human judgment in diagnosing problem behavior in horses using

problem. This is because most horses are good in behavior. Any horse however can
become rebellious with improper care or handling (Hill, 2000) or when it feels threatened
and at unease with its environment.
2.1 Visual and Environmental Cues
A horse is likely to communicate feelings and dislike towards a human by showing
expressions such as anger by kicking or biting, fear by walking away, anxiety or
depression or stress by not eating or not showing interest in anything. This shows that a
horse is superbly equipped for visual communication, which is probably the primary
mode for expressing feelings (Aronson & Dodman, 2003). The first clue to noticing these
expressions would be from the animal’s posture. In most situations, either both the head
and tail will be up or down. For example, with increasing excitement, both head and tail
tend to become higher. A submissive horse has a lowered head and tail and seems to be
trying to go further down towards the ground. A somewhat elevated head with a tucked
or partially raised tail may accompany a defensive threat. However, a sleepy horse, a
horse that is excited to check out its new environment and a horse that is trotting would
show the same signals as dropping the head and tail indicating that context is also an
important factor in judging posture and attributing it to the animal’s behavior (Aronson &
Dodman, 2003).
Another important visual cue is by looking at a horse’s facial expression,
particularly the movements of its ears, mouth and nose. There are 13 pairs of muscles
adjusting the position of each ear and ten pairs moving the nostrils, mouth and lips. The
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