Issue 31 Spring 2012 - Bases

The
Sport and
Exercise Scientist
The official publication of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences
Issue 31, Spring 2012
Plus
BASES expert statements on:
• Measurement of Muscle Strength
with Isokinetic Dynamometry
• Genetic Research and Testing in
Sport and Exercise Science
• The Importance of Young People’s
Aerobic Fitness for Health
ISSN 1754-3452
The management of chronic
knee pain in the elite athlete:
A case study
BASES Annual Conference 2012 / ICSEMIS • Scottish Exhibition & Conference Centre, Glasgow • 19-24 July
www.bases.org.uk/BASES-Annual-Conference

International Convention on Science,
Education & Medicine in Sport
Scottish Exhibition & Conference Centre, Glasgow, UK
19 - 24 July 2012
3,000 academics and professionals in sport, physical education, exercise, physical
activity and sports medicine brought together under one roof - all when the
world’s eyes are on the UK ahead of the London 2012 Olympic Games
Register your place now
www.icsemis2012.com
“Sport . . . Inspiring a learning legacy”
ICSEMIS 2012 is officially organised and owned by the following organisations:

Contents
On the Cover
6 The interdisciplinary approach to the
management of chronic knee pain in the
elite athlete – a case study
Ashleigh Wallace, Dr Anita Biswas and Ben
Rosenblatt
12 BASES expert statement Measurement of
Muscle Strength with Isokinetic Dynamometry
Prof Bill Baltzopoulos, Dr Mark King, Prof Nigel
Gleeson and Dr Mark De Ste Croix
14 BASES expert statement Genetic Research
and Testing in Sport and Exercise Science
Dr Alun Williams, Prof Andy Miah, Prof Roger
Harris, Prof Hugh Montgomery and Dr Henning
Wackerhage
16 BASES expert statement The Importance
of Young People’s Aerobic Fitness for Health
Dr Keith Tolfrey FBASES, Dr Mark De Ste Croix,
Prof Gareth Stratton FBASES and Assoc Prof Craig
Williams FBASES
In Every Issue
4 News
5 From the Chair
Prof Jo Doust FBASES
20 Books
30 Diary dates
31 Final word
Prof Ian Campbell
“The effectiveness
of interaction
between the
professionals
involved in
an athlete’s
rehabilitation can
make the difference
between optimal
and delayed
recovery.”
Ashleigh Wallace,
Dr Anita Biswas and
Ben Rosenblatt, p7
Also Inside
8 The Whyte answer! The wait is almost over:
Delivering the toughest targets remain!
Prof Greg Whyte FBASES
10 Exercise and atrial fibrillation
Dr Gary Brickley
18 Research and practice in sport –
inseparable bedfellows? BASES experts
provide their views and experiences of how
research and practice may be integrated
22 Creating a legacy for physical activity and
health from the London 2012 Games
Why this Olympic promise might be more of
an Olympic dream
Profs Ken Fox FBASES, Stuart Biddle FBASES and
Marie Murphy FBASES
24 Supporting the Paralympic athlete
Evaluating the importance of specialist knowledge
Nik Diaper
25 Nanette’s notes Comment on NICE’s new
online tool
Prof Nanette Mutrie FBASES
26 The Science Council
The benefits of membership and some cautions
Prof Edward Winter FBASES
28 High-risk sport research
The advances, practical implications and future
directions
Dominika Kupciw and Alexandra MacGregor
30 Point to ponder Comment on P values:
Have they a future?
Prof Edward Winter FBASES
The Sport and Exercise Scientist
The Sport and Exercise Scientist is published quarterly for
the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences. The
publication is free to BASES members. BASES is a nonprofit
professional membership organisation “promoting excellence
in sport and exercise sciences.” It is a Company Limited by
Guarantee Registered in Cardiff No. 5385834.
Editor
Dr Claire Hitchings n chitchings@bases.org.uk
Editorial Advisory Board
Dr Melissa Day n Len Parker Simpson n Samantha Parnell
Claire-Marie Roberts n Dr Emma Ross n Dr Garry Tew
Dr Ken van Someren FBASES
Editorial Assistants
Jane Bairstow n Marsha Stankler
Want to place an advertisement?
Visit www.bases.org.uk/SES-Advertisers contact Jane Bairstow
0113 8126162 n jbairstow@bases.org.uk
What do you think of The Sport and Exercise Scientist?
We’re keen to know what you want more of, what’s missing
and what we should drop. We’re also keen to hear from
potential contributors. Contact the editor, Dr Claire Hitchings n
chitchings@bases.org.uk
Want to submit a letter to the editor?
Letters, which may be edited or shortened, should be no longer
than 300 words, must refer to an article that has appeared in the
last issue, and must include the writer’s name.
Publisher
Mercer Print, Newark Street, Accrington BB5 0PB
Tel: 01254395512 n info@mercer-print.co.uk
www.mercer-print.co.uk n Designed by Paul Jones
Front Cover Photography
Courtesy Caryl Becker
The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
Disclaimer
The statements and opinions contained in the articles are solely
those of the individual contributors and are not necessarily those
of BASES. The appearance of advertisements in the publication is
not a warranty, endorsement or approval of products or services.
BASES has undertaken all reasonable measures to ensure that
the information contained in The Sport and Exercise Scientist is
accurate and specifically disclaims any liability, loss or risk, personal
or otherwise, which is incurred as a consequence, directly or
indirectly of the use and application of any of the contents.
Copyright © BASES, 2012
All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in substantial part
without permission of BASES is strictly prohibited. Please apply
to the editor in writing. Authors may use their own material
elsewhere without permission. We ask that the following note be
included: “First published in The Sport and Exercise Scientist, date
and issue number. Published by the British Association of Sport
and Exercise Sciences – www.bases.org.uk”
BASES Board
Prof Jo Doust FBASES (Chair) n Prof Ian Campbell (Chair-Elect)
Gerald Chan n Nicola Grimshaw n Dr Stephen Ingham n Debbie
Pearce n Dr Keith Tolfrey FBASES n Prof Richard Tong FBASES
Want to contact BASES?
BASES, Leeds Metropolitan University, Fairfax Hall, Headingley
Campus, Beckett Park, Leeds, LS63QT n Tel/Fax: 01138126162/63
n enquiries@bases.org.uk n www.bases.org.uk
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Check out
previous issues
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joined BASES).
3

News
Letter
Whyte answer – well it
was more a grey answer!
I read with great interest Prof Whyte’s latest
piece in The Sport and Exercise Scientist. I agree
with the sentiments of many of his points and
wished he had taken an extra step to explain
how these issues could be resolved. I have been
an organiser of a BASES Annual Conference
and am helping Greg with the International
Convention on Science, Education and Medicine
in Sport (ICSEMIS) 2012 (the conference that
boasts the inclusion of the BASES Conference
2012) and as such, am cognisant of the
issues raised. With a view to organise better
conferences, and with an underlying point for us
in BASES is that our Annual Conference has a
number of competitors, let’s look at what can be
done to organise a decent conference.
Prof Whyte talked of location, line-up and leisure.
Underpinning the success of this is money,
money, money! Conference organisers need to
be confident in their figures to avoid making
a massive loss. A conference organiser with
university backing, as Greg points out, is likely to
be encouraged to use the re-branded canteen
for catering. This does not mean a range of gruel
will be served but it’s likely that the price of
chips will rise as universities look to maximise
profit margins. However, a good conference
dinner, good catering and good social activities
can take place in a university. The unique selling
point to an academic conference should not be
the quality of the catering but the quality of the
programme in terms of its CPD value.
Greg’s point on the quality of the presentation
is valid. I like it when I can’t make up my
mind for want of excellent choices. On that
issue, I would like to attend debates between
leading academics especially when presenters
disagree. Such debates should not be a love in
of conceding ground, but presenters standing
by their position batting the comments back.
Keynote speakers can get off scot free in
comparison to other presenters, often students,
who present orally. We have all seen an oral
presenter grilled by an experienced academic.
Debates between established academics offer
useful CPD; they should be memorable and
unique; and that is important.
In brief, a good conference does not have to be
a lavish one; but it needs to be memorable.
Prof Andy Lane FBASES
BASES Undergraduate Endorsement Scheme
The following courses have been endorsed by BASES:
• Sport and Exercise Science BSc (Hons) - Liverpool John Moores University
• Sports and Exercise Science BSc (Hons) - University of Essex
Endorsement for the following courses has been renewed:
• Sport and Exercise Science BSc (Hons) - Cardiff Metropolitan University
• Sport and Exercise Science BSc (Hons) - Coventry University
• Sport and Exercise Science BSc (Hons) - Edge Hill University
• Sports Studies BSc (Hons) - Newman University College
• Applied Sport and Exercise Science BSc (Hons) - Northumbria University
• Sport Science BSc (Single Hons) - St Mary’s University
• Sport Science BSc (Hons) - University of Central Lancashire
• Sport and Exercise Science BSc (Hons) Sport Performance - University of
Chichester
• Sport and Exercise Science BSc (Hons) Physical Activity for Health - University of
Chichester
• Sport Coaching Science BSc (Hons) - University of Chichester
• Sport Science BSc (Hons) - University of Portsmouth
BASES Laboratory Accreditation
and Re-Accreditation
The English Institute of Sport (North West) at Sportcity Manchester, University
College Dublin and Bisham Abbey (EIS South East) have been awarded BASES
Laboratory Accreditation. The laboratories at Cardiff Metropolitan University, Bangor
University and the University of Chichester have been BASES re-accredited
BASES High Performance Sport Accreditation
Catherine Gilby, British Swimming
BASES Certified Exercise Practitioner
Ross Hanbury, Virgin Active
Gary Peters, Bucks New University
Robert White, Leeds Metropolitan University
BASES Undergraduate
Dissertation of the Year
Award
Aislinn D’Silva, University of Portsmouth, is the winner
of the BASES Undergraduate Dissertation of the Year
Award and wins an expenses paid oral presentation at
the BASES Annual Student Conference. Her dissertation
was entitled “Defining Collective Motivation in sport”
and was supervised by Dr Neil Weston.
BASES AGM
The BASES AGM will be held on Saturday 21 July 2012 – 12.30-13.30 in the Leven
Room at the BASES/ICSEMIS Conference.
Sport and Exercise Nutrition Register
Information and details on how to register can be found at www.senr.org.uk
4 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

Russ Coppack MBE and Prof Celia
Brackenridge OBE FBASES honoured
Russ Coppack, a Royal Air Force Warrant Officer has worked at the Defence
Medical Rehabilitation Centre, Headley Court for 22-years has been honoured as a
Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) for his role in the rehabilitation
of injured military personnel. The award recognises his specific contribution to the
professional development of exercise rehabilitation practice and procedures across
the Armed Forces. Prof Celia Brackenridge FBASES, a pioneering campaigner and
researcher into gender
equality and child abuse in
sport, received an OBE in
the Queen’s New Year’s
Honour’s list. She is a
research professor and
a member of the Brunel
Centre for Sport, Health
and Wellbeing. The award is
for services to Equality and
Child Protection in Sport.
Have I got SES news for you…
In each issue we aim to highlight an aspect of sport
and exercise science that has caught the attention
of the media. In this issue we focus our attention on
a documentary that gives a real-life insight into the
world of elite sport.
In January, one documentary hit the news headlines,
providing a thought provoking and honest account about
the prevalence of depression in sport from former cricketer
Freddie Flintoff. The documentary, Freddie Flintoff: The dark side of sport aimed to
promote understanding about depression, the effects of depression in sport, and
the measures that can be taken to help those suffering from depression. Based on
his first-hand experiences Flintoff described his own battle with depression as well
as interviewing a range of professional athletes with similar experiences.
The impact of such a documentary may be far reaching, challenging public
opinion and provoking thoughts on applied practice. As Dr Joanne Thatcher from
Aberystywth University comments, “documentaries such as this illustrate the
complexities of mental health. Well known cases such as Freddie Flintoff highlight
that depression can occur despite having many aspects (such as fame, fortune and
sporting talent) that people may typically associate with happiness. It shows us that
the causes of mental illness are not always external and easily identifiable.”
Arguably, one of the most significant questions raised by Flintoff was the extent
to which the nature of sport and the sporting environment may have contributed
to the symptoms of depression in the athletes who were featured. This question
may highlight some key issues for the applied sport scientist. Dr Tim Holder,
University of Chichester, suggests: “The challenge for the applied sport psychology
practitioner often centres on establishing whether their competencies match
the demands of the mental health of the athlete. This may cause the practitioner
to question who is best to provide the service to the athlete and whether a
collaborative provision with clinical practitioners can adequately support the
athlete or whether referral is the best and only option.”
Have you recently seen or taken part in something that has hit the media
headlines? If so, and you would like to feature in this section or provide comments
please e-mail Dr Melissa Day m.day@chi.ac.uk
The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
From the Chair
Prof Jo Doust FBASES
Music to my ears
Congratulations to Karageorghis, Terry, Lane,
Bishop and Priest who lead the charts with
1,469 unique page views in three months of
their expert statement on The Use of Music in
Exercise. I am really pleased to see the success
of the BASES expert statement initiative. Seven
statements have been completed with more on
the way. We have reached agreement with the
Journal of Sports Sciences, subject to their peer
review, for them to also publish the statements,
opening up the readership to scientists around
the world.
A member poll revealed 95% think BASES
should continue to produce statements.
Members commented “Excellent to see
high-level academic input from experts being
organised and translated into evidence-based
practice statements. Exactly what BASES
should be doing.”, “Have waited for years
for the UK to do this kind of work and look
forward to more in the future.”, “Very useful
for teaching purposes and for gaining insight
into new areas of research.”
A handful of members expressed concern
about the selection of the expert teams, the
length (too short) and the quality control. The
opportunity to put forward a team to produce
a statement was openly advertised and
proposals subject to review by a panel. Not all
were supported. Each statement is reviewed by
BASES Fellows and the authors have to make
revisions.
As for length, some pragmatism is
needed. No academic sports body in the UK
has developed a portfolio of publications
designed to organise in an accessible way the
authoritative expertise for its members and a
wider audience. BASES is leading the way. Of
course, members also relate their expertise
through original papers and academic review
articles but these are for different purposes
and audiences to those of an expert statement.
Within BASES there is an immense body
of expertise and the first set of statements
feature many leading UK academics. We hope
members will again come forward when
we are able to promote a second round of
statements. All BASES expert statements can
be downloaded as PDFs at www.bases.org.uk/
BASES-Expert-Statements
5

Case study
The interdisciplinary approach to the
management of chronic knee pain in the
elite athlete – a case study
Experts from the Intensive Rehabilitation Unit (IRU) based at Bisham Abbey National Sports Centre provide
an insight into the interdisciplinary approach taken to providing optimal injury rehabilitation to elite athletes.
Introduction
The performance of an athlete is supported by input from a
large number of professionals from a wide range of disciplines,
and the recovery of an athlete from injury is no different. The
effectiveness of interaction between the professionals involved in
an athlete’s rehabilitation can make the difference between optimal
and delayed recovery. A truly interdisciplinary approach has been
shown to optimise medical rehabilitation when compared to that
of a multidisciplinary team (Korner, 2010). By identifying objective
markers, the effectiveness of the team in improving function and
effecting change in the injured site can be monitored.
History
This case study involves a 21 year old male, elite-level weightlifter
with severe left anterior knee pain, which came on whilst squatting
an empty bar following a period of rest for another injury. A
diagnostic ultrasound scan showed collagen degeneration and he
underwent plasma rich platelet (PRP) injections at the left patella
tendon insertion and proximal patella. His pain improved, as did
the appearance of the tendon on ultrasound, and he commenced
an eccentric squat programme for six minutes each day, which was
governed by a visual analogue scale (VAS) with a pain score of 4-5
out of 10 during exercise.
His pain returned and he underwent a steroid injection to
the tibial tuberosity three weeks before his admission to the IRU.
Once again there was improvement in his pain but he continued to
complain of anterior knee pain, which was aggravated by training
and on stairs. The weightlifting support team subsequently referred
this athlete to the IRU for a one-week block of investigation and
intensive treatment as part of his overall rehabilitation strategy.
Clinical examination
On assessment the athlete presented with reduced muscle tone
and definition around his left knee compared to the right, as well
as reduced strength on manual muscle testing. He had full range of
movement of his knee with no pain or tenderness but significant
laxity of the medial collateral and anterior cruciate ligaments, with
excessive tibial rotation bilaterally, worse on the left. Around the
pelvis he had poor gluteal function on the left with poor control of
his sacroiliac joint; radiculopathy signs at L2-L4; paraspinal muscle
tenderness and stiffness of his thoracic spine. Of relevance was a
history of three previous bone stress injuries in the right tibia (see
Table 1).
Management
The management of this athlete necessitated an interdisciplinary
approach that involved integration of medical, physiotherapy,
psychology, nutrition, strength and conditioning and physiology
support. The physiotherapy approach involved the integration of
two theoretical models. The application of this intervention was
based on objective and repeatable clinical markers.
The neuropathic pain and dysfunction model (Gunn, 2002)
This model looks at disturbed function and super sensitivity in
the peripheral nervous system, which is often apparent in chronic
conditions such as this (Loeser, 2001). His key clinical markers
of prone hip extension off the end of a plinth showed very poor
inner range gluteal strength with excessive trunk rotation at
L2/3 lumbar levels. This test reproduced his knee pain. Using this
marker, treatment focused on the lumbar spine using intensive
intramuscular stimulation to impact on the referred pain. Dry
needling, a form of acupuncture was also performed on the
quadratus lumborum, iliocostalis and quadriceps muscles. Following
this treatment the hip extension test improved and his knee pain
decreased.
The load transfer model
The next element of clinical intervention involved addressing
the athlete’s load transfer dysfunction. The fundamentals of his
kinetic chain were examined and objective markers obtained.
Scientific measures are essential in underpinning clinical decisions.
Table 1 shows those of relevance in this case. All of these factors
contributed to a decreased ability to transfer load effectively, placing
the left knee under greater load and leading to pathological changes.
A programme was put in place to address these dysfunctions (see
Table 2) and was performed daily as part of preparation before
strength training.
Table 1. Relevant clinical findings
Anterior Posterior proprioceptive deficit on sway test
External rotation left hip restricted greater than 50%
Extension in standing shear at L2/3
Stiff lumbar flexion and thoracic stiffness
Side holds showed a 47% discrepancy – left greater than right
Table 2. Rehabilitation programme
Hip and trunk programme
Prone bench gluteal extension (3 x 10 reps)
Bird dog with theraband alternate arm /leg extensions (3 x 10 reps)
Static theraband side step outs (3 x 12 reps)
Wide arm pushups (3 x 10 reps)
Standing theraband leg pulses (3 x 12 reps)
Gluteal and oblique force couple in side lying (3 x 8 reps)
Knee stability drill
Single leg anterior – posterior direction proprioception drills (3 x 60 sec)
Reverse lunge (3 x 8 reps)
Assisted squat (3 x 10 reps)
Load transfer capacity was greatly assisted by targeted manual
mobilisation and self mobilisation to the thoracic spine. Pre- and
post-exercise dynamic thoracic extension and rotation exercises
were completed. Soft tissue massage, especially deep facial release
to the spiral line and superficial back line was performed by the soft
tissue therapist. Specific points to mid thoracic area/tensor fascia
lata and abdominal aponeuroses made a significant impact in trunk
control strategies.
6 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

Additional input
Psychological input addressed the following aspects:
1. Re-evaluation of the impact of the pain stimulus on the athlete
2. Enhancement of healing using neurobiological facilitation
3. Re-establishing trust and confidence in using the knee
Nutritional support included the following:
1. Nutritional aids for tendon healing and muscle hypertrophy
2. Factors influencing immunity including probiotics, zinc and
vitamin C
3. Given his history of stress fracture, the athlete’s vitamin D status
was assessed.
Strength diagnostics
The force closure capacity of the athlete’s knee joint was assessed
by recording isokinetic eccentric and concentric peak torque
at 60°/s, 180°/s and 300°/s. The results indicated that there was
appropriate neuromuscular function of the hamstrings, but a 20%
discrepancy in peak torque production of the knee extensors
at 60°/s velocities. To determine the functional relevance of the
strength discrepancies, a single leg countermovement jump was
undertaken. There was a 21% difference in jump height, 16%
difference in peak force production and 27% difference in reactive
strength index (jump height divided by push time). It was observed
that the athlete could not control the rotation of his pelvis on
his left leg as well as he could on the right, which exposed his
patella tendon to greater shearing forces. The difference in jump
performance and stiffening characteristics of the knee is likely
to have been related to the difference in peak force production
of the knee extensors. In addition, the knee extensor muscles of
the injured knee had less capacity for force absorption thereby
exposing the patellar tendon on that side to more stress.
Observations
• The left patella tendon may have been under greater strain than
the right during bilateral loading tasks (e.g., squatting) as there
were different force production capacities between legs
• The athlete may have been exposing the patella tendon to
greater shearing forces on the left leg due to the lack of hip
stability when producing high forces
• The athlete required greater hamstring strength on both legs to
improve capacity for force closure in both knees.
Training solutions
• Introduction of a high load single leg strength programme using
exercises that require rotation control of the hip and heavy
loading of the quadriceps (e.g., Bulgarian Split Squat)
• Introduce bilateral high force hamstring training (e.g., full range
concentric & eccentric Nordic Curl)
• Introduce exercises to improve the ability to control pelvic
rotation by improving oblique strength (e.g., lateral rollouts,
barbell side bends and split Pallof presses).
Above: Providing optimal injury rehabilitation
Courtesy Caryl Becker
Stress and recovery
The Rest-Q questionnaire (Kellmann & Kallus, 2001) was
administered at the start and the end of the week and
demonstrated an increase in perception of recovery whilst
perceptions of stress reduced slightly. This showed that the athlete
was in a better psychological state to continue his rehabilitation
effectively.
Summary
The athlete completed a comprehensive week at the IRU and
was discharged back to the care of his own support team with
suggestions for both clinical and training strategies to continue to
progress his rehabilitation. He made a full recovery.
This case study highlights how long-term injury at a local site can
be caused by long-term strains in other parts of the body (Myers,
2009). An injury may manifest locally because of a remote inherent
weakness, or a seemingly unrelated previous injury, and not solely
due to local strain. Identifying these pathways with an integrated,
clinically-led and scientifically-based strategy allows effective release
of chronic strain and restoration of systemic function.
The IRU is a collaboration between the British Olympic Association (BOA) and the English
Institute of Sport (EIS) and provides residential, intensive rehabilitation to Britain’s top athletes.
words: Ashleigh Wallace
A former South African hockey international, Ash has worked for over 15 years with a
variety of elite sports, including GB rowing & GB/England hockey and has attended both
Olympic and Commonwealth Games. Ash combines her role at the IRU with being an EIS
Lead Physiotherapist.
Dr Anita Biswas
Anita is a specialist in sports and exercise medicine and has worked with the EIS for
several years. Anita was formally the Chief Medical Officer for the GB Paralympics team
and has attended three Paralympic Games and a Commonwealth Games, as well as a
number of World and other major championships with a variety of sports.
Ben Rosenblatt
Ben is a Senior Rehabilitation Scientist at the IRU with a background in strength and
conditioning. He is currently undertaking a PhD in biomechanics and strength and
conditioning. He has several years of coaching and sport science experience including
work in the USA, professional football, rugby and Olympic sports.
References
Gunn, C.C. (2002). The Gunn approach to the treatment of chronic pain:
intramuscular stimulation for myofascial pain of radiculopathic origin. Edinburgh:
Elsevier Science.
Kellmann, M. & Kallus, K.W. (2001). Recovery-stress questionnaire for athletes:
user manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Korner, M. (2010). Interprofessional teamwork in medical rehabilitation: a comparison
of multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary team approach. Clinical Rehabilitaion, 745-755.
Loeser, J.D. (2001). Bonica’s management of pain (3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Myers, T.W. (2009). Anatomy Trains (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.
The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
7

Right: The British Olympic Association
bylaw, which enforces a lifetime Olympic
ban on drugs cheats such as Dwain
Chambers, will soon face legal scrutiny
by the Court of Arbitration for Sport
The Whyte answer!
The wait is almost over: Delivering
the toughest targets remain!
The 6th July, 2005 and the historic words flowed from the President
of the IOC, Jacques Rogge’s, lips; “…… the Games of the 30th
Olympiad are awarded to the city of…….. London.” That date has
become a ‘JFK moment’ as we all remember where we were when
the announcement was made. History was made that day as London
will become the only city, to date, to host the Olympic Games on
three occasions.
Since that historic day the UK has been watching on as the
plans of LOCOG (London Organising Committee of the Olympic
Games) and the ODA (Olympic Delivery Authority) unfold
under the closest of media scrutiny ready to pounce on any
semblance of underachievement. Much to the disappointment of
the press however; there has been little to criticise regarding the
infrastructure; the ODA have delivered on time and to a level of
Olympic excellence, despite being in the midst of a global recession
(ironically the 1948 Games was dubbed the ‘Austerity Games’).
Despite sporadic media condemnation of the ticketing process
LOCOG appear to have been equally successful however; their job
has only just begun! With such apparently strong foundations the
stage is set for the greatest show on earth. To cement the London
2012 Olympic Games in UK history, two key deliverables remain:
(1) Performance; and (2) Legacy.
Performance appears to be ‘on-target’ according to those in
the know: the funding agency (UK Sport) and the team leaders
(BOA). The prediction of fourth place on the medal table (the
same as Beijing, 2008) is the projected aim for Team GB and given
the continued success of British athletes in major championships
around the globe it would appear that this is a realistic target.
Whilst you would be forgiven for believing that only the male half
of Team GB will be mounting the podium following the 2011 BBC
Sports Personality of the Year Awards; there are likely to be a
wealth of British female athletes mouthing the national anthem as
the Union Jack is unfurled.
Team GB will be better prepared than ever before with much
of that preparation due to the unprecedented funding for elite
sport; £660 million since 2006. Fortunately, the cost of hosting the
Olympic Games will be forgiven as the debacle of Wembley Stadium
eclipses the cost of any future sporting infrastructure project in
the UK (the sliding roof doesn’t work despite £798 million!); and
as long as Team GB perform at, or close to its projected target
the investment will be regarded as a success. I for one am looking
forward to the greatest show on earth coming to the UK, and
whilst I will be watching much of it from the comfort of my sofa
– tickets are rarer than a Research Council grant to a non-Russell
Group University! – I am certain that the BBC, the ruler of sports
broadcasting, will provide the ultimate viewing experience.
There is only one Olympic topic that is likely to take
precedence on the tabloid back pages: doping; which is sure to take
centre stage pre-, during, and post-Olympics. The insatiable appetite
of the press to report on those in the sporting community who
have failed to understand the concept of fair play will undoubtedly
provide sustenance for hungry hacks. But never fear; we have the
invaluable input of athletes who have been found guilty of antidoping
offences and served bans from their sport telling us to
‘just say no’! Do I really have to listen to drug cheats spouting
the virtues of ‘drug-free sport’ and the appropriate sentences
for contravening anti-doping regulations? Most irksome of all are
the drug cheats who tell me there should be no life ban; I don’t
remember asking murderers how long their sentence should be so
why should the thoughts of those that contravene the laws of the
game be extolled as the voice of reason.
When I was the Chair of the BOA Athlete’s Commission from
1997-2000 we voted on the by-law upholding a life ban from the
Olympics for doping-positive athletes aka. CHEATS; the result was
unanimous support for a life-ban. Whilst this position is likely to be
overturned by CAS prior to London 2012 it provides a clear and
certain reminder that athletes with integrity wish to keep sport
pure. WADA recently reported that 10% of athletes are taking
performance enhancing drugs; a sad indictment on modern sport
that is sure to tarnish both the London 2012 Olympic Games and
the true Olympian alike. My only solace in this sad affair is that the
cheats will be hunted down like vermin and, when caught; punished.
My fear is that the sophistication of anti-doping evasion and new
drug development may continue to provide a hiding place for those
bereft of moral and ethical boundaries. Whilst capital punishment
for offenders may be a stretch too far, my vote remains for the
life-ban.
On the second, and some would say most important London
2012 deliverable we have an area that has created an acrimonious
debate that is sure to gain in volume as we approach 27 July: Legacy.
From the government to LOCOG, no-one appears to want to
take responsibility and there appears to be little palpable evidence
of any lasting legacy for the UK. Whilst the Queen Elizabeth
Olympic Park will provide a world class sporting facility for future
generations, how many amongst us will have their lives transformed
by the availability of a velodrome in East London? I may have
misunderstood the promise of ‘Legacy’ promulgated by LOCOG
throughout the bid process, but given the focus on young people I
was expecting a flood of initiatives to enhance the physical activity
and health of young people through exercise and sport: I was wrong.
The dichotomy of thinking on the topic of legacy will be
demonstrated at the ICSEMIS Congress in Glasgow, 19-23 July, with
a keynote presentation from the IOC on the ‘Health Legacy of the
Olympic Games’ juxtaposed to a number of symposia reporting
the abject failure of the Olympic movement to deliver legacy: light
the blue touch paper and stand back! In concluding this rant let me
share a recent headline that provides the perfect definition to the
all too often misused word; ‘irony’: ‘London 2012 Olympics: Legacy
Chief Baroness Ford to retire after Games.’ (www.telegraph.co.uk/
sport/olympics/9068934).
words: Prof Greg Whyte FBASES
Prof Greg Whyte FBASES is Professor of Applied Sport and
Exercise Science at Liverpool John Moores University. As an
Olympian, former Chair of the BOA athletes’ commission and
Director of Research at the Olympic Medical Centre, Greg has
a close affinity with the ideals and responsibilities of the Olympic
movement.
8 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

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Exercise and atrial fibrillation
Dr Gary Brickley provides an overview of this condition, its impact of exercise
tolerance, and considerations for exercise.
What is atrial fibrillation?
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a common but largely
under-recognised cardiac arrhythmia, which is
demonstrated in Figure 1 as an increase in the
number of P waves relative to the number of QRS
complexes. In many cases this can mean that the
atria are contracting over 150 times per minute
whilst the ventricles contract around 60 times per
minute.
Figure 1. A trial fibrillation as demonstrated
from an ECG
Approximately 100,000 people in the UK
have AF. It is often associated with a poor lifestyle,
alcoholism, a poor diet and obesity. In some
cases individuals have no symptoms (Lone AF),
but many experience shortness of breath, poor
exercise tolerance, dizzy spells and palpitations.
When presented with these symptoms an ECG
may determine the presence of AF. A follow up
echocardiogram is normally carried out. AF may
then be treated initially with medication such as
amiodarone, beta blockers and ACE inhibitors.
Later this may involve surgery including AF
ablation.
Aside from being common in the elderly
population, AF is also common in highly-trained
endurance athletes (Mont, Elosua & Brugada,
2009; Turagam, Velagapundi & Kocheril, 2012);
however, the mechanisms behind this are poorly
understood. Nevertheless, as for the differences
in left ventricular hypertrophy in the diseased
and athletic heart, the causes of AF are probably
different in athletes compared to typical older
adults. Causes in athletes might include increased
vagal tone, inflammation and
fluid shifts, whereas in the
elderly it is usually
due to hypertension,
“We as practitioners
working with
patients and
athletes need to
be confident in
detecting AF, as well
as ensuring referral
to the appropriate
cardiology team. ”
valvular disease or previous myocardial infarction.
The prognosis is also worse for non-athletes;
these have a relatively high risk of stroke and
heart failure.
Exercise tolerance in people with AF
We recently presented a paper at the Australian
Conference of Sports Science and Medicine
in Perth Australia (Brickley et al., 2012) where
we were interested in the differences in
cardiorespiratory fitness in AF patients versus
healthy controls. We exercised both groups to
volitional exhaustion on a cycle ergometer and
measured expired air. We also assessed quality
of life using the SF-36 questionnaire (Ware et al.,
1993). Markers of aerobic fitness were generally
lower in the AF group (see Table 1), as were the
physical functioning domains of quality of life.
The ability to exercise at high intensity is
often related to deterioration in aerobic fitness.
The associated symptoms of shortness of breath
during exercise, dizziness on exertion and poor
heart rate regulation certainly lead to a reduction
in aerobic fitness in AF patients. Treatment with
medication and surgery may alleviate some of
these symptoms and allow for an improvement in
exercise tolerance and quality of life.
Exercise considerations in people with AF
Is it dangerous to exercise with AF?
Although the risk of a cardiac event is greater
in those with heart disease and irregular
rhythms, the risk for exercising with AF is poorly
understood. Typically this patient may be given a
cocktail of medication to slow their heart rate
down and manage their rhythm. Once exercise is
added to this cocktail it is important to monitor
not only the symptoms during exercise but other
parameters such as blood pressure and the
incidence of ectopic beats. Exercise stress testing
using ECGs is initially recommended to those
who have been diagnosed. However, the European
Society of Cardiology guidelines for exercise
suggest that heart rate should be controlled
between 90-115 bpm during moderate exercise
(Camm et al., 2010). There is evidence to suggest
that limiting physical activity can reduce the
number of incidents of AF in those with recent
diagnosis. However, as Mont, Elosua and Brugada
(2009) point out, it is often hard for those who
regularly exercise to follow this advice.
She knows about making an impact
Make one too
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10 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

Table 1. Cardiorespiratory fitness data for AF patients and
healthy controls. Values are mean ± SD
AF Control
(n = 10) (n = 9)
Ventilatory Threshold
VO 2 (L·min -1 ) 0.80 ±0.32 0.91 ± 0.30
VO 2 (mL ·kg -1·min-1 ) 10.44 ± 3.63 13.43 ± 2.96
% of VO 2peak 63.6 ± 12.7 65.5 ± 11.8
Power output (W) 50 ± 24 60 ± 20
St Mary’s
University College
Twickenham
London
School of Sport, Health
& Applied Science
Maximal exercise
VO 2 (mL ·kg -1·min-1 ) 14.63 ± 6.39 21.04 ± 6.05*
V E (L·min -1 ) 35.45 ±14.48 42.4 ± 18.78
Exercise time (min) 7.47 ± 2.00 8.54 ± 1.86
Power output (W) 84 ± 42 107 ± 39
6-min walk distance (m) 424 ± 65 577 ± 38**
*P

The BASES Expert Statement on
Measurement of Muscle Strength with
Isokinetic Dynamometry
Produced on behalf of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences by Prof Bill
Baltzopoulos, Dr Mark King, Prof Nigel Gleeson and Dr Mark De Ste Croix
Introduction
Isokinetic dynamometry has been established as the preferred
technique for the quantification of muscle strength. It allows
assessment of joint moments in both static and dynamic conditions
before and after specific exercise interventions or rehabilitation
from sports injuries. For these reasons isokinetic dynamometers
are useful and unique devices that allow the assessment of
dynamic muscle and joint function under specific joint velocity
conditions. However, there are many factors that can affect the
measurements, conclusions and resulting guidance given to athletes
and patients. Despite the understanding and significance of these
factors for accurate strength measurements reported in the
research literature, there is a remarkable lack of implementation of
appropriate error prevention techniques in most applications.
Even when appropriate protocols or correction methods
are used, the reporting of these details is often poor and not
standardised. This makes it difficult for readers or users to
determine data quality in most of the published studies that have
used isokinetic dynamometry. This expert statement reviews the
relevant scientific background and evidence and provides specific
and clear recommendations so that the assessment of muscle
strength and joint function in athletes and other clinical populations
is valid and appropriately reported.
Although there are other interesting issues and debates such
as the specificity of isokinetic movement velocity to sports actions,
the ecological validity of isokinetic testing for closed chain sports
movements, correlations with other measures of dynamic muscle
function and its sensitivity to training progression, this statement is
focused only on methodological strength measurement issues.
Background and evidence
Isokinetic dynamometers measure muscle strength by recording
the resistive moment required to counter balance the joint
moment applied by the participant and maintain a constant
joint angular velocity (isokinetic or isovelocity). This is the total
moment attributable to the forces produced by all the structures
acting around the joint (agonist and antagonist muscles as well
as passive structures like ligaments) and, therefore, strength is
always quantified using total or net joint moment (Nm) during a
particular motion. Direct measurement of a single muscle or even
muscle group moment or force is not possible with any external
dynamometer, so strength measurements should be reported
accurately using joint motion terms and nomenclature (e.g., knee
extension moment, ankle plantar flexion moment, rather than
quadriceps force or gastrocnemius moment, for example).
The dynamometer moment is measured around its fixed
axis of rotation assuming that the tested joint axis is always in
alignment with this. However, there is usually misalignment of
the joint and dynamometer axes of rotation that arises from the
non-rigid connection between the segments and the dynamometer
arm and seat because of the compliance of the soft tissues
and the dynamometer padding. The resulting movement of the
segment relative to the dynamometer is one of the main factors
for misalignment of axes of rotation and the resulting differences
between measured and actual joint moments (Tsaopoulos et al.,
2011). These depend on the testing conditions and typical errors
range from 10%-13% during isokinetic knee extensions (Kaufman
et al., 1995) and from 1-17% (mean 7.3%) in isometric conditions
(Arampatzis et al., 2004). Given that most strength training effects
that need to be quantified with isokinetics are typically in the
order of 10-20 % but much lower in elite athletes, it is clear that
increasing measurement accuracy and minimising axes misalignment
error are crucial issues. The best method to achieve this would
be to align the joint and dynamometer axis under active (e.g.
sub-maximal isometric) rather than passive conditions, and with
the segment close to the anticipated maximum strength joint
position (usually in the middle of the range of motion). If there is
misalignment of axes because the dynamometer measurement unit
or head is twisted due to insufficient rigidity of the dynamometer
frame and large moments applied by powerful participants, then
the frame and head must be secured with extra support to a fixed
structure in the lab. Stabilisation of the participant with appropriate
and well-fitted belts or straps is also important to avoid extraneous
motion and to secure the skeletal segment(s) where the activated
muscle(s) originate.
Above: Participant positioned for an ankle joint strength test on an isokinetic dynamometer
Courtesy Prof B. Baltzopoulos
12 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

The dynamometer moment can also be affected by several other
factors such as gravitational forces, the effect of biarticular muscles
and the angle of the adjacent joint they span, antagonistic activity and
the familiarisation and motivation of the participant, so it is important
to include appropriate correction and standardisation procedures
and to report relevant techniques or settings (e.g., control and
report ankle joint angle during knee flexion tests to standardise
the contribution of gastrocnemius to knee flexion moment). Verbal
motivation and/or visual feedback can be provided to maximise
activation but they must be consistent and standardised for all
participants with clear instructions on how to use visual feedback.
There are also mechanical issues related to the acceleration of the
segments and since the dynamometer moment is equal to the joint
moment only during the isovelocity period, the angular velocity must
be monitored throughout the joint motion and any acceleration
phases should be discarded, so that moment data are measured only
from the isokinetic phase of the movement (see Baltzopoulos, 2008).
Isokinetic dynamometers should be serviced and calibrated
regularly. Independent criterion-based measurements of moment,
angle and angular velocity should be compared with dynamometer
readings so that data accuracy after calibration can be quantified (see
Baltzopoulos, 2008).Raw moment and angle data should be smoothed
with appropriate filters to remove high frequency noise. If a model
of joint moment output is required (e.g., for simulation purposes),
then each isovelocity moment-angle region should be identified and
interpolated to provide moment as a function of angle at intervals of
1º. A nine-parameter moment-angle-angular velocity function fitted
to isovelocity moment-angle-angular velocity data is adequate for
obtaining a participant-specific representation of maximal voluntary
moment as a function of angle and angular velocity (King et al., 2006;
Yeadon et al., 2006).
Isokinetic assessment of children provides researchers with
additional challenges relating to changing and individual rates of
growth and maturation. Modifications are necessary for isokinetic
dynamometer seat and attachments and stabilisation and testing
procedures (e.g. static or anthropometry-based procedures instead
of dynamic gravity correction). Isokinetic testing of children,
irrespective of muscle action or muscle joint assessed, has a testretest
variation of around 5-10% similar to adult variation. Generally
it is reproducible and reliable as long as equipment and protocols
are properly adapted for their size and good habituation procedures
are in place, especially during eccentric actions (De Ste Croix et al.,
2003). Interpretation of isokinetic moment data during growth and
maturation requires comparisons among individuals of different sizes.
It is therefore important that a size-free moment variable is used
for interpretive purposes. Current evidence suggests that allometric
scaling factors should be derived from careful modelling of individual
data sets, and therefore be sample specific rather than adopting
conventional ratio-standard scaling indices.
Isokinetic dynamometry has also been used in clinical
applications to assess the effects of surgical and rehabilitative
interventions on neuromuscular performance. It has been deployed
most often as a secondary outcome (mainly peak moment)
alongside primary outcomes of functionality and minimised pain.
In experimental designs for clinical interventions and meaningful
changes, effect sizes of indices of neuromuscular performance
involving isokinetic dynamometry are approximately 0.3 to 2.5. Raw
effects associated with monitoring clinical changes in performance
might exceed those observed for asymptomatic populations because
of potentially lower disease-, injury- or de-conditioning-related
baselines. However, the greater heterogeneity of responses in
clinical evaluations at given stages of treatment might work against
favourable or robust relative effect sizes. Thus, considerations for
establishing appropriate experimental design sensitivity and avoidance
of inflated Type-II error rates for a given least significant difference or
clinical responsiveness might be judged using established procedures
(Mercer & Gleeson, 2002). This is notwithstanding the documented
limits to measurement precision and reproducibility in asymptomatic
and clinical populations associated with isokinetic dynamometry due
to the factors explained above.
Conclusions and recommendations
To obtain accurate joint moment-angle-angular velocity data for
the assessment of strength and safeguard validity and reliability of
strength measurements it is important that:
• dynamometers are serviced regularly and calibrated according
to recommended techniques using a range of weights to confirm
moment measurements and accurate goniometers are used to
confirm angle measurements
• the participant is positioned and stabilised appropriately on the
dynamometer including adjacent joints of biarticular muscles
• joint and dynamometer axes are aligned under active and not
passive conditions, near the anticipated maximum moment
position and separately for reciprocal actions (e.g., extension and
flexion tests)
• gravity and any other relevant correction techniques are applied
• an appropriate testing protocol with standardised procedures
for habituation, feedback and motivation is used
• maximal range of motion is set, with preloading if necessary, to
allow the participant to reach maximum voluntary activation and
the preset joint velocity and to maximise the isokinetic phase
• angular velocity is monitored and only isovelocity regions of
each trial are used for subsequent analysis(velocity within 10% of
the preset value)
• acceleration period data and derived parameters (such as
‘torque acceleration energy’) should not be used because they
are affected by the different velocity control mechanisms of each
dynamometer
• stabilisation and joint axes alignment methods, correction
techniques, test parameters, and isovelocity assessment method
in high angular velocity tests must be reported explicitly.
Bill Baltzopoulos is Professor
of Biomechanics in the School
of Sport and Education and the
Centre for Sports Medicine and
Human Performance
at Brunel University
in London and a
BASES accredited
sport and exercise
scientist (Research).
Nigel Gleeson is Professor
of Exercise and Rehabilitation
Sciences in the School of
Health Sciences at Queen
Margaret University
in Edinburgh and a
BASES accredited
sport and exercise
scientist (Research).
References
Arampatzis, A. et al. (2004). Clinical Biomechanics, 19, 3, 277-283.
Baltzopoulos, V. (2008). Isokinetic dynamometry. In Biomechanical Evaluation of
Movement in Sport and Exercise: BASES Guidelines (pp. 103-128), Routledge, London.
De Ste Croix, M.B.A. et al. (2003). Sports Medicine, 33, 10, 727-743.
Kaufman,K. et al. (1995). Journal of Biomechanics, 28, 10, 1243-1256.
King, M. A. et al. (2006). Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 22, 264-274.
Mercer, T.H. & Gleeson, N.P. (2002). Physical Therapy in Sport, 3, 1, 27-36.
Tsaopoulos, D. et al. (2011). Journal of Applied Physiology, 111, 1, 68-74.
Yeadon, M.R. et al. (2006). Journal of Biomechanics, 39, 476-482.
PDF Download Download a PDF of this article
www.bases.org.uk/BASES-Expert-Statements
Dr Mark King is Senior
Lecturer in Sports Biomechanics
in the School of Sport, Exercise
and Health Sciences
at Loughborough
University and a
BASES accredited
scientist sport
and exercise
scientist
(Research).
Dr Mark De Ste Croix is a
Reader in Paediatric Sport and
Exercise in the School of Sport
and Exercise at
the University of
Gloucestershire.
He is a BASES
accredited
sport and
exercise scientist
(Research).
Copyright © BASES, 2012
Permission is given for reproduction in substantial part. We ask that the following note
be included: “First published in The Sport and Exercise Scientist, Issue 31, Spring 2012.
Published by the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences – www.bases.org.uk”
The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
13

The BASES Expert Statement on Genetic
Research and Testing in Sport and
Exercise Science
Produced on behalf of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences by Dr Alun Williams,
Prof Andy Miah, Prof Roger Harris, Prof Hugh Montgomery and Dr Henning Wackerhage
Introduction
Differences in the DNA sequence between humans are responsible
for much of the variation in sport- and exercise-related traits. For
example, the heritability (the proportion of phenotypic variation in
a population which is due to inter-individual genetic variation) may
be as high as 50% for maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2max ) (Bouchard
et al., 1998) and its trainability (Bouchard et al., 1999). However,
we know comparatively little about the molecular variations
in the DNA sequence that add up to the often 50% or more
estimated heritability for major sport- and exercise-related traits
such as cardiovascular fitness, strength, maximal-intensity exercise
ability and muscle fibre composition (reviewed in Hagberg et al.,
2011), although the science is progressing. Consequently, an era
where genetic testing in sport and exercise contexts becomes
commonplace is approaching, and this raises several ethical
concerns. This statement summarises an original BASES position
stand on this topic (Williams et al., 2007).
Background and evidence
Scientific progress
Sport and exercise genetics (also referred to as athleticogenomics
or kinesiogenomics) remains in its infancy, with a requirement
for greater replication of the hundreds of genotype-phenotype
associations reported to date (Hagberg et al., 2011). Examples
of promising but still contested associations between genetic
variants and aspects of exercise performance include an insertion/
deletion (I/D) polymorphism in the ACE gene associated with the
training-responsiveness of oxygen uptake during exercise, a single
nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the ACTN3 gene associated with
sprint performance and a SNP in the HIF1A gene associated with
endurance performance.
Those polymorphisms identified to date account, individually,
for only a small proportion of the inter-individual variability in
phenotype. To explain a larger proportion of the variability requires
either the identification of rare variants of large effect or favourable
combinations of many common variants. Evidence for rare variants
of large effect is currently limited to one or two mutations such as
those in the myostatin and erythropoietin receptor genes. However,
using 6-10 common variants, elite athletes in certain sports have
been shown to differ in polygenic profile from non-athletes and
from elite athletes in other sports (e.g., Ahmetov et al., 2009) and
such differences will become clearer as larger panels of appropriate
variants are included. It is estimated that if more than ~15-20
common variants contribute to sporting ability (most scientists
suspect it is many more), then more genetic potential exists in the
human species than is ever likely to manifest itself in one individual
(Williams & Folland, 2008).
Recently, 21 SNPs were identified that appear to capture the
heritable component (approximately 50% of total inter-individual
variability) of the response of VO 2max to endurance training
(Bouchard et al., 2011). While this observation needs replication, it
shows great promise for increasing the ability to predict individual
responses to exercise training in advance - something that has been
desirable but, until now, impossible. One could envisage GPs (and
indeed health care trusts) using genetic tests to predict changes in
VO 2max , systolic blood pressure or fasting blood glucose of a patient
in response to an exercise programme. Such information could
be used to place greater emphasis on exercise for those likely to
respond and on drugs for those less likely to respond to exercise
training. Similarly, one could envisage care strategies (exercise
training and pharmaceuticals) for the maintenance of muscle
mass and function during ageing being informed by a prediction of
training responsiveness based on genetic information. Sport and
exercise scientists should seek to generate sufficient evidence to
determine whether a “personalised medicine” or “exercise for all”
approach (or some combination of the two) is the most effective
strategy to prevent and treat disease.
Ethical concerns
Human genetic research requires ethics committee approval and
must comply with the World Medical Association’s Declaration of
Helsinki. Recommendations of bodies such as the Human Genetics
Commission should also be followed. We conclude that the ethical
concerns about genetic research itself are relatively small because
of the scrutiny imposed by ethics committees and other bodies.
One specific aspect of genetic research in the sport and
exercise sciences that is potentially problematic is the investigation
of inter-racial differences. Some scientists are fascinated by the
remarkable success of East African endurance athletes and of
sprinters of West African descent, and this has stimulated research
aimed at identifying the reasons for this success. However, using
molecular genetic methods in these efforts might inadvertently
help others perpetuate racial stereotypes about race, performance
and intelligence, and some people reject genetic research where
ethnic groups are compared for this reason. Yet some ethnic groups
are underrepresented in clinical trials, despite suffering more from
some diseases. Thus, there are both advantages and disadvantages
for investigating genetic differences between ethnic groups.
Looking beyond research per se, towards an era where our
understanding of the role of genetics in sport and exercise is
greater than now, there are various applications that raise ethical
concerns. In sport, for genetic performance tests to be treated
differently from more traditional physiological tests requires the
identification of fundamental differences between traditional
and genetic performance tests. This reflects the “genetics
exceptionalism” concept, concerning whether genetic testing or
data are special and thus require bespoke regulation. Genetic and
traditional performance tests are similar in many ways, but we
see two important differences. The first is that unexpected, major
disease associations are more likely to be discovered after a genetic
test has been conducted than after a traditional performance test.
Genetic counselling before a genetic test can help to prepare an
individual for the potential implications of such findings. The second
difference is that genetic tests (i.e., tests of DNA sequence) can
be carried out as soon as genomic DNA can be obtained; in sharp
contrast to a traditional performance test, a genetic performance
test conducted on an embryo will yield the same information as
14 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

Left: Eero Mantyranta, multiple Olympic medal winner, had a rare
mutation in his EPOR gene
Dr Alun Williams is Convenor of the
BASES Molecular Exercise Physiology
Interest Group and Director of the
MMU Cheshire Sports Genomics
Laboratory, Manchester Metropolitan
University.
Prof Andy Miah is Director of the
Creative Futures Research Centre,
University of the West of Scotland
and Global Director of the Centre
for Policy & Emerging Technologies,
Washington.
a genetic test performed on an adult.
Consent cannot be obtained from
embryos or very young children.
Many forms of sport and exercise
are effective at improving health, yet
some activities increase the risk of
injury, disease or sudden death, and
there is a genetic component to those
risks. Thus, it is foreseeable that genetic
tests will be developed to stratify
this risk. For example, genetic tests
could be used to make choices about
an athletic career by judging injury
risk, to determine insurance costs or
coverage for sports participation, to
help a sports club decide whether
or not to employ an athlete, or to
assist the individualisation of care for
an at-risk or injured athlete. Genetic
testing may play an important role in
pre-participation screening and reduce
the incidence of sudden death in sport.
Simultaneously, problems might arise
because of difficulties keeping genetic
test results confidential, especially those
of high-profile athletes. A conflict of
interest could occur between clubs
and athletes and some healthy athletes
might erroneously be prevented from
competing because genetic tests of
future poor health or injury are unlikely
to achieve 100% predictive accuracy.
Conclusions and recommendations
The future of sport and exercise science
will become increasingly focused on
genetic research and testing as the
relevant molecular technologies become
faster, cheaper and more widely available
(Lander, 2011). Sport and exercise
scientists need to ensure that they
keep abreast with genomic science to
capitalise on recent and anticipated
findings in an ethically acceptable
manner. It is recommended that:
• Sport and exercise scientists should
maintain their awareness of potential
unwanted consequences of genetic
information and of the potential
misuse of genetic data to justify
discriminatory views or practices.
Sport and exercise scientists should
engage knowledgeably in public
debates to minimise those risks.
• Genetic testing in the sport and
exercise context (with the possible
exception of pre-participation risk
screening) should only be conducted
on mature individuals who fully
understand the relevant issues and
a system of counselling should be
introduced.
• Pre-participation risk screening
should not be obligatory and the
confidentiality of such testing has to
be ensured.
• Sport and exercise scientists should
be aware of the risk that a prominent
“individualised medicine” public
narrative could undermine the
more general advice given to large
population groups regarding the value
of exercise and other lifestyle factors
in disease prevention and treatment.
• Genetic testing should be used in
the fight against doping in sport
where appropriate, to link biological
samples to athletes, test claims that
a genetic mutation was responsible
for a positive doping test or unusual
biochemical data, and test for gene
doping.
PDF Download Download a PDF of this article
www.bases.org.uk/BASES-Expert-Statements
Copyright © BASES, 2012
Permission is given for reproduction in substantial
part. We ask that the following note be included:
“First published in The Sport and Exercise
Scientist, Issue 31, Spring 2012. Published by the
British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences
– www.bases.org.uk”
Prof Roger Harris (retired)
was formerly Chair of Exercise
Biochemistry at the University of
Chichester.
Prof Hugh Montgomery is
medically qualified and is Director of
the UCL Institute for Human Health
and Performance.
Dr Henning Wackerhage is Vice-
Convener of the BASES Molecular
Exercise Physiology Interest
Group and Senior Lecturer in
Molecular Exercise Physiology at the
University of Aberdeen.
References
Ahmetov, I.I. et al. (2009). The combined impact of
metabolic gene polymorphisms on elite endurance athlete
status and related phenotypes. Human Genetics, 26, 751-761.
Bouchard, C., Sarzynski, M.A., Rice, T.K., Kraus, W.E.,
Church, T.S., Sung, Y.J., Rao, D.C. & Rankinen, T. (2011).
Genomic predictors of maximal oxygen uptake response to
standardized exercise training programs. Journal of Applied
Physiology, 110, 1160-1170.
Bouchard, C., An, P., Rice, T., Skinner, J.S., Wilmore,
J.H., Gagnon, J., Perusse, L., Leon, A.S. & Rao, D.C.
(1999). Familial aggregation of VO 2max response to exercise
training: results from the HERITAGE Family Study. Journal of
Applied Physiology, 87, 1003-1008.
Bouchard, C. et al. (1998). Familial resemblance for VO 2max
in the sedentary state: the HERITAGE family study. Medicine &
Science in Sports & Exercise, 30, 252-258.
Hagberg, J.M., Rankinen, T., Loos, R.J., Perusse, L.,
Roth, S.M., Wolfarth, B. & Bouchard, C. (2011).
Advances in exercise, fitness, and performance genomics in
2010. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 43, 743-752.
Lander, E.S. (2011). Initial impact of the sequencing of the
human genome. Nature, 470, 187-197.
Williams, A.G. & Folland, J.P. (2008). Similarity of
polygenic profiles limits the potential for elite human physical
performance. Journal of Physiology, 586, 113-121.
Williams, A.G., Wackerhage, H., Miah, A., Harris, R.C.
& Montgomery, H.E. (2007). Genetic research and testing
in sport and exercise science: BASES Position Stand. British
Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences. Available: www.
bases.org.uk/BASES-Expert-Statements
The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
15

The BASES Expert Statement on The
Importance of Young People’s Aerobic
Fitness for Health
Produced on behalf of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences by Dr Keith Tolfrey
FBASES, Dr Mark De Ste Croix, Prof Gareth Stratton FBASES and Assoc Prof Craig Williams FBASES
Introduction
Preventive exercise-related strategies targeting the health of
children and adolescents (young people

finding that girls’ BMI did not change
over the 10 year observation period
and only a small change existed for
boys’ BMI. Collectively, these studies
show that changes in fitness do not
merely reflect an increase in body
size but also that lean and overweight
children have experienced reductions
in fitness. Moreover, there is evidence
of a divergence between the least and
most fit.
In adults, exercise training results in
enhanced fitness – particularly in low
fit individuals. The commonly reported
blunted trainability of young people’s
peak VO 2 likely reflects sub-optimal
exercise programmes that are too
short and lack adequate intensity
(Tolfrey, 2007). Those with the lowest
pre-intervention fitness demonstrate
the greatest gains (Tolfrey, 2007).
However, a self-selection bias pervades
the literature with low fit children and
adolescents avoiding studies aimed at
enhancing fitness. Therefore, exercise
programmes designed to increase fitness
should be targeted at low fit, young
people, below the cut-off values, rather
than used universally (see Table 1).
Recent fitness debates
The UK Chief Medical Officer suggested
recently (Department of Health,
2010) that comprehensive physical
fitness testing should be piloted in
secondary schools. We share some
of the concerns about indiscriminate
measurement of all young people and
support a more targeted approach. An
all-inclusive approach may be possible,
but only if the primary objective is
an educational experience. Although
schools may act in a capacity to provide
the fundamental movement skills and a
variety of positive exercise and sports
experiences, and physical activities,
we suggest that the responsibility for
improving and measuring fitness lies
elsewhere. For example, central and
local government supported schemes
for structured exercise, sports, physical
activity and active transport could
be combined with expertise available
within the large number of sport
and exercise science graduates and
University departments specialising in
this subject. It should be the collective
responsibility of sport and exercise
science graduates and University staff
supported by strategic government
funding to assess fitness directly (peak
VO 2 ) and indirectly (20-mSRT). It should
be possible to use indirect assessment
methods at a stratified population
level in the first instance (also serves
to assess annual trends), but to target
direct measurements at young people
identified as being ‘at risk’ for poor
cardio-metabolic health. This will only
be possible with adequate funding and
adherence to appropriate ethical and
safe-guarding guidelines for working with
young people and parental support.
Practical recommendations
• Identify low fit young people
using the 20-mSRT initially and
then confirmed with direct
measurement of peak VO 2
• Recognise that low fit young
people need a vigorous exercise
programme to improve their
fitness that includes a variety of
exercise modes (continuous and
interval), at least 3 sessions per
week, 85 to 90% of maximum
heart rate, 30 to 60 min duration,
and lasting at least 3 months
• Provide young people, particularly
those with low fitness, with more
opportunities for vigorous physical
activity and structured exercise
• Recognise that an activity skillset,
from high quality physical
education provision, is required to
engage fully in an active life-style
• Help responsible adults to
appreciate that the baseline
level of fitness all young people
should be aiming for is for
health purposes rather than for
competitive sports participation,
although it may eventually support
both
• Encourage all young people
to be physically active and
aspire to attain international
recommendations for daily
accumulated activity
• Recognise that the influence of
fitness and a balanced, nutritious
diet and energy intake must be
considered in combination.
Left: Treadmill-based measurement of VO 2
Courtesy Associate Prof Craig Williams FBASES
Dr Keith Tolfrey FBASES is a
Senior Lecturer at Loughborough
University and the Chair of the
BASES Division of Physical Activity
for Health.
Dr Mark De Ste Croix is a Reader
at the University of Gloucestershire
and deputy-convenor of the BASES
Paediatric Exercise Science interest
group. He is a BASES accredited sport
and exercise scientist (Research).
Dr Gareth Stratton FBASES is
a Professor of Paediatric Exercise
Science at Liverpool John Moores
University where he leads the
Physical Activity Exercise and Health
research group.
Dr Craig Williams FBASES is an
Associate Professor at the University
of Exeter and is Director of the
Children’s Health and Exercise
Research Centre.
References
Adegboye, A.R. et al. (2011). Recommended aerobic
fitness level for metabolic health in children and adolescents: a
study of diagnostic accuracy. British Journal of Sports Medicine,
45(9), 722-728.
Andersen, L.B. et al. (2008). Fitness, fatness and clustering
of cardiovascular risk factors in children from Denmark, Estonia
and Portugal: the European Youth Heart Study. International
Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 3 (Suppl 1), 58-66.
Department of Health (2010). Annual Report 2009 of
the Chief Medical Officer. Available: www.dh.gov.uk/publications
Ortega, F.B. et al. (2008). Physical fitness in childhood and
adolescence: a powerful marker of health. International Journal
of Obesity, 32(1), 1-11.
Ruiz, J.R. et al. (2011). Field-based fitness assessment in
young people: the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery
for children and adolescents. British Journal of Sports Medicine,
45(6), 518-524.
Sandercock, G. et al. (2010). Ten year secular declines in
the cardiorespiratory fitness of affluent English children are
largely independent of changes in body mass index. Archives of
Disease Childhood, 95, 46-47.
Stratton, G. et al. (2007). Cardiorespiratory fitness and
body mass index of 9-11-year-old English children: a serial
cross-sectional study from 1998 to 2004. International Journal
of Obesity, 31, 1172-1178.
Tolfrey, K. (2007). Responses to training. In N. Armstrong
(Ed.), Paediatric Exercise Physiology (pp. 213-234). London:
Elsevier.
Tomkinson, G. & Olds, T.S. (Eds) (2007). Pediatric fitness,
secular trends and geographic variability. Medicine and Sport
Science. Basel: Karger.
PDF Download Download a PDF of this article
www.bases.org.uk/BASES-Expert-Statements
Copyright © BASES, 2012
Permission is given for reproduction in substantial part. We
ask that the following note be included: “First published in The
Sport and Exercise Scientist, Issue 31, Spring 2012. Published
by the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences –
www.bases.org.uk”
The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
17

Research and practice in sport –
inseparable bedfellows?
Applied sport scientists often face the challenge of delivering evidence-based practice when there
is at times a lack of relevant evidence! This in itself drives the need for research, though this isn’t
always easy to achieve in the competitive sport environment. BASES experts provide their views
and experiences of how research and practice may be integrated.
Dr Chris Harwood FBASES considers
challenges and opportunities for
psychologists:
As a practitioner conducting applied research
in psychology, you are likely to be ‘serving’ your
coaches, athletes and parents in one role, yet
wanting to collect data from them that may
relate to intervention effectiveness. It is important to identify and
manage any such dual-role ethical issues and of course gain appropriate
informed consent. Performance-impacting applied research is of
clear benefit to these stakeholders and self-serving researchers will
struggle to recruit coaches if they are not willing to be generous in
providing appropriate feedback and education. The ‘marriage’ between
applied research and practice is best held in the ‘Church of Single
Case Design Interventions’ or the ‘Chapel of Qualitative Research’.
Single case research designs focus on evidence of meaningful, tangible
improvements in a psychological or performance-related factor. This
intervention work could include direct observations in the field and be
related to coaching and athlete factors (e.g., mastery-oriented coaching
behaviours). These ‘facts’ generally motivate coaches, encouraging the
value of sport psychology and informing coaches of the specific needs
of their athletes. Applied qualitative research may seek to understand
the experiences and characteristics of a particular population group,
the results of which may then inform your applied practice. For
example, recent work conducted on parental stress in tennis and
soccer helped to inform my applied work with parents, coaches and
relevant organisational bodies.
Dr Chris Harwood is a Reader in Applied Sport Psychology at
Loughborough University. He holds BASES High Performance Sport
Accreditation and serves as the lead sport psychologist for the Lawn Tennis
Association.
Mike Bourne provides a performance
analysis and skill acquisition perspective:
Most applied practitioners are grounded in
paradigms from their education but research in
performance analysis and skill acquisition moves
on so quickly it is imperative we continually recalibrate
our theoretical grounding. The practical
benefits of being current with your discipline theories cannot be
underestimated. For example, the use of advanced statistical methods in
performance analysis is expanding at present with mathematicians and
economists applying their knowledge to sports problems. Performance
analysts should look to stay informed by subscribing to alerts from
online research databases. If you are short on time then focus on
meta-analyses summarising current positions. Support work should
be managed like mini-research projects, ensuring a clear question and
development of a robust theoretical framework. The interventions need
not be ‘research proven’ but should have scientific grounding. Critiquing
the outcomes of applied work is of course critical and partnering with
local universities to undertake small-scale research within projects will
provide mutual benefit through expertise and resource.
Michael Bourne is the England and Wales Cricket Board National Lead for
Performance Analysis and has over 10 years of experience in the industry in
biomechanics, performance analysis and skill acquisition.
Chris Barnes examines the environment of
team sports:
We have a unique opportunity in team sports
to develop our understanding of factors that
influence competitive performance through
better understanding of the myriad of data we
collect on a day-to-day basis. Most of this data is
collected ‘passively’, as part of daily routines for the primary purpose
of feedback to athletes and coaches. Unfortunately, we rarely have the
time to devote to deeper analysis of such information so establishing
a solid network of professional contacts in universities and external
bodies is of paramount importance, and offers the potential for
tremendous mutual benefits. Through well-structured intern schemes
and collaborative postgraduate projects, all parties benefit, both
immediately through enhanced knowledge and understanding, and in
the future through enhanced reputation. This enables academics to
retain an applied context for their academic pursuits, and for fieldbased
practitioners to have a point of focus for questions regarding
existing and future practice, and to retain an academic profile.
Chris Barnes works as an independent sport and exercise scientist
providing physiological support for Premiership and Championship soccer
teams, Rugby League and a range of individual sportsmen including National
Hunt Jockeys.
Dr Vicky Tolfrey FBASES tackles the
question in Paralympic sport:
Our research group at the Peter Harrison
Centre for Disability Sport have recently been
investigating the use of immunological markers
and their relation with upper respiratory
symptoms (URS) in wheelchair athletes. Members
of the GB wheelchair rugby squad were initially apprehensive since
previous applied support had involved highly invasive laboratory
based protocols. However, once the current procedures had been
described with particular emphasis on the likely performance
impact, the collection of saliva samples was seen as painless and
easy. Evidence provided to the wheelchair athletes highlighted that
whilst immunological markers can be used for the early detection of
upcoming URS in able-bodied athletes, little is known about the impact
of disability on immune response in tetraplegic athletes. The athletes
were receptive since this is a medical complaint quite commonly noted
during travelling and competition. Most importantly, the results can be
fed back to athletes and coaches within a few days, providing time to
react to depressions of immunological markers, should their link to
URS be confirmed. Potential counter-measures include reduced contact
to others with URS, reduction of training load or intake of supplements
fortifying the immune system. It also became apparent that the
monitoring of training load lacked accuracy and this has now led to the
development of innovative tools using wheelchair tracking devices.
Dr Vicky Tolfrey FBASES is a BASES accredited sport and exercise
scientist and has provided applied sport science support to Paralympic
athletes since 1994. She attended the Atlanta and Sydney Paralympic
Games.
18 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

POSTGRADUATE
PROGRAMMES
IN SPORT AND
EXERCISE
St Mary’s
University College
Twickenham
London
School of Human Sciences
www.port.ac.uk
MSc courses available in:
• Sports Performance
• Clinical Exercise Science
• Sport and Exercise Psychology (pending BPS accreditation)
We have world class facilities enabling teaching and
research excellence within sport and exercise. All of the
programmes have an applied vocational focus and are
delivered by expert staff.
Previous graduates from our postgraduate programmes
have gone on to a range of successful careers including:
sports science support roles, professional sports coach,
strength and conditioning coach, university lecturer, college
lecturer, PhD researcher, research fellow, cardiologist,
scientific technician, personal trainer, health adviser.
For programme specific information please contact:
t: 023 9284 5154
e: sports.science@port.ac.uk
w: www.port.ac.uk/mscsportscience
MSc in Applied Sport and
Exercise Physiology
Be seen
above
the rest
The increase in professional sport combined with the drive to promote
an active and healthy lifestyle in the UK has led to an increased
demand for applied sport and exercise physiologists. With this in mind,
the MSc / PG Diploma in Applied Sport & Exercise Physiology has
been developed to address this demand by providing students with an
opportunity to expand their current knowledge and to develop the skills
required to work in the field.
The programme has been designed around a range of specialist
modules to develop core knowledge and applied skills in the area of
sport and exercise physiology. Individuals can study on either a fulltime
or part-time basis, completing the M.Sc. part-time in two years.
Staff involved in the programme are all highly experienced in their field.
All are research active and/or involved in consultancy in their discipline.
In addition the School employs a number of specialist visiting lecturers
in order to enrich the programme and ensure that lectures are
underpinned by cutting edge developments in the field.
The MSc/PG Diploma programme focuses on disciplines pertinent to
the field of applied sport and exercise physiology. These disciplines are
developed to provide a programme that reflects the needs of today’s
students, within the context of the workforce in general, the social and
political environment, and national and regional sporting and exercise
priorities.
A Masters course advert in The Sport and Exercise Scientist will
target students committed to careers in sport and exercise science
We’ll get your Masters course seen above the rest
To fi nd out about attention-grabbing advertising opportunities in The Sport
and Exercise Scientist – the offi cial publication of BASES -
visit www.bases.org.uk/SES-Advertisers
For further details or to request an application form, contact:
Dr Mark Glaister, Programme Director
Email: glaistem@smuc.ac.uk Tel: 020 8240 4012
Registry Admissions:
Email pgadmit@smuc.ac.uk Tel 020 8240 4027
or www.smuc.ac.uk/postgraduate/charity-management
Overseas (non-EU) students should contact International Office:
Tel: +44 (0) 20 8240 2307 Email: international@smuc.ac.uk
St Mary’s University College
Waldegrave Road, Strawberry Hill, Twickenham TW1 4SX
www.smuc.ac.uk

Books
Practical Skills in Sport and Exercise
Science
Reaburn, P., Dascombe, B., Reed, R., Jones, A.
& Weyers, J. (2011)
Pearson Education
Cost: £30.30 (paperback from Amazon)
The scope of this book is much broader than
I expected from the title in that it covers all aspects of practical
skills from conception to final report. As such, the sections
are divided into: Study and examination skills; Information
technology and library resources; Communicating information;
The investigative approach; Fundamental laboratory techniques;
Pre-exercise screening; Basic laboratory procedures; Measuring
physiological capacities; Calculating physiological measures; Analysis
and presentation of data. The emphasis is on physiology with no
mention of the other sub-disciplines of sport and exercise sciences,
which I found disappointing. The book is highly accessible with
originality in the up-to-date information and systematic coverage of
all practical skills required for student success through the entire
degree programme. The writing style is clear, easy to follow with
an excellent layout and good use of boxes. Key points, definitions,
examples etc. are all highlighted making the book good for dipping
in and out of and getting to the correct information quickly, with
the detailed text for more in-depth information and further
resources at the end of each chapter. The result is a highly navigable
‘one-stop’ book as it claims; a useful resource for undergraduates of
all levels and also for taught postgraduate programmes.
Rating 8/10
Reviewed by Alison Carlisle, University of Roehampton
Open: An Autobiography
Agassi, A. (2010)
Harper Collins
Cost: £5.29 (paperback from Amazon), £4.99 (kindle
version from Amazon)
This book rates as the best sport autobiography I
have ever read! It is also the funniest, amidst deep
clinical depression, burnout, failed relationships, drug abuse, ah
yes and winning all the major Grand Slams in tennis! What we
now know is that Agassi had probably done his 10,000 hours to
become an elite athlete before the age of 12, given the excessive
demands made upon him by Andre’s father, for whom obsessive and
compulsive might come to mind. By the time he was a top tennis
teenager Andre hated tennis, and continued to do so throughout
his career, unusual? There are crucial moments in the life of Agassi.
One was eventually discovering who he was from having no idea!
Secondly, the impact of Brad Gilbert as his trainer and page 189 is
a must read for anyone in sport wanting to improve, just don’t be
perfect! Thirdly, success in a sport that gave him a good living, but
probably for Andre, Steffi Graff, and two children he might think his
greatest reward for all the effort! For psychologists a must read,
physiologists definitely, racquet players absolutely, and for anyone
wanting a ‘get away from it’ book.
Rating 10/10
Reviewed by Phil Johnson, Gloucestershire University
Critical Thinking for Sport Students
Ryall, E. (2010)
Learning Matters
Cost: £15.19 (paperback from Amazon), £12.00 (kindle
version from Amazon)
Critical thinking and logical arguments are
fundamental skills to achieve university level
studies and beyond. However, critical thinking has not been widely
discussed in the field of sport studies. This book provides a wide
range of information related to developing skills of critical thinking,
including ways to build logical arguments, components of good
assumptions, and strategies to evaluate the quality of arguments.
Sport-related examples in the book, such as providing well written
newspaper articles or evaluating poorly supported claims among
publications, help readers understand differences between logically
well-supported and poorly-supported arguments and develop
critical thinking in sport-specific contexts. I also found that figures
are really helpful to acquire ideas and a flow of logical arguments,
including identifying fallacies and avoiding our own biases.
Additionally, learning activities and chapter reviews in each chapter
allow readers to summarise essential learning points. Finally, as
the book covers a wide range of issues related to critical thinking,
some are only giving a brief overview. The further reading lists are
helpful for readers seeking more information. The book could be
highly recommended to undergraduate and postgraduate university
students, and others willing to develop their logical argument skills.
Rating 8/10
Reviewed by Sunghee Park, University of Stirling
The Complete Guide To Teaching Exercise
To Special Populations
Coulson, M. (2011)
A&C Black
Cost: £21.24 (paperback from Amazon)
This is a practical resource for people interested
in physical activity (PA). It is organised into four
distinct parts: 1) discusses the relationship between PA and health,
risks associated with inactivity and recommended UK guidelines, 2)
covers special populations for which there is only a potential risk of
developing the condition, 3) deals with special populations for which
PA does not reduce the risk as they are an actual consequence
of life, whilst 4) offers a quick reference to medications related
to various special populations, which may affect PA. Part two and
three have sections on: description of the condition, prevalence,
symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis, physical benefits and PA guidelines.
Key points are summarised in each chapter. Focus boxes are used
to highlight important information and summarise the main points.
Additional recommended reading is at the end of each chapter. The
information on UK guidelines and qualifications needed to work
with conditions described are useful. Guidelines on cardiovascular
intensity are provided as percentage of maximum heart rate and
rate of perceived exertion only, the addition of maximum oxygen
uptake, oxygen uptake reserve and heart rate reserve would have
been helpful. I would recommend this book to colleagues and
students.
Rating 8/10
Reviewed by Dr Karianne Backx, Cardiff Metropolitan University
Send books for potential review to Claire-Marie Roberts, 3 Royal York Mews, Royal York Crescent, Clifton Village, Bristol, BS8 4LF
Want to be a book reviewer? Email croberts@glam.ac.uk Reviewers get to keep the book in return for a 200 word review
Additional online book reviews are available at www.bases.org.uk/SES-Book-Reviews
20 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

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Creating a legacy for physical activity and
health from the London 2012 Games
Profs Ken Fox FBASES, Stuart Biddle FBASES and Marie Murphy FBASES discuss why this Olympic promise
might be more of an Olympic dream.
A key ambition of the previous Labour government’s legacy
action plan (DCMS, 2008) was to help one million more people
to participate in sport and one million more people to become
physically active by 2012. The Coalition government has since
dropped the physical activity target, and recent data from the Active
People Survey suggest there is little chance of the sport goal being
met; only 111,800 more adults are participating in sport since
2007/8 (~11% of one million target; Sport England, 2011). So where
have things gone wrong? Were the original targets unrealistic? Have
strategies been inappropriate? Our experts in physical activity and
health provide comment.
Prof Ken Fox FBASES, Emeritus Professor
of Exercise and Health Sciences, FFPH,
University of Bristol
I understand the need to be bullish to win the
opportunity to host the Olympics. Announcements
such as “We expect the 2012 Olympic Games
to be an inspiration to our children and young
people, to get involved in sporting activity and engage with the
UK-wide cultural festival” (Tessa Jowell, 2005) were not surprising.
Above: Will watching the Usain Bolts inspire young people to be physically active on
a daily basis?
Daley Thompson’s passionate comment (2005) “I believe it will be
the best Olympics ever seen because we love sport like no other
nation. And the greatest thing to come out of the Olympics will
be the many generations of healthy children” was typical of the
time. However, neither could have really considered the long-term
implications of their statements.
A debate was staged at the 2006 BASES Annual Conference
about the health and activity legacy of the Olympics. Prof Joan
Duda and I were asked to present our view that the Olympics
would not work in terms of population levels of activity. We based
our case on an absence of recognisable psycho-social mechanisms
by which watching the Games might stimulate lasting behaviour
change in all but the already motivated athletic minority. Research
clearly shows that many young people and adults find traditional
sport participation unattractive, largely because it has been a
source of failure for them. Unless we can offer opportunities in
sport and activity that are personally rewarding through feelings
of competence, fun or social benefits then we are not going to
convince the health needy public to get moving. The successful
Sydney Olympics indicated no increase in physical activity among
the masses and a potential increase in sedentary time for men! Joan
and I were shocked to see that the final vote was for a positive
effect for the Olympics. Even among a group of objective sports
and exercise scientists blind faith won out over a largely evidencedbased
case.
At the following year’s Annual Conference I banged my drum
again and BASES issued a press release entitled “2012 Olympics
will have no health legacy, warns expert”. I remain a fervent sports
fan and occasional participant, but by this time it seemed clear that
the legacy team had no ideas other than more competitive sport
for tackling the enormous challenge of raising public activity levels.
Since then, Michael Gove has pledged to produce more competitive
sport in schools as the main plank to get kids more active and
healthy, while at the same time announcing further cuts in the
funding of initial teacher training in physical education. Leaders of
some excellent grass roots schemes to attract a broader range of
kids to sport and activity programmes are complaining of loss of
funds because of the vast amounts spent on preparing athletes and
staging the 2012 event. I am trying to resist the temptation of saying
“I told you so” but embarrassingly for the organising team, recent
data show a decline in activity in young people.
It might not be too late to do something positive if we build on
an idea that has so far fallen on very deaf ears. This field is plagued
by the naïve view that competitive sport is the only solution to
getting people active. What we need is a public health campaign
that capitalises on the massive world media circus of the Olympics
and that draws upon the success of our athletes. We need them
to espouse a prominent message that it’s OK to win a medal but
staying active for life, in whatever form that suits the individual, is
much more important and available to everyone.
Prof Stuart Biddle FBASES, Professor of
Physical Activity & Health, Loughborough
University
At the risk of sounding like the TV election
debates, I am tempted to simply say “I agree with
Ken!” The Olympics was doomed to failure as a
vehicle for promoting physical activity because
22 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

televised elite sport is a totally different behaviour from healthenhancing
physical activity! One mechanism that many believe
could work is that of role models. We have well meaning and often
inspirational people such as Dame Kelly Holmes and Colin Jackson
CBE espousing the benefits of sport and the legacy of the Games.
But the politicians have no idea of the mechanisms that translate
watching such role models into activity. The psychologist, Al Bandura
(of ‘self-efficacy’ fame), has written a great deal on ‘modelling’
effects and he is quite clear. The best effects (at least for gaining
confidence to participate in the same behaviour) are when the
person is watching a model similar to themselves, and sometimes
overcoming adversity. On this basis, exciting, and entertaining as the
Usain Bolts are to watch, he will not inspire me, or indeed many
young people, to be physically active on a daily basis, such as taking
up a different sport at school, or walking instead of car travel. He
might encourage a few fast runners to seek more help in becoming
sprinters, but those individuals will soon decide whether it’s for
them and evidence suggests that enthusiasm will be short lived.
Participation in sprinting will not affect public health.
Maybe we should simply enjoy the Olympics for what they are –
a fantastic spectacle of elite sport. Since I can’t get any tickets, I will
be watching on TV, attempting not to be too sedentary, and then
exercising afterwards. The two events will be unrelated!
Prof Marie Murphy FBASES, Professor of
Exercise and Health, University of Ulster
Despite the rhetoric it seems unlikely that London
2012 will increase the physical activity of UK
citizens. When attempting to attract the Games,
bid teams get carried away with grandiose claims
of the legacy that they will leave for the city, the
country and indeed the world, but as Ken has pointed out there is
no evidence that previous Games have increased physical activity
and no reason to believe that London will be any different in this
regard.
For the 700,000 of us not fortunate enough to get hold of a
single Olympic ticket, we will be treated to 17 days of coverage
including 24 live streams with every event being broadcast.
The advances in technology will mean that we will have greater
opportunity than ever to watch the Games on our TVs, laptops
and smartphones. It seems likely, with the Olympics occurring in
our time zone, and with such extensive television coverage, that
as a nation we will watch the Games more than any other, but of
course this screen time will probably be sedentary time. Moreover,
there is some evidence that this will be accompanied by more snack
consumption and a net increase in energy intake over expenditure
(Cleland et al., 2008)! Retail figures show that during the 2006
World Cup, there were huge rises in sales of savoury snacks, soft
drinks and alcohol (www.betterretailing.com/2010/04/managingyour-store/money/world-cup-figures-mean-indies-set-to-cash-in/),
and I am sure that the supermarket chains have sophisticated
Olympic marketing plans to encourage us to consume more food
and drink while watching lean athletes perform their amazing feats
of sporting excellence.
However, I am perhaps one of the ‘zealots’ to which Ken refers
who act more on a ‘leap of faith’ than evidence when it comes
to this particular issue. To balance the ‘Waldorf and Statler’ view
presented by Ken and Stuart I take the stance that change in a
population is made up, inevitably, of individual change and for me the
Olympics provides the promise of inspiration for a new generation
of sportsmen and women. Many of you reading this will have taken
your sporting inspiration from a memorable Olympic performance.
For me it was Olga Korbut’s performance in the 1972 Olympics in
Munich that led me to gymnastics club and eventually into a life and
career totally dominated by sport and physical activity. So although
physical activity at a population level may not increase as a result of
the Games, I am confident that London 2012 will leave a lasting if
perhaps difficult to measure physical activity and sporting legacy for
many individuals in the UK and around the world!
Hope remains…
Although our experts are not convinced that a measurable legacy
will be achieved, the opportunity still exists, and strategies have
been proposed (Weed et al., 2009). The Olympics might also have
positive influences in other areas, such as promoting national
cohesion. For example, in 1995, South Africa hosted and won the
rugby union World Cup. After the dismantling of apartheid and
years of international sporting isolation, South Africa at last had an
opportunity to be ‘centre stage’ in world sport. The team adopted
the slogan ‘one team, one nation’, and it was widely reported that
the event substantially helped in the creation of a ‘feel good’ and
united effect in a country where racial discrimination had created
such division.
Compiled by: Dr Garry Tew
Senior Research Fellow, Sheffield Hallam University
References
Cleland, V.J., Schmidt, M.D., Dwyer, T. & Venn, A.J. (2008). Television viewing
and abdominal obesity in young adults: is the association mediated by food and
beverage consumption during viewing time or reduced leisure-time physical
activity? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 87, 1148-1155.
Department for Culture, Media and Sport (2008). Before, during and after:
making the most of the London 2012 Games.
Sport England (2011). Active People Survey 5. Available: www.sportengland.org/
research/active_people_survey/aps5.aspx
Weed, M., Coren, E., Fiore, J., Mansfield, L., et al. (2009). A systematic review
of the evidence base for developing a physical activity and health legacy from the
London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Department of Health.
Have Your Say:
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The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
23

Supporting the Paralympic athlete:
Evaluating the importance of
specialist knowledge
Nik Diaper shares his views on the importance of specialist Paralympic knowledge.
Oscar Pistorius needs no introduction. His case illustrates how, in
recent years, the boundaries that have delineated disability sport
from able-bodied sport have become blurred and while it may be the
most high profile example, it is certainly not the only one. Aligned to
this growth of the Paralympic movement is the increasing integration
in the UK of sports science, medicine and coaching within Olympic
and Paralympic NGB programmes and the Home Country Sports
Institutes. Practitioners and coaches from non-disability backgrounds
are increasingly working with Paralympic athletes without necessarily
having prior Paralympic experience, knowledge or expertise. For
Paralympic sport in the UK this has had a profoundly positive impact,
and some of this can be attributed to breaking the cultural shackles
of disability sport through the adoption of the “no compromise, no
excuses approach” of elite sport. What these practitioners may lack
in disability-specific knowledge, they make up for with other areas
of expertise. This leads to an interesting debate; does this move
towards integration imply that supporting the Paralympic athlete does
not require specialist knowledge, and are there any risks with this
approach?
This is an intriguing aspect of my role with the English Institute
of Sport, but where do you begin? Well, Paralympic athletes have a
disability. Not exactly breaking news but it’s a fact that cannot be
ignored. Or can it? Well, that depends on the nature of the impairment
and the extent to which this impacts on sport-specific function and
therefore performance. In cases with less severe impairments with no
neurological implications and high degrees of function, the impact on
function and performance is often relatively small. This would be true
for example in athletes with visual impairments or amputations. In
these instances there are few challenges that creative thinking cannot
solve and applying the able-bodied model can be wholly appropriate.
In other words, additional specialism isn’t required and this will be the
case for many other examples where less-severe disabilities prevail.
The majority of practitioners will be comfortable supporting this type
of athlete because they already have the skills and knowledge required
but a flexible approach is paramount.
Now consider an athlete at the opposite end of the spectrum
with a cervical spinal cord lesion resulting in quadriplegia. As the term
implies, this individual will have paralysis affecting all four limbs as
well as function of the trunk. In addition, disruption of the autonomic
nervous system means that functions such as controlling heart rate,
stroke volume, blood pressure, blood flow, ventilation and sweating
may all be impaired. As a result, maximum heart rate is restricted to
approximately 125 beats per minute and the systematic responses to
exercise and training that we would normally associate with ablebodied
athletes are significantly blunted. How then do you improve
performance if it relies on any of these aspects?
Add to this the high incidence of urinary tract infections,
pressure sores, bowel and bladder dysfunction and the risk of
autonomic dysreflexia (a potentially life-threatening condition unique
to individuals with high spinal lesions) and you have some unique
challenges to put it mildly. And what about the athlete with severe
athetoid cerebral palsy or even muscular dystrophy who plays a
sport that has no able-bodied equivalent (e.g., Boccia) and who may
require a specialist carer to support even the most basic aspects of
daily life? I have barely touched on the specifics of these examples,
but the majority of non-specialist practitioners would consider this
Above: A Paralympic athlete undertaking a laboratory assessment. Interpretation of
results requires knowledge of how the disability affects physiological function
Courtesy Dr Vicky Tolfrey FBASES / Peter Harrison Centre for Disability Sport
firmly beyond their comfort zone. In these situations lack of expertise,
knowledge or understanding might even be unsafe and can possibly be
argued to be in breach of the BASES code of conduct.
Clearly there are situations where specialist Paralympic knowledge
is essential, but how can this be acquired? Opportunities such as
conferences and courses do exist despite being few and far between,
and those who have established themselves in this field have mainly
done so through a combination of applied research and years spent
in the field. Much can also be learned from the clinical disability and
rehabilitation specialists, who may not be familiar with our world of
elite sport, but certainly understand theirs.
Within the extremes that I have highlighted, there are multiple
shades of grey and along this spectrum is an associated level of
specialism. We have the responsibility as practitioners to determine
where we would position our level of knowledge against that which
is required. The fact that they may not match is not necessarily the
problem as long as we are honest enough to accept it; after all, we
don’t know what we don’t know. What matters more are the steps we
take to develop ourselves and address our deficiencies. If you haven’t
already spotted it, this in fact is not peculiar to Paralympic sport as the
same can be said for any other field. And in any other field, you have
specialists or even super-specialists – look no further than our own
field of sport and exercise sciences. So in conclusion, yes, specialist
Paralympic knowledge is important in some (but not all) cases and
although moving towards integration is the right way to go, we must
ensure this does not come at the expense of Paralympic expertise.
words: Nik Diaper
Nik Diaper works for the English Institute of Sport as Head of
Sports Science and Sports Medicine (Paralympic Sports). He is
a BASES accredited sport and exercise scientist.
24 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

Nanette’s notes
Prof Nanette Mutrie FBASES is The Sport and Exercise
Scientist’s exclusive physical activity for health columnist
Now that is NICE!
Have you ever needed an update on how we
should best promote physical activity for kids?
What is the latest on whether or not there is
enough evidence to use exercise as a treatment
for depression? What should we do to change the
environment so that walking and cycling are easier
options for people?
There is a ‘nice’ answer to all of these
questions! NICE is the UK National Institute for
Health and Clinical Excellence and over the past
few years NICE has made recommendations that
are based on a thorough review of the existing
literature on many physical activity topics. Such
recommendations are very useful to reference
as a source with great authority. The guidance
is aimed mainly at health service providers but
recently wider audiences, such as transport and
town planners, have been asked to implement
guidance.
NICE has recently launched a new online tool
that brings together all its guidance on a specific
condition or subject and the good news is that
physical activity is named as a specific topic. The
tool is called NICE Pathways, and makes it easier
to find what NICE has recommended on physical
activity.
“I have used the NICE materials to cite as an
authoritative source on what we currently know about
physical activity, to introduce students to the process and
outputs from NICE (PowerPoints are already developed
for your use) and to inform researchers about the current
evidence base by using the ‘pathways’ tool.”
Once you have opened the NICE website
(www.nice.org.uk) click on ‘pathways’, ‘public
health’ and then ‘behaviour’ to find the range of
material on physical activity. The pathway that
includes the recommendations appears on the
main part of the screen, while the right-hand
section provides links to resources to help
implement the guidance and the full guidance
documents.
I have used the NICE materials to cite as an
authoritative source on what we currently know
about physical activity, to introduce students to
the process and outputs from NICE (PowerPoints
are already developed for your use) and to inform
researchers about the current evidence base by
using the ‘pathways’ tool. Now that is a NICE
resource to have at your fingertips!
BASES Student Conference 2012: Issues for supporting
and researching with Olympic and Paralympic Athletes
The University of East London is to host the 2012 BASES Student Conference. The organiser
James Beale presents an overview of what to expect this year.
Situated in the heart of London’s East End, the University of East
London (UEL) is the local University to the 30th Olympiad. UEL
were awarded hosting rights for the Conference from BASES in
October 2010. The Conference will take place on the 11th and
12th April 2012 at UEL’s Docklands Campus, a state of the art
campus situated in the prestigious Docklands area of London.
The accommodation for this year is two nights’ stay in the
Premier Inn Hotel, a 5 minute train journey on the Docklands
Light Railway (DLR) from UEL. The Conference Programme can
be viewed in 3 sections; the Pre-Conference Programme, the
Academic Programme and the Social Programme.
The Pre-Conference Programme is a new addition this year
as UEL recognises that a number of delegates will be travelling
some distance for the Conference the day before and in some
cases travelling alone. The aim of the Pre-Conference is to enable
delegates to get to know each other and to put the conference
into context through an invited presentation.
The Academic Programme has been put together to take
into consideration each of the three components within sport
and exercise science that are most frequently promoted
through BASES; Sport and Exercise Psychology, Physiology, and
Biomechanics. Each of these areas is represented by keynote
presentations, including both practitioners and researchers. The
Conference also has five invited speakers. There is a large amount
of the programme dedicated to delegate presentations, which this
year will take the form of posters and oral presentations.
During the Olympic and Paralympic year the Social
Programme was always going to be an important part of
the Conference. This year, in addition to the activity already
described, there will be a dinner on the first night of the
Conference. After the dinner there will be a chance for further
networking at the University Bar. At the very end of the
Conference the Olympic Park Walk will take place. Delegates will
get the chance to see the Park, and during which time a guide will
be on hand to ensure that delegates’ questions are answered.
UEL are delighted to have been awarded the right to host the
Conference and the Applied Sport and Exercise Sciences Team
are looking forward to welcoming you to the Conference.
The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
25

The Science Council
Prof Edward M Winter FBASES provides an update, outlining the benefits of membership but
presenting some cautions that the Association needs to recognise.
You might recall that last year, members were
invited to vote on a proposal that the Association
should seek to become a member of the Science
Council. There were 146 respondents. 88.7%
voted in favour, 5.6% voted against and 5.6%
registered “don’t know”. As a result of this
clear mandate, at the BASES Board meeting
on 1 December 2011, it was decided that the
Association should proceed with an application.
Why is membership of the Science Council
important?
The Science Council (www.sciencecouncil.org) is
a new organisation. It was established under Royal
Charter in October 2003 and was registered
as a charity with the Charity Commission in
September 2009. The principal aim of the Council
is to advance science and its applications for
public benefit. Currently, some 30 bodies are
members and increasingly, government and
other agencies seek advice from the Council on
scientific matters. It is likely that the influence
of the Council will grow so it is important that
BASES is one of the member organisations whose
views and advice are sought.
Why has the Association seen it necessary
to apply?
In 2003 or thereabouts, Dr Paul Bromley
proposed that to increase its national and
international standing, BASES should apply to
become a member of the newly-formed Science
Council. At the Association’s AGM in 2004, this
proposal was endorsed. At a later date, it was
decided that we should seek instead to become
a member of the Health Professions Council
(HPC). This proposal received overwhelming
support at the 2010 AGM. However, in March
2011, the HPC announced that it would no
longer consider adding new professions. This was
a disappointment but all was not lost and Dr
Paul Bromley’s initial proposal was resurrected.
It is important that BASES broadens both its
appeal and stature. Membership of the Science
Council should do both. Notably, because of our
structures, we satisfy the criteria to be a Licensed
Body of the Science Council.
What are the benefits of membership?
There are probably two:
1. The veracity of BASES would be recognised
by a lead body for science in the UK. This
should increase the profile of the Association
and hence, the likelihood of influencing
government and other policies on teaching,
research and applications of sport and exercise
science.
2. As a Licensed Body some members of BASES
can become Chartered Scientists. This marks
“It is worth
noting that other
members of the
Science Council
include the British
Psychological
Society, the
Institute of Physics,
the Physiological
Society, the
Royal Society
of Chemistry
and the Royal
Statistical Society.
Membership would
place us in good
company.”
words: Prof Edward M Winter FBASES
a major advance and reflects Chartered status
that is enjoyed by members of other leading
organisations and professions.
In my view, these are key benefits and it
would be a mistake to spurn the opportunities
that these benefits would create. It is worth
noting that other members of the Science
Council include the British Psychological Society,
the Institute of Physics, the Physiological Society,
the Royal Society of Chemistry and the Royal
Statistical Society. Membership would place us in
good company.
Are there disadvantages?
I am struggling to think of any. However,
acknowledging reservations expressed by some
members in the 2011 survey, costs have to be
considered. In the first year, there are three such
costs that would have to be borne by BASES.
These total £3,250. First, there is a levy made by
the Science Council on the basis of the number of
members; this would be £750. Second, there is a
one-off fee of £1,500 to become a Licensed Body
of the Council and third, an annual fee of £1,000
for a Licensed Body is required. In subsequent
years, fees would be £1,750 i.e., the levy and
annual fee.
There is likely to be a nominal annual fee
for BASES members who wish to apply for the
designation of Chartered Scientist.
I am frequently surprised by members who
are unaware that their annual fees are recognised
by HM Revenue and Customs as a legitimate
allowance. For many this means that fees are 20%
less and for other higher-rate tax payers, 40%.
We would need to establish how our
accreditation scheme would align with
Chartership. However, there are no foreseeable
issues with this and some bodies that have
Chartered members have criteria less
stringent than ours. We would also need to
avoid bureaucracy and associated duplication
of requirements for BASES and the Council.
However, I am sure this is not beyond us.
When will we know?
Our application has been submitted and the
Science Council’s Board meets on 24 April to
consider applications. The decision coincides with
the publication of this issue of The Sport and
Exercise Scientist.
So, I am firmly of the view that membership of
the Science Council as a Licensed Body is a major
step forward for BASES. It would be fitting if in
the year in which the Olympic and Paralympic
Games are to be held in London, BASES received
this accolade.
26 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

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High-risk sport research
Dominika Kupciw and Alexandra MacGregor highlight the advances, practical implications and future
directions in high-risk sport research.
The height of the skiing season is upon us, and many snow riders
are gearing up to hit the slopes around the world. Every winter
more of us look for ways to make our skiing holidays unforgettable
and the temptation to venture off the marked slopes in search
of fresh powder has never been stronger. However, many winter
sports enthusiasts were recently forced to re-evaluate their safety
measures after the tragic death of the young and talented freestyle
skier Sarah Burke. Sarah died following a training session crash,
causing her irreversible brain damage. Although many professional
skiers wear helmets, many people ignore this simple precaution.
Researchers are now interested in identifying the psychological
antecedents of risky behaviour in adventure sports. Here we provide
a general overview of previous risk-taking studies, outline the
research findings from recent studies on the risk-taking behaviours
of high-risk sport participants, and discuss the practical implications
of the research.
What are high-risk sports?
High-risk sports are activities where the possibility of injury or
fatality is an inherent part of participation, and specialised equipment
and training is generally required in order to minimise the risks
involved (e.g., white water kayaking, skydiving, skiing and traditional
climbing). The past two decades have seen the development and
increased popularity of new sports such as kitesurfing, and unlike
everyday risk-taking activities (e.g., dangerous driving) the danger
associated with high-risk sports has become socially accepted in
Western society; the potential outcomes, however, are equally risky.
Taking risks or “playing it safe”?
In 1979, Zuckerman defined sensation seeking as “the need for
varied, novel and complex sensations and experiences, and the
willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such
experience.” Since then, there has been a tendency to assume that
all high-risk sport participants are thrill seekers (Zuckerman, 1983,
2007). Given that sensation seeking and risk-taking are closely
linked (e.g., Horvath & Zuckerman, 1993), it is not surprising
that researchers have typically not sought to examine the detail
of different people’s risk-taking behaviours within these sports.
Recently researchers have challenged the idea that all high-risk sport
participants are risk-takers. These researchers have taken the view
that some individuals deliberately take risks when participating in
their sport, whilst others “play it safe” by choosing to minimise the
risks involved (e.g., Paquette, Lacourse & Bergeron, 2009; Woodman
& Bandura, 2010). To understand why people take risks in these highrisk
environments, it became apparent that there was a need for a
valid questionnaire for examining the risk behaviours of high-risk
sports individuals. In the following section we will briefly present the
development of the Risk Taking in Sport Inventory (RTSI).
Above: M. Kufel off-piste snowboarding at St. Moritz, Switzerland
Courtesy Zbigniew Szarzynski
Advances in measurement
Addressing the lack of suitable measures for investigating risktaking
behaviours in high-risk sports, Woodman and Bandura (2010)
developed the Risk Taking in Sport Inventory (RTSI). The measure
follows that of Paquette and colleagues’ (2009) work with skiers and
snowboarders, with the clear aim of more accurately differentiating
between deliberate risky behaviours (e.g., “I deliberately put myself
in danger”) and precautionary behaviours (e.g., “I take time to
check for potential hazards”) in high-risk sports. Deliberate risky
behaviours reflect a lack of understanding and consideration for
the high-risk sport environment, whereas precautionary behaviours
reflect careful planning and a high degree of awareness for the
risks associated with high-risk sports. As well as examining the
psychometric properties of the RTSI, we used the measure to
examine two key questions:
1. Are deliberate risky behaviours associated with a greater
number of near misses and accidents than precautionary
behaviours?
2. Are certain personality traits associated with engaging
in either deliberate risky behaviours or precautionary
behaviours?
28 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

Accidents
Accidents are common in many sports, but the
nature of high-risk sports means that accidents
are likely to be more traumatic and potentially
fatal. In terms of reducing the number of accidents
occurring in such sports, an understanding of
the behaviours that may predispose someone to
being more accident-prone is important. We found
that engaging in deliberate risky behaviours was
associated with a greater number of near misses
and accidents, whereas engaging in precautionary
behaviours (e.g., taking time to check for potential
hazards) was associated with fewer near misses
and accidents. What is more interesting is that
precautionary behaviours buffered the deleterious
effects of deliberate risk-taking on the likelihood
of accidents. In other words, danger per se does
not necessarily lead to accidents; it is when danger
is accompanied by a lack of precaution that danger
translates into accidents. There will always be
individuals who will push the limits of their sport,
and that is no different in the high-risk sport
domain. Clearly, some individuals will want to put
themselves in situations that are so dangerous
that the consequence of failing is almost certainly
death. However, the results from our study
show that engaging in certain behaviours (i.e.,
precautionary behaviours) reduces the likelihood
of such fatalities occurring.
Personality
While high-risk sports might not be everyone’s
idea of a leisure time activity, there is evidence
for the growing popularity of high-risk sports.
It is therefore important to establish which
individual characteristics motivate people’s
engagement in high-risk sports, and to attempt
to predict who may be particularly at risk in an
already dangerous environment. Of the “big five”
personality traits, it is neuroticism, extraversion
and conscientiousness that have been central to
numerous studies investigating high-risk health
behaviours (e.g., Vollrath & Torgensen, 2002). In
particular, conscientiousness has been a consistent
predictor of an individual’s tendency to take risks
in high-risk sports, with highly conscientiousness
individuals taking fewer risks than individuals
low in conscientiousness (e.g., Castanier, Le
Scanff & Woodman, 2010). In line with previous
findings (e.g., Castanier et al., 2010) we found that
conscientious individuals engaged in precautionary
behaviours, whereas less conscientious
individuals engaged more in deliberate risky
behaviours. Indeed conscientious individuals
are characterised as being careful, thorough,
and deliberate, therefore it is no surprise that
they tend to engage in more precautionary and
less risky behaviours. If we are able to identify
individuals who may be more likely to engage in
deliberately risky behaviours, we may be able to
put measures in place to reduce the likelihood
that their engagement will result in serious injury
or fatality (e.g., extra safety cover, spot checks of
safety equipment and competency, incorporating
potential psychological antecedents of risky
behaviour into sport risk management protocols).
Practical implications
“If human nature felt no temptation to take a
chance… there might not be much investment
merely as a result of cold calculation.” (John
“The need for
individuals to
take risks is a
fundamental aspect
of human nature;
the caveman would
not have emerged
from the cave to
feed his family if he
hadn’t taken risks. ”
Further Reading
Castanier, C., Le Scanff, C.
& Woodman, T. (2010). Who
takes risks in high risk sports: A
typological approach. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,
81, 478-484.
Horvath, P. & Zuckerman, M.
(1993). Sensation seeking, risk
appraisal, and risky behaviour.
Personality and Individual
Differences, 14, 41-52.
Paquette, L., Lacourse, E. &
Bergeron, J. (2009). Construction
d’une échelle de prise de risques
et validation auprès d’adolescents
pratiquant un sport alpin de glisse.
Canadian Journal of Behavioural
Sciences, 41, 133-142.
Vollrath, M. & Torgersen, S.
(2002). Who takes health risks?
A probe into eight personality
types. Personality and Individual
Differences, 32, 1185-1197.
Woodman, T. & Bandura, C.T.
(2010). The development and
validation of a questionnaire to
measure risk-taking behaviours in
high-risk sport environments. MSc
dissertation. Bangor University.
Retrieved October 21, 2010, from
Bangor University.
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation
Seeking: Beyond the Optimal Level
of Arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Zuckerman, M. (1983). Sensation
seeking and sports. Personality and
Individual Differences, 4, 285-292.
Zuckerman, M. (2007). Sensation
seeking and risky behavior.
Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Maynard Keynes)
The concept of risk lies at the very centre
of economic expansion; it is the driving force
behind discoveries and scientific development. The
need for individuals to take risks is a fundamental
aspect of human nature; the caveman would not
have emerged from the cave to feed his family if
he hadn’t taken risks. Thus, when proposing any
preventative or safety strategies for high-risk
sport participation it is important to recognise
and maintain the element of risk that many
participants specifically strive for.
With freestyle skiing and snowboarding
enjoying its place in the Winter Olympics and
current proposals by the International Sailing
Federation for the inclusion of kitesurfing in
the 2016 Olympic Games, the popularity of
high-risk sports is on the rise. This amplifying
interest in high-risk sports calls for appropriate
safety measures and accident prevention
strategies. Regulators of sports such as freestyle
skiing – making its debut in the 2014 Winter
Olympics – recognise the dangerous nature
of these sports and have focused on physical
safety and accident prevention measures such
as mandatory helmet use and air bags on the
sides of pipes during practice. However, it is clear
that sports regulators may need to consider the
psychological antecedents of risky behaviour in
adventure sports (e.g., low conscientiousness) in
order to ensure appropriate safety and accident
prevention measures are in place. Consequently
the RTSI could be used to identify an individual’s
tendency to take deliberate risks in sport that
could be beneficial in creating sport-specific
injury prevention strategies and in developing
safety guidelines for use in personal, coaching
and training environments, and in businesses that
provide recreational high-risk sport services.
Take-home message
Although research into the differing behaviours
of high-risk sport participants is in its relative
infancy, there is evidence to suggest that high-risk
sport participants are certainly not all deliberate
risk-takers. In fact, it is likely that one of the
main attractions for high-risk sportspeople is the
management and control of risk rather than risk
per se. For many years much of the research has
been based upon sensation seeking, and therefore
researchers have overlooked the prospect that
some high-risk sport participants deliberately
engage in risk-taking activities, others adopt safe
options within the high-risk sport domain. These
recent findings change the way people view highrisk
sport participants, and creates an exciting
avenue for future research in the domain.
words: Dominika Kupciw
Dominika Kupciw is an MSc Applied Sport and Exercise
Psychology graduate at Bangor University, qualified kitesurfing
instructor and extreme sports enthusiast.
Alexandra MacGregor
Alexandra MacGregor is an MSc Applied Sport and Exercise
Psychology graduate at Bangor University. She is currently studying
for a PhD at Bangor University in the area of adventure sports.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr Tim Woodman, School of
Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Bangor University, for his
assistance in writing this article and his valuable guidance in
conducting the abovementioned research project, and to all
participants who took part in the study.
The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
29

Point to ponder - Prof Edward M Winter FBASES
P values: Have they a future?
For some 50 years or so, hypothesis testing
has been a bedrock of science. Such testing
reflects Popper’s principle of falsification
i.e., before something can be accepted, the
opposite has to be shown to be untenable.
However, the simple pass-or-fail nature of
this approach has increasingly been seen to
be wanting. Indeed, the nature of absolutes has been challenged
and was a theme of the Royal Society in 2010 to mark the 350th
anniversary of the Society’s formation.
Some of us, like me, were taught that science was about facts
and irrefutable laws and a search for truth. However, Professor
Steve Jones stated at the Hay Book Festival, “Proof and certainty
is the province of priests and politicians, the rest of us have to
wrestle with probabilities.” Moreover, I was introduced recently
to something Bertolt Brecht wrote in his biography of Galileo,
“The aim of science is not to open the door to infinite wisdom,
but to set a limit to infinite error.” Jones and Brecht are right.
This is reflected in the increased use of confidence intervals
and effect sizes to indicate the effects of an intervention. In sport
and exercise science, the purpose of the “intervention” might be
to enhance the performance of athletes or, at the other end of
Diary dates
April 2012
17 Using Hypnosis to Enhance Personal and Group
Confidence, London www.bps.org.uk/events/using-hypnosisenhance-personal-and-group-confidence-0
18-20 BPS Annual Conference 2012, London
www.bps.org.uk/ac2012
19-21 5th Exercise & Sports Science Australia Conference and 7th
Sports Dieticians Australia update, Gold Coast
www.essa.org.au/venue/
21-22 Football Medicine Strategies for Knee Injuries, Chelsea FC,
London www.isokinetic.com
May 2012
6 BASES Undergraduate Endorsement Scheme
submission deadline – 1.00pm
9 BASES Workshop: Oxygen Uptake Kinetics:
measurement and application in sport and disease,
Liverpool
22 BASES Heads of Department Forum, Headingley
Carnegie Stadium, Leeds
30 BASES Workshop: ‘Signature Pedagogies’ in Sport
and Exercise Science, York
31 BASES Fellowship application submission deadline
June 2012
1 BASES International Conference Grant submission
deadline
7 2012 North American Society for the Psychology of Sport
and Physical Activity Annual Conference, Hawaii
www.naspspa.org/about-the-conference/about-the-conference
8-10 Human Anatomy Dissection Seminar, Kings College London
www.bases.org.uk/write/Documents/DissectionSeminar2012.pdf
the spectrum, improve the quality of life for those whose health
is compromised. The Olympic and Paralympic Games are only
a matter of weeks away and the Formula 1 season is already
underway. Success in both can be determined by the smallest
of margins and attempts to identify influential mechanisms in
the context of ecological validity taxes coaches and engineers
respectively. It is uncertainty that characterises their work - and
ours. The fundamental challenge is to accept that uncertainty -
and then attempt to minimise, not eliminate it. Elimination is a
fool’s errand.
NICE (the National Institute for Health and Clinical
Excellence) formally addresses two key questions: First, does a
(particular) drug work and second, is the drug cost effective?
Answers to both questions are not easy to obtain because they
are based not on certainty, proof and fact but on probabilities,
likelihood and acceptability.
P values have run their course and it is now time to use
alternative metrics to indicate effects of interventions. These
alternatives are probably best represented by confidence
intervals and effect sizes that give improved indications of
practically or clinically meaningful change.
RIP P.
BASES Workshops
www.bases.org.uk/Workshops
Awards and Grants
www.bases.org.uk/Awards / www.bases.org.uk/Grants
1.870
www.tandfonline.com/rjsp
30 The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk

Final word
with Prof Ian
G. Campbell
Before I take over as Chair of BASES in July, I
thought it may be of interest to learn about some
of the events and people that have influenced me.
I have always been interested in sport (and
physical activity) since a very young age, although
the reasons for participating have altered over
time. At school my objective was to make teams in
any sport so that I could miss lessons. This proved
successful!
Perhaps because of my focus on sport, at the
end of O-Levels I was advised to go and get a job.
Interestingly I was clear I wanted to do A-Levels
but was told I was not capable of doing 3 A-Levels
and certainly not chemistry. Not accepting this I
managed to convince the Head of Chemistry to
take me on. To everyone’s astonishment I passed.
During the sixth form I noticed courses called
‘Sports Science’, which appeared to link science to
sport. I went to Trent Polytechnic where I focused
on physiology. During this time I was inspired by
Doug Williamson who ran modules on disability
sport.
On completion of my undergraduate degree
I coached sports and worked as a part-time Sales
Assistant at Tandy in Nottingham. I enjoyed this
role, particularly selling toys in the lead up to
Christmas. In December 1984 I had an interview
for the MSc course at Loughborough. At this
time, you had an interview with each potential
module leader. At the first interview I was asked
to talk about myself and before too long I found
myself going into my sales talk about toy cars. I
ended up selling two remote control cars (with
rechargeable batteries) to the Senior Lecturer
concerned! The manager at Tandy was delighted.
At Loughborough I became passionate about
sports science and in particular physiology, largely
because of Professor Clyde Williams who inspired
me. For my dissertation I was able to link my
love of disability sport and physiology. As a result
of Clyde and support of Dr Henyk Lakomy I
managed to do this and to write up the work
(published in BJSM in 1987).
At this point I thought I wanted to do a PhD
and spoke to Clyde. As a result I decided to go
off travelling to check! A year later I walked back
in the lab and started helping out. I was lucky
enough to be awarded a University Scholarship
focused on ‘The physiology of spinal cord injured
athlete’. I feel very fortunate to have been in such
a high-quality research environment. My sport
participation was shifting from competitive to
social!
In 1992 I took on my first lecturing job at
Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU),
“As part of my
current role I have
responsibility for
Brunel’s activity
around the London
2012 Olympic and
Paralympic Games.
I’m therefore
interested to hear
the stories of
how you or your
Department is
engaging with the
Games and, if not,
why not!”
where Professor Les Burwitz was Head of
Department. Les is another man who has inspired
me because of his people skills and commitment
to his profession. During this time I also shared
an office with Professor Keith George where he
took up at least 75% of the office (physically). I
was located in an area that used to be a toilet!
Keith taught me an awful lot about relaxation! I
still wait for the day where I regard him as being
slightly angry!
Following my time at MMU I had a variety of
academic roles before I had an opportunity to
work in business with Lane4. I had a fantastic time
becoming Head of Business Development and
delivering work, particularly around the benefits of
physical activity for work performance, however, I
was missing the challenge of leading a Department.
I joined Brunel University as Head of Sport
Sciences in September 2005 and became a Pro-
Vice Chancellor in January 2008. As part of my
current role I have responsibility for Brunel’s
activity around the London 2012 Olympic and
Paralympic Games. I’m therefore interested to
hear the stories of how you or your Department
is engaging with the Games and, if not, why not!
In summary, sport and physical activity are
just as important to me now as they ever were,
however, the reasons for participating have now
shifted to ‘managing my pressures’ at work. I am
also just as passionate about sport and exercise
sciences and since 1988 I have been committed to
BASES. I have held a variety of different roles and
I am energised and excited about becoming the
next Chair of our Association. I look forward to
working with you.
words: Prof Ian G. Campbell
Prof Ian G. Campbell is Pro-Vice Chancellor and Professor of Exercise
Physiology at Brunel University. He is the Chair-Elect of BASES. The
photo shows Ian (third from left) in his current role - part of Brunel’s
activity around the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games.
Compiled by: Len Parker Simpson
Sports Physiology Research Scholar, University of Exeter
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The Sport and Exercise Scientist n Issue 31 n Spring 2012 n www.bases.org.uk
31

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