Floodplain hay meadows along the river Tisza in Hungary

Floodplain hay meadows along the river Tisza in Hungary
Marianna Biró
Institute of Ecology and Botany, H-2163 Vácrátót, Alkotmány u. 2-4, Hungary, d mariann@botanika.hu
Grassland replaced riverine woodland
For thousands of years, the basic character of the floodplain meadows
along the river Tisza was determined by the slowly meandering
river, which flooded them several times in a year, together with the
influence of the human inhabitants, living seemingly in harmony
with nature and harnessing its capacities. Based on historical vegetation
data, it is presumed that most of today’s floodplain meadows
are the result of riverine woodland clearance, a process which was
continuous – and sometimes intensive – since the Neolithic. The last
large-scale reduction of the riverine oak woodlands along the Tisza
occurred in the early medieval ages (Sümegi, 2005, Magyari, 2002).
When the quickly twisting river, which originates in the Carpathian
Mountains, reaches the Great Hungarian Plain, its flow slows down,
very near to the Hungarian border. Floodplain meadows used to
flood twice a year, in early spring and again after the summer rainfalls.
At inundation, the majority of the Great Plain was traversed by
the water of Tisza, even the meadows of some country towns lying
40-50 kilometres from the riverbed were regularly flooded. Under
natural circumstances, the river deposited its quite fine-grained clay
sediment during its slow meandering through this region. The river,
which here forms more than a hundred large loops, descends only
2-4 cm in each kilometre (Dunka et al., 1996).
However, the fluctuation in its water level is quite extreme: at flooding
it may transport sixty times more water than at average flows. The
river, originating from the mountains and running through the forest
climate of the Great Plain, eventually reaches the driest and warmest
area of the Carpathian Basin, the so-called forest steppe region. Here
the annual precipitation is below 550 mm, the summer is hot and the
winter is quite cold (continental), yet the number of sunshine hours
is extremely high, with more than 2100 hours annually. The actual
floodway is covered by alluvium, whereas the drained floodplains have
hydro- and mesomorphic meadow or alkali (e.g. solonetz) soils.
Human settlement between floodplain and steppe
Though humankind settled on the edges of the vast floodplains of
the river during the Neolithic, management of the landscape only
began in the late Copper Age (3000-4000 years BC) (Sümegi et al.,
2005, Magyari, 2002). Presumably, by the Bronze Age (2000-3000
years BC) the land use on the different parts of the landscape had
diverged. The floodplain meadows and marshes along the river were
utilized for floodplain management (extensive animal husbandry and
pisciculture), while at higher elevations, the former steppes were replaced
by arable fields (Sümegi et al., 2005, Molnár, 2007). The major
medieval country towns were established on the border of these two
regions (Frisnyák, 1990). Animal husbandry was unambiguously the
basis for their economies (Bellon, 2003).
The Tisza was the most important route for transport of the ores,
timber and salt from Transylvania. Major Salt Roads departed from
its harbours and its ports were the most important nodes of the
post roads and the routes of the cattle herds. This area, which had
became the most important agricultural region of the Carpathian
Basin, became almost totally depopulated during the 150 years of the
Turkish regime during the 16 th and 17 th centuries, when only the major
towns remained inhabited (Frisnyák, 1990). The settlements started
to be repopulated in the early 18 th century. In addition to farming and
tillage, their inhabitants also restored the floodplain management on
the riverine areas.
Connected dynamics in farming and biodiversity
Traditional farming practices
The basis for water level control was allowing the floodwater to inundate
the lower-lying marshes and meadows (floodplain management,
from the Bronze Age to the river control period). This was achieved
by making gaps in the sediment ridges running along the river. After
the flood, the water was allowed to gradually drain away from the
meadows. Subsequently, the drained meadows were grazed by herds
of grey cattle, horses, sheep or pigs. Pigs were also driven into the
vast riverine oak woodlands to let them feed on the acorns. Meadows
covered by shallow water served as important spawning sites for
the fish, and these were only grazed after the fish had spawned. The
inhabitants achieved a high level of fish production by construction
of interconnected systems of these temporary ponds. Local people
earned their living from this so-called floodplain management by
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extensive cattle farming, fishing (e.g. of the traditional species “csík”
(Barbatula spp.)), catching crabs and also by trading crops and livestock
(Andrásfalvy, 2007; Frisnyák, 1990).
In addition to the local farming system, transhumance also existed.
In the process of extensive livestock farming, the grey cattle were
driven from the summer pastures to the winter pastures of the
floodplain, which was covered by a more productive sward (Andrásfalvy,
2007). Pigs, living on the riverine meadows and marshes during
summer like “semi-wild” boars, spent the winter in the vast oak
woodlands of the upper reaches of the Tisza, where they fattened
on the acorns to reach their selling weight (Bellon, 2003). From the
neighbouring mountains, large herds were also transferred to the
Great Plain after the summer.
At the beginning of the 19 th century, the need for the expansion of
arable land increased as a result of the rise in crop prices and the
growth in population. This land was initially obtained by the prevention
of regular flooding of the meadows and marshes. This led to
the drying out and rapid salinisation of meadows in many areas. The
vast drained marshes and fens were ploughed. A negative effect of
keeping the water out of these fields was the increase of the annual
floods in the area close to the river.
Building high levees
Moreover, because of woodland clearance in the mountains catchments
of the river basin, the Great Plain received a greater volume
of water at a faster rate. To solve these problems, high levees were
built from 1884 onwards, with a final total length of 3000 km (Dunka
et al., 1996). These embankments divided the floodplain into a “floodfree”
area (inner-dike area) and the “floodway”(outer-dike area),
which is regularly inundated. Due to the levees being built close to
the riverbed and the isolation of the former meadows and marshes
from river floods, numerous habitats became considerably degraded
and, in addition, the biodiversity of these regions also substantially
decreased. Careless alteration of land use has led to the accumulation
of seemingly unsolvable economic and social problems (Mihók et al.,
2006; Rakonczay, 2002). As a result of water management, common
pastures had been parcelled by the end of the 19 th century and the
traditional transhumance in the floodplain meadows also ceased. The
extensive farming using the ancient grey cattle declined significantly,
and the “semi-wild” pig breeds also disappeared (Andrásfalvy, 2007).
Further draining and intensification
By the 1960’s, even the remaining inland waters on previous floodplains
beyond the levees had been drained. The arid grasslands,
having replaced the dried-out meadows, had been mostly ploughed
by that time. This situation was worsened with the introduction of
the single-crop system established on vast fields, together with the
increased use of chemicals and fertilizers. The replacement of the
floodplain meadows and native woodlands with plantations of alien
species (hybrids of Populus canadensis, Fraxinus pennsylvanica and
Acer segundo) and the establishment of large-scale cultivation on
the floodway also commenced at this time. However, an interesting
dualism can be observed concerning the utilisation of the floodway:
on floodplain meadows and pastures extensive, small-scale peasant
farming (grazing, mowing, etc.) survived until the 1980’s, simultaneously
with the socialist large-scale farming and forestry system. The
reason was that woodlands and wooded hayfields smaller than 50
ha were placed under the ownership of the farmers’ co-operatives
instead of forestry. Thus, their traditional, extensive utilisation may
have played a significant role in the preservation of riverine species
and biodiversity.
Although in the second half of the 20th century most floodplain
meadows lying in the floodway were converted into hayfields, grazed
pastures also remained until the 1980’s. The treeless grasslands, the
wooded pastures and hayfields and even the grass layer of the sparse
woodlands, were grazed and mown. The grazing and mowing pattern
of the grasslands was determined by the diverse topography, the
water regime and the climatic conditions.
Recent abandonment of the river valley
In the early 1990’s the socio-economic changes (re-privatisation,
decreased support for animal husbandry) considerably altered the
use of the floodway grasslands. Subsidisation of animal husbandry
reached its minimum level and as a consequence less milk, meat and
wool was produced. Since the local market system had not been developed
by that time due to the previous central control, the number
of livestock dramatically and rapidly decreased in the settlements
along the river. The management of the meadows and wooded pastures
of the floodway ceased and this has resulted in the slow invasion
by shrubs, which is consistent with their origin from woodland
clearance. At the same time, together with the abandonment of the
pastures, the cultivation of several arable fields also ceased, and
these areas were invaded in a few years by the previously introduced
Amorpha fruticosa. The sudden increase in the amount of propagules,
together with the high-level floods of the late 1990’s, led to the serious
infestation of all the grasslands, wooded hayfields and woodlands.
The swiftly spreading Amorpha fruticosa destroys the natural
vegetation by the deep shading of its dense population as well as by
means of allelopathy (Szigetvári and Tóth, 2002). When the individuals
invading a certain area reach the age of 4-5 years, they form a
closed canopy, and the grassland becomes featureless, the character
species disappear, and only species resistant to shading can survive.
The floodplain hay meadows of the region
Due to flood control, ancient floodplain hay meadows, with a nearnatural
water regime and water supply can only be found within the
floodway of the river Tisza. Floodplain meadows lying beyond the
levees have been either cultivated or have dried out, thus they have
become salinified and have changed into Achillea steppes. According
to recent studies, floodplain meadows isolated from the river totally
dry out and become salinised within 50-60 years. They are replaced
by dry, short grass-dominated steppes typically with Achilleo-Festucetum
pseudovinae vegetation (or Lythro-Alopecuraetum in regions of
lower elevation), the soil of which accumulates alkali salts at depth
(Molnár and Borhidi, 2003).
In the Pleistocene and lower Holocene, the meandering rivers of the
Great Plain deposited semi-circular point bars. These curved ridges
can be observed on hay meadows anywhere in the floodplain along
the Tisza. The narrow depressions between these ridges, which support
marshes and sedge-dominated communities, usually had a direct
connection with the river in past centuries. Today, these are covered
by smaller or wider patches of marsh vegetation dominated by
Glyceria maxima or Phalaris arundinacea large sedges such as Carex
gracilis, and beds of Phragmites australis or Typha latifolia. The top of
the curved ridges are covered by Peucedanum officinale dominated
meadow-steppes, while on their slopes and at lower elevations, tall
herb communities and different types of marshes have established.
The meadows have properly adapted to the rapidly changing water
supply and, with their dynamically changing species composition,
they tolerate both the longer humid and dry periods. Nowadays,
they are partially under nature conservation management, and the
authorities try to sustain their current state by mechanized mowing.
Under natural conditions, with the cessation of mowing or grazing,
the floodplain meadows are slowly encroached by the native riverine
trees (Salix alba, S. fragilis, S. purpurea, Populus alba, P. nigra, Quercus
robur, Fraxinus angustifolia ssp. pannonica, Ulmus campestris and U.
laevis) or shrubs (Viburnum opulus, Euonymus europaeus, Sambucus
nigra and Crataegus monogyna), as they originated from the cleared
woodlands. This tendency was utilised by humankind with the development
of wooded pastures and hayfields, where some young trees
were left to grow, establishing a special landscape characteristic of
the Tisza floodplain. Due to the cessation of management, the condition
of the wooded pastures and hayfields gradually declined and
they are replaced by thickets of introduced species over a relatively
short period of time. Though they have great value as examples of
traditional land-use supporting high biodiversity, their preservation
on the non-protected areas has not as yet been resolved.
Floodplain mesotrophic meadows
Floodplain mesotrophic meadows were once the most frequent
meadow type along the Tisza. Even today they serve as a matrix for
the floodplain hay meadows. Under natural conditions, they are wet
during the greater part of the year, and often inundated. They are
characterised by meadow and marsh species and dominated by Alopecurus
pratensis, Poa pratensis, Festuca pratensis, Dactylis glomerata
and Carex melanostachya. The average height of the sward is about
0,5-1 metre and species composition is determined by the duration
of water cover. The characteristic species are Clematis integrifolia,
Galium rubioides, Cardamine pratensis, Galega officinalis, Gratiola officinalis,
Viola elatior, Rumex confertus, Thalictrum flavum, Thalictrum
lucidum, Cirsium canum, Cichorium intibus, Symphytum officinale, Iris
pseudacorus, Galium palustre, Lysimachia vulgaris, Lythrum virgatum,
L. salicaria, Ranunculus repens, Pastinaca sativa and Lychnis flos-cucculi.
Sometimes they may have fen characteristics due to water logging.
This is indicated by the presence of species such as Serratula tinctoria,
Ophioglossum vulgatum and Gentiana pneumonanthe. In the meadows,
the characteristic colourful species include those that are often also
typical of the willow-poplar woodlands, such as Leucojum aestivum.
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Meadow-steppes
Among the hay meadows, the grasslands of the highest nature
conservation value are the meadow-steppes, established on the top
of the curved ridges. Today, each of their stands can be considered
as curiosities. They survive in a few places and only a small area
remains, as the majority of them were cultivated due to favourable
site conditions. The term “meadow-steppe” refers to their species
composition, containing species of both meadows and steppes.
The dominance of the species changes dynamically in response to
the humid and dry periods. Dry years favour the spread of steppe
elements, while these are replaced by meadow species in the more
humid periods. Under natural conditions, riverine meadow-steppes
were rarely flooded. The characteristic species are Peucedanum officinale,
Iris spuria, Aster punctatus and Aster linosyris. Steppe elements
are Filipendula vulgaris, Asparagus officinalis, Hypericum perforatum,
Fragaria viridis, Artemisia pontica and Vincetoxicum hirundinaria.
Dominant grasses of this community are Festuca pseudovina, Festuca
rupicola, Poa pratensis, Poa angustifolia and Carex praecox. A rare
grass of meadow-steppe is Hierochloe odorata. Saline forest steppe
meadows with tall herbs (Peucedano-Asteretum), which are related to
the cool continental meadows of South-Siberia, also belong to the
category of floodplain meadow-steppes (Borhidi and Sánta, 1999).
Floodplain tall herb communities
Typical transitional communities of the hay meadows on the point
bars are the floodplain tall herb communities, having established
principally on the verges of the lower lying marshes and the margins
of scrubs and groves. On the humidity gradient, this habitat of
great conservation value lies between the marshes and meadows. If
mowing is abandoned for a long period, monocotyledons and marsh
species tend to become dominant, while regular mowing and burning
transforms this vegetation type into mesotrophic floodplain
meadow. According to our present knowledge, the survival of this
vegetation is maintained by episodic management. An example
of its vulnerability is if mowing ceases– even for a few years, then
degradation occurs rapidly due to the invasion of Calamagrostis epigeios
and Amoropha fruticosa. Characteristic of this vegetation is the
dominance of tall herbs, they form stands of 1-1.5 metres in height.
The most characteristic species are the Ponto-Pannonian Leucanthemella
serotina, the endemic Pannonian Armoratia macrocarpa, as
well as Veronica longifolia, Senecio paludosus, Euphorbia lucida and E.
palustris, Thalictrum lucidum and flavum, and Betonica officinalis. Further
frequent species include Althaea rosea, Epilobium hirsutum, Lysimachia
vulgaris, Lythrum virgatum, L. salicaria, Stachys palustris and
Symphytum officinale. In addition, species typical of Phalaris arundinacea
beds, reed beds and sedge beds such as Phalaris arundinacea,
Calamagrostis pseudophragmites, Carex gracilis, C. acutiformis, Phragmites
australis and Iris pseudacorus may also occur in this community.
The dominant grasses of the mesotrophic meadows (Alopecurus
pratensis, Agrostis stolonifera and Poa pratensis) are sub-ordinate
among the tufts and clones of tall herbs and marsh species. Depending
on land use, sub-dominant Galium rubioides, G. palustre and Viola
elatior and rarely Poa palustris, Stellaria palustris, Leersia oryzoides and
Lathyrus palustris may also be a component of the species pool.
Floristic elements of floodplain meadows
Table 1 summarises the abundance, the “floral element” type and the
habitat preference of the most typical species of floodplain meadows
and is based on Horváth et al., 1995 and Király, 2007. More than half
of the listed species are Eurasian or Continental, some are Pontic
or Pontic Continental, while one is Eurosiberian. South-eastern European
and Mediterranean species are also a component of these
hay meadows. Among the species listed in table 1, the most valuable
ones are Armoracia macrocarpa, endemic in the Carpathian Basin and
Peucedanum officinale, which is a typical species of Central European
moist wood-steppe. Though most listed species are characteristic
of Phragmition or Molinio-Arrhenatherea, some of them indicate fen
character in the habitats, such as Senecio paludosus, Serratula tinctoria,
Ophioglossum vulgatum and Gentiana pneumonanthe.
Aspects of fauna
Before their drainage, the floodplains along the Tisza, flooded annually
by the river, were the most important spawning grounds in
Middle Europe. Remains of ancient tools and written records serve
as evidence for the fact that fish ponds were already established on
the meadows before the foundation of the Hungarian state. These
ponds were utilised with admirable success by the descendants of
the Scythians (Andrásfalvy, 2007; Molnár, 2003). According to the
medieval records, fish of the Tisza, packed among ice and hay, were
transported to Wien, or even to the markets of Paris. Nowadays,
spawning by fish – principally the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) – is
possible only on a few floodplain meadows. Thus, the former abundance
of fish has also decreased considerably.
Mosquitoes, day-flies, dragon-flies, caddis-flies and beetles, breed in
the water confined on the meadows of the floodway. These are a rich
source of food for the reptiles, amphibians of this habitat and they
also serve as prey for hunting bats, e.g. Myotis daubentonii and the
rare Myotis dasycneme (Lisztes, 2004). These animals all attract the
birds that nest in the gnarled trees of the neighbouring woodlands,
reed beds or scrub. Thus, the meadows are often visited by Ciconia
ciconia, C. nigra, Ardea cinerea, A. purpurea, Botaurus stellaris, Nycticorax
nycticorax or ibises, such as the impressive Platalea leucorodia,
Egretta alba, Egretta garzetta and the very rare Plegadis falcinellus.
The insects of the meadows are also food for Hirundo rustica, Coracias
garrulus, Falco verpertinus and F. tinnunculus, Locustella fluviatilis,
Hypollais pallida, Lanius collurio and Saxicola rubetra. Birds of prey,
including owls, which live in the riverine woodlands and hunt on the
meadows, are real specialities of these regions of the Great Plain
along the Tisza. Such birds are Haliaetus albicilla, Milvus migrans,
Circus aeruginosus, Falco subbuteo, Falco cherrug and Asio otus (Varga,
2002; Fekete and Varga, 2006). The most important ground-nesting
birds are Vanellus vanellus, Perdix perdix and Crex crex. The latter species
which nests among the tall herbs, now receives special protection
due to its rarity.
Owing to the regular flooding of the river, habitats along the Tisza
collectively form an ecological corridor of outstanding importance,
which is demonstrated by the downward dispersion of the fauna
from the mountains (e.g. the Transylvanian grasshoppers, like Leptophyes
discoidalis and Poecilimon schmidtii). The most interesting
insects of floodplain mesotrophic meadows and Peucedanum officinale-dominated
meadow-steppes are the species that have a cool
continental, Euro-Siberian distribution, while in the lower course
of the river southern, sub-Mediterranean species occur here at the
northernmost limits of their range. The most frequent Orthopteras
are Mantis religiosa, Conocephalus and Ruspolia spp., Gampsocleis glabra,
Chrysochraon dispar, Pezotettix giornae, Mecostethus grossus and
Polysarcus denticauda, a characteristic species of the sub-montane
meadows (Varga, 2002). This region is the westernmost part of the
distribution range of the sub-endemic Odontopodissima rubripes.
In the Carpathian Basin, Gortyna borelli ssp. lunata, which receives
special protection, only feeds on Peucedanum officinale, while Thalictrum
species are the larval food plants of Lamprotes aureum. The
phylogenetically quite ancient Zerynthia polyxena, which reaches the
northern and western edges of its range in the Carpathian Basin, is
monophagous on Aristolochia clematitis, a frequent character plant
species of the floodplain meadows (Varga, 2002). Some other rare,
protected and impressive butterflies are Lycaena dispar, Papilio machaon
and Vanessa atalanta.
Future and possible way forward
Following the flood control, the habitats representing the past
natural vegetation of the ancient Tisza district have become concentrated
in a rather small area, together with those parts that constitute
the new, secondary landscape, which established as a result of
the control. In the floodway, since the flood regulation, the area of
grasslands has been substantially reduced, while the proportion of
the woodlands has increased. Moreover, introduced tree and shrub
species have also appeared (Molnár, 2007).
Problems with alien species
Some of the remaining floodplain meadows of great natural value
are under conservation management. Although the meadows in the
district of the three National Parks are annually mown, the clearance
of some areas invaded by Amorpha fruticosa has still to be tackled.
This process, together with the restoration of the floodplains, the
traditional land use and the reconstruction of the previous landscape,
is supported by national and international grants (like LIFE).
Experiments have been conducted at controlling Amorpha fruticosa
using grey cattle to graze the affected meadows. Nowadays, nonprotected
grasslands owned by smallholders are mostly grazed by
cattle or sheep, although some have been gradually abandoned. Almost
none are regularly mown or burnt. Due to a lack of money, the
owners do not clear Amorpha fruticosa from the meadows and their
previously valuable hayfields and wooded pastures are relatively
quickly invaded by shrubs.
The continuous alterations of the landscape, as a consequence of
the river control, have led to unprecedented environmental change.
This has had an impact on the competition between the species
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and has caused the loss of a number of habitats. The value of the
landscape is vanishing even more seriously before our very eyes. The
heterogeneity and dynamism of the landscape, mentioned in the
previous section, implies that land use will significantly determine
the destiny of this region in the future, just as it did in the past. If the
grasslands are not mown in the future and the shrubs invading them
are not cleared from these areas, the grasslands will be replaced by
the spontaneously extending thickets of Amorpha fruticosa. The vast
majority of grasslands will disappear, and most of their species will
vanish as a result of allelopathy and shading by Amorpha fruticosa. It
is likely that other introduced woody species will also appear, such
as Fraxinus pennsylvanica and Acer negundo and lianas. In about 20-30
years, the invasion of trees and lianas will transform the former hayfields
and wooded hayfields into dense riverine thickets dominated
by non-native species. The effects of the eradication of Amorpha
Table 1. Characteristics of typical species of floodplain meadows.
Typical species
Abundance in the
Tisza-valley
IUCN
Categories 2001
Near Threatened
Flora element
fruticosa thickets and the mowing of grasslands can be determined
unambiguously in advance (Szigetvári and Tóth 2005). The traditional
forms of landscape management have had a long history of
practice in Hungary with accurately developed methods. Thus their
precise application might be a suitable approach for the future. However,
they cannot be applied even in the most valuable regions due
to a lack of money.
Financial support
Financial support and regulation measures of the European Union,
such as the subsidisation of agrarian nature conservation, the support
for the development of ecotourism and the Environmentally Sensitive
Areas program, are of great importance for preserving small-scale
peasant farming and traditional forms of land use. Nevertheless, the
inhabitants of this region reluctantly continue to reduce the number
Habitat preference
Armoracia macrocarpa rare NT Pannonian Endemic Phragmition australis
Artemisia pontica common - Eurasian - Mediterranean Festucetalia valesiaceae & Artemisio -
Festucetalia pseudovinae
Aster sedifolius frequent - Eurasian - Continental Artemisio - Festucetalia pseudovinae
Cardamine pratensis loc. frequent - Circumpolar Molinio - Arrhenatherea
Centaurea pannonica common - South-East European Molinio - Arrhenatherea
Clematis integrifolia rare - Eurasian - Continental Molinio - Arrhenatherea
Eryngium planum rare - Pontic Continental Agrostion albae
Euphorbia palustris common - European Magnocaricion
Galium rubioides common - Central European Alopecurion pratensis
Gentiana pneumonathe rare NT Eurasian Molinio-Juncetea
Iris spuria rare NT West-Mediterranean Molinietalia
Lathyrus palustris rare NT Circumpolar Phragmitetea & Molinio-Juncetea
Leucanthemella serotina loc. frequent NT Continental – Pontic Pannonian Phragmition australis
Leucojum aestivum loc. frequent NT Sub-Atlantic - Submediterranean Salicion albae
Peucedanum officinale frequent NT Central European Cynodonto-Festucion & Aceri tatarico-Quercion
Poa palustris rare - Circumpolar Phragmitetea & Molinio-Juncetea
Rumex confertus loc. frequent NT Eurosiberian Alopecurion pratensis
Scutellaria galericulata common - Circumpolar Phragmitetea & Molinio-Juncetea
Senecio paludosus rare NT Eurasian - Mediterranean Caricion rostratae & Magnocaricion
Serratula tinctoria rare - European - Mediterranean Molinio - Arrhenatherea
Thalictrum flavum common - Eurasian Molinietalia & Magnocaricion
Thalictrum lucidum common - Continental Molinietalia
Veronica longifolia common - Eurasian Agrostion albae
Viola elatior loc. frequent - Eurasian Alno-Padion
Viola pumila loc. frequent NT Pontic Continental Deschampsion caespitosae
of livestock, and unfortunately, they are often not informed about
what land management options may be available, or they are unable
to obtain the aid of the government or the European Union.
In some parts of the region, so extremely severe is the level of
poverty that people choose to travel to the distant but far cheaper
hypermarkets, while the use of shops and services in the smaller
settlements is alarmingly reduced. The local (mainly bio-)products
of higher quality are very expensive so that within the region, only
eco-tourists can afford to buy them, and these products can only be
sold in distant parts of the country. Seeing the lack of job possibilities,
markets and even schools, more and more people tend to move
into the towns. Thus, it is very important to provide financial support
for local food production and the trade of local products in order to
retain people in the villages of the district.
EU directives, such as the Water Framework Directive, help to preserve
the waters of the drainage basin and wetlands of the Tisza, at
least in their current state. This regulation system plays an essential
role in controlling of the water quality, annually flooding the meadows
and also in sustaining the ponds. However, it may also concern
conceptual questions, such as the planned dredging of the riverbed
aimed at making the Tisza navigable. This might have disastrous
effects on both the wildlife of the river and the water regime of the
meadows within the floodway.
With its special cuisine and still fishing waters, the marvellous and
diverse, but at the same time, very calm landscape of the Tisza, has,
for a long time, been a magnet for tourists. Restoring the system of
the medieval fishing ponds would provide new opportunities for ecotourism.
This would also mean a chance to reconstruct the temporarily
flooded riverine hay meadows and marshes, on the grounds of
the EU support. The aforementioned traditional fishing ponds, filling
with water each year at inundation, would give rise to a prosperous
pisciculture. Moreover, they would also reduce the damage caused
by the floods, which are becoming more and more frequent.
references
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