people, and one cannot take part in religious ceremonies before bodily 

purification. In the ,.fatapatha Brdhihmaw it is mentioned that after the bath, 

eyes and feet were anointed because, 'such indeed are human means of 

embellishment and therewith they keep off death fiom therare~ves'.~~~ 

Atharvaveda offen information of ointments being presented to the brides239 

and lo thc guests.24o 

An interesting description ofthe costumes and cosmetics of a 

housc Ilolder is give11 in thc A.+a/uyuna g$ya stitra in connection with the 

equipment of a brahrnacarin, when aRer finishing his studies he was ready to 

take leave of his teacher. Ai that time he was equipped with a jewel, necklace, 

a wreath, a pair of ear ring, a pair of garments, a turban, a parasol, a pair of 

shoes and a staff As regards cosmetics he had powder prepared fiom karafiju 

seeds, ointment and eye-sa1ve.241 Scents were favourites of women. In an 

incantation to sleep, in the Athawaveda, the women of pure 

242 

(pu yagandaya fz) are mentioned. 

odour 

?'he most important section fiom the point of view of cosmetics 

and articles of pelfume is to be found in the KauGlya'~ ~rthoidstra.~~~ It 

mentions a list of varieties of sandal wood as follows:

Satana - 11 smels like the earth aRer the rain had fallen. 

GoSir~aka - Dark red in colour; smels like a fish. 

Haricanclana - Fine old wood; greenish yellow in colour. 

Ttirpisu - Same as above. 

Grameruka - Red or dark red; sniels like goat's urine. 

Daiisasabhayaka - Red colour; smels llke lotus flower. 

Japaka - The same as above. 

Jorigaku - Red or dark red; soR in structure. 

TaurGpir - Same as above. 

Malaynka - Reddish white in colour. 

Kucandana - Black as aloe; red or dark red, very rough. It 

seems to be the true sandal wood. 

Koiakiiraparvataka - Black or variegated black in colour. 

Kalapawataka - It has a pleasant appearance. 

Sitodakiya - Black and so&, smelt like a lotus. 

Nagapawutaku - Product of the mountain of the same name. 

was rough and had the colour of Saivdla. 

jdcala - It was brown coloured. 

The majority of the Indians used twigs obtained from babul, 

neem or some other trees. Tooth powders and pastes must have also been used, 

as several have been prescribed in the Indian books of medicine. According to 

SuSruta the best tooth pate was obtained from honey, trika~, trivarga, 

fejovati, salt and oil. 244 

In Kdambart, Ba~a describes the King ~~draka who &r 

bathing in pefimed water, worshipped the deities and then proceeded to the 

toilet room (vilepana bhumi) where he besmeared his body with sandal paste

mixed with musk, camphor and Even, when king Harsa started for 

battle, anointed his body and his bow with sandal paste, put a chaplet of white 

flowers on his head and drew to the regiola of krs ear a fresh gorocanu spotted 

durva sprout.246 

~al~yudha~~~ refers to some ofthe materials used as make-up 

elements. Kz~hb~ma, candana, kastiiriku, karpura, agaru, farnbtiia, 

a7igarciga, alaktaka and afijana are the chief articles of decoration to adorn 

oneself After a bath the body of a person was perfumed by some modes called 

248 

carck or marsti. 

The ornaments are worn on appropriate places. 

Mewards the forehead is decorated with tiiaka or pun&~.z4' Then 

patravalli, a patch of musk and other ointments with which women adorn their 

person, are painted on shoulders, breasts and on 

At last afigarrigq 

different unguents used for perfuming the body, is applied.25 The art of make- 

252 

up is called pras&dhana. 

Sometimes, they also used ornaments of flowers, 

leaves md sprouts. 

IV. BaVAMENTS 

Human mind has always been a worshipper of beauty since prehstoric 

period. It is human nature to discover new things and present in an 

attractive and usehl manner. All the attractive forms of nature must have 

given an impetus to the development of man's desire for wearing ornaments. 

Most probably man started wearing ornaments with a view of increasing beauty 

but in course of time the practice was also associated with the utilitarian 

aspects. With the passage of time there were many changes in ornaments. No 

doubt the metals, jewels and stones which were used for making ornaments 

changed but there were many notable clianges in their foms and designs as

well. The artists while making ornaments make the best of their imagination to 

display their art at it? best. This results in changes in their ornamentation. 

These changes in the art of malung ornaments can be clearly noticed from 

various sources of 'Indi~m History'. 

It is a controversial question when man begun to wear 

ornaments and whether the tradition of wearing ornaments is earlier than that of 

wearing garments or vice-versa. Most probably man began to wear ornaments 

even in the pre-historic times and most probably man 

practices i.e, wearing garments and ornaments simultaneously. 

adopted both the 

In India the earliest authentic evidence of the practice of 

wearing ornaments is available in the Itldus valley civilization. A perusal of 

the art of making ornaments of this period makes us infer that long before this 

civilization the tradition of wearing ornrunetlts had started. Probably first of all 

men must have begun wearing ornaments made of flowers, feathers of birds, 

beads, bones, conch sl~ells and horns of animals. 

We havc some idea of the art of making ornmnents in the Iildus 

valley period fiom the images and the ornaments discovered in the excavations 

at Mohenjadxo and Harappa. Most of the ornaments were made of gold or 

silver in which were inlaid precious and semi-precious jewels and beads or 

piece of stone. 

From thc vedic literature we how the names af ornaments 

worn by India* in that period.253 At some places we also have informixtion 

about the shape of the ornament. 

In the epics are mentioned a number of ornaments of that 

period. The materials used for nuking ornaments were gold, silver, brass, 

254 

pearls, coral, diamonds, small shell and some times iron was also used.

People even in the sixth cat. B.C. were fond of wearing 

ornaments. In the Buddhist literature, we find the names of many ornaments. 

On the basis of the description of these omancnts is Buddhist literature we can 

say that the art of making ornaments was fiilly developed in this period. 

Man has always been in love with ornaments. The jewellers 

with their power of imagination have been providing variety and beauty to the 

ornatnents. It is dficult to identlfL all the ornaments used in the ancient time. 

But man has been wearing these ornaments in various parts of his body not 

only with a view of making them look beautifbl but also in compliance with the 

requirements of Indian religious beliefs. hi the following pages, a humble 

effort has been taken to identlfji the ornaments nlentiotled in the ARM. 

1. NeA'TEKIALS OF JEWELS: 

Ornaments cm be regarded as a symbol of man's attachment to 

the material world. A man wears ommerits to satisfy his natural instinct 

which makes lzim take steps by which he rnay look beautifid. People of lower 

economic slaius satisfy this instinct by making omLvnents only with beads of 

clay and conch shells. On the contrary the people with higher economic status, 

in addition to the ornaments made with aforesaid material, wore those made 

with precious metals like gold, silver etc., inlaid with precious grms such as 

diamonds, emerald, sapphire and adorned with beautifill ornamentation. The 

ornaments made of flowers were popular with men and women of all 

categories. Tlie tradition has come to us from very ancient times. From a 

study of the literary sources of ancient India it appears that ornaments were 

made with the following materials. 

i) Gold: Gold is a precious, lustrous, yellowish and beautxful 

metal. This metal has been used in India for making ornament3 since very 

ancient times. In the Amarkoiu we havc a list of eighteen synonyms of gold 255

and the gold ornaments are called ~nigi and ~anakarn.'~~ The scissors which 

was used to cut pieces of gold was called kypnni or karturi. 257 

258 

metals. 

ASvagliosa considers gold to bc tlic pu~cst and tllc bcst of all 

References to gold ornaments are met in plenty in the works cf 

Bhasa, K2lid$sa, Magha etc. It was a precious ~r~etal. It might, therefore, have 

been used by people of high economic sL~tus. According to Yuan Chwxng the 

business magnets wore finger lings made of gold. 259 

From the ancient literature we know that kings, emperors and 

the rich used gold utensils for eating food. Chain, seats and beds were also 

261 

made of gold or they were gold plated.260 Pitchen, pestles, yokes, 262 

pi~arsZ63 and coins264 were also made of gold. There is a reference in 

Kumurasambhava 6-om whch we know that seveii sages (sapfarig) had worn 

gold ornaments.265 The horn of the cows were also plated with gold.266 

From the Sivi Jatciku we know that gold was given in 

charity.267 The business of goldsmith was flourishing because people were fond 

of gold ornaments. From the Buddhist literature we know that five hundred 

gold smiths continuously worked all the twenty four hours for four months 

before they could complete the work of making ornaments for a lady named 

There is a reference to i~dgi konaku variety of gold in the 

~ddambari.~~~ This variety has also been mentioned in Amorakoio. Thus 

there is atnple evidence to show that people were very fond of gold ornaments 

from the ancient time itself. 

270 

It may be mentioned in this connection that Kaufilya 

mentioned five varieties of gold and has also specified their colours.

1. Jam bunada: It's colour was similar to that of'the h it of rose apple 

(black- plum). It was excavated in tllehferu mountai11 region. 

2. Scirulcum b ha: Its colour resembled the colour of the pollen of lotus 

Ilowcr. It wns excavatcd in thc ,

precious gems and jewels.'73 Tlie middle class people used silver for making 

274 

ornaments. Just as people gave gold in charity so they did silver. 275 

Besides the word raj~~fa, r@ya was also used for silver.276 The AmarukoSa 

gives five synonyms of silver namely 1) duvurym, 2) rajatam, 3) rGpyam, 4) 

277 278 

khurjurclun and 5) S V ~ / U I ~ . C S ~ ~ or11iioic11ts 

C S ;md coins, n~ir.r.or-s ;iild .jars 

etc., were also made of silver 

~au~il~a'~~ mentions fom variety of silver namely - 

1. Tmlttadgata: Its colour resembled that of Jasmine flower. It was 

excavated fiom the Tu ttu tllou~ltain region. 

2. Gau@ka: Its colour was equal to that of tagara flower. It was 

found in Assam. 

3. K'dm buka: Its colour also resembled the flower of tcrgara. It was 

excavated from the region of Kd~n bu mountain. 

3. Cdkrav~laiiza: Its colour- was similar to that ofKunda flower. It 

was cxcnvatcd from the ccrkrnvaln mines. 

%kite, smooth and soft silver was considered the best. Black 

coarse silver with cracks was regarded worst. Haliiyudha me~~tltions four words 

to denote the silver.28D 

iii) Pearl: Pearl has been used for making ornament in India 

since very ancient times. The pearls were con~idered more useful for making 

neck ornaments than for other 

From a perusal of sculptures of 

the Kusaqa a ~d Guph periods it cat1 bc stated hat Ihe coxntnon practice was to 

thread the pearls in a string or wire and wear it as a neck ornament. A gasland 

282 

made of good quality pearls was called tdr&hdra.

Pearls were also used to decorate fbrnitures such as a wooden 

seat, umbrella283 or the handle of a sword.284 A pearl was also known as 

S&i 

and muktuphalu. The necks of elephants were also decorated with the 

285 

garlands of pearls. 

The pearl is regarded as having originated from a 

286 

mountain rock. AmarkoSa informs about the drills used for piercing hole in 

a pearl, namely risphopni or vnidhanikci. Z87 Halsyudha gives two words for 

a pearl. 288 

iv) Stiryakiinta: The gem siiryakantu is mentioned with other 

precious gems ir. the Jaina literature.289 According to ASvaghoga, the gem 

produced fire of fire1 and the Sun rays were brought together through this 

gem.2go 11is not possible to identify such a gem in modern times. Scientifically 

the existence of such a gem is not i~npossible because if a lence or curved gem 

is placed in front of the Sun at a particular angle, fire can be produced. 

~autil~a~~' has called this gem, a kind of'crystd gem (sphogku). 11is possible 

that t hs gem was prepared by having curves in various ways. The synonyms 

292 

llkc ark%~na rind dahanopala mentioned by Haliiyudha lu-e note worthy. 

v) Sph3ika: It is a crystal gem. It is a colourless, transparent 

295 

gem. It was used for making ornaments,293 staircase$g4 begging bowls 

decorating buildings296 etc. Kautilya has mentioned four varieties of this 

H~al2yudha has treated it as a synonym of siiryakrinta gem. 298 

299 

gems. 

vi) Vaidurya: It is considered one among the nine precious 

In the Sara ~ktaka~" its colour is said to be blue, and in the 

~ratjmlincifnka~~' its colour is said to be dark (Syrimn). Besides its use in

302 

ornaments it was also used in making feet of a bed-stead etc. Kau~ilya has 

given a detailed account of tlds gem.303 Haljyudha calls it also as 

304 

bal~vayyfu. 

vii) Marakata: It is also one among the nine 

Ama~.akoSu gi.ves thee other synonyms of -&his 

The 

word as murzitrnata, 

airnagarbha and h~zrinrna~i.~" 63na has also referred to tlis gem at many 

places. Its colour is said to be green. Halayudha nmes it iza~inmcr?d denoting 

its green colour. 307 

viii) Diamond: In the Amara it is called ratna and rna~zi. It was 

considered as precious as any other gem. Bana rnentioi~s a room inlaid with 

diamonds. '" Kaultily a gives a ddailed account of this 

also mentions the terms rutna and ma%. 310 

log HalByudha 

ix) Padmaruga: According to Kau~ilya it rcsernbled a variety 

of lotus called padma.311 It was red in colour and was used in ornaments as 

312 

my other gem. It was also !mown as Son&51zd. 

x) Saikllrt : In the literary works we do have many references to 

313 

the ornaments made of conch shells. 

Probably people with Ijrnited economic 

means used these ornaments. It is also possible that even the rich might 11a.ve 

worn ornaments made of conch shells for a change. Halayudha also mentions 

xi) Iron: Probably the pcople of limited ecoiiomic means must 

have used ornaments made of iron. It is also probable as in rnodern times, 

people might have worn iron ornaments to protect thernselves from various

misfortunes. From Bgna we how that an ascetic named ~aivncar~a wore a 

conch shell threaded in an ir~n-rin~.~" Halayudha refers eight different words 

to mean the iron. 3 16 

xii) Flower Ornaments: It is vety popular in Indian Society. 

Kings and poor, nzen md women all were equally fo'und of wearing flower 

ornaments. Probably flower ornmnents must have been so popular because 

they could be worn always in new designs and ways. On the contrary the 

ornaments made of precious metals, gems and other substances cannot be made 

in different designs so easily. It was for this reason that flower ornaments of 

various designs contiliued to be popular for so long. The fashion of wearing 

garlands of flower appears to have been very popular with the Rgvedic 

317 

Arym. 

From the words of Bh2sa, IGli&sa, M2gha, and Ba~a it can be 

bown that the ornaments made of flowers were won1 in all parts of the body 

from feet to the head. 

These ornments werc n-ladc with flowcrs like voscrnl~, i~'~ridrl, 

kurcrvuka, kumula, manddra, nameru, Icar+lkWra, sindhuv&-a, kesara, 

parpita, Grip, lodhru, kudarnba, malati, uioka etc. In addition to all these 

flowers, s~ndleaves, sprouts, stalks of gasses and clusters of blossom of 

various bees were also won1 as omments. 

3 18 

There is a reference in the Pc~~lmcryrGZzhfluiccr that a wonla11 

decorated her hair with flowers of -\:dsanli, ~ C ~ L M and ~ U k~rravaka. In the 

Meghduta it is stated that in the Alakapurz, women had lotus flowers in their 

hands to play; they used kunda flomlcrs to decorate their hair, powder of lodhra 

to beauti& their fdces, used kurcrvuku lo decorate their coiffires, used 6rZu 

flo~ier as an ear ornament and in parting of their hair they used kadhmba

flower which bloomed on the arrival of their beloved.319 Ornaments made with 

tender leaves were also very popular. Kalidasa has stated that in the spring 

season, not only the flowers of aioka tree excited the lovers for sexual pleasure 

but also the tender leaves of that tree worn as ear rings by their sweet hearts 

320 

also generated amorous feelings in the hearts of pleasure seeking gentlemen. 

B2na states that the tender leaves of the dBrva grass in the ears of king Harsa 

resembled an ear ring made of emerald (marakafoTZ1 Flower ornaments were 

also worn at the time of marriage. 

It is stated in the Narsacarita that 

Orahavanni wore a garland of rnallika flowers on his head, nuptial head dress 

made of flowers in the centre and the vaikak~kzr (a garland won1 in tlie 

manner ofa sacred thread) made offlorvers on his chest.32z 

A bird's eye view of the literary refkrences quoted above makes 

us conclude that jewels, gems and other substances were widely used for 

making ornaments by the people in that period. 

Halayudha gives some valuable information regirding flower 

ornaments prevailed in his time. The flower garland is known as mulu or 

sr&323 The wreath of flower worn on the lock of hair is called garbhaka.324 

If the wreath is fastened to the look on the crown and hrther hanging down 

with the braid of hair, it iq grabhraS&kii.325 A wreath of flower worn on the 

forehead is named as lalcimoka.326 The vaikak;~ is a garland ww-n scarf-like 

327 

in the same way as the upav$ta, across the chest. 

A garland worn round the 

328 - 

neck is termed as pralambaka. Apt& is a chaplet worn on the crown of the 

head.329 Flowers, sprouts and some leaves were also worn on the ear.330 Apart 

from flower, leaves and sprout, the red lac called ahktu was also produced 

33 1 

from some trees and were used to dccorate the Feet.

2. TYPES OF ORNAMENTS : 

Probably wearing or~~ments has played at1 inlportant role in 

increasing the beauty of human beings. The different types of ornan~ents worn 

in thc various parts of t11c batly citn bc classified ns hcad omiullcnts, ciu 

ornaments etc., Here an effort is made to identity and study the on~aments 

mentioned by HalByudha. 

i) Head Ornament: The habit of wearing liead ornaments is 

very old and it can be traced back to the Indus valley civilization. Most of the 

figures of Indus valley period have high fan-like head-dress on the head and in 

some cases broad ribbon like ob-jects are shown around the lower parts of the 

head dresses. Other types such as 'V' shaped ornaments are also noticed on the 

forehead or some of the l~u~le figures found tiom Mohelljodaso. 

333 

pins have also been found which might have been used by women. 

332 

'i'he hair 

We have no evidence from the Rgveda whether the people used any head 

ornaments such as a crown or a turban. The iutapotha B~ahihmapa describes 

lllclra~i as weari~lg lJle usrLr.!n as her head-dcss. 

334 

Ciods mid men li-ow the 

Barhwt sculptures wore mostly the turbans and not the jewelled crowns,335 and 

the same can be said from the evidence of Sanchi 

The 

Nagarjn~zakonda sculptures of about the second century A.D. shows that in tlie 

South India of that period, turbans formed the most cornmoll head dress for 

Inen but here we find the wearing of crowns coming illto practice especially by 

337 

princes. 

category. 338 

Halayudha has also included USTL~W into the head ornament 

The use of head ornaments has been attested to by Panini who 

has alluded it to by the term lailipk~Z.kr~ Various types of head ornaments worn

y both men atld women are referred to in the ~d~yo~cisra;~~~ they are 

muJzm@, ma&, kzri~, czidumapi, Sirsajda, SikhzpGtra, rnuktajda, 

gcrvdk~ukt7, ver~ikuZjc~, si'khapuiu, Sikh&j&la, pinqkputra, vczrtulala~ik& and 

lal6ipkntild-o. 

K2lidast-i has menlioned ns many of three types of head 

ornaments and had alluded to it by the term cr,i&nzani, kapulama* 

inri/~.~~' Cli&maru 

and 

and Kaprilamn@ were worn on the forehead and 

correspond to djildem, wlds the kirtg cor~esponds to the cro\vn was studded 

with jewels. According to ~ lidisa~~~ only two types of head ornaments were 

worn by women and they are rnukt@iinla and rndlya. Mukfujdla was a net of 

pearls while mdya was worn on the bun or knot of the hair. ~2gha~" has 

frequently mentioned about mukufa which was made up of gold and was beset 

with prccious gcms. l3;irja 

344 

has dcs~ribcd ttlc licad orl~amcnls by lhc tcrnis 

ctZ@rna@, laldtikli, mnuktikn, ~nukutcr, Siroruhn and marigdlthara?zcl. , 

Cu&ma@, Kirip, Ko#ira, U.t:tisn uid hhhp were the head ornaments 

345 

meiltioned by I-Ialiiyudlia. 

The It?rir&z, ko@~'cr a11d mukup are one and Ihe 

But Somadeva in his YaSastilakm, uses the word uspi~a in the sense of a 

si'rovusz~a-turbm. He describes that the soldiers of northern region were 

wearing multi-coloured uSnisa-s.347 From him it is not h~otwi how it war in 

shape and appearance and how to wear it. But one thing we can know from 

348 

this reference is that us?zi$.a-s are made up of clothes of different colours, 

CG&ma@ is a popular head ornament ofwornan. It is a crest jewel. It was in 

vogue right from the day of Rumdyn?za where S i gives ~ her cii@rnani as a 

token for Hanumn. It was not o.tlly regarded as an ornament but also 

respected as the mark of auspiciousness. Garbhuku, prubhra#aka, Ealumaka,

iipi47, Sekhnrtx, ~rttnmsL~ and nvatnmsn are all flowery ornaments worn on 

350 

Mohenjodaro 

ii) Ear orncunent: The terr:~cottas discovered from Harappa and 

reveal the use of' only circular type of ear-drops. In the 

351 

I~arnaya~m, two types of car omimlcnts arc mcntioncd. '141oy arc lcu~(ialn 

and trikaraqa. P,;i~ini refen to a type of car ornament called Kctrykc? 352 

There is a mention of a heavy type of kunhla in Muhubhwa by 

~ataiijali."~ In the NZtyufstra there are references to five hds of ear 

ornaments used by men and they are kcrrvabhi2rav, kuv&la, mocakala, kilo 

354 

and .CronisGtm. 

It also informs us that various types of ear rings were also 

used by women like kundala, karwkd, karpuvalaya, pafmkar@ku, 

kumplpinudrci, kurnotkilaka and ka:nrwrira.35s ~ali&sd~~ has mentioned 

L 

many kinds of ear ornaments. Most of these types were pendants made up of 

357 

rubies and other precious stones. 

Bsna has described the ear ornaments by 

the terms karnuvurumsu, kur?uptira, ktl~~&la, tpka~~faku, bdika and 

3 58 

kur nab h qy. Uttamsa, avatunisa, kur.!mpuru, tdurijdil, tfiqbpatril, 

kundaia and karnikd are the ex ornaments mentioned by ~ a ~ ~ u d h a . 

Among them uftamsa and avatamsa are flowery ornaments, usually made of 

sprouts and flowers. The habit of wearing uvatamsa was in practice in 

Karnataka and Bengal. This can be known from the references - 'Kar?&@ 

yuvuti surat~vatamsa' and 'bangavanitu Srava~avatamsa' of somadeva in 

his ~n.f'o,~tilaka.~" Karnnytiro, rfi~aljkn or tddapotra, k14,cndala and korwkd 

are ear ornaments made up of gold. The deii word available for kcrrypura is 

lianphul (Kaqmp uru r k-arqzphtila > kanphi.71). It was in the stage of a hlly 

bloomed flower and an opening bud. Kar~ikli is a golden ear ring. According

to Apnura both kar~pkd and tdlaparra are one and the same.3" Kpmvdmi 

further clarifies that kar*zici was mkde in gold like tdlnparro.362 But 

Halayudha generalises the te~m by denoting all the ear onlaments as 

k ~ r ~ u Probably k b ~ ~ by ~ the time ol. Halayudha the tern1 must have lost its 

particular rnea~ling mid came to mean 2u.t ear ornament in general. 

jii) Neck On~rm~ert: The neck o~r~aments as revealed from the 

terracotta figurines ofthe Indus vallcy pcriod iwe characterised by two different 

types, ilallely llre dog-collared or close fitting type md the flowing type which 

passed round the neck hanging down to the chesi region.'" 

The use of 

nccltlace as or~~larncnts is as old as the figveclu for wc Br~d in il such an 

to be wo111 in later times. The Ad&i?ablziirnta refers to jewelled necklaces. 366 

367 368 

A? a cnsc in point, reference may bc l~~adc to ~i.~kagriva, rzikma 

a~nd 

kanfhahdra369 corresponding to close fitting strings. TI12 hanging necklaces 

which xe not nu close fitting as thc dog collared types have also their parallel 

in ,sraju, IcuZcanmalu and cundruhd~c.i ofvedic and Rrdmmical literature. 

371 

Kautilya adds many niosr: types of nzck ornkunents. 

370 

Thesl: types of neck 

ornaments were rna~ufic~ctured under the supervision of Suvarr~~dhy(zksu. 

According to the -Rii?g,nScistra various types of neck ornaments were used by 

372 

men and Even Kslidgsa has nrentiooned various types of neck 

ornm~ents, From him we come to b ow the colltinuation of the two types of 

necklaces (close fitting and hanging) though they have been described Ey 

different terms on the basis of their fom, shape and design. Among the short 

necklaces he hs~s iner~tioncd niska, a neclclace probably i~lrrde up of coiils 

stringing togcdler. Among the liiingi~lg or flowing types hc h:\s n~cniioiicd

mukrrivali, . fdrkhcira, hrirahuraiekhara, haraya.s#, vaijaylintikd, 

hemast.itra,pralamba and 

In the KLidornbari it has been alluded to 

by the tern kanakamayya, hara, tciro, hGraprabh& gkGvali and m d ~ ~ 

M2gha has described the neck orn~ment,~ by the terms mauktikahara and 

mdld. 376 

around neck. 

Hal2pdha gives the following names of the ornaments worn 

De~acchanda, mayavaka, hum, guccha, ardhaguccha, 

gopuccha, ekuvali, kantika, nakqtramald - and 

pralam baka are the 

grivdbhurana-s mentioned by him.377 Devacchonda is a necklace of pearls 

consisting of hundred strings. 

A4&wvaka is w. necklace of hundred strings. 

In a h&ra there will be 108 or 64 strings of pearls. A necklace of 3 2 strings is 

3 78 

called guccha. According to Nemacandra, ardhaguccha is a necklace 

consisting of 24 strings and gopuccho is of two ~trjngs.~~' Ekrivali is a 

ncckluc of singlc stri~~g of pcnrls. Ajnlrrlr hi^ dcfincd it as E~UVU& 

ekaya~p'k6 i.e. single string necklace. 380 Many images and pictures of Gupta 

- 381 

age can be seen wearing ekaalz. 

Bdna has refereed to an interesting story 

in connection with ekuvali, in Harqacarita, Divakaramitra narrates the 

background of the ekavali to Haqa. 'This ekavalt' was made fiom the pearls 

born out of the eye-drops of moon. Vgsuki, the king of serpants collected all 

the pearls and made it as an ekmuli. Later he presented it to Nsga juna and 

he inturn gave it to his friend Siitav~hana. The same ekavalf has now come to 

us through tradition'.382 K ~ is also Q a necklace ~ of single string ofpearls. 

Nuksutrumdld is a necklace of 27 pearls. Prdurhbaka is the garland worn 

round the neck.383 The centrat gem of the hura is known as t ara~a.~~~

iv) 

Hand Qrnaent : Some of the male figures &om 

Mohenjodaro have been shown wearing circular ring 

round the arms and 

hands. There are as many as eleven rings from the wrist to the arm. Several 

such rings have been found in Harappa and ~ohenjodaro.~*~ They are 

nothing but wristlets and armlets. The hand oments appear to be very 

popular among women during this period. This is confiied by two bronze 

figures with each of their hands having been adorned with a row of rings rising 

Frmn the wrist to the shoulders.386 Bracelets were used by the Aryans of the 

Rgvedic period.387 Both ongada and keyrira 

are frequently mentioned in 

the Mahdbhdrara . Hopkins says that armlets are the most commonly 

mentioned ornaments in the great epic.388 There use is also indicated in the 

South. India of the 2'' cen. 

Various types of 

Pataijali confirms the use of hand ornament called kap~ka.~~' 

hand ornaments used by men are mentimed in the 

Nhtyaidstra and ffiey are valaya, rucika, citika, hastavali, keytira and 

a~i~odo.~~' It also contoins numerous references regarding the use of hand 

ornaments by women.3g2 These ornaments were worn on the wrists, arms, in 

between the elbows etc. Ulidiisa has alluded to it by the terms aiLgada and 

vulayu corresponding to armlets and bracelets.393 Arcordig to Bg~a, B h d 

has decorated his fore arms with bra~e1et.s.~~~ In the Kdambari, some chiefs 

of Udain have been described wearing bracelets. 395 

~2gha has also 

mentioned that these ornaments were worn by men during his 

Keyiiru, angada, LZvGpa and parihdrya are the ornaments 

worn on the arms mentioned by ~ala~udha.~" They all denote UIC armlets.

Halayudha treats both keyt3ra and aligadu as synonym. Amara also has 

treated them in the same way.398 &irasv2mi gives the etymology of the two 

words - 'ke bahuiirse yauti iti keyuram, ahgam dayate zti aligadam'. 399 

Both men and women wore this armlots. Valap, kurikap~ and knpkct arc 

the ornaments worn around the wrist enlisted by ~ala~udha.~*~ Kufaka and 

valaya are a kind of bangle or bracelet. Kalikay is a rope or thread tied 

around the wrist during some auspicious ceremonies. It is also known as 

pratr'sura. 40 1 v) Waist Ornament : The use of girdles or the waist ornaments 

can be traced back to the Indus valley ~ivilization.~" In the vedic;O3 

I3rahmanicd4O4 nod ePic4O5 period as well wc get numerous literary references 

to the use of various types of ornaments. It has been alluded to by the term 

roianri and rnekhalri.406 The $atapntha Brahmap shows that waist band 

was worm around the lower garment and it appears that it was more a part of 

dress than an ornamental devicen407 Its use in South India of about znd 

Century AD is clearly testified by the evidence of Na@rjunakon& 

sculptures. 408 PA~ini also codm 

the use of wais.t ornament by the term nivf 

409 

. The Nu&aSGstra informs us that two types of girdles were used and they 

were called taralu and ~titraoka.~'~ Tamla was a loose girdle while siitroka 

was a girdle string. It also inform about kuAcl; mekhala, raiand aid kalupa 

worn by women.411 KGiiici was made up of one string of pearls or beads, 

mekhulu was a girdle with eight strings, rahna was made up of sixteen 

strings, while kaldpa was a girdle of twenty five strings. Gli&sa also

confirms the use of girdles during his tirne412 In the Har;acarita, it har been 

stated that king Haw has presented tlie ambassador kern the king of Assan, 

besides other ornaments, a waist-band called the parinive$a.413 In the 

$iwrilnvadha also mention has been made to the use of k~bandho.~~~ It was 

probably made with the mufija grass. 

Kaldpa, saptaki; ka ficl, mekhala raianu, ka p's atra, 

s8rasana, ki&iqi; k.pdraghantjkii were the ornaments worn around the 

waist, referred by ~abyudha,~* Both HaQydha and ~tnarashha~'~ have 

treated kaldpa, saptaki, kaAci, mekhala, rasand and sdrasana as synonyms 

meaning a girdle. But from the description of Sornadeva it can be known that 

there was a slight difFerence between mekhalfi and kafici. Kt.Zici should be a 

girdle of strings of small beads and mekhu2d should be entwined with small 

bells. He refers to kufici as ka2cigu~ and mekhal6 as mmukhara 

rna@rnekhalii. In another context he refers to a mekhaEGZ entwined with bells 

- mekhlci mani kinkini j61a ~odane~.~'~ KaQ'sliha was a silken thread or 

cord worn by females round their loins. Kilikiyi and k+xdrughan#u must 

be the tiny bells attached with mekhnlli. 418 

vi) Leg Ornament : That the anklets were worn by the women 

of Mohenjodaro becomes certain from the little bronze foot and the pottery 

419 

figurines. 

The Na%yaSiistra informs us that various types of leg ornaments 

were used by women during that period iil~d they are pdapafra, ngpura, 

krr&@, andp&aka@ka."' Ulidlisa makes numerous references to the use 

of various types of anklets by women. 421 

It appears from the literary 

evidences that men were initially not fond of log ommonts, as there are no

evidence of men wearing leg ornaments in the early literature. But later on, 

they also adopted it from the women. B2na says that the chieftain who came to 

visit king Htqa had worn anklets called pidubandha inset with precious 

422 

stones. 

Si fijin i, plfdakcr&ka, tul~3koti, n apura, rnaiijira and 

hamsaka are the cara@bhara~-s enlisted by ~ ali~yudha.~~~ According to 

him all the words are synonyms of an anklet or a tinkling ornament for the 

feet of women. 

vii) Finger Ornament: Finger rings have occasionally been 

found at Mohenjodaro. The discovery of a few silver rings may suggest that 

424 

frnger rings were used. 

The arriguliyukcr is found frequently mentioned in 

the Ramuya~ta and Mahtibhiirata. The NdySdstra idom us that the 

finger rings were used by men. It has been alluded to by the terms aligulvaka 

and mudr~i.~'~ During Lhe time of Kalidlsa finger ring have become very 

popular and were worn by both men and women as it is evident fi-om his 

master piece namely ~dtuiiculam. The poet makes numerous references to 

the use of finger rings by women. They are either with the design of serpent 426 

or with the name of the owner imprinted on them. In the Siiupdavadha there 

427 

is a reference to another type of finger ring called urmikd. 

According to Halgyudha both ariguliyaka and tkrnika mean 

a ring worn in the finger.428 A ring marked with the initials of its owner is 

called a~iguljrnudrs~~ (signet ring). Du~yanta presented sucli a ring to 

~akuntak. The aliguZimudr&-s are very common among royal personalities. 

* * *

NOTES 

Raghu, 5.76; 6.10; Rtusam., 1.7, 2.26, 4.3, 5.2, 6.15 etc. 

Raghu, 9.1 1, 9.50; Vikrama, III. 12; hk., VII.2 2 etc. 

Dr. Pmdey, Indu Prabha, Dress and Onximnets in Ancient India, p. 17 

Marshall, Mohenjodaro and hdus Valley Civilmation, I. p.33. 

iiva.~r.SU.,2.3.4.17; Lat.Su.,2.6.1+; 9.2.14. 

Jain, J, C, Jaina Agama Sahitya meriz Bhiiratiya Samaj, pp. 206-7. 

Mahgvagga, 8.2.1, 

Divyavadana, 11 

+ 9, 11, 

Ibid, 11.21. 25, 

Warrnington, Commerce betweent the Roman Empire and India, 

p. 212. 

Amara, 2.6,111, 

Motichandra, Bharatiya VeSabhUsa, p. 154, 

ARM, 2.395, 

Divya, ~~216. 

Watters, Yuan Chwang Travels in India, I. p. 301. 

ARM, 2.326, 

Sarkar, Some Aspects of the ealier Social History of India, p. 59. 

Motichaidra, p. 13. 

Monier Williams, A Sanslait English Dictionary, p, 616. 

AV, 18.4,3 1, 

21. Sarkar, p. 6, fn. 5.

Motichandra, op, cit., p.15. 

sat. Bra. 5.2,1.8, 

Panini, Astadhyayi, 4.3.42. 

Rama, 2,40.9, 

Aca, ~ a., 2.5.~. 

Mbh, 2,47,22, 

Nisitha carani, p, 467. 

Br. Kal, Su. Bha~ya, 4. 3661, 

Agarwal, V. S., Harsacarita eka Samskrtika Adhyayana, pp. 78, 79. 

Vikrama,, 111.12. 

Raghu., 9.43. 

Rtu., 6.4. 27. 

Vikrama., p, 60. 

Megha,, p, 41, 

Agarwal, V. S., India known to Panini, p. 225, 

Motichandra, p. 93, 

By, Kal, Su. Bhasya, 4. 3661, 

Nsitha,, 7, p.467. 

Harsacarita, p. 7. 

Ibid, p. 10, 

Ibid, p. 114. 

Acarariga, Vastra, 14.6. 

ARM, 2,394,

Motichandra, p, 95. 

Arth. Sas., 2. 11. 

Ibid. 

Madhyama Vydyoga, p, 5. 

Amara, ed. Ramanathan, A. A,, 1, p. 434; V, 113. 

ARM, 2,394, 

Wta, 11.15, 

Kumara,, 5. 30. 

Agruural, V. S., KSdambari: eka SfimsQtika Adhyayana, p, 56. 

Kumara., 7. 37; Raghu, 4. 65, 14.81. 

Kumgra., 5. 67; SZU., 4, 64. 

Motichandra, p. 151. 

Niiithacurani, 7.467. 

Sak., I, 8.19; Kum2ra, 5.8.16; V.S. Aganval, K2d. Sam. Adhy,, 

pp. 178,214, 328. 

Agarwal, V. S,, Kad. S2m. Adhy, p. 150. 

V2mana pur,, 14,61. 

ARM, 2.28. 

Divyavadsna, p. 349 quoted by Motichandra, p. 96. 

Ibid, p, 83 quoted Ibid, 

Ibid, p. 194. quoted Ibid. 

Watters, Yuan Chwang Travels in India, I. p, 120. 

Motichandra, p. 31.

199 

Lalitavktara, p. 312; ed. Vaidya, P.L., Mithila Vidyapitha, 

Darbhanga - 1958. 

Minier WiEliams, p. 470. 

Lalita., p. 312. 

Paiicatantra, I. 66. 

Br. Kal. Su. Bhiisya, 4. 3661, 

Jain, J. C,, p. 207, fn,5. 


Amara, 2. 6, 113. 

AlIotichandra, p. 149. 

RV., I. 67. 3. 

Gayatri Varma, Kglidgsa ke granth Tatkalina Samsm, p. 200. 

Monicr Williams, p, 581. 

ARM, 2. 394. 

'dukt2lam gau 

vigya vifisp ktirpdsikam' Acsraliga, 2. Vastra. 

Srl. 368. 

NiSitha.,7. 10. 12. 

Arth. as., 2. 11. 

Ibid, 

Jain, J. C., 11. 206 - 7, 

Acaranga, I. 7,5, 1 ., 11, 5. 1. 3. 

DivyavadZina, p+ 316. 

Lalita, p. 333,

200 


Ibid. 

Agawd, V. S4, Harsacaritsl eka Sarnskma Adhyayana, p. 77 

Ibid, pp. 77, 78. 

Ibid, p. 78, 

Kad.: p. 17. 

Hqa, p, 202. 

Motichandra, p. 147 ( Bhar, ves. bhu) 

Antaga* das30, p. 32, quoted by Motichandra, p. 148. 

Raghu., 17. 25. 

Bha?ft'kavya, 3. 34; 10 -1. 

Gimgovinda, 1, 4, 6., 2. 6. 3,, 12. 22. I., 12. 23. 3. 

Agarwal, V, S,, I-Iarsa Sam, adhy,, p. 76. 

Rtu., 1, ,4 

Amara, 2. 6. 1 13. 

ARM, 2,394. 

Harsa, p, 60. 

Ibid, p, 16. 

Ah, Sgs., 2.11, with the comrnenatary of Ganapathy Sastri. 

ARM, 2,217, 

kpmatast rasyavik~ra~k~unmm duhyate k~rnLZylZ &gate 

duk dam / Abhi, Cint2maa., 3. 3 3 3. 

~abdaramilkara, 3. 213$

201 

Dicy. of Eco. Pro., I. p. 468 - 9. 

xcurariga, 2.5. 1. 1 .; Mahavagga, 8.9. 14. 

Motichandra, p, 145, 

Jain, J. C,, P, 206 

Quoted, Ibid, fn. 3, 

Motichandra, p, 146, 

VSyu b., 8. 89. 

Ibid, 80, 4-6, 

ARM, 2.391. 

A Record of Buddhist Religion as Practiced in India and the Malaya 

Archipelago, tr. by Takakusu, Oxford - 1896; p. 54 

Ibid, p, 43, 

AM, 2.291, 

YaSatilaka, p. 132. 

Ibid, Sarnskp pka . 

Ibid, Uttara, p, 82. 

ARM, 2.39 1, 

hid. 

Amara, 2.3, 1 18. 

Abhi. cinti3rnqii, 3. 336 - 37. 

Jh, J, C., Jaina Agarna Sahitya mem Bharatiya Sarns~a, 

Chaukhamba Vidya Bhavana, Varanasi - 1965. 

Arth. as., ed. R, Sarma Shastry, p. 114.

M&vagga, VIII. 13.4, 5. 

Takakusu, p. 54. 

Amma, 2. 3. 117. 

MahAvagga, 8. 13.4 - 5. 

Kumra., 8. 2; M$lavikg., 5.7. 

Mathura museum, Se. No. 3532. 

Byhat. Kal. Su. Bbsya, IV. 4084. 

Hqa., Tr. Cowell, p. 261. 

ham, 2. 6. 118. 

ARM, 2. 392. 

Mahiivagga, VIII. 29. 1. 

Bhik. moWa, IV. 40.96. 

Samayam2itrk.2 , VIII. 54 - 56. 

Atnara, 11. 8. 64. 

Agrawal, V. S,, Harsa. Sam. Adhy., Fig. 72. 

Motichandra, Bh2r. VeS. Bhtis, p. 161. 

Quoted, Ibid, pp. 184, 185. 

ARM, 2.397. 

Amara, 2. 8. 64. 

Agarwal V. S., Harsa. Sam. Adhy., p. 150. 

Agarwal, V. S.., Ahicchatra ke khilone, fig. 305, p. 173. 


Raghu., 4. 55. 

Ibid, Sarhs- 

tika. 

Harsa., p. 206. 

Ibid, p. 24. 

GdarnbM, p. 215.

%id, p. 216. 

Motichandra, Costume Textiles Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and 

Mediaeval India, p. 8. 

ARM, 2. 392. 

Mathura Museum, Sec. No. 213. 

Notichandra, Costume, Testiles Cosmetics and CoiffUre in Ancient and 

Mediaeval. India, p. 16 1. 

, 2. 397. 

h a , 2.6. 113, with the commentary of K.+irasv%ni. 

Ibid, Sarfi. fiu. 

Sabda Rat,, 3. 225. 

YaSastilaka, Piirva., p. 7 1. 

Notichandra, Coshune, Tediles Gosmetics and Coiffinre in Ancient and 

Mediaeval India, p. 16 1. 

Agarwal, V. S., Harsa. Sam. Adhy., p. 154. 

ARM, 2.397. 

Mbh., ed. ICinjawadekar, Poona - 1929; 11. 5. 1. 8. 

Brhad. Up., II,3. 6. 

Arth. ~2s. ed. Shama Sllastxy, p. 89-90. 

ARM, 2.396. 

YaSas., uttara, p. 200. 

Amara, 2.3.116. 

Watters, Yuan - T-sang 's travels in Indian, part - I. 

YaSas., parva., p. 575.

ARM, 2.396. 

AV, XEV. 2. 66-67. 

ARhl, 2.396, 

Mackay , C., p. 80. 

Marsahall, pl, XCIX - 5,6,8. 

RV, VII. 33. 

Ibid, I. 114; VI. 55, 1; IX. 67. 11. 

Das, Rgvedaic Culture, p. 21 7. 

Social and Religious Life in Gyhyasutras, Bombay - 1939, p. 73. 

Arth. ~%s., ed Shama Shastry, p. 18, V. 19. 

Ibid, p. 20, V. 21. 

Manu.,IV. 34-36; Y;?;jjr?a., 1. 131-33. 

Puri, B. N., India in the tirne of PatafijaJi, p. 106. 

Raghu, XVI, 43. 

Vikrarna., V. 247. 

Raghu., I. 42; 111. 28. 

Arnara, pp, 423,24; V. 95-97; ed. Ranlanathan, A. A. 

Hssa, pp, 30,72, 116, 203 and 243. 

Kadarnbm-, ed. Kane, P. V,, p. 28. 

Harsa., pp. 35, 47, 94. 

Kiidarnbari, ed, Kane, P. V,, p, 13, 

Watters, OnYuanChwang, I, p. 148. 151. 

Mackay, E., Early Indus Civilization, p. 180,

RV, X. 114.37; VZII, 14. 5. 

Das, A. C., Rgvedic Culture, p. 217. 

Pataiijali, I. 1. 2; 11. 2. 24. 

N2 fyaSastra, XXIII, 66. 

Rtu,, IV. 15. 

Ibid. 

Megha., Uttaa, 2, 

Raghu,, XIV, 12, 

Upadhy%ya, B, S., p. 204, 

Megha., Uttara, 30. 

Ibid, 96,112; Raghu., VI, 33. 

~akuntalii, VIII.21. 

Malavika,, 111, 22, 

SakuntaEi, VII .21. 

Indian Historical Quarterly, IV, 1929, 303. 

K%d,, Kane, P,V,, paras. 131,133. 

Cowel, Hasacarita, p. 83 

Ibid, p. 72. 

Majumdar, History of Bengal, Vo1.1, p. 6 1 5. 

Ojha,O.H., Madhya Kalina Bhiiratiya Smsw, p.44. 

Vaidya., C.V., The History of Mediaval India, I. pp. 92, 93. 

ARM, 2.375.

tam dhupGyana knSGnfam.. . Rap, 17.25; cESyd~a - Sobhifa, Sarin. 

pla. 

Ibid, 16.50. 

Megha, I. 32. 

Ibid. 

m, 2. 375. 

Banerjee, IN., The Development og Hindu Iconography. 

Arnara, 11. 6. 97. 

Raghu, 17. 13. 

Agarwal. V. S., R;ijghat ke filauM b eka adhyayana, p. 25 1. 

ARM, 2.375. 

Sat. Bra., XIII. 8. 4. 7. 

AV, XIV. 1.6. 

Ibid, IX. 6. 1 1. 

As. g. s~., III. 8. 1. 

AV., XIX. 44. 1. 

Arth. Sgs., Tr. by S2maS%stri, p. 79. 

Suiruta Cikitsgthna, XXIX. 4, Tr,. by Kunja Lal. 

IGd, ed. Kale, M. E., Bombay - 1928; p. 34. 

Harsa, Tr. by Cowell and Thomas, London - 1897; p. 198. 

ARM, 2.388 - 90. 

Ibid, 2. 385. 

Ibid, 2.386. 

Ibid, 2. 387. 

Ibid, 2. 390 

Ibid, 2. 384. 

for the detail descrition of the ornaments mentioned in the Vedic 

literature, please see - Rai Govind Cahnd, Vaidika Kelina Abhusana.

mma. I. 58. 11; MLa71li. 13. 48. 32; 33. 

Amara, TI. 9.95. 

nbid, 11.9.96. 

Ibid, IT. 10. 33. 

Buddhac~ta of ASvaghosa, 11.37. 

Yuan Chwmg, p. 58. 

Jain, J. C., pp. 143-44. 

PraW nataka, I. 3. 

Agarwal, V. S., Ed. S2m. Adhy., p. 8. 

Madhyarna V2yoga, I. 42. 

Carudatta, I. 1. 

Kumara, VI. 6. 

K~abkra, I. 18. 

~ivi Jataka, Verse 3. E 

Dhammapada Atthakat~, I. p. 384. 

Agarwal, V. S., Kgd, Sam. Adhy., p. 110. 

Arth. Sas., tr. Gairola. 

ARM, 2. 18 - 19. 

Encyclopeadia Britanica, 20. p. 545. 

Jain, J, C., p. 144. 

Ibid 

~ibi Jataka, Verse 3. E 

~ a J&ika, ~ a Verse 5. ff. 

Ibid. 

Aganval, V. S. KAd. S%m. Adhy., p. 265. 

Arth. s~s., Tr. By Gairola, p. 265. 

ARM, 2.17.

KumBrta, I. 42; III. 53; M.6; PX. 24; Agmral, V. S., #ad. Sam. 

Adhy., pp. 22,23,27,29,30,34,48,59,66-68,73, 80,97, 103, 107, 

112, 120, 130, 145, 147, 148, 188, 193, 194,223,225,242,251, 

259,294,306. 

Aganval, V. S., T I~I-s;~, p. 2 1 . 

Ibid. 

Ibid, p. 44. 

Jain, J. C., p. 143. 

Agmal, Kad. S2m. Ad~y., p. 23. 

Amara, ed. Rammathan, A. A, p. 440, V.33. 

ARM, 3.42. 

Jain, J. C., p. 144. 

Buddhacarita, 2. 16.92. 

Artk Sas., Tr. By Galrola, p. 94. 

ARM, 2.21. 

Vikrama, 111. 5. 

Agarwal, V. S., Harsa, p. 15. 

Kum2ra, VI. 42. 

Arth. s~s., 73. By Gairola, p. 94. 

ARM, 2.21. 

Jain, J.C., p. 144. 

~ a Jgtaka, ~ a Before verse. 1. 

Pratirniin2t&a, V. 5. 

Buddhacarita, I. 1. 17. 

Arth. S~S., Tr. Gairola, p. 94. 

ARM, 2.20.

Jain, J. C., p. 144. 

baa, 2. 9. 22. 

,2. 20. 

Agarwal, V. S., Qd. Sam. Adhy., p. 67. 

Arth. h s., p. 95. 

ARM, 2. 21. 

Arttx. $as., Gabla, p. 94. 

ARM, 2.20. 

S~SU, 7.30;&, 3. 4; Agwal, V. S., Ed., pp. 66, 101, 111, 148. 150; 

Hwa, pp. 15,58. 

ARM, 2. 15, 16. 

Agmal, V. S., Hapa, p. 58. 

ARM, 2. 15, 16. 

Rgvedic Culture, p. 2 16. 

Padmap~%bh@ka of hdraka, 25 (a). 

Megha, 11. 2. 

R.aghu, IX. 29. 

Agarwal, V. S ., Harsa, p. 136. 

Ibid, p. 83. 

ARM, 2.397. 

Ibid. 

Ibid, 2. 398. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid, 2.399.

Ibid, 2. 399. 

Ibid, 2. 400. 

Mackay, E., Further E om at Mohenjodaro, pp. 524-26, 544. 

Ibid, pp. 261,273,277,278, 519 and 539. 

sat. Bra.,XIV. 2. 1. 8. 

Bachofer, Early lndain Sculpture, platttcs 10. fT 

Bid. 

Bulletin of the Deccan College Reaserch Institute? hne; 2. 66. E 

ARM, 2.410. 

Paqini &tidhy2yi, IV. 3. 65. 

Na~yaSasd.ra (Ns) XXIII. 16, 18,23,25,26 etc. 

Raghu, VI. 19,80; Kumara, VII. 94; gay V.5. ~ak., VII. 24. 

Kum2ra, VIII. 89; Ragh, V11.6; Megha,I. 67. 

Trip% R.P., Magha lqta SiSupdavadha Mdk~vya, I. 6,45, II. 19. 

111.7; X.6, XIII.9 etc. 

Harsacarita, ed. Fuhrer, A. A., pp. 52, 74; K2darnbari, ed. Kane. P. V., 

para. 133, 171 and 191. 

ARM, 2. 409-410. 

Ibid, 2. 410. 

YGas, pu., p. 465. 

For further details on us~is'a, see Dr. Motichadra, Bkrstiya. 

veiabhusa, 

ARM, 2. 397,98,99. 

Marshall, J., Mohenjoho and Ind~ns Vally Civilization, I. 44. 

=ma, sundara, 10" and 1 5" sarga. 

Panini, IV. 3.65. 

Pwi, B. N., hdia in the time of PaMjali, p. 105.

NS,XXXIII. 10, 17, 19,20, 114,etc. 

Ibid, XXXII. 23,25,26. 

Raghu, III. 19, V.65, VTI. 27; Rtu. 111. 19. 

Ug2dhyaya, B. S., Indis in Ulidasa, p. 203. 

Harsa, ed. Fuhrer, A. A., p. 14,25,52, 149,190,192,207; Kgd. ed 

Kana., P. V.,par. 131, 145, 149, 174, 191, 194. 

AIRM, 2. 401. 

Yas'as., p. 180 & p. 188. 

Amara, 2. 6. 103. 

Ibid, Sam. fib. 

ARM, 2.40 1. 

Dasgupta, A. C., hchn Clay Sculptures, dig. 34. and 37. 

Das, Rgvedic Culture, p. 217. 

Journal American Oriental Society, 13.3 1 7 h. 

RV, V. 19.3. 

Ibid, I. 166. 40. 

Rama, luskinda, 9' sarga. 

RV, VIII. 47. 15; &ma, kiskind2 - 11" sarga, Ayodhya - 32nd sarga, 

Sundara - 9' saga 

,kth, sns., samaiastri, R., pp. 76-77. 

Ibid, XIII.2, 3 1,33. 

Updhyaya, B. S., India in Kalidasa, p. 202. 

Kad., Kane., P.V., para, 135, 137, 142, 153, 174, 189, 191,204. 

S~SU., X. 16, XVI. 84. 

ARM, 2.407,408. 

Ibid, 2. 407.

Abhi. cinB., 3. 324,325. 

Amara, 2. 3. 103. 

Agarwal, V. S., harsa, p. 189, pl. 24, fig. 82. 

Ibid, p. 197. 

ARM, 2.407.408. 

Ibid, 2. 409. 

Marshall, J., Mohenjodaro arid Indus Vally Civilization, plates 

CXLIV. 7,9, 1 1. 

%id, vol. 2, p. 345. 

Macdonnel, A. A, history of Sanskrit literature, p. 164. 

JAOS, 13. 137 fn. 

Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Pune, 2. 85. 

PataEijali, MahabGsya, I. 1. 1, 7, 15. 

NS, XXIII. 18. 

Ibid, XXIII. 34,3 5. 

Raghu, VI. 14-53, VI. 73. XIX. 74; Rtu, IV. 3, VI. 7; Vikrana, I. 1, 

v.2. 

Harsa, ed. Cowel, E. K., & Thomas, F. W., p. 116 -7. 

Kad, Kane, P. V., para. 174. 

~iiu, 111.7. 

ARM, 2.402. 

Amara, 2.6. 107. 

Ibid, Sarbskja oka. 

Arm, 2,402,403. 

Ibid, 2.402. 

Maokay, Further Exacavation at Mohenjodaro. 

Das, S. K, Economic History of Ancient Inda, p. 52. 

sat. Bra., 111. 5. 1. 6, XI. 8. 4. 7.

Rilrna, Sundara, 14th & 15th sarga (kundala), 1st and 1 th (armlets), 

15th (Bangles). 

Vedic Index, Macdonnel and Keith, Vol.11. 223. 

Altekar, A S., Position of Women in Hindu Covilization, p. 334. 

Bullelin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 2.87 flE 


Ftu, I. 4. 6,II. 20,111. 26, IV. 4; Kumiira, I. 37,38. 

Harsa, Cowell & Thonlas, p. 231. 

S~SU, XVIII. 53. 

ARM, 2.405. 

Amara, 2. 6. 108. 

liaSas, purva, p. 8. 

ARM, 2.405. 

Mackay, Futher Ex., Vol.11, plate. LLYII. 5; &W. 10. 

NS, XXTII. 39,40. 

Raghu, VIII. 63 (nGpura), XII. 33 ( kirikini ); Rtu, 111. 27 

(mwiniSlpma); Malavikii, p. 296 ( caraqalarikara) 

Harsa, Cowell and Thomas, p. 202. 

ARM, 2.406. 

Marshall, J., Mohenjodaro and hdus Civil., Vol. 11. p. 528. 

ARM, 2.404. 

Ibid.

ART 

AWCWTEC'II: 

The art in Mia was one of the most refined traits of civilization 

This is what the V&syuy&a K&osriha proclaims with special reference to 

sixty four arts and mah, the catubscssp' kalas, the civilization of which was 

enjoined in fashionable citizens as a daily routine. According to Yaiodhara the 

celebrated commentator on the Vutsydyana Kiimas &a, the sixty four arts are 

the basic arts which may be sub-divided in to 518 types. This shows how 

Indians were fond of &. Some of the arts like music, dancing and painting 

may be termed as fine, others like carpentry as commercial and applied, and 

still others like vkstuvidyd as technical and practical. Some of the so called 

arts mentioned in this list may be better called skills and social manners like 

make - up, puns and jokes. The list also includes medicine, mechanics, 

metallurgy and chemistry. 

This view of art adopted by Vutsydyana Kumasutra is purely 

secular and may be designated as social tradition of Arts. Besides there is also 

an aesthetic aspect. An interesting episode of these arts the catu&-gsp' kalk-s 

is that they are mentioned in many religious texts belon&g to all the three 

principal religions. The IheSr imad bhagavatapurdp mentions these sixty four 

arts in the schooling of Krsna and Balar2ma. The Harivu7itSa and Vi:~tpr 

purdp also give an honoured place to these arb. Similarly the 

Utfarcidhyayana Slihn-s of the Jaina-s and the Buddhist work like 

Lulituvistara also mention some or most of these arts. 

There is a very interesting episode in the cultural history of India. 

It shows that the utilitarian views of culture and civilization hact the upper hand 

in showing the art - history of our land. The use and disuse of these arts

debmine the life and death of a culture and its reibment, d accordingly, a 

good m y arts have altogether died out, and a few references an be found 

only in the classical writings like Bana's Haqcarita and KdambarK 

Daiyjin's DaSakumd.racuritu and in so many other works. Some of these 

arts included in the list of 64 pertain to women and such art may be said to be 

associated with beauty and youth, which, in their turn, suggest the very 

thrashmg state of material culture and civilization of India. This evidence is 

helphl in expounding sociological aspect of Indian art which is wrongly 

regarded as mainly a religious culture. 

Accordingly it may be noted that in hdia of the past there was 

not hard and fast line of demarcation between the mechanical and fine arts. All 

arts were fine in the sense that every art was to arouse some kind of aesthetic 

pleasure or experience. Poetry, painting, music, dance,. sculpture dl were life 

companions of man even in the rudimentary moorings of his civilized life. 

Some of the earliest caves in relation to painting at least, show this trait of the 

early human civilization. The Yi~tudharmottarcr puriiw is remarkable for its 

proclamation that painting without dancing is an incomprehensible art. Music 

in some form or other was civilized in the communal or hdividual way. 

Gradually a phifosophy of art was developed. 

The highest and sublimest spiritualistic culture of man in his 

quest of reality and knowledge is depicted in early literature of India The 

course of civilization in India, however, had its two dining stars : the 

Abhyudaya- the worldly prosperity and MSSreyas- the spiritual attainment, 

hence ancient Hindus laid foundations of the society and the culture of man in 

both these aspects through a systematic and organized code of 

varqa3rurnudharma and chalked out the goal of human life as the hlfilment

or the accomplishment of the Dhurna by which the individual and society 

were conceived to be sustained and maintained in their journey towards 

perfection; hence to say thaf ancient Indian civilization is predominantly 

spiritualistic is nothing but damning it. 

Our heritage, however, has been very sagacious to keep balance, 

or the balance of power between materialism and spiritualism. The former has 

never allowed to over power tl~e latter. This was the genius and genesis of 

Hindu culture fiom which we have to view our art-tradition, otherwise there is 

no point in propounding the basic theory of Indian art in turns of aesthetic 

experience akin to the blissfbl experience of self-realization. Similarly the 

proposition or the conception of Ydstu puruFa leading to the Vustu 

Brahmavda 

in case of Hindu science of architecture ad Ndda 

Brahmavdda in music can be understood from this angle. 

The following pages, an attempt is made to study the arts and 

science recorded by Halayudha, 

Music and dance are the ancient arts of India. In the age of the 

Ipgveda, music had already advanced beyond the primitive stage and some 

musical instruments were used. The hymns themselves prove that singing was 

highly esteemed ' The best evidence for the antiquity of music is, of course the 

Sumaveda. The singing of the brahmins at that time of pressing the soma is 

alluded to in the fi~~-hyrnn.~ But the Gandhwa-s of the vedio mythology 

nowhere appear as celestial singen.' But the idea became more prominent 

when we find in the ~ataputha Brrihmow the Apsaras, female associates of

Gandharva-s, described as engaged in the dance, song and play. By the time of 

Jutah-s, however, the close relation of Gandharva-s with music had become 

an established u, for we find there the art of music Galled by the name 

Glindharvaveda as being one of the 18 subjects of study.4 It is unnecessary to 

dilate on the subsequent history of this association. 

Music and drama, the two dSerent arts have developed together 

through the ages. There is a word 'rauryutrika' to mean all these three dance, 

5 

music and music instruments. Amara also says that the word 'tauryclaika' 

means all the three gita. vcTdya and nytya. The NdtyaSdstra of Bharatmuni 

is the pioneer work on the field of music and dramaturgy. During the time of 

Hal%yudha, India was at its best In the fine arts like music and dance. In ARM 

we get a brief reference about the science of dramaturgy. There is no allusion 

to Bharata or his work NdryaSdstra in ARM. But Halayudha has defuxtely 

followed the foot steps of Bharatamuni. He did neither out number the 

sthcZyibhavu nor the msa. He counts nine sthuyibbhcZva-s and their 

corresponding rasa-s. Hahyudha begins the topic with the defmition of 

bhcfva. 

BMva : 

'sukha duwhdikair bhavuir bhGvas tad bhdvabhdvanam' - 

says Dhananjaya in his ~ukar@uko.~ In the opinion of Halilyudha bhdva, is - 

'vc2hyarthalambano yastu vikaro manasu bhavet sa bhdvah ' i.e. bk&a is 

an emotion, &fmed as change of the mind depending upan extraneous

Rasa : 

Bharata says in his NGZtyaSiistru 'vibhdva- 

anu bhrZvavyabhichri samyogd rasa nipatti@. 

Almost all Indian 

rhetoricians have approved this row sdtra. ~hanarlja~a' too reiterates the 

definition of Bharata - 

vi b huvair anu b huvaiica satvikair vyab hicari bhi b/ 

&nQumtinus sv&?yutvam sthdyibhdvo rasa h sm?ah// 

Halayudha also does not deviate much while defining rasa. According to him 

the ,enhancement of bhdva is ra~a.~ Halgyudha has enumerated nine ram-s 

including Santa. 

Nma : 

The combination of gas, atodya and n?lya is called n8pa - a 

dramatic representation. The ndpu - pantomimic dance is of two types as 

10 

lasya and tc3.nqi.w~. 

music and dance. 

If tula is considered as the vital breath of Gtodya, so is laya for 

The dramatic action, sentiments etc., are expressed by 

means of aligavikqepa - gesticulations and abhinaya in nd&a." 

The 

dancing place or the stage is called as ra7tga. Some rites and prayers are 

performed to propitiate the stage before the commencement of the dance.I2 

Hal~yudha has also given some clues about the theatrical 

language. He says - a queen in a drama is addressed as devi, the crown prince 

is known as bhrtghdraka. A vidvun - learned man is called as bhuva and the 

term bhdvuka refers to the mdri;a.l3

GIta : 

Music has got a unique place in h e arts. It is believed that even 

dry plants will come to life if they are let to listen to good music. People are 

easily attracted by music. Gita and svara has got a close relationship. Amara 

mentiom sevm types of' svaru-s - .sudju, pubha, gdndhura, madhyama, 

paricamu, dhaivata and niSrida.14 @@a Svara is equal to the sound of a 

peacock. Tlxe sound equal to that of a bull is called gabha. 

GdndhZira is 

equal to the dhanus@&c~ra. Madhyama Svara will resemble the sound of a 

Krauiica bird. The sound of a cuckoo is compared with paAcamaSvara. A 

slightly neighing sound is called daivata and ni~cida svara is equal to the 

sound of an elephant. Halayudha has also mentioned about the g&a etc., as 

15 

svara-s. 

Vidya : 

Halayudha gives the word atodya as an equivalent word to 

vdya. Bharata and Amarasifia also mentioned the four types of music 

instruments as utodya in genmal. Ghana, susira, tda and avanuddha are the 

four types of musical instruments. Ghana is a musical instmmmt like bell etc. 

Sum is an air instrument like flute etc. Siring instrument like vi@ etc., are 

called as tata, and manaddha are the instrument made of leather like muraja 

etc. 

Haliiyudha mentions some of the varieties of musical 

instruments. A brief study of these instruments will help us to know the 

development of Indian music in the time of Halayuclha. 

i) Vins : Tqzd is a very famous among string instruments. The 

sculpture of goddess Sarasvati is always depicted with a vipd ip her hand.

There are many varieties of vi@. The ghosavati, viparici partvdini and 

vulluki are dBerent types of vi@.16 The dEerences are based on the number 

of strings and the mode of play. Vipaici has five strings. Parivridini is a 

vie of seven strings.17 Sadgitaratndkara mentions about ten types ofvi@. 

ii) Mfhiga : Bharata has included the rnrdaltgo into a group 

calledpu~karutrraya.'8 The body of nmtlga is made up of clay. Hence it is 

called as (m? + a@) mpia@a. The two faces are covered with leather. It 

is played with the fingm of both hands, It ia hung around the neck while 

playing in standhig position and kept in front while sitting. In 

Sarigitar~tn&ura, it is stated that a type of mardala is called as 

19 

rn9ariga. 

tulavczdya. 

It is played with a calculation of tala, hence it is also called m a 

iii) Mumja: It is a kind of drum.2o It is very rarely used for 

musical purpose. It is always used during the time of battle and also before an 

announcement of a king. 

iv) Anaka: It is a sort of h2' It is an one-faced avanoddho 

vdya which produces the sound like thunder and ocean. The vyunpati of 

the word Cznaka could be given as - dnayati ursGhavafah karoti. It is 

mentioned many a times in ancient literature. There are numerous references 

about anaka in Mahiibharata. This instsurnent can be identifled with n#gar& 

of the present day.

v) Pataha : Pawha is one another me of dnun. 

Sang itapcirijlita indenties pa @ha with (atolaka. Sangituru~&ara 

mentions two varieties of pabho as rndirgapapha and deipa@atnha and ifs 

&ah elaborately with both the vilrietics of po@ho.22 Hall yudhn trcafs both 

kaka and pagha as one and the sameVz3 

vi) W&a: It is a tambour, almost like a &maru. Its body 

is ,made up of clay and its both faces will be sealed with thin leather. This 

leather will not be tied with rope or any other thing. But it will be pasted on the 

face. In the centre portion ofthe body there will be small rope reaching to the 

length of both the faces ruld small knot will be there at the end of the rope, By 

the help of this arrangement, &n&mlr is played, 

vii) Paqava : It is a small sized drum. Bharata has mentioned 

about pamva and he includes it under avanaddha category. But later on the 

instrument gradually lost its popularity. There is no reference to payva in 

both SungiturGjci and Sungitaratn&ara. Halgyudha identifies this 

inmrnent with @?z@ma.2" 

viii) Kona : It is a drum stick and it is also used to strike the 

cords of some lutes." It is called also as vimridana doll&.26 

ix) Bheri : It is an uvanoddho vddya of two faces and made up 

of metal. The total length of bheri is about six feet. Sangitarutrt&ura has 

mentioned about this instrument. It is played by fmgm in its right side and 

with a stick in its

x) Dundubhi : It is another kind of &urn. It has got one face 

covered with leather. It is played with two sticks. It is particularly played at 

the time of some auspicious function or to announce one's 

It was 

in use even from the vedic age in India. Halgyudha indentifies it with bheri. 29 

xi) Puskara : All avanaddha vddya-s are generally devoted as 

pu~kara. hNu&aSdstra, rnpiariga, pavva and durdura are combinedly 

30 

termed as puskaratraya. Surigituratn&ura also gives t!e saqe 

refme." In Mohdbhdrata, pu~kara has been used in a general sense. 

KBli&sa has also referred to puqkara in ~ a~hnvamsa~~ and ~e~hadrito.~~ 

Hdayudha says pu$ara means the head of a 

xii) ~aikha : In Saligituidsrirha, $a&hho is included in 

su$ravdya category. It is a cover-shelter of an aqua-species. It is generally 

available at water sources, particularly in oceans. &&ha 

instrument, gifted by nature, and it cannot be ma& 

is the only 

It is mentioned 

in Sangitapuriji2a that the body of Sarikha, fit for blowing, will be of 12 

inches. They are also available with metal fittings for comfortable play. In 

India Sa7ik-ha is blown at the time of worship and auspicious ceremonies. 

Generally, one single svura is produced fiom a iallkhu. But with hard efforts, 

some raga-s could be played. Pdficajanya is considered to be the best species 

of &&ha. It is also believed that it is the iarikha of ~ah;rvi+~u.~~ 

Elephant is the most powhl member of the animal kingdom 

and hence it has always aitracied the attention of mankind, particularly the

Indians, since the dawn of history. According to the ancient Indian thought 

the elephant is one of the important constituent (atiga) of an m y 

and the 

strength of an army and its success in an expedition deepened on the number of 

brave, mighty and well-equipped elephant led by able mahouts. The great 

epic Muhubhdruta gives picturcs how different l~eroes riding on elephants 

fought heroically in the Kwuk~etra war. Besides its use in battle the elephant 

has been always looked upon an inevitable royal insignia in India. Moreover, 

they have been used as beasts of burden too down the ages. 

Several works on the science of elephant are available in 

Sanskrit. The Arthaiastra of Kauiilya speaks of the hastivana and nagavana 

(royal elepbant sanctuaries) and stipulates how the elephants are to be looked 

dbr. Gajliprveda has been considered to be a special branch of hdian 

veterinary science. The famous &&at sa7izhitd of Vari~hamihira allots one 

small chapter to the hastilakww (characteristic marks of different types of 

elephants). The western Gariga king Durvinita is at times credited with a work 

on the Gajaiastra. The encyclopaedic work Mdnasolldsa enumerates the 

diffaent forc& having elephant,^ and describes the methods of catching and 

training them. There is a work called Gajasiksu attributed to the divine sage 

Narada. 

There are numerous references about the elephants in ARM. A 

study of those references in connection to Ga~aidstra will be an interesting 

one. Halayudha gives an elaborate description of the varieties of elephant, 

their parts of body, elephant-keeper etc. 

According to Gujaidstra, there are certain qualities that an 

elephant should possess. The qualities are in connection with the nature and 

physique of an elephant. The merits of an elephant will be weighed on the

asis of (1) utpcffisthana - where the elephant was born (country or forest), 

(2) kula - its race (whether airLivatakula etc.), (3) pracdra - movements, (4) 

deia - where it can live (only in city or elsewhere), (5) jsti - variety (whether 

bhadru, rnanda or mlga) etc. 

There is a mythological story nmted in the GajaSkstra of 

P&tkiipya about the origin ofelephmts. B rW, with a skulI in his hand, has 

created elephants singing the ~rimaveda.~~ Here, in this conection, it will be 

interesting to note the ward 'sc2modbhava' as a synonym of elephant, in 

ARM.^^ 

Types of elephant : 

bhadra, lnanda and mza. 

The elephants are of three types with respect to their qualities 

i) Bhadra : Bhadra is a high breed of elephant. Palakpya in 

his Gajaicitra says that the elephants of hhadra jdti will have the following 

qualities - 

dhairye Sauvye pakrtvarn ca vinltatvam sukarmaici / 

anvarthaveditu caiva bhayardpepamii@atu / 

nl bhogutvatn ca virotvam bhadrusya re guw srn $a h /p8 

These elephants are best and employed in war-fare. 

ii) Mmda : This type oS cleplw.ntu will bc vow big h size. 

They are used for canying loads and for travel. The qualities of Mando 

elephants are - 

Yipulatarukurquvadantih mahodarah sthulapecakavi~pZh/ 

bohu balalam bamlirnsa haryaksdh kuiijoilard rnandah N 39

iii) Mrga : 

This type of elephant will be smaller in size and 

they are incapable of carrying weight. They are not used by people. They are 

left in forest. 

Halayudha refers to two more types of elephants as vyda and 

hastini. Vyula is a vicious elepf~a~d (dushguju) tlnd it caa not bo hinod fir 

any purpose. Hastini can be easily trained. Similarly, the elephants are called 

40 

as aupavahya and r@uvahya. The elephant in rut is called as lagnu, 

prabhinna or matta. An elephant which gives a side blow with its tusk is called 

4 1 

as pari?pta. Glidasa also refers to this parigtagaja in Meghasandeia. 42 

An elephant armed for war is known as kalpita or saflta. A 

troop of elephants arranged for battle is termed as gha@.43 ddhorap is an 

elephant dnver and rnohdmdtra is an elephant keeper." 

AivaSdtra is a rarely available science. The great sage Salihotra 

an authority on horses has written a treatise on them. It is believed that 

Nakula, the fourth of Pan&va also had authored a work on horses. 

It is generally believed that the horses were first used in Egypt. 

In fact, it is claimed that in 1740 BC, horses were fvst used in Egypt. This 

theory about Egypt being their cradle is mainly based on the absence of 

reference on horses in the earlier Biblical accounts; but it ignores the 

indisputable literature and scriptural evidence in our country which establishes 

that hmes were used in India even earlier. The earliest text of the Pgveda

efers to horses and to the institution of aivamedha and this takes us to 

thousands of years before Chist. 

Moreover, technical words like that of ~~lihotra, SuSruta, Garga, 

Nakula etc., on horses illustrate how ancient is our knowledge of horses and 

how fiom the time immemorial, it has been systematised and reduced to easy 

practical rules to be applied in harnessing them for the use of men. 

How one can find out the best horse in a herd ? How to single 

out the wintling one ? Which is the lucky horse ? These questions naturally 

arise in one's mind when one thii of a work like this, Obviously there can be 

no short cwt to fmd answers for these questions. Here comes the science of 

horse or AhaSatra to give a helping hand. This certainly indicates the 

characteristics, aspects and appearances, which, with necessary experience on 

our part, will guide us in the matter. 

The ARM gives a handful of technical details regarding horse. 

So it becomes necessary to study those details in the light of a standard treatise 

on horses. 

Among the twenty four synonyms of horses mentioned by 

Halayudha, the word 'gandhawa ' is peculiar and interesting. It is mentioned 

in the ASV~SCZS~~~~ 

of Nakula that once horses used to fly along with 

Gandharva-s, according to their will. Then the sage ~alihotra on the request of 

Indra cut their wings. So it could be possible that due to the association of 

horses with gandhawa-s they too are designated so. Moreover the word 

'tarksu' is mentioned in the early portions of Pgveda in the sense of horse 

which in the later literature denotes Garuda. This allusion also explains the 

association of horses with semi-divine gods. 

But ~kigii~asilrin~~ tho 

commentator of ArnarakoSu , explains the term etymologically 

as

'gandhlyate - kaidina tidyate - gandharvny i.e. since it is beaten by whip 

etc., it is called gandhrrwa. The term 'tdrk~ya' is not found in Amara, It 

may not be thought that winged horses spoken of in AivaiGstra are merely 

mythological and ought to have no place in any scientific account on horses. 

But it is interesting to know fiom the scientists of Genetic Engineering that 

biologically many big animals had wings in beginning and came to shed them 

in course of time as the price of their evolution. 

Hrtlayudha mentions foutteen words to denote a horse. The 

horses bear different names according to their nature, quality, colour, place of 

birth etc. The qualities of the horses will be examined to select the high breed 

of horses. The test should be done at various parts of the horses. ASvaSutra 

47 

gives an elaborate list of parts of a horse to examine. 

ASvaJ'cstra are as follows : 

A brief note on some of the ~haraderistics of horses described in 

i) Java : Speed is the important quality of a horse. A horse of 

high quality will run in a great speed and will not get tired quickly. Halayudha 

also emphasises about the importance of the speed of a horse by registering 

eight words.48 

ii) Varga : The colour of a horse is another important feature. 

Horses of white, red, gold, and black colour are considered to be vidorious. 

iii) Hregs : If the neighing of a horse is similar to that of a lion, 

tiger, elephant, trumpet and cloud, then it will be considered the best of 

horses. 49

iv) G.andha : The horses smelling like lotus, ghee, sandal, milk, 

curd, honey, jasmine, ugam, rut of an elephant etc., will yield wealth and 

happiness to its owner. 50 

v) AnQka : If'the loins of a horse resembles that of a lion, tiger, 

elephant and monkey then it will be a vidorious one. 

vi) Vftti or Punqka : If a horse possesses the marks like lotus, 

pot, plough, pestle, flag, umbrella, conch, svash'ka etc. it will be considered 

as the horse belonging to a superior race.51 A horse having the mark of a 

reflected moon in an ocean etc., on its fore head, is a best of horses and its 

owner will become a king. 52 

vii) Avarta: A circle like whirlpool in the parts like chest, 

shoulders, fore-head, feet and ears of a horse is considered to be a good 

symbol. There are many types of avarfa-s 

Sriv&a, 

like devamaN, ni&i?epi, 

Sukti, mukula, avali&hn, etc. Thc owner of a horse having these 

marks will become prosperous.53 Halayudha mentions about a horse called 

ti~fipki.~~ A horse having four cil~arta-r in the shape of a trapezium and an 

uvartcl down the neck is called SvEv$;aki. 

The best of horses : 

i) K2mbhoja : These types of horses will have broad fore head, 

shoulder and hip; long face and neck; wrist, hoof and scrotum will be short; 

thighs, knees and portion below the knee will be long and stout, have 

beautiful eyes, stout belly, colours will be either red or white with majestic 

look and a gentle gait. 55

ii) Bahlika : These horses have similar type of body and colour 

yet they also have broad spines, broad and long body and bigger eyes. 

Tllough they will bite their teeth in anger, but are very obedient to the owner 

and are very strong and quick. 56 

iii) Vuyuja : They havc a medium height, light body, 

beautfil eyes, ears like conch shell, small neck and scrotum, strong legs and 

hoofs, majestic look, quicker than other horses. They are not &aid of the 

sound of thunder or elephant. 

iv) Saindhava : They have a long face, neck, big body, hips, 

eyes, soft skin, and mouth ends, broad chest and are very strong. 

These are the best breed of horses mentioned by ~ala~udha.'~ 

Puryd?, 

horse. 

kchalina, knia and valgcZ are some of the equipments required for a 

An art is synonymous with 32pa or k ~la or more precisely with 

Ilpakalri, which is the subject primarily of the $ilpni~stisfro or Vksfriidsba. 

The fact that only some arts are given prominence in v&stu.fkstra is due to 

their particular association with art and architecture. 

architecture is one of the upaveda-s, the sthapatya 

This science of 

upaveda. In this 

connection a few remarks may be made regarding its place in the ancient 

sacred lore of India. V#stuSustra, the science of architecture does not frnd a 

place in the traditional list of sacred lore, the vidydsfhanuni. It does not, 

therefore mean that it was not a vidya in the traditionally accepted sense of the 

term. Rather part of the Veda, the premordial knowledge. The Veda-s had 

their upveda-s also. Sthapatya idstra is one of the four upaveda-s, the

auxiliary part ofthe Veda. The standard works on VustuSastra were based on 

the ancient lore as given in the Puraw-s and Agarnu-s. Since the science of 

architecture was utilised for religious purposes, particularly in the 

construction of temples, ancient works 

of the Paraw-s, Agam-s and 

Tantra-s have very detailed expatiations on temple architecture and temple- 

sculpture and iconography. 

In the early mediaeval periods, however, the civil architecture 

did get a revival and we have evidence of this upsurge in the two mediaeval 

texts belonging to 1 Ith and 12th Cen. AD., the Samaruriga~ Swadhura of 

R;?jc? Bhojadeva of DhcZru and the Aparlijitapyccha of l3huvmacandr;rc~rya. 

Similarly there is a powerful testimony coming firom the literary sources like 

~udraka's Mvchakatika, (the Sula - house of Vasantasena); Bsna's 

Kdambari, (the house of wealthy men); V8stsy$yana's Kumasiitra,( the 

houses of Nigarika-s); rich references in the commentary of 

La2itasahasranama of Saubh2gya Bhiiskara and Qemendra's Kalnvilusa. 

In the light of those weatises an effort has ben made to study the terminology in 

connection witli architecture found in ARM. 

i) Town Planning : Halayudha frst introduces the topic with the 

town. He gives I1 words to mention a town. Then he refers two words to 

denote a capital. Then he moves on to describe the upanagora - sub urbs. 58 

Yidehd, Ka, Avantt, and Kcinyakubju are treated as upanagurtz-s by him. 

Then he explains the features of a city. The embankment at the gate of a city is 

called hastinakha or parikrita.59 According to Viipupuniy a nagara or 

60 

pura covers an area of a yojand.

Understandably, every communal settlement was situated near 

mountains and rivers. History records that all the civilization on this earth 

bloomed on the banks of river. Halayudha nmes a country near by a river as 

nodimdph.61 The case of the artificial durga - folt was probably an 

exception. It is mentioned in Ycjupurkp that a city (nagam) is probably 

required to be 1x1 yojona in its area, a town (khetoJ covering half of its area 

and a village (grumc-x) half the area ol'the town. 62 

Roads : 

Pratoli, viSiku and rathya are the broad main roads for carriages. The 

junction of four roads are called as ipigd@ka, scrmsthrina and cat~~atha.~~ 

City gates and Rmnparts : 

Gopura and puradvdra are the word to refer a city and vcrpra, Sala, 

prcSkura are the words used to denote the rampaits. The door at the gate way 

is known as knpli@. 64 

Ditch and Drain: 

Pankha or dirghikd means a ditch which is dug encircling the 

ii) Houses and Dwellhgs : While explaining the word Sdld 

(building) an attempt is made to connect its origin with the tree and its overspreading 

branches which, in former times, offered shelter and protection to 

men.66 This may probably make us infer that the early dwelling was merely a 

hut for the construction of which branches of tree (primarily of Sda trees ? ) 

were used. The emphasis on this point of connection between the SGZ2u and 

SiikhcZs are interesting.

Cave - d19reMngs: 

Though initially caves wers used as dwellings, later neglected when 

proper houses were constmcted. Yet caves - guhd were treated suitable 

for those of the last stage of lift - snmnynsu, for purposes ormeditation. 

Kinds of dwebg : 

With the explanation to reference to prairda also occurs in 

the same context. Since it pleases the mind it is called prris8da.67 This is 

apparently at1 attempt at etymology. Anyway it suggests that prusda was 

regarded as more attractive and imposing in appearance than the Slci and 

probably it means a palatial building. Hal2yudha records that a. common 

dwelling is known as gjru andprris* is the abode of god or king." It is 

interesting to note that the houses were built of bricks during his time as it is 

evident from his remark - ' grhanl rSfak&d racltam ...'/ He altogether 

mentions 30 words for a dwelling. The site for building any type of houses is 

called vdstu. 69 

Kal~yudh also dis?inguishes the various dwellings by different 

terminologies. For example, a house - common is called gfia, that of king or 

God is known as prdscida, hyaiana denotes a place of sacrifice and the 

mansion of rich is termed as harmyaP7O The white washed palace is called as 

saudha, and it should have a basement called Ku@ma too. 

Svustlka is a kind of palace planned out in the shape of the 

mystic figure svus1zko. According lo the fiivokarrna Vrisluidstro its site is 

circular in shape and may be situated on the bank of a river, on the foot of a hill

or on the sea cons?. It 1s fortified wlth ramparts and moats. The city of Jaipur 

may be illustrated to represent this plan.71 

?'he nnodycivarta type of palace is oblong or squire. According 

to ViSvakarma Vastui~ilistra, it should be laid out in candrta if square and in 

poramaiuy~ka if oblong. 

72 

The stair cases are built in order to climb up to the 

The wooden frame of a roof is called valabhi and it is supported 

by beans called gopdnasi. Tlie eave is ktlown as vali;lc~ and the dove cot is 

74 

named as kapotnpdi. 

The threshold of a house is known as deh~li.~~ The 

courtyard goes by the name of prriiga?lo.76 These are some of the salient 

features of a palace. 

The SilpaSuId refers to a workshop, vqtScZlu to a stable. 77 

The market place or a shop is called as cipaw or vipap.78 

A rnanufiictory is 

termed as kcrrmaSalii; a shed on the road to accomniodate passengers with 

water is called pdniyairila; a #amaidla is a dormitory.79 

general is known as uSraya, the abode of mendicants is called &ama, 

80 

the mafia denotes a place of an ascetic. 

A shelter in 

and 

The terrace before house (portico) is called pragha?la.81 A 

house consists of lying in chamber, 

apavoraka, 82 

kitchen and bed room namely, 

pllkasthana and ~'a~anoslhcina~~ respectively. The fence 

bul around a house is lu~own as ap~~myo.~~ Apart fiom these a house will

have enough number of windows - gav&;aB5 for ventilation. A bed room must 

be provided with beds, blankets, bed-sheets, pillows and curtains.86 

87 

An awning used by royal personalities is termed as vituna 

and 

88 

royal tent is called as upakuya or upakciriku.

NOTES 

Cambridge History of India, vol. I, p. 103. 

RV, VII. 103.7-8. 

Macdonnel, Vedic Mythology, p. 137. 

Law, India as Reflected in the EL^-ly texts of Jainisrn and 

Buddhisrn,~. 249 

ARM, I. 90. 

DaSmpaka, 111.1. 

ARM, I. 90. 

Ibid, 1.93. 

Ibid, I. 94. 

%id, I. 96. 

Ibid, I. 98,99. 

Arnara, I. 3. 1. 

ARM, 5.77; 16. fdWl, 1.96. 

Bharata KoSa, ed. RZtrnakrsna Ka.vi,M., p. 358. 

Sahgitaratniikara, 6. 1017. 

ARM, I. 97. 

Ibid. 

Sari, Rat., 6. 805. 

ARM, 1.97. 

Ibid 

Ibid, L98. 

Bharata KoSa, p. 151.

Sari. Rat., 6. 1027. 

Ibid, 6. 1145. 

ARM, I. 98. 

proktam rn,da7igaSabdena rnuninc?puskarcrtrayam / 

Sari. Rat., 6.1027. 

Raghu., 17. 11. 

Meglla., I. 68. 

ARM, 5.72. 

Ibid, I. 26. 

ARM, 2, 59. 

GajaSgstq sl. 1,2. 

Ibid, 81. 18. 

ARM, 2. 69,70. 

Ibid, 2. 65. 

Megha., I. 4. 

ARM, 2.66. 

Ibid, 2.70. 

ASvaSastra of Nakula, Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal sws. 

No. 56, Tmjore, 195 1, p. 8. 

Ling2yasiirin on Amam, ed. Ramanathan, A A, Vol.1. p. 510. 

ASv&2stra, sl. 3 - 7. 

ARM, 2. 288. 

Adva., 48. 6. 

Bid, 48.2-3. 

ASva., 43.2.

Ibid, 44. 10. 

Ibid, 23. 1-2. 

ARM, 2. 183. 

ASv(zs'gstra of Nakula, p. 68. 

Ibid, p. 69. 

ARM, 2.281. 

Ibid, 2. 129 - 131. 

Ibid, 2. 133. 

VAyupurana, 9. 116-7; Anandairanla Skt. series, 1905. 

ARM, 2.6. 

Vayu., 8. 1 16-7. 

ARM, 2. 134. 

bid, 2. 133. 

Ibid, 3. 54. 

Vayu., 8. 132-6; 8.89. 

Ibid, 2. 135. 

ARM, 2.138. 

Ibid, 2. 135, 

Ibid, 2. 138. 

Dr. Lalit Kumar Shukla, A Study of Hiandu Art and Architedure with 

Special reference to terminology, p. 50. 

Ibid, p. 43. 

ARM, 2. 149. 

Ibid, 2, 148. 

Ibid, 2. 147. 

Ibid, 2. 144. 

Ibid, 1. 141. 

Ibid.

Ibid, 2. 142. 

Ibid, 2. 143 

Ibid, 2. 144. 

Ibid, 2. 137. 

Ibid, 2. 140 

Ibid, 2. 152. 

Ibid, 2. 149. 

%id, 2. 152. 

Ibid, 2. 155. 

Ibid, 2. 135.

WARFARE AW WEAPONS 

War is a political institution and a necessay evil. To the 

early tribes war wa a holy limction. 'l'hougl~ the primitivc l~on~ad lribcs, 

which took to agriculture and cultivated habits of peace and not of war, 

hecame warlike through the ages and by the force of circumstances. Ifwe look 

for psychological factors that led to ancient Indian wars, they are : (I) the 

mental atmosphere ofthe community being a caste - society, (2) psychological 

bareness of peace, (3) heroism and ad~~enture, (4) human pugilism and 

puglacity, (5) defence complex, (6) 311g1-y hehariour and spirit of jealousy 

and (7) the nlastery motive. 

As thc human race dcvelnpe(i so did dc~relop thc rneans of war, 

i.e, weapons. Bows and arrows were their principal weapons, though the 

use of spears was not unknown. In tlie age of the ljgveda, it would appear 

from the tmls 'isuk?' and ' ipkartd' that there existed the regular art dC 

1 

arrow mtik i ng. 

It is a well hiown fact that regular and proper organisation are 

2 

the life and soul of an my. Owing to peculiar geographical features, 

India, with her vast plains interspersed with forests, had to make extensive 

use of mounted force which comprised cavalry, chanots and elephants. This 

does not mean that infantry was neglected or it formed an unimportant limb of 

the anny. The Indian army possessed the classical fourfold force of chariots, 

elephants, horse-men and infaws3 Let us first malyse the foudold army.

I. CA%UR@GA SENA : 

i. Chariots: In most of the countries of the world we find that 

chariots were used in war. The war-chariot was known to the Aryans long 

4 

before their entry into India. 

There are numerous references to the war 

5 

chariots in the l?gleda . The importance arid value of chariots in warfare 

can be seen in the epics. Thus where as we had in the age ofggveda, a single 

rider, in the age of the Brghrnaw-s and epics we meet with one warrior and 

an accompanying charioteer. In the Athawaveda Indra was the left stwider 

and the Moon-god was the cherioteerm6 We all know that Qqa was the 

charioteer of ArJuna in the battle of Kuruksetra and earned the apt title of 

Parthasarathi. But it appem that by the time of Alexander, chariots had 

ceased to be the important arm of the armies of ancient The 

evidence from the Arthaidstru 

8 

arm. 

shows that the Mauryas kept a chariot 

There are different terms like rathin, suta and sarathi used 

to denote the charioteer; and of these sutcr is ofien misunderstood, with the 

celebrated StZta PaurdMka. The latter is a sage and ayonija. The charioteer 

belonged to one of the niixed caste, who became horse-trainers, physicians, 

charioteers, etc. Where as ARM gives a new information that sgta is one who 

stands on the left of a champion (so~~c~fia).~ According to Many Slitaka 

son of kqtriyo (male) and brcihmny (female)." 

Arthaiastra lays down, in vexatious detail, a number of 

minute rules to make and maintain chariots and from this we cm know that 

the business of supervising the chariots of the State had become so unwieldy

as to require a special officer - rath&hyuska. 

11 

It also mentions six 

varieties of chariots, of which three were used in war, one in the period of 

training, the second for marching towards enemy and the third in the theatre of 

operations. 

ARM mentions seven lypes of chariots : 12 

1) a carriage employed at military exercise - vaiyyika, 

2) a carriage fit for travelling - adhvanya, 

3) a litter borne on men's shoulders - karniratha, 

4) a car for carrying the images of Gods - devaratha. 

5) a war chariot - ~Gmpurdyiika. 

6) a pleasure van - krfddratha and 

7) a triuinphant car- jaitruratha. 

Out of these seven vaiwyikn, sumpardya and jaitraratha 

seem to be war cliariots. The Mahabhiirafa refers to the chariots of two- 

wheels, four-whecls and ci@-whecls.13 

Uut Ilalayudha had not given any 

such reference pertaining to the number of wheels. But he offers a number of 

technical terms14 like the pole of carriage-ksvczra, the pin of an axle-a@, 

and the bumper provided as a defence against collision-varritha. From these 

technical references we c~m figure out the making of a chariot. The body of the 

chariot was fixed on a wooden axle- akw, l5 fastened by straps of cow hide. 

The wheel were fixed to the ends of the axle projecting free of the vehicle's 

body 011 each side and secured by link pins-a*, on their outer faces. The 

wheels had metal tYes,l6 

besides felly-pradh~, spokesora and a nave- 

ndbhya. The rim and tile felly together were known as nemi. But the number 

of spokus in w]lce] is 110 wllcro spocif cd. l'he ARM is aln, silcnt on tho

subject of material of which the chariots were made. ~ukra mentions an 

awe-inspiring chariot of iron. 17 

Though the chariots were not employed in wadiare yet they were 

in vogue for other purposes like travelling etc., as it is evident fiorn ARM.'^ 

But we find a gradual decline of war chariots from the scenes of war after the 

Mauryan period. So that at the end of 8th Cen. AD, we hear of them no more 

in the battles fought on the soil of India. For, Bina, the author of Hrrr~acariia 

(7th Cent. AD.) in his description of emperor Haqa's m y 

any reference to the use of chariots in war. 19 

does not make 

ii Elephants : The next important force of war 

consisted of 

elephants. There is a stray reference in the Bgveda to two elephants 

bending their heads and rushing together against the 

The Yajurveda 

mentions an elephant trainer - hastipa and we find references in the 

Athorovov veda to domesticated elePhantsm2' It is, however, in the Jlitaka-s 

that we, for the fmt tin% fmd elephants used in the military operations,22 and 

the Greek epic has many instances of this kind.23 Their use in the Indian 

armies of later times is too popular. 

The ArthaSdstra mentions a special officer of the Stitte for the 

care of elephant3 Later works like that of Pdlakipya refers to gajGrnaiya, 

while the P7gu Dhurmottura purciw speaks of him as gajadhyakqa, both 

denoting the same oficial. ARM mentions one gajujiiva - an elephant 

keeper. 25

The services of elephanls i ancient wars were great. They 

marched in fimt of the army, clearing rhe way off trees and shrubs. They 

protected the flanks ofthe army, helped it to ford rivers, presented a fmfront 

in fight, broke down the enmy phalanx, routed the enemy's army, railed 

the soldiers of their side, and sde guarded the treasuresz6 On account oftheir 

importance in battle, only animals possessing 

reconunended lo kings ,tor their stud. 

distinct characteristics are 

the Puruiura 

The ARM refers to three types of elephantsy7 also mentioned in 

sarnhitd, ??s?zu Dharmottara puruv and Brahman& 

pzrray. These are Badhra, Manda and M%a with 

characteristics. 

their respective 

iii. Cavalry : The cavalry as an organised force can be traced 

to the post vedic period, but not earlier; for, though we have references to 

horses28 and war chariots drawn by horseZg we have no indication that the 

cavalry as a disciplined force existed in the days of Rgveda. This also 

explains to sonic extent why we do not have a good nunlber of horses among 

the Indus Valley finds recently unearthed. In the Athanlaveda, however, we 

30 

hear of dust raising horsemen. 

In the lata Sumhita-s, we fsnd refaences suggesting the use of 

horses for riding has certainly become more common; but no clear reference is 

made to the employment of cavalry in war." 

But, by the time of Alexander 

cavalry had secured a place in the army of king Porus, though it did nat 

prove effective against the disciplined Greek cavalry. In the 

Mahibhliratu, cavalry is recognised as a part of the armed forces. 32

We lean fiom Kautilya and Megasthenes that there was a well 

organised a d efficient cavalry force in the army of Candragupta. Even though 

there is a common belief that horses are non-Indian, yet in the epoch of epics 

and the Arthaidstra, we find that the cavalry occupied as important a place in 

the army as any other division. Kau~ilya mentions a State - Superintendent of 

33 

horscs, 

who had assigned many duties, besides maintaining a register of 

holxe. Megsthenes corroborates tlie evidence ofthe ArthuS&tra. 

ARM 

gives some interesting references on horses. It says that 

horses are divided according to their quality and place of birth, Karka, Sow 

and henla are the Ulree types of horses named &er their colour, i.e. white, red 

and black respectively.34 A horse whose eycs are as white as the jasmine 

llower is ot~llzd as rntrdl/lct{k,vt~ ruld 

/nrircc~)udhtx is Ihc horse hi~ving black 

eyes.35 A horse having a mark of iriv&-a is called as iriv&aki. 

Ajuneya, pdrasika, kamboja, vuhlika and sciindhava are the high breed 

37 

horses. 

Both the purupiz-s and epics agree that the horses of Sindhu and 

Kaniboja region WLTC of the fincst breed. 

36 

In Ihc Mahubhuratu war the 

Kamboja horses were used . The steads of vdhliku were also highly 

38 

esteemed. 

iv. Infantry: The next important division of army is the infantry 

or foot soldiers. Dikshihr opines3' that originally chariots and elephants 

were mostly used for warfare. By frequent intercourse with countries 

which produced the finest horses the cavah-y took an all important piace. 

Lastly came the foot soldiers and the notion came to be entertained more and 

more with the march of time that the more numerically strong the army, the 

greater were possibilities of its success. On the contrary, S.D.Singh putr

forth" his logical argument that man found his feet on land, and on foot he 

first faught. 

In the Atharvaqmeda we have a reference to one of the battle 

4 1 

riios whcn arnlilig 21 warrior. 

Ihc Arlhubslru spcaks 01' Ihc inlmtq as a 

separatc army department under the charge of a special ofiicer of the 

This receives confirmation from Megasthenes' statement. As if to demonstrate 

the superiority of disciplined i~hltry, the Agnipurllp says that victory 

ever attends the m y where foot-soldiers are numerically strong.43 The 

~ukranitiohdi~inguishes the foot-soldiers by the term svagarno 

fkom 

unyugama, applicable to the other three limbs of the cntz~ra~gasen~. 

Halay~dha does not give much i1~0rnlati011 about infantry, besides mentioning 

eight word5 for foot soldiers like padci,ti45 etc. Probably by his time 

irrfmtry might have become a well known pl~enomenon of catura~gasenfi. 

11, UNITS OF ARMY : 

IJaliiyudha mentions twelve words to denote an army. 46 

Though he considered the words like pytanci, send, vcihrnt, cams, anikzni 

etc., as synonyms yet they are different in their technical aspects. The Indian 

m y was divided into Patti, Sendmzdkha, 2;Gzllma, Gav, Vuhini, Pytanu, 

Cam u, Anikin i and Aksauhr ?zZ: 

Tlzese divisions roughly corresponds to our 

modem bmalions, regiments, companies etc. Of these the patti meant one 

chariot, one elephant, three horses and three foot-men. This was the smallest 

unit of the army. The next was sendmukho, the four arms of the patti 

niultiplicd by three, In this way three sentimukha-s formed a gulma. Three 

gulrnu-s formed otle gav, three gow-s one vuhmi, three vdhin~s one

yfana, threep?t~ma-s one camIZ, three carnu-s one anikznt and ten anlk-mi-s 

for~iicd one u1~'~au hi at. An ak~uu h~ TLZ consisled of 21,870 chnriots, 27,870 

elepllants, 65,610 horses and 1,09,350 foot-sol die^-s."~ 

In the (Idyoga puma of the MahdbhZirafu there is a different 

enumcratio~l 01' lht: army units. Mulllion is ~nadc of' sma, pflunrt al~d vahivli. 

Senu is n unit consisting 500 chariots, 500 elephants, 1500 horses and 

2,500 foot-men. Ten senu-s consisted a ppana, and ten y mnu-s consisted 

one vrihin i .48 The h'ahcibfiiirata recounts that the two armies of Pri~~&vu-s 

and Kaurava-s on the field of Kuruksetra consisted of eighteen aksauhini-s, 

of which eleven belonged to the kauraua-s and only seven to the pcin~va-s.4g 

1n anonother place it is said that a pa& totdled 250 men, thrice a number to this 

was senumukha, aid thrice this 1lu111ber co~lsisted a gulma. Three gulrna-s 

made up a gow.50 If we consider dispassionately the numerical strength of 

the various forces in the epics, the figures given strike us as higldy incredible 

and unacceptable. In order to increase the magnitude of the war, the poet must 

have exaggerated lllc figures. It must be admitted, however, that there was a 

system, a method and a plan in the organisation of the ancient Indians, and 

51 

to this extent they deserve commendatio~~. 

During the days of Halilyudha the system of military 

organisation must have improved to the futiher extent that he felt no need to 

mention the calculaiion of the forces, 

111. WEAPONS OF OFFENCE : 

Dhanuweda classifies the weapons of offence and defence into 

four - the muizta, the omukta, the muktamukta and the yantramukta. The

NitiprakdYl~u, rm the other hand, divides them into three broad classes, the 

miiX?n 

own), tile arnukzu (not tlilown), and the inannamukta (discharged 

with rnanirn-s)." 

ITnliy~dha, howcvcr, followi; Ihc foot-sqcps of Dhmiinxilir, 

class~ing the weapons into four categoty, while improving the category of 

mukta as kirramuktn (thrown by hands).53 He also mentions a number of 

weapons of offence and defence, popular at his time. It would not be, 

therefore, out of place here to examine their characteristics and uses a 

recorded in the earliest literature, The weapons are classified according to 

their preference of use at was. 

a, Mukta Category : 

i) Bow : The origin of bow is sfill a mystery. We find evidence 

of its use in about 3rd or 4th cent. BC by the pwplo of Indus valley.Y In the 

Hgveda it is most frequently mentioned and practically no other weapon 

played any substantial part in the vcdic ~arfire.~* It was known by different 

nanes like 

Sira@u, kodandn, kdrmzlku etc. Whether these were the 

synonyms of the same thing or were different, it is difficult to say. In the age 

of the Rgveda it would appear from the terms i+zikfl and i~k6ra that there 

existed a regular profession of arrow making.56 Dhunus is the common 

56 

name used to mean the bow in the flgvedcr and later. 

The weapon was 

coinposcd of a stout sZaff bent iino a curved shape and of a bow-siring made 

of a strip of cow-hide.58 The bows and arrows are the chief weapons of mukla 

goup. The very name Dhanurveda meaning militcay science proves the 

importance of them in war in thoso times. Proficiency in its use was thc

measure of one's reputation as a 

In the Mahcibhdrnfa we find 

that tl~c bow, thc arrow and quiver are inevitably the most important. 60 

Thc A~itiprakd.F'iIik(A. mcntions twelve kinds of nm1s under the 

rnukta category. Among these understandably, the bow figures promitlently and 

it still exists. It is four cubits in height, bent at three places and with a tusk 

6 1 

like opening. The Agnipuraw furnishes details of a bow. The rod of a bow 

may be made of any of the three materials steel, horn or 

may be made of the fibre of bmboo or other h-ees. 

The string 

Ka~itilya distinguishes four kinds of bows - kurmuku made of 

paltnyra, kodunrh ofban~boo, dr1i7~ of dam wood m ~d rlhonus of bonc or 

horn. mli&sa is well acquainted with the use of the bow. It can be seen from 

the RaghuvumSa. I-Ie refers to the twang of the bow string of both Ranla arid 

L&rnqla 11ea-d by T'~~&J.~' 

?hc ARM first dcals wit11 tl~c bow. 11 ofYcrs scvcn words to 

denote a dhanus. It is interesting to note that astra is one among the 

synonyn~s of a 

65 

Dr.Oppcrt as a bow. 

Similarly, the ostra in the Sukraniti is interpreted by 

But to interpret it as an arrow seems to be more 

correct. Tlie term astrn means a missile in general i.e. anwg that is 

discharged e.g. ugncydxtru. Astra also mcms n weapon in general, according 

to 

So the usage of nstra in the sense of a bow can be justified 

elymol~gicilll~~~ that it means a weapon of offence. 

68 

ii) Arrow : The arrow comes next. It is usually three cubits long. 

How an arrow came to be designated as iaru is seen in 

the

69 

,fof~~?ofhuhr6hmu~~~~ whm it is stated that when Indra threw his 

thunderbolt against Vrtra it broke into four pieces and one of them fell on the 

~ O U I :is I ~ a ism-amrw; bccause il bvas bsu1ic.n it bccomc so dosigintcd. 

vlhc making of thc am)w is descrihcd in the Agniperirrm 

as 

They are made dthn. of iron or bamboo, the latter well-grained of 

good vein and of goldell colour, U has feathers at the tail end and must be 

oiled for easy usage.. Kslidssa speaks of the sharp, deep and strong 

The ARM gives 16 words to denote a b ~ ~ The i three . ~ ~ 

types p~.irk+x~c

the knights 

Kauiilya defines it as a weapon provided with 

edges like a plough-share.g3 It was two cubits long and had 'an open and 

broad mouth in shape like the leaf of a tree.84 The blade was of metal and the 

handle of wood. ARM includes it under the Sasm category. 

iv) Drugham' : The drughanq again in shape like a mudgara, 

is translated as a latchet by ~r.0~~e1-t'~ but probably was a wooden mace or 

a staff headed with a heavy splked ball of iron.86 Its length was four feet to 

87 

two inches. ARM treats it as a synonym of mudgara. 88 

v) Lagu& : The lagu& was probably a cudgel or a heavy staff 

with metallic f~ct.'~ It NFR~ two cubits long. It could be used in four ways. It 

was cased in n sheet of feather and held either with both hmds or only with the 

right l~and.~~ ARM though doesn't include this under weapon category, 

mentions it else where." 

02 

included under scrslra category in ARM. 

The dagda, however, the synonym of ingti&i is 

vi j PaSa : The next weapon p&fa, So,"3 which is a noose killing the 

enemy at one sboke, oftwo or thee ropes used as a weapon is attributed to 

the God Varuna. bl the Agnlpurtzpu are described eleven ways of turning it to 

one's own adviu~tatage md it is oftzn cubits long made of cotton thread, rnriqin 

gas, Icatl~or or skin of animals. ARM does not include this as a weapon. 

Probably by his time out of development in the war fare p a must have 

becomc old fashioned axid gone out of use. It was, howevcr, mentioned as an 

94 

instrument of a hunter to catch the animals,

vi) Cakra : The next weapon in the muktu category is a circular 

disc with a small opening in the middle. It was of three kinds of eight, six and 

95 

four spokes. 

Cakra or discus as a weapon is not mentioned in the Vedic 

Index. The NitiprakGku includes it under the category of mukta. It is used for 

felling breaking e t ~ It . is ~ a ~ revolving weapon rnade of iron or steal used in 

97 

offense. 

The cakra of Visnu is known as sudariana. The ARM mentions 

98 

it under Sastrn category. 

At1 these weapons are found used in one battle or 

another both in Ramayaw and Mahabhiirara. 

b. AmW Category : 

We may study now the arnukta group of weapons, which are of 

twenty kinds according to VaiSampayana. 

i) Vajra : The first is the vajra or the thunder-bolt, the weapon 

associated with God Indra. It is a weapon of mythologicd origin. It is 

mentioned in the Rgwda mostly as s weapon of ~ndra.~' It is suggested that it 

was originally made of stone and later of bone.''' in the later literature its use 

101 

as a weapon becomes rare. ARM aIso mentions it as a weapon oflndra. 

ii) I+u : The ipr is translated as a hand sword by Dr,~ppert'~~ 

but may be an arrow or a reed like weapon. ABM gives the meaning of arrow 

to it. lo3 

iii) Paratu : The parah is a battle-axe amibutad to ParaSurama 

of great fame. Its blade was rnade of steal and it had a wooden handle. Three 

kinds are distinguished. lo4 It was used for cutting aad rending. Copper axes 

have been discovered at ~ohenjodaro. lo' 

It is mentioned in the $gveda

where it is more of a tool than a weapon.lo6 Kau~lya refers to pant& 

and 

kufirira as being two kinds of axes and the menta tat or explains the latter a 

kind of axe well knowalo7 The axe of Mahdbhhta might be termed as a 

royal weapon being chiefly used by the nobles and is often mentioned as a 

missile. lo' ARM mentions four varieties as parahadha, ku#htira, pporaju and 

svodhiti. log 

iv) Asidhenu : It is a small dagger, one cubit in length. It has 

three edges and is used in close fighting. Its handle is slender and small 

perhaps it is the same as asiya~p of ~ au~l~a."~ ARM gives five synonyms of 

a in the sense ofa hifie.."' 

v) Lavitra : It is a sickle, used in moving and reaping. It has 

a crooked shape, sharp at &e end. It has a comparatively big handle. hth 

hands are used in hurling it."' ARM mentions it as an instrument to reap 

crops. 113 

vi) Kunta : It is a lance moreover a kind of barbed dart, six to ten 

cubits long. It is of iron and has six edges. ~ukra speaks of ten hasta-s of its 

measurement, having the end of a plough-share capable of opposing another 

dart l4 ARM mentions it as a lance. 'I5 

vii) Priisa : The prcisa measured four has fa-s, had a sharp face. 

Vaiiampayana speaks of it as madc of bamboo9 with a metallic head. Its 

length wss seven cubits.116 ARM mentions it as a lance. 117

viii) Pinaka : It is thc Sda of ~iva, another mythological weapon. It 

is usually translated as trident. It measured four cubits length 118 ARM 

mentions it as the bow of Qid 

ix) G& 

: Thegadu is a heavy rod ofiron with one hundred 

spikes at the top. Three kinds are distinguished according to Auimasa 

~hanurveda.'~~ It is believed that a blow of gad8 can destroy an elephant 

and rocks. The Vedic Index does not mention it. It was known to the people of 

Indus Valley as maces of stone and copper have been discovered at 

Mohenjodaro and ~arappal~l The Rgvedic Aryana continued to use it. 122 In 

the MahdbhcZrata it stands second to the bow in general csteem and appears 

to have been used more o h than the sword.'23 Except for the instance of 

Duryodhana acquiring the divine knowledge of wielding the gadtS ftom 

Balabhadra all the purap references to gada occur in the mythological 

settings, connecting its use mainly with ~iva and Vim. ARM includes it 

124 

under Sustru caiergory. 

x) Mudgara : It is a hammer or hammer shaped staff, three cubits 

in length with a strong circular handle used in breaking heavy stones and 

rocks.125 It is classified under arnukta weapons.lz6 It i mentioned by 

127 

K4lya as a mobile machine for, it was also used as a missile. 

The Vedic 

Index does not mention it. We find mudgara also mentioned in connection 

with ~iva and bhiita-s. Hopkins takes the epic-mudgara to be a hammer 

made of iron which according to him was distinctly a missile.128 

~arikaracar~a compares moho or magical illusion to a mudgara in a short 

poem called Moharnudgara. Amara mentions it with the dwhono.'29 ARM

also refm it with the drughano in the sense of a hammer.13* 

) Hala : The haln is translated usually as a plough-share 

associated with Balmama. ARM mentions it as an instrument of 

agriculture. 131 xii) Musala : Again this weapon is associated with Balatama. It 

was a pestle like club, with both ends well knit together. It was a pointed rod 

ma& of khadira wood ARM calls Balararna as MuSalin - a wielder of 

pestle. 13' 

xiii) Pamsa : It is a kind of spear with keen edge made of 

copper and iron. Dr.Oppert translated it as a battle-axe. This does not seem to 

be correct because the same weapon (battleaxe) is mentioned in the previous 

list (mukta category). There was a hand guard in the handle. It had two keen 

blades of iron andmeasured the height of a human being. ARM mentions it 

under iastra variety. 133 

xiv) Parigha : It is a wooden beam used for locking or shutting a 

gate, and in a battering nun. According to VaiSarnpayana it was made of 

wood and circular in shape, It was so heavy that a whole army of soldiers 

would be required to handle it.134 ARM mentions it other name as 

w) Asi : It is a sword. No sword or sword blade is found in 

Mohanjodaro and Harappa excavations. 

The vedic Arym used it rarely. In 

the Muhribhdrata, however, we find Bhi~$mafavouring it even more than the 

bow. The same book of Mah&hmta also contains a legend regarding the

137 

mystic and divine origin of the sword. The epic age seemed to represent an 

epoch where the bow is yielding to the sword. In the final epic it regains its 

supreme.138 The puranic literature knows of different types of sword.139 

According to Dikahitar it measures 50 thumbs in length and four inches in 

width Its blade should be like a petal of a lotus. It should be deep in sides, 

bulging in the middle, with kern edges.14' It is also known as kharigo and 

commonly worn on the left side. It is used in cutting, rending, lopping and 

14 1 

striking the enemy. 

It is a most popular weapon of amukta variety, 

mentioned by ARM. 142 

xvi) Bhin-la 

: The NitiprakGka mentions it as 

~hindi~rila.'~~ Probably this was a heavy club which had a broad and bent 

tail end measuring one cubit length. It was to be used with the left foot of the 

warrior placed in front. Its various method of using is mentioned in 

144 

Agnipuruw. It was like a kunta but with a big blade. ARM mentions it as 

bhindarn~la.'~~ Jliyashankar Joshi, however mentions other words such as 

bhinqfibhdlci, biq&bhiila, bhin&mdla and bhindipGla which are should 

be treated as ~~l~bheda-s.'~~ It is included under iastra category by 

~al3yudha.l~' 

xvii) Musu@ : ~t~~~ is the last weapon of this category and 

was probably an eight sided cudgel. It was furnished with a broad and strong 

handle. Its peculiar movements were whirling and jerking. It apparently 

comes from the root meaning to cleave or break into pieces, and is perhaps 

akin to the musala. ARM gives another name as mukhan4 for it and 

149 

includes it under sbstm variety.

c. Category : 

The NitlprukcsSik15: enumerates two classes of muktamukta 

division - sopasamhdra (throwing out) and upusarhhdra (withdrawing). 150 

ARM includes ya$i etc under rnukta category. I" 

d. Yantramdcta Category : 

Yantra-s were so ostentatiously displayed on the city walls 

repeatedly mentioned bGt relatively ineffectual in the epic descriptions of 

the battle. In the MuhabhGruta it is mentioned 

that yantra-s protect the 

cities of lndraprastha,1S2 Dvaraka,'" and in the Rdmdyaiyann ~ ~ ~ and d h 

Lat~ka''~ In the Rcimd..aw we are told of stones hurled by yanm-r which 

are also used for raining mows on the 

But yantra-s were not 

usually used in the open battle. Though bow and arrow are included under 

mukta variety by Nitiprakdiikcl, ARM includes it under yantra mukta 

variety; because ARM has divided the mukta group into two as kz?.ramukta 

and yantramuMa. 'j7 

IV .WEAPONS OF' DEFENCE : 

Armour and Shield : The 'corselet' or 'breast plate' possibly 

made of metal are referred to in the Athawaveda and the later 

1iterat~re.I~~ Kavaca is the commonest name for amour, a defmive 

The questions related with the kind of armour and the mode of

wearing them are indeed of lively interest md have a direct bearing on the 

arms used. Though no defensive amour has been discovered fiom the Indus 

Valley, it can be known fim the Rgveda that the equipment of the soldier 

consisted of a mat of mail, helmet and even an arm-guard. 

160 

The varlitha 

also finds mention in the Rgveda but it does not seem to have been much 

used by the warriors in those days.161 The Atharvoveda uses the term 

kavaca in the sense of corselet or breast-plate. 162 in the 4th cent. BC. we fmd 

that coats-of-mail were used by Indian kings in their wars against Alexander, 

for king Pas, according to the Greek writers, used metal arm0~r.l~~ The 

Mahabharata also makes ee-equent references to them.16%at 

several 

varieties of armours were made of horns, skins and also of iron is evident fiom 

the Arthaidstra. The animals whose horn were used for this puvose were 

tortoise, rhinoceros, bison, elephant and cow. Kaufilya refers to different 

kinds of body-amour and hc also furnishes us details about the construction of 

shields in his days. Kavaca according to him was an iron armour and he says 

that vurman is! a kind of prokctive clulhhlg made of skin-hides of elephanb, 

cattle etc. 

The four itnportant varieties of amour, all of iron according to 

the commentator of the Arthaiustra, were in the first place a coat of mail to 

cover the body from the head to foot including the two hands, secondly a coat 

of mail of two separate plates, covering the head, hump and arms 

respectively, and thirdly a kind 

of armour to be worn as a loin cloth. 

Other varieties of armour used merely for protecting the body were Sirastra~ 

or protection for the head, kanfhatrt2~ or protection for the neck, kul5cuku or 

the jacket up to the knee level, vrirabav or a jacket extending up to the 

166

heels nnd lastly carmo (made of leather, perhaps to protect the palms). 

armour, IanrtPu~ 

ARM mentions some varieties of arrnour such as a kavaca - an 

- a mail to protect the body, ura.kichada - a breast plate, 

juliku - a chain armour , karicuka, varabiiw etc. 167 It also offers 

information on the shields like phaluka-shield of wood, cama of leather 

etc. A well atmoured and well shielded warrior is denoted as varmita or 

kavacita. 168 It would be interesting to close this section with a remark that 

with the progress in metal culture and advance in civilization, effective 

methods of warfare were also developed. We find in the Rt2rndya~, that the 

monkey tribes used the .trees and stones as implements. Even in the 

Mahdhurata, Bhima is described who often resorts to trees and rocks as 

his favourite weapons. The civilized man just emanating from the life of a 

hunter used bows and arrows in war. Then bronze came into large use for 

169 

malung implements of war, replacing stone. 

As the iron was introduced in making weapons of warfare, it 

replaced all stone, wooden and bronze made implements. Javelins and mows 

made of bamboo and sago palm have been superseded by iron swords and 

spears. Arms and armours were made of iron; but as the techniques of warfwe 

developed so did the weapons become old fashioned and new ones replaced 

satisrjling the need. 

V. FLAGS : 

The two terms dhvajini and pat&ni 

denoting an army (that 

one possessing a flag) mentibned by the ARM'" 

reveal the truth about the

close association of an army with flag. The origin and the use of flags can be 

traced back to the earliest Indian literature, the Rgveda sohhztri The term 

dhvuju occurs twice in this veda.I7' 

number of expressions for a banner or flag in 

Besides dhvaja, we meet with a good 

vedic literature as 

~kru,] 72 ~~adhvuju,~~~ ~etu,'" ~t~lotketu 175 and ~ahasraketti. 176 

These banners were not only used for military purpose but also as decoration 

on festive occasions. We are concerned here with the military use of flag. 

The flag was at once a symbol and emblem. It was not peculiar to 

he Indian nation. Every ancient nation, e.g., the Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek 

and Roman had their standards in different colours and devices. Every 

modern nation possesses its flag. 

Turning to ancient India, there were a number of flags and the 

number depended upon the number of heroes and leaders in war. Every 

leader had his insignia to distinguish one division fi-om the other. Probably 

this was used to avoid conhsion in the ranks during the march of an army and 

in action in the war field."' 

In the battle ofkfohdbhdrata, one could see a 

number of flags. The expression standing for flags and banners in the epics 

were dhvoja, kehr ar~d~ut&ci.~~* There are numerous references to cutting 

down or pulling down the enemies' flag during war.17' This shows that even 

in the epic period pulling down the flags in the battle field amounted to 

defeating the foe. 

It is not possible to say whether dhvaja and pat&& connoted 

the same meaning of flag or they stood for different varieties of standard. 

The fact that Kaurilya uses the two terms together, raises the doubt that both

are different. Pattika-s were possibly festoons which were a feature and 

adornment of a1 my. The pafiikn-s were such an essential feature of the 

army in later times that the anny came to be designated as par&# t by writers 

like Glidiisa. 18* 

The dhvaja was evidently a flag attached to a pole on the war 

chariot. It was of so much value that the army became designated as dhvujinl. 

The use of flags and bmers was not a peculiar feature of the North India. 

The early T'unil Kings of South India had their standards. Among them the 

flag with the emblem of fish of P%qu$ya, bow of Cera and tiger of Cola are 

very familiar. 

The ARM mentions Eve words like pat&&, kefu etc. to denote a 

flag or banner. It also informs that the flags had some decorative ornaments 

on the top of it namely ucctiZa and avactilu. The references available in 

connection to w,.trfme are authentic and genuine; but at the same time these 

isolated references to the weapon9 do not give us any clue regwding war in 

ancient days. It can not be ascmtaincd that these weapons were used in war 

during the period of HalZiyuyudha, but surely we can say that people of his time 

are familiar with these weapons.

RV, 1.184.3; Vaj. Sam., 30.7. 

NOTES 

For the influence of Geography on the India] wars, see H.C. Ray - 

Notes on War in Ancient India, Journal of the Department ofthe 

Letters, 1927. 

Agnipur., 228.6; ~masu., 19.23.25; ~uhmitisiira, IV.7; ed. Oppert. 

Hall,H.R., The Ancient History of the Near East, pp. 18 1,213,466. 

Dikshitar, Hindu Administrative Institution, 157. 

AV, VIII.8.23. 

Chakravarthy, P.C., Art of War in Ancient India, Dacca 

University, 1942. p.23; Dikshitar, War in Ancient India, Madras, 

1944, pp 62-3. 

ARM, 2-294. 

Manu, X. 1 1. 

Arth. gas., Trivadrum Sanskrit Series. 11.33. 

ARM, 2.290-91. 

Mbh., Udyogtb 155.15-24; Kumbl~ukor~~un edn. 

ARM, 2.292-94. 

Ibid, 5-66; The axle made of arapt wood is mentioned in 

RV.VIII.46-27 

The word pavi denotes the rim of the wheel. RV. 1.180.1. 

ARM, 2.293-94. 

ARM, pp. 165 -6; Dikshitar, Hindu Administrative Institution. 

RV, X. 106-6. 

Cambridge History of India, I. 137. 

Ibid,47 Chakravarthy.P. C., op. cit. 

JAOS, 13-265.

A&. Sas., Bk.II.3 1. 

ARM, 2.70. 

Agni pur., 246-23-4; Gma. 20.1-3. 

ARM, 2-60. 

RV, 2.22.6-8; IV. 46.13-14. etc. 

Ibid, 1.3.1. 

AV, IV.2.4. 

Cambridge History of India, 1-137. 

JAOS,13.265. 

Arth. $as, Bk.II.30. 

ARM, 2.282, 

Ibid, 2,283, 

Ibid. 

Ibid, 2,284. 

Dikahitar, War in Ancient India, pp. 179-80, 

Singh, S.D., Ancient Indian War, p.7. 

AV, VII. 1 1 8. 

Arth. ~3s.. Bk.X.5. 

senu paddti bahulci htr* jayczfi - Agni pur., 228.7. 

ARM, 2.295. 

Ibid,, 2.302. 

See Amara, 11.536-37.

Mbh,, Udy oga, 155,22-24. 

Ibid, 155.27, 

Ibid, 155.28-29 

111 Illis coll~lcct.ion, sco 

Mililaty Ot-galli~atioli of' tllc Mtlrwlllas. 

NitiprakSikii of VaiSarnpiiyana, 11.1 1-1 3, ed. Chmdrasekhar. T, 

Madras Govt, Oriental Series-24, Madras, 1953. 

ARM, 2.307, 

Sir John Marshall, Mahcxljoclaro and llic Indus Valley Civilization, 

2.392-93q 

Vedic Index ( V.1, ), MacDonnel and Keith, 1.3 88. 

RV, VII1.72.4; Vaj. Sam.,30.7. 

RV, VI11,72,4; AV, IV.4.6. 

RV, 

VI.75.11. 

JAOS, 13.269 ff, 

Niti., II,17 and IV.8-9. 

Agni., 245.5.6 and 7-10; AnandaSrama Series. 

Raghu., 11.15; 12.103; SP~. , IL4 and 6. 

ARM, 2,309. 

~ukra, IV, 6-10. 

ARM, 2,307, 

asyate ksipyate yat; praharu yogya m dravyamu~ram - H&yudha 

koia, ed. Jayashankar Joshi, p. 1 44

67. Dikshitar, V.R.R., op.cit., p.99. 

sat, Bra., 1.2.4. 

'N#rka was a b6pz made of metal. The term bdq in the time of ' 

Bhoja meant an arrow, Here the shaft was light but stiff with a 

sharp point. VaS&@a speaks of nuruca made of iron five sided and 

five feathered. It is said that very few succeeded in shooting with 

ndrka '- Indian Historical Quaterly, vii.p.707. 

ARM, 2.311. 

Ibid, 2.313. 

Ibid, 2.3 14. 

Marshall, op.cit., vol. 1. 

The Aryans, Childe, V.C, History of Civilization Series, p. 85.1. 

Chakravarthy, P.C, op.cit., p. 178. 

Rgvedic Culture, Das, A. C., p.334 

Majumdar, B.K., Military System irr Ancient India, Calcutta, 1955, 

p.53. 

Chakravarthy, P.C., op.cit. p. 15. 

JAOS, 13.287-8. 

Chilkravarthy, P. C. op. cit., p. 166. 

Dikshitar, p. 106. 

ARM, 2.321. 

Niti., IV.3~5~37. 


ARM, 2.320. 

Niti,, N. 42,43.

Dikshitar, p. 10 8. 

ARM, 4.41. 

ARM, 2.321. 

Niti., IV. 45,46; Agni pur., Ch.252.VV.5-8 

ARM, 2.442. 

See AuSunasa Dhanurvedu, cluoted in the L,crk,r.uyprakuiu, p.309. 

Niti., IV.47-48. 

Majumdar, R.K., op. cit. p. 53. 

ARM, 2. 321; 1.26. 

RC., P.51. 

Ibid. 

ARM, 1.56. 

Oppert, G., On the weapons ctc. of the I-Iindus. 

ARM, 2. 311. 

See Auianasa Dhanurveda quoted by Laksa%prak&a, p. 3 10-11. 

Marshall, 1.35 ff, 2. 433. 

RC, p. 335. 

Chakravarthy , P.C., op,ciL, 171 fZI. 1. 

JAOS, 13.291. 

ARM, 2.319. 

Dikshita.ry p. 1 1. 

ARM,. 2. 422. 


ARM, 2.422. 


ARM, 2.320. 


ARM, 2.320.

11 7. Dikd-dar, p. 1 13. 

118. ARM, 1.14. 

quoted by L*qa prakaSa, p. 135. 

Chiide, V.C., op. cit., p. 85. 

Marshall., 1.36. 

JAOS. 13.281. 

ARM, 2.321. 

Dikshitu, pp. 1 13-1 14. 

Niti., V. 35, 36. 

A&. Gs., 11.3.34. 

JAOS. 231. 

128. Amara, p. 537, verse. 91, ed. Kiui~a~~athai, A. A 

129. ARM, 2. 320. 

130. Ibid,2.420 

131. Xbid, 1.28. 

132. Ibid, 2.321. 

133. Dikshitar, p. 1 I 5. 

134. ARM, 2.320. 

35. Marshall, 2. 35. 

136. Hopkins, Epic Mythology; p. 176. 

137. JAOS. 13.284. 

138. Agni pur., 245.22-27; The LakpyprakL.SSa gives two works, 

Lohhr~vand KadgakoSa, p. 295-97. 

139. Ibid, 251.7,8 and 252. 

140. Dikshitar, p. 116-1 18. 

141, A]RM,2.317. 

142. Niti., W. 30-3 1. 

143. Agnipur.,252.V.15.

144. ARM, 2.321. 

145. Halayudha KoSa, p. 54fi1. 

146. ARM. 2.321. 

147. See AuSanu.su Dhanurledrx, (1. in l,rll~'.y~!rtr prei~kti.,%l, 1V.51-52, 

148. ARM..2.321. 

149. Niti., 11.22-35. 

150, ARM, 2.308. 

151. Mbh., 1.1 19.33; crit. ed. by Sulcthankax and others. 

152. Ibid, 3.16.5. 

153. Rgma., BaIa., 5.10.113; ~rirnad Viilrniki F3mjya~a with the corn. 

RSmabhinandini, Pandit Yust;:tk.Slaya, Kasi, 1951. 

1 . Ibid, Yuddha, 3.12 ft 

155. Ibid, 3.12. 

156. ARM,2.307. 

157. AV, XI.12.22. 

158. Date, G.I., Art of War in Ancient India, p. 23. 

1 . 

liV, 1.25.13. 

160. Rgvedic Culture, Das, A. C., P.336. 

161. Ibid, p. 178; Chakravarthy, P.C. op.cit. 

162. %id 

163. Ibid. 

164. Ibid.. 

166. ARM, 2.304. 

167. Ibid. 2,305. 

168. Wells, H,G., The Outline of History, pp. 109-110. 

169. ARM, 2,302.

RV, VII. 85.2; X, 103.11; Vedic Index, I, p. 406. 

RV, I. 143.7, 

Ibid, VII.8.3.2. 

Ibid, I. 27.12. 

Ibid, V,8.2. 

lbid, 1.119.. 

Hopkins, E.W, JAOS. 13. py. 243s. 

Mbh.,I.63,17; =ma., 11.76.26. 

Mbh., Drona, ch.3 1.23. 

Raghu., IV.82.

RETROSPECT 

* In the previous pages we have carried out a cultural study of 

ARM. An attempt is made there to reconstruct the lire style of people in ancient 

and lnedieval India. It could he renlizcd that the facts recorded by Hallyudhil 

receive corroboration fiom the fuldings of modern historians. He 1% 

recorded 

the facts about the culture and life style of his period as well as of past. 

Hereby, we may revise some ofthe highligl~ts in course of our study. 

* Monarchy was there. Fro111 the references of Halayudha, we 

come to realize that Qatriya-s occupied a predominant position next to 

BrAhmqa-s. We also get enough descriptions of various types of royal palaces, 

various grades of royaI servants and their duties, the privileges and luxury 

given to the royal personaIities. The ksatriya-s received help fiom able 

minis$ers and advisers hi the matter of adtnhiistration. They it1 due course of 

time renounce the world to attain wisdom by the help oftheir ktilugurtn. 

* Wc know that Brdhn~auz~i-s reccived much respect and fiivour 

from kings. The superior designations like ministers, priests, teachers and 

astrologers were usually held by them. Ilinduism and Vedic practices did not 

lose their dominance though there were m ~ religions y practised. 

x 

As the professions were identified with castes, they had become 

hereditary. Thus a son of king became a king, a carpenter's son a carpenter. 

This fact has been confinned by modern l~islorians too. 

* The state was divided into nugara-s and z~panagara-s for 

effective 

administration. The ;tdniinistratol. of tile uIJanagara is a

man&lei%ura. Village was the smallest unit of the state, and the chief of a 

village is called grumant; 

* 

The city was well guarded with gopura, ramparts and moats to 

ensure safety. It can be realized that the cities were ideal in concern to townplanning 

and architecture. It is also stated that the cities were well connected 

with good roads for travel. 

* Trade and commerce flourished well and the economy of the 

state was well balanced. The barter systenl was prevailing then. Trade 

relationship with foreign was also maintained as it can be known fiom the 

horses imported ftom Arab countries besides many items were exported. This 

information has also been proved by the findings of the historians. 

* From the description of ARM it can be known about the standard 

of living of thc different section of thc society. Most afthe people had enough 

to meet their daily needs. Rich people had an extravagant and luxurious life. 

* ARh4 sheds much light an the educational system. The vedic 

studies were carried out through guruhla system. Besides there were wellequipped 

institutions to learn the art of warfare like archery. We also know 

about the unique relationship between teacher and his pupils. It seem that 

students stayed and studied in the teacher's house only. 

* The family was the starting point of the social organization. 

Halayudha offers handful of infom~ation about the family system. The position 

of women was slightly inferior to men whereas her role as one devoted to her 

husband was prominently ernphasised.

* 

Different religions wcrc lrractiscd and all ere rcspeclcd. 

J( 

The carte system seemed to have a h foot. Among the four 

casqes, the 8ruhrnayz-s enjoyed a special status. besides the four primary 

castes, the Cap4uls-s were treated as belonging to as fifrh caste. We also 

know about many tribes as bhilla, nisfda, rndta~ga, kiruta, putinda, etc. 

* We also hear about tlumerous types of food items and many types 

of intoxicating beverages. The culinary art was well developed as a science. 

* It is also noted that the people were acquainted with many 

diseases and they were also .well versed with the method to cure it. 

* The different types of clothes and the various modes of wearing 

them reveals us the matured taste of Indians. 

* Sitnilarly number of ornaments, various types of hair dressing 

and innumerable cosmetic items they used, suggest us the refined taste of the 

ancient Indian society. 

* ARM also gives much interesting details about arts and 

architecture during its time. It can be detected that the ancient Indians were 

experts in the science of architecture. 

x 

They also had a good knowledge of numerous weapons and the 

art of warfare. 

* In short it cm be observed from the recordings of Halayudha that 

people were leading a satisfactory, moral. traditional and economically well 

balanced life.

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Bhadrabshu Sv2mi 

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