Critical Reading and Writing for Postgraduates - Doctorado en ...

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getting started on critical reading CONVINCING ARGUMENT = CONCLUSION + ADEQUATE WARRANTING (containing (based on sufficient claims) appropriate evidence) For an argument to be convincing, the claims in the conclusion need adequate warranting. Warranting is adequate when you, as the reader, are satisfied that there is sufficient evidence, and that it is appropriate evidence. It is important to realize that people may differ in their views about what counts as adequate evidence. This is because the strength of the warranting depends only indirectly on the evidence itself. The relationship is mediated by our interpretation. The reason why critical readers in the social sciences might question the adequacy of the warranting of claims forming the conclusion of a research paper is usually because they differ with the author in their judgement about the amount and quality of evidence necessary for warranting the acceptance of that conclusion. Identifying the conclusion and warranting of arguments Academic discourse offers us several ways of relating ideas to each other, and there is more than one formulation that can connect a conclusion and its warranting. Key indicators are words or phrases, such as: therefore, because, since, so, it follows that, it can be concluded that. Note how the following formulations all say essentially the same thing: •• Since research shows that girls mature faster than boys, studies should take age and gender into account when exploring child development. •• Child development studies should take age and gender into account because research shows that girls mature faster than boys. •• Research shows that girls mature faster than boys. Therefore, studies of child development should take age and gender into account. Other variations may weight the warranting, implying that it is reliable in its own terms but not necessarily universally true: •• In so far as girls are believed to mature faster than boys, studies of child development should take age and gender into account. •• In conditions where girls mature faster than boys, studies of child development should take age and gender into account. •• Where it is relevant to the investigation that girls mature faster than boys, studies should take age and gender into account. 35
critical reading and writing for postgraduates Incomplete or flawed arguments In your reading (and your own writing) look out for incomplete arguments. Table 3.1 shows some common flaws and the ways in which you can ask questions to identify where the problem lies. Table 3.1 Identifying flaws in arguments Critical questions as a Type of flaw in an Example (at the level reader, suggesting argument of a few sentences) there may be a flaw Example resolution Conclusion without The best musicians Why do you think that? The eye for fine detail warranting make the worst How do you know? possessed by the best teachers. musicians tends to make them over-critical and discouraging with pupils (Goodman, 2009). Potential warranting Johnson’s research So what? What do People may fail to without a conclusion shows that people these different pieces read legal documents often sign legal of evidence, together, because they are too agreements without imply? difficult. reading them. Legal documents can be difficult to read. Warranting leading to People in English- Does this reasoning This may suggest that an illogical conclusion speaking countries add up? Aren’t there English speakers do tend not to know other more plausible not see the need to another language. conclusions? know other languages. This indicates that they are poor language learners. Conclusion not explicitly Statistics show that What causal Since teenagers have linked to warranting teenagers are drinking relationship between only limited money, far too much to be the factors are you raising the price of good for their health. meaning to suggest? alcohol might result Alcoholic drinks should in their drinking less. be increased in price. Conclusion with Trainee managers Is the evidence However, males and inadequate warranting learn more effectively adequate to justify the females may respond when they are praised extent of the claim? differently to praise. than when their efforts Is the evidence Further, there is no are criticized. In a appropriately evidence of a link survey of female interpreted? between ‘liking to be trainee managers in a praised’ and learning retail company, 77% more effectively. said they liked to be praised. 36
Page 1 and 2: Second Edition Second Edition Secon
Page 3 and 4: Education at SAGE SAGE is a leading
Page 5 and 6: © Mike Wallace and Alison Wray 201
Page 7 and 8: critical reading and writing for po
Page 9 and 10: How to Use this Book The book is ai
Page 13 and 14: Acknowledgements We are grateful to
Page 16 and 17: 1 What it Means to be Critical Keyw
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Page 42 and 43: 3 Getting Started on Critical Readi
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critical reading and writing for po
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8 More Components: Knowledge, Liter
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12 Focusing and Building up your Cr
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What makes a literature review crit
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13 Integrating Critical Literature
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integrating critical literature rev
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tools for structuring a dissertatio
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15 Using the Literature in Research
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using the literature in research pa
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Appendix 1 ‘One word or two? Psyc
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appendix 1 Certificates were issued
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appendix 1 why a speaker/writer cho
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appendix 1 do so, they would be Afr
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appendix 1 account for why the expe
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appendix 1 but it could still be ar
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appendix 2 may inhere in their ende
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appendix 2 and organized to meet it
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appendix 2 ways that generate poor
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appendix 2 control. Changing belief
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appendix 2 sharing to consulting te
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appendix 2 Other SMT members Norms
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appendix 2 3 Other teachers have th
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Appendix 3 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF A T
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appendix 3 (d) How does the sort of
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appendix 3 (d) With what degree of
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appendix 3 (d) Are sources of backi
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appendix 3 8 To what extent are cla
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Appendix 4 Logic checksheet: Develo
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appendix 4 Focusing the presentatio
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Index abstraction level of 84, 86 a
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