cotton - Greenmount Press

Print Post Approved Publication No. PP 424022/1583
December 2012–January 2013
www.cottongrower.com.au
The Australian Cottongrower
P.O. Box 766, Toowoomba, 4350.
Ph: (07) 4659 3555. Fax (07) 4638 4520.
Email: cotton@greenmountpress.com.au
Website: www.cottongrower.com.au
DELIVERIES: 120 Herries St, Toowoomba, Qld. 4350.
EDITOR:
David Dowling
ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Lloyd O’Connell
PRODUCTION MANAGER: Mick Allan
OFFICE MANAGER: Catherine O’Connell
NATIONAL ADVERTISING
MANAGER:
Michael Cook
ADVERTISING: Ph: (07) 4659 3555
Mob: 0428 794 801
Fax: (07) 4638 4520
CONTENTS OF ADVERTISEMENTS are the responsibility of the
advertisers. All statements and opinions expressed in The Australian
Cottongrower are published after due consideration of information
gained from sources believed to be authentic. The following of
advice given is at the reader’s own risk, and no responsibility is
accepted for the accuracy of the matter published herein. No portion
in whole or part may be reproduced without permission of the
publisher. Copyright 2012.
Published by Berekua Pty. Ltd., 40 Creek Street, Brisbane.
Registered by Australia Post Print Post Approved Publication
number
PP 405518/00026. ISSN 1442–5289.
PUBLISHED: FEBRUARY, APRIL, JUNE, AUGUST, OCTOBER,
DECEMBER. COTTON YEARBOOK PUBLISHED IN SEPTEMBER.
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Contents
Editorial
Cotton Research Roundup 4
An update on some cotton industry water issues 10
Refuge crops – investing in cotton’s future 14
Vip3A resistance genes: A threat to Bollgard III 17
The contribution of new varieties to cotton yield improvement 20
Irrigation Feature…
Adaptive control to improve surface irrigation efficiency 24
How good is your water use efficiency 27
Cotton irrigators continue to improve 29
CSIRO Researcher Profile: Greg Constable 30
Two new appointments at Cotton Seed Distributors 31
Marketing…
World Commodity Watch 32
The world cotton market 34
Ginning & Fibre Series…
Recycled textile fibre as a reinforcement for composites 38
From Kingsgrove to Qingdao: A story of exporting success 41
Managing glyphosate resistant weeds in summer
cropping systems 44
Herbicide options shrinking for cotton 47
The essentials for successful cotton in the Burdekin 49
Classic Tractor Tales…
Adolphe Kégresse and his crawler tracks 52
Germinating Ideas 55
News & New Products 58
District Reports 61
Front Cover…
2
DECEMBER 2012–JANUARY 2013
Volume 33, No.7 $7.70
For all advertising enquiries please
contact Michael Cook on
Ph: 07 4659 3555, Mob: 0428 794 801
E: advertising@greenmountpress.com.au
INSIDE
Refuge crops
– investing in
cotton’s future
The
Irrigation
contribution of Feature
new varieties
Burdekin growers Sheree and Layton
MacDonald have grown crops with
good margins over the past two years.
See story page 49.
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 1

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Editorial… DavidDowling,Editor
A return of $86 for every $1 invested. Not bad – sensational
in fact. But that was the estimated payback on investment in
plant breeding in the Australian cotton industry in a study done
almost 10 years ago. There is no reason to think that the result
would have changed much over the past decade – in fact, it
may well have increased given the continued development of new varieties from
the Australian cotton plant breeding production line.
Now the cotton plant breeding team are a pretty modest bunch, but in an
article in this issue, they put a few numbers on just where this extraordinary
return comes from. Almost 50 per cent of the increase in cotton yields in
Australia has come directly from the introduction of new CSIRO bred and CSD
marketed varieties. About 25 per cent of the yield increase has come from better
management (nutrition, irrigation etc), while the rest has come from interactions
between new varieties and better management.
Allow me to go a little further. Actual yields have doubled since the 1960s
to around 8.5 bales per hectare. Plant breeding has contributed at least 48 per
cent of that increase. Using my trusty back-of-the-envelope (never been wrong),
something which the scientists themselves would never do, I estimate that about
a quarter of the yield of a modern cotton crop would not be there without
the development of new varieties over that time. Put it another way – about
1.3 million bales of the 2011–12 crop was produced as a direct result of plant
breeding.
Of course, that is very simplistic. If we didn’t have an Australian cotton
breeding program, we would have grown overseas varieties which have also
improved somewhat, although not to the same extent as ours. And the fact is,
no-one would be planting cotton if yield expectations were the same as they
were in 1970.
But it does give an idea of what a great investment it has been to embark on
an Australian cotton breeding program – an exercise which was not universally
supported at the time.
One result of that success is that CSD – non-profit and grower controlled
– has been able to produce strong surpluses. Some of these funds are now
finding their way back to the industry in CSD’s investment in the new industry
Development and Delivery team. It’s great when everybody wins, isn’t it.
And on that happy note, I’d like to wish everyone a Merry Christmas and a
safe and prosperous New Year.
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Email: qld@smk.com.au
2 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

In this issue...
Refuge crops – investing
in cotton’s future
The introduction of transgenic cotton in
1996 has allowed the industry to totally
revolutionise the way cotton is produced.
Over 90 per cent of the cotton grown in Australia in 2012
utilised Bollgard II technology, making it arguably the most
important technology the industry uses
See story................................................................... Page 14
Vip3A resistance genes:
A threat to Bollgard III
The insecticides engineered into
transgenic cotton come from a soil
bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt) which produces several different types of toxins. The two
toxins in the current variety of Bt-cotton are crystalline or Cry
toxins (Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab). Genes that enable resistance to Cry
toxins were detected by CSIRO in populations of Helicoverpa
species even before these insects were exposed to Bt cotton.
See story................................................................... Page 17
The contribution of new varieties to
cotton yield improvement
Analysis of a large data set of CSIRO
cotton breeding experiments over 30
years has demonstrated a number of
interesting trends. There have been yield
increases from new varieties and from
crop management. But there has also been an interaction
between breeding and management in that new varieties
respond more to modern management than old varieties do.
Resistance to diseases is an important component of that
interaction.
See story................................................................... Page 20
Managing glyphosate resistant weeds
in summer cropping systems
The 2012–13 summer will see
a new chapter unfold for many
cotton growers, as well as other
farmers in the northern cropping
areas. It might be a good cropping
season, but it will almost certainly
be a season of frustration, with more and more weed control
failures following glyphosate applications..
See story................................................................... Page 44
The essentials for
cotton in the Burdekin
In this article we tell the story
of some of Burdekin growers
pioneering cotton and how their
partnership with local R&D is
progressing robust production
practices for this unique cotton growing environment.
See story................................................................... Page 49
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December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 3

Cotton
Research
Roundup…
Bruce Finney
Bruce Pyke
Which way forward
CRDC is well underway with the development of its next
five-year Strategic R&D Plan which will commence on July
1, 2013. An industry situation analysis has been undertaken
in consultation with Cotton Australia and researchers. Not
surprisingly there are many similarities with the issues facing the
industry five years ago. But the issues have evolved, with new
levels of urgency being identified for addressing challenges to
profitability, market competitiveness, stewardship of technologies,
competition for resources and sustainability.
CRDC is now contemplating the relative importance of the
issues, noting they are highly connected. The industry vision for
the future provides valuable guidance. It may be that the current
strategic direction of the ‘quest for sustainable competitive
advantage’ remains with similar goals but with new or better
ways identified to achieve them through R&D. This has certainly
been evidenced in recent and predicted innovation in technology
and communication.
Industry R&D collaboration
Under the banner of a National Primary Industries Research,
Development and Extension (RD&E) Framework the Primary
Industries Ministerial Council (PIMC), the Australian, state and
Northern Territory governments, rural R&D corporations, CSIRO
and universities are jointly collaborating to promote ongoing
improvement in the investment of RD&E resources nationally.
For the cotton industry this has been a good chance to bring
together senior representatives from the major stakeholders
in RD&E. Following the development of a cotton sector RD&E
strategy it was agreed to form the Cotton Innovation Network
which held its inaugural meeting in February 2012. The role of
the network is to improve RD&E through enhancing collaboration
in strategy and investment, R&D, capability management and
development and delivery. With the cessation of the Cotton CRC
the commencement of the network has been a timely endeavour.
Industry-wide environmental assessment
complete
The Australian Cotton Industry’s Third Environmental
Assessment is complete and industry is preparing a response to the
recommendations in the report. CRDC’s General Manager Research
Inovact consulting ’ s Ken Moore interviewing Breeza cotton
grower Rodney Grant during the grower survey segment
of the Australian Cotton Industry ’ s Third Environmental
Assessment 2012.
Investment Bruce Pyke and an industry steering committee oversaw
the third industry-wide assessment undertaken by the cotton
industry since 1991. The independent assessment was conducted
by the Canberra-based consultancy firm Inovact.
“The assessment is an excellent ‘report card’ for the industry
as it showed that most of the recommendations made in 2003
have been adopted at a high level (Figure 1), particularly in critical
areas such as the management of water, chemicals and natural
resources,” Bruce Pyke said.
FIGuRE 1: The Third Environmental Assessment
reviewed the extent to which the industry
adopted the recommendations of the Second
Environmental Audit (2003). The assessment
covered 46 recommendations and these have
been rated as shown.
4 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

We’re with you
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For over 40 years, Cotton Seed Distributors (CSD)
has had a proud heritage of supporting Australian
Cotton Growers.
Being grower owned and controlled, no one knows
the needs of the Australian Cotton Grower like CSD.
CSD actively invests in local research and breeding
to ensure the Australian Cotton Growers are leaders
in the field in a competitive global market.
Experience, integrity and local knowledge, CSD
delivers what Australian Cotton Growers need.
For more e information on CSD visit www.csd.net.au or phone (02) 6795 0000

FIGuRE 2: Grower perceptions of the top
environmental issues today
“Interestingly, cotton industry and external stakeholders
largely agree on environmental management issues, with
most stakeholder survey respondents (78 per cent) identifying
water related factors as core environmental issues; 76 per cent
identified soil related issues; 42 per cent related issues associated
with chemical application; 40 per cent with climate impact and
energy use; and 36 per cent with issues relating to protection of
the surrounding environment.
“When asked about important environmental priorities for
cotton growing over the next three to five years, industry and
external stakeholders ranked water use efficiency, greenhouse
emissions and soil health as the top three priorities (Figure 3).”
Grower survey participants were asked to nominate their top
three environmental management issues for today. Water use
efficiency out-ranked pesticide use and management, soil health,
and fertiliser use and management (Figure 2).
Implementing recommendations from its two previous
environmental studies in 1991 and 2003 has significantly
improved the industry and the 2012 assessment will contribute to
the shape of the industry’s strategic direction for the next five to
10 years.
The report arrived at a critical time for the industry.
With both Cotton Australia’s and the CRDC’s strategic
planning for 2013–18 underway, the industry is well placed to
address one of the report’s key recommendations which is to
develop a five-year RD&E strategy for continuous improvement in
environmental management and performance in cotton growing.
Improving environmental performance on cotton farms is
integrated into CRDC’s current Strategic Plan within the goals of
Farming Systems R&D. There is an opportunity to now consider
the merits of an explicit commitment to continuous improvement
in environmental performance in cotton growing that enhances
communication, collaboration and improves the measurement of
success. This will enable the Australian industry to communicate
to growers, government and the market how it has improved
environmental performance over time
The industry has agreed that by 2029 the Australian Cotton
Industry will be a ‘Responsible – producer and supplier of the
most environmentally and socially responsible cotton on the
globe’ (Vision2029).
“Implementing the report’s recommendations will better
position the industry to respond to market-driven changes related
to environmental performance,” Bruce Pyke said.
Calling climate champions
CRDC is looking for two climate-savvy cotton growers to
join the National Climate Champion Program which involves 37
farmers from different regions and enterprises across Australia
who work with scientists to bring climate research to the
paddock and tell climate researchers what farmers need for the
future.
CRDC Program Manager Allan Williams says the better the
FIGuRE 3: Stakeholder perceptions of future
environmental priorities for the industry
6 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

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industry can understand weather and climate, the more able
growers will be to take advantage of seasonal and marketing
opportunities. CRDC is eager to make sure they keep in touch
with the industry to understand growers’ most important
weather issues.
The investment in Climate Champions by CRDC is part of a
larger planned investment in the national Managing Climate
Variability R&D (MCV) program. The MCV program is looking at a
number of critical issues, including:
■ Improving seasonal forecasting – its accuracy, lead-time and
ease of use;
■ Providing farmers with tools and information for managing
climate risk; and,
■ Increasing the number of farmers and natural resource
managers managing their climate risk.
The MCV program has been running for 10 years, and has
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helped to ensure that the needs of agriculture are incorporated
into the on-going development of the models used to make
weather forecasts – for example by having forecasts available at
both the scale and timing that are most relevant to farmers.
CRDC believes that participation by cotton growers in the
Climate Champion program will also help to generate ideas for
further R&D investment in managing climate variability that are
tailored to the needs of cotton growers – for example, improving
the robustness of soil temperature forecasting at planting, and
prediction of frosts during defoliation.
Farmers in the Climate Champion program are improving their
communities’ understanding of climate variability and the impacts
of increasing variability by talking to other farmers about their
successful on-farm management practices.
Climate Champion growers have access to the latest weather
and climate tools, and are supported through training and some
remuneration to look at research, present information about
climate research to their networks, showcase their own practices
and farming systems, and speak to the media.
Growers interested in applying to become a Climate
Champion should complete the 10-minute form at
www.surveymonkey.com/s/CottonCC.
The closing date for nominations is January 18, 2013.
For more information contact Allan Williams 02 6792 4088, allan.williams@
crdc.com.au or Sarah Cole (Climate Champion program manager) 07 3846 7111
sarah@econnect.com.au).
Harvest BMP handbook available
As part of the CRDC-funded Post Harvest BMP project, CSIRO
textile technologist, René van der Sluijs has drafted industry
harvesting guidelines – Best Practice Management for Harvesting.
While the on-farm BMP guidelines touch on harvesting
practices, the new guidelines offer in depth information that
cover many potential issues that compromise both cotton yield
and fibre quality.
When harvesting, there can potentially be losses of up to five
to 10 per cent and the timing of harvest and other factors can
determine the quality of the crop and how it performs in the gin.
The guidelines were developed based on a literature review and
significant input from people working in the industry.
The handbook for cotton harvesting will be available
to growers this coming harvest season. Adopting the new
harvesting guidelines will deliver significant benefits to cotton
growers in terms of cotton yield, fibre quality and farm safety.
The guide covers new harvesting technology, the round
module-building pickers, and the increasing importance of
considering cotton moisture levels in harvesting decisions,
module staging, contamination and transport.
8 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

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An update on some cotton
industry water issues
■ By Michael Murray, National Water Policy Manager, Cotton Australia
WITH the ink drying on the finalised Murray-Darling Basin
Plan it is worth considering a range of water issues
impacting across Australia’s cotton growing regions –
issues in which Cotton Australia has been actively engaged.
Murray-Darling basin plan
Starting with then Prime Minister Howard’s Australia Day
announcement in 2007, the Murray-Darling Basin Plan became
law last month, and now enters the implementation phase.
The final basin plan has a headline water recovery of 2750Gl
of surface water, but this could be adjusted between the range of
2100Gl and 3200Gl.
Just prior to the finalisation of the plan, legislation passed
through Parliament that will allow environmental works and
measures to be assessed by the MDBA, and allow a maximum
downward movement in the sustainable diversion limits (SDL)
to 2100Gl, provided it can be demonstrated that environmental
outcomes are as least as great as those that can be achieved with
2750Gl.
Conversely, the required SDL reduction can increase to 3200Gl,
as long as it can be demonstrated that the additional water has
been acquired in a manner that has had no greater social or
economic impact than the acquisition of 2750Gl.
To assist with achieving greater acquisitions, the
Commonwealth as allocated an additional $1.77 billion, and has
extended the timeframe for the final acquisition of water, over
and above 2750Gl, to 2024.
The table below shows for the major cotton growing
catchments the current baseline diversion limits (BDL), the new
SDL, the reductions required, and the reductions either acquired
or contracted for to date.
In groundwater, the only major change for aquifers that
support the Australian cotton industry is with the central
Condamine alluvium, where the current BDL is 81.4Gl and
must be reduced to an SDL of 46Gl. But it must be noted that
movement towards this reduction had already commenced with
State water planning policies.
In all other cotton valleys the new SDL are in line with existing
state water sharing plans.
In the northern basin considerable effort will be put into
refining the scientific understanding of the basin between now
and 2015, and this may result in further adjustment of surface
water SDLs.
To this end ‘localism’ groups are actively running in the border
rivers and lower Balonne to help direct research priorities, and the
MDBA has formed a Northern Advisory Committee to act as an
interface between ‘localism’ groups and the MDBA.
At the time of writing state governments were negotiating with
the federal government an inter-government agreement, which will
allocate resources to the states for implementing the plan.
While Cotton Australia is far from convinced that the basin
plan represents a ‘good’ plan, it is very proud of the work it did
both directly, and in conjunction with groups such as National
Farmers Federation, National Irrigators Council, Queensland
Farmers Federation and NSW Irrigators Council to ensure:
■ Irrigators have a choice as to whether to transfer irrigation
entitlement to the government or not.
■ If they choose to participate through selling entitlement, they
receive full market price for their water.
■ Irrigators have the ability to access federally funding on-farm
irrigation efficiency projects.
Catchment BDL SDL Reduction Acquired to date Difference
Northern zone
Condamine/Balonne 978Gl 878Gl 100Gl 28Gl 78Gl
QLD Border Rivers 320Gl 312Gl 8Gl 4Gl 4Gl
NSW Border Rivers 303Gl 296Gl 7Gl 4.6Gl 2.4Gl
Gwydir 450Gl 408Gl 42Gl 50Gl –8Gl *
Namoi 508Gl 498Gl 10Gl 17Gl –7Gl*
Macquarie 734Gl 669Gl 65Gl 89Gl –24Gl*
Barwon-Darling 198Gl 192Gl 6Gl 22Gl –16Gl*
Southern zone
Lachlan 618Gl 570Gl 48Gl 65Gl –17Gl #
Murrumbidgee 2501Gl 2181Gl 320Gl 173Gl 147Gl
NSW Murray 1812Gl 1550Gl 262Gl 243Gl 19Gl
Lower Darling 60.5Gl 52.5Gl 8Gl 2.8Gl 5.2Gl
Northern shared reduction zone* 143Gl 64Gl 79GI
NSW southern reduction zone # 458Gl 0Gl 458Gl
* NOTE: Apart from the contribution needed for within-basin requirements, the Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie, Barwon-Darling and others must provide 143Gl of downstream
flow for the northern shared reduction zone.
#While more water has already been accrued in the Lachlan than necessary, this does not count in the requirement for the southern reduction zone because the Lachlan is
a closed system.
10 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

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■ The states are under no obligation under the plan to amend
water sharing plans so as to close any gap in sustainable
diversion limit (SDL) at the end of 2019.
■ A consistent start date of 2019 for meeting SDL reduction
targets.
■ A greater emphasis on efficiency projects, rather than just
‘buyback’.
■ The inclusion of a mechanism which allows some adjustment
of the final SDL.
■ A commitment to gather better science in the northern basin,
which may result in an SDL adjustment.
Floodplain harvesting policy In NSW
Cotton Australia has been working very closely with the NSW
Government to vastly improve the state’s floodplain harvesting
licencing policy which had been prepared by the previous
government.
While the policy is yet to be finalised, early indications are that
the government is prepared to make significant improvements
particularly in the area of account management rules and the
security of the licences.
Despite the lack of a finalised policy, the NSW Office of Water
(NOW) has commenced the roll-out of its sustaining the basin
healthy floodplain project, which will result in the licencing of
floodplain harvesting.
The initial roll-out is in the Gwydir Valley, with the first stage
being the call for expressions of interest from any irrigator who
believes they may be entitled to a floodplain harvesting licence.
NSW metering project
The NSW Government under its Murray-Darling basin plan
sustaining the basin program appears determined to proceed
with its metering program, despite opposition from the northern
NSW irrigator associations.
In summary, NOW appears unwilling to consider any
alternative approaches, and has basically adopted the approach
– “Accept the program as it is, or install the meters at your own
cost, and the sustaining the basin funding will be redirect to
other efficiency projects, most likely in the south”.
NSWIC Menindee Lakes policy
At the July meeting of the NSW Irrigators Council (NSWIC) it
was agreed to develop a position on Menindee Lakes, including
preferred works and other actions, and a policy stance, within the
context of the Murray-Darling Basin Plan, on the sharing of any
‘savings’ between the north and the south.
Menindee Lakes are a series of large, shallow, natural lakes
adjacent to the Darling River in far south-west NSW. They
were regulated during the 1960s, can hold approximately two
million megalitres when full, and in an average year evaporate
approximately 400Gl.
Water in the lakes performs three main roles:
■ A town water supply role for both Menindee and Broken Hill;
■ A source of highly reliable, regulated high and general security
water supply for irrigators on the lower Darling (including
Tandou Farms); and,
■ An important water resource for the total southern basin,
allowing supplies for South Australia to be delivered from
Menindee rather than from the storages on the Murray and
Murrumbidgee systems.
For the Northern Basin, Menindee is important because
when water supply levels fall below a critical point, access to
supplementary water in the northern system is embargoed and
under the basin plan significant amounts of water obtained in the
northern basin will pass through Menindee.
It has long been recognised that Menindee Lakes is an
inefficient storage system, and there have been numerous
proposals for both engineering works and management rule
changes to make their operation more efficient.
But Menindee is also a very complex system, and any change,
be it engineering or rules, will have impacts on one or more user
groups.
Hence it has become a divisive issue at NSWIC.
In attempting to develop the policy, NSWIC formed a reference
group, which includes Cotton Australia, organised a visit to
Menindee, which was attended by Cotton Australia, and has
started the process of drafting a policy paper.
The original timeframe envisaged the adoption of a policy at
the recently held November meeting.
For Cotton Australia the issue of Menindee is particularly
sensitive, as any changes will impact on our northern, lower
Darling, and southern growers in different ways.
SunWater channel distribution schemes
Since August Cotton Australia has been active supporting
growers in St George, Emerald, and Theodore to assess whether
there would be value in undertaking a full due diligence
assessment of assuming local control/ownership of the Sunwater
channel schemes.
Along with local grower representatives, Cotton Australia
participated in a State Government working group chaired by
Leith Boully. That working group recommended to government
at the end of October that a full due diligence process be entered
into.
No response has been received from government as yet, but if
the government agrees to the report’s recommendations, then it
is likely that interim boards will be established by the end of this
calendar year to manage the process.
Cotton Australia invited two NSW irrigators, Dick Thompson
and Kel Baxter, who were heavily involved in the move to local
management in NSW 15–20 years ago to come to Queensland
and share their experiences. From feedback received, this visit
was greatly appreciated by CA Queensland growers.
12 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

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Refuge crops – investing in
cotton’s future
■ Sally Ceeney 1 , Geoff Baker 3 , Mary Whitehouse 3 , Peter Gregg 2 , Colin Tann 3 , Tracey Leven 1 , Sharon Downes 3 ,
Lewis Wilson 3
THE introduction of transgenic cotton in 1996 has allowed
the industry to totally revolutionise the way cotton is
produced. Over 90 per cent of the cotton grown in
Australia in 2012 utilised Bollgard II technology, making it
arguably the most important technology the industry uses.
Growers now have confidence in the technology to guard
against Helicoverpa all season long. In combination with
integrated pest management techniques, this confidence
has seen pesticide use in the industry decline by more than
90 per cent. But, what calms the nerves of cotton growers
and consultants, raises the heart rate of the cotton industry’s
Helicoverpa ecology and resistance researchers. Constant
expression of the Bt toxins means there is prolonged selection
pressure each season, greatly increasing the risk that the
industry’s pest nemesis, Helicoverpa armigera, will evolve to
survive.
CSIRO’s resistance monitoring research has shown that in both
of the target pests, H. armigera and H. punctigera, resistance
genes to Cry2Ab are present, are higher than expected, and are
probably increasing.
This finding is especially surprising for H. punctigera which has
never evolved significant resistance to conventional insecticide
sprays. The different response to Bt and conventional insecticides
could reflect an apparent lack of large spring migrations of moths
from susceptible inland populations into cropping regions since
Bollgard II cotton has been grown, resulting in less resistance
dilution. There is also some evidence that H. punctigera is overwintering
in the proximity of crops which is again unusual for this
species, and something that may have changed since Bollgard II
was introduced.
The Bollgard II Resistance Management Plan (RMP) is the key
to managing this resistance risk. Refuge crops are a mandatory
Auscott Warren farm manager Sinclair Steele inspecting
pigeon pea seedlings.
Refuges must be well managed to be effective.
component of the RMP and integral to the protection of the
technology for future use.
What is the purpose of refuges
The aim of a refuge crop is to generate significant numbers of
susceptible moths that have not been exposed to the Bt proteins
in Bollgard II. Moths produced in the refuge will disperse to form
part of the local mating population where they may mate with
any resistant moths emerging from Bollgard II crops, delaying the
development of resistance. This strategy works because resistance
to the Bt proteins has so far been found to be recessive, so
if a resistant moth (rr) from the Bollgard II crop mates with a
susceptible moth (ss) from the refuge, the offspring they produce
(rs) are also killed by the Bt toxins.
Refuge management
The current RMP options for irrigated Bollgard II refuges are 100
per cent sprayed cotton, 10 per cent unsprayed cotton or five per
cent pigeon pea (relative to the area of Bollgard II cotton grown)
with almost 70 per cent of refuges grown being pigeon pea.
These options were initially derived by models which showed
that to delay Bt resistance in Helicoverpa it was necessary to
ensure that 10 per cent of the Helicoverpa population were
exposed to a non-Bt crop or, put in another way, that 10 per
cent of all Helicoverpa eggs were laid on plants not containing
Bt toxins. In the mid-1990s CSIRO research showed that on
average pigeon pea produces twice as many susceptible moths
as unsprayed cotton, so only half the area is needed to produce
the same number of moths (five per cent pigeon pea refuge).
Sorghum and corn used to be refuge options but were removed
when resistance genes to Cry2Ab were shown to be increasing in
H. punctigera which do not regularly use these plants as hosts.
14 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

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No matter which refuge is grown, it is critical that they are
managed to be most attractive to Helicoverpa moths when Bt
cotton is also most attractive.
The productivity of refuges varies considerably in space
and time, both between and within individual crops and also
seasons. Not every dedicated refuge will produce large numbers
of susceptible moths, but they need to have the capacity to
potentially do so. By chance, some refuges may not be colonised
by moths. Others may harbour abundant natural enemies of
Helicoverpa (e.g. parasites and diseases). CSIRO research at St
George has clearly shown that few refuges within a landscape
(about 25 per cent) may produce most (over 50 per cent) of the
refuge-derived moths. It is the collective performance of refuges
within landscapes that is paramount to success.
For a refuge to be most effective, it must be planted close to
its corresponding Bollgard II crop (within two km) to improve the
chance that its moths will mate with potentially resistant moths
from the Bollgard II. Helicoverpa are capable of migrating long
distances, but during the cropping season a significant part of the
population will remain localised on preferred hosts and move only
a few kilometres.
The RMP requires growers to ensure that their refuge crops
receive adequate nutrition, irrigation (for irrigated refuges), and
weed and pest management (excluding Helicoverpa sprays) so
that they remain attractive while Bollgard II is grown. A healthy
and productive refuge is an asset for the future of the cotton
industry, helping to ensure Bt technologies in their current and
future forms continue to effectively control Helicoverpa.
Farm manager at Auscott Warren, Sinclair Steele, says that
while it can be a challenge to manage pigeon pea, not having
access to Bt technology due to resistance would be far worse.
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“Establishing and managing a healthy refuge is an important
part of our operations” says Sinclair. “Pigeon pea refuges are
inoculated at planting, and we use residual herbicides to help
make sure that refuge crops are healthy and weed free. The
location of our refuges is also really important. We try to plant
refuges upwind of the cotton in the prevailing wind direction to
minimise potential Roundup Ready Herbicide drift onto pigeon
pea, and also to make sure refuges aren’t impeding Roundup
sprays on our cotton fields. Having healthy, attractive refuges
means we are doing our bit for resistance management.”
Role of non-mandatory refuges
Helicoverpa are polyphagous which means that they feed on
a wide range of host crops and vegetation, including cotton. Bt
cotton dominates the total area of cotton grown in Australia but
at a landscape scale it often forms part of a mosaic of other crops
and vegetation.
Non-cotton crops and natural vegetation are known to be
important for Bt resistance management by providing alternative
sources of Bt susceptible moths apart from those produced
by the mandatory refuges. But we cannot confidently rely on
these unstructured refuges to produce moths because their
effectiveness and distribution is highly variable.
An important characteristic of mandatory refuges is their
synchronicity with the corresponding Bollgard II crop. The timing
of refuge planting is dependent on the timing of Bollgard II
cotton planting so that the refuge is flowering (both pigeon pea
and cotton refuges) at the same time as the Bollgard II. Ideally,
refuges should be as or more attractive to Helicoverpa than the
corresponding Bollgard II crop to attract females to lay eggs in
the refuge. So both structured and unstructured refuges play an
important role in delaying resistance.
A valuable resource
With the industry currently looking at third generation
Bt technology (Bollgard III), it is a crucial time for resistance
management. CSIRO’s resistance monitoring data has detected
resistance genes to both proteins in Bollgard II and a concerning
increase in resistance to Cry2Ab. In addition, for the past three
seasons CSIRO has performed screens against the new protein in
Bollgard II (Vip3A) and found that in H. armigera the frequency
of genes conferring resistance is around one in 20 moths. Not
only is this higher than expected, it is much greater than the
starting frequencies for Cry2Ab. Vip3A resistance genes have also
been detected in H. punctigera at a frequency that is higher than
expected, and higher than the starting frequencies for Cry2Ab.
Work is underway to characterise this Vip3A resistance. This
information, along with data on the efficacy of Bollgard III against
Helicoverpa (also underway), will be used with information on the
frequencies of Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab and Vip3A to determine the RMP
for Bollgard III. At this stage it is almost certain that we will not
be developing a RMP with a clean resistance slate.
Mandatory refuges are a critical component of the current
RMP, providing a reliable source of susceptible moths to dilute the
population of resistant individuals. It costs money to establish and
maintain a healthy and viable refuge but it is an investment to
protect the future of Bt cotton in Australia, the value of which is the
industry’s continued access to the technology. We cannot afford to
not take refuges seriously, and all Bollgard II cotton growers have a
responsibility to grow and manage their refuges well.
1
CRDC.
2
UNE.
3
CSIRO.
16 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

Vip3A resistance genes: A threat
to Bollgard III
■ By Sharon Downes 1 , Rod Mahon 1 , Tom Walsh 1 , Bill James 1 , and Sally Ceeney 2
THE insecticides engineered into transgenic cotton come
from a soil bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which
produces several different types of toxins. The two toxins
in the current variety of Bt-cotton are crystalline or Cry toxins
(Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab).
Genes that enable resistance to Cry toxins were detected by
CSIRO in populations of Helicoverpa species even before these
insects were exposed to Bt cotton. In Australia there have been
no reports of field failures of Bollgard II due to resistance but the
proportions of Helicoverpa spp. which can withstand the Cry2Ab
toxin has increased since the cotton variety expressing this toxin
became available.
Although B. thuringiensis produces many distinct types of
Cry toxins, Helicoverpa species are only susceptible to those in
the Cry1 (e.g., Cry1Ac, Cry1Ab, Cry1F) and Cry2 (e.g., Cry2Ab,
Cry2Aa, Cry2Ae) classes. Within each class, it is likely that insects
which are resistant to one toxin are also ‘cross’ resistant to others.
This means that if resistance emerges to the Cry1Ac or Cry2Ab
toxins in Bollgard II, there are limited alternative Cry toxins for
plant breeders to exploit.
Vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vips) are also produced by
B. thuringiensis. They are toxic to Helicoverpa species, and
are structurally quite different to Cry toxins. This means that
Vip toxins can be effective against insects that are resistant to
Cry toxins, and provide a third Bt class that could be used in
transgenic crops.
Vip3A resistant moths are killed by Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab.
The diagram shows the mortality of Vip3A resistant moths
(RR) and Vip3A susceptible moths (SS) moths exposed to no
toxin (1), Vip3A (2), Cry1Ac (3), and Cry2Ab (4).
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Vip3A is being added to the existing Bollgard II cotton
platform to create a third generation Bt cotton, called Bollgard III,
which is due to be released in Australia around 2015–16.
Crops with multiple toxins should be robust because it is
unlikely that insects will be resistant to more than one toxin,
especially if the toxins being ‘stacked’ kill insects in different
ways. But the resilience of a stack depends on how well each
toxin controls larvae and the levels of resistance to each toxin at
the time that the variety is introduced.
How many moths in the field carry a gene for
resistance to Vip3A
CSIRO screened populations of H. armigera and H. punctigera
during the 2009 and 2010 cotton seasons to find out the initial
levels of resistance to Vip3A and establish a baseline frequency
for this toxin before Bollgard III was introduced.
Not only did they find the first examples in any insect
worldwide of genes allowing resistance to a vegetative
insecticidal protein, they also discovered that a larger than
expected proportion of individuals in populations of both
Helicoverpa species already carry a gene that allows them to
tolerate Vip3A.
The data for H. armigera gives a frequency of the resistant
gene that translates to about one in every 20 moths carrying
a copy of the Vip3A resistance gene. Genes that allow H.
punctigera to resist Vip3A occur at a frequency that translates to
about one in every 50 moths carrying a copy. These frequencies
are higher than expected, and they are greater than the initial
Current research is examining the efficacy of Vip3A in
Bollgard III plants. The below diagram indicates that
although Cry1Ac is present in Bt - cotton late in the season,
it may be at a level that does not control Helicoverpa. This
provides a potential window of opportunity for Cry2Ab
resistant moths to survive on Bollgard II. Information on the
efficacy of Vip3A in plants is critical for determining the risk
of resistance developing to Bollgard III.
frequencies of insects carrying a resistance gene to Cry2Ab when
Bollgard II was first introduced.
Given the high frequencies detected prior to any commercial,
large scale plantings of Bollgard III, it is virtually impossible that
selection by Bt plants is responsible. This suggests that perhaps
something else has selected for tolerance to Vip3A. It is also
possible that accidental changes (mutations) occur exceptionally
frequently in the gene that determines survival against Vip3A,
which means that resistant individuals are regularly introduced
into the population.
Could Vip3A resistance genes increase in
frequency to levels that are of concern
There are several characteristics of Vip3A resistance that are
important considerations for its potential to increase within the
population. So far only preliminary information is available but a
CRDC-funded project is examining these issues in detail to inform
the development of a Resistance Management Plan (RMP) for
Bollgard III.
Early investigations suggest that within each species there
is one common form of Vip3A resistance at a relatively high
frequency in both species rather than several different types of
resistance at lower frequencies.
Vip3A resistant larvae show no cross resistance to Cry1Ac or
Cry2Ab. This means that when Bollgard III expresses Cry1Ac and/
or Cry2Ab optimally, Vip3A-resistant insects should be controlled.
Vip3A resistant colonies are not dose responsive, and can
tolerate very high concentrations of toxin. Larvae that are
resistant to Vip3A can survive concentrations of Vip3A toxin that
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are 34 to 51 times the maximal levels reported in Vip3A cotton
plant tissues without any effect on growth.
Early work suggests that the resistance is probably recessive,
which means that insects must carry two copies of the resistance
gene to be able to survive toxin and heterozygotes (RS) are
killed by the toxin. This is particularly fortunate because when
resistance is recessive, field-scale resistance evolves much less
rapidly than when dominant.
Another factor that may affect how fast resistance frequencies
increase within a population is the presence of fitness costs. For
instance, Vip3A resistant insects may have a great advantage on
cotton that expresses Vip3A, but on non-Bt crops they may grow
more slowly or have fewer offspring than susceptible insects.
Early work suggests that, in the laboratory, H. punctigera may
suffer a fitness cost to carrying a resistance gene, but H. armigera
are less affected. If fitness costs are present, a brake may be
applied to increases in resistance.
Will Bollgard III be effective
If Bollgard III expresses Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab and Vip3A toxins
optimally, any Vip3A resistant Helicoverpa that feeds on it should
be killed by one of the Cry toxins.
Unfortunately, protein levels of Cry1Ac have been variable in
the Bt-cotton varieties released to date (Ingard and Bollgard II),
especially later in the season, and this will almost certainly also
be the case in Bollgard III. Research conducted from 2001-03
showed that the ability of Vip3A plants to control susceptible
larvae declined as the season progressed but not as markedly as
for Cry1Ac-expressing plants (Ingard).
Also, especially during flowering, occasional fields of Bollgard
II support larvae that are susceptible to Cry toxins and can survive
to pupation. Presumably during these episodes the expression of
both Cry toxin(s) declines to below toxic levels. Cry2Ab expression
is more stable throughout the season than Cry1Ac expression so
there are probably times where only Cry2Ab is effective which
could select for moths that carry Cry2Ab resistance genes.
This means there is enormous value in protecting the
susceptibility of Helicoverpa species to Cry2Ab until Bollgard
III becomes available. If Cry2Ab is ineffective when Bollgard III
becomes available the Vip3A toxin may be exposed to selection in
a similar fashion to what we assume currently occurs for Cry2Ab
in Bollgard II.
A current CRDC-funded project, which involves collaboration
with Monsanto, is examining the detailed expression profile of
Vip3A in Bollgard III plants. Closer to the commercial release of
Bollgard III, this information will be used with detailed findings
on the characteristics of Vip3A resistance, and the frequencies
of resistance to Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab and Vip3A, to develop a robust
RMP for Bollgard III.
So, although Bollgard III should be very effective against
Helicoverpa species, we don’t yet know the finer details on the
risk of resistance developing to this toxin.
Because the industry began screening populations for Vip3A
resistance before the release of Bollgard III, a firm baseline
frequency will be established prior to any selection occurring
which will allow any increases in resistance to be detected.
1
CSIRO
2
CRDC
The authors greatly appreciate the support of cotton growers who permit
access to crops to collect eggs used in our research. We also thank numerous
technicians, and the Crop Consultants of Australia for collecting eggs for the
work. Expert technical assistance was provided by our colleagues, Janine
Gascoyne, Joel Armstrong and Tracey Parker.
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The contribution of new varieties
to cotton yield improvement
■ By Shiming Liu, Peter Reid, Warwick Stiller and Greg Constable, CSIRO Plant Industry, Narrabri
AT A GLANCE…
Analysis of a large data set of CSIRO cotton breeding
experiments over 30 years has demonstrated a number of
interesting trends. There have been yield increases from new
varieties and from crop management. But there has also been
an interaction between breeding and management in that
new varieties respond more to modern management than old
varieties do. Resistance to diseases is an important component
of that interaction.
IT is well accepted that Australian cotton yields have improved
through time. Long term records show that whole of industry
yield during the 1960s was 869 kg lint per hectare (1.5 bales
per acre) and it more than doubled in the 2000s to 1890 kg lint
per hectare (3.4 bales per acre). There are now many examples
of yields in excess of 2800 kg lint per hectare (5.0 bales per acre).
What are the main contributing factors contributing to this yield
increase and how can we further increase yields to keep up with
spiralling costs Long term data from variety trials from across the
industry can help answer this question.
The CSIRO Plant Industry cotton breeding program at Narrabri
was established in 1972 when separate projects operating from
Canberra, Griffith and Kununurra were combined under the
leadership of Dr Norm Thomson. The first variety, Sicot 1, was
released in 1983 and was quickly followed by many varieties over
the following years.
In the 30 years from 1980, a total of 325 experiments with
conventional cotton were grown across all regions in the industry
on commercial farms with commercial management as part of
the evaluation of new breeding material developed from crosses
at Narrabri. The aim has been to identify improved yield and
especially yield combined with better disease resistance, fibre
quality, regional adaptation and stability. Specialised equipment is
required for sowing and harvesting small scale experiments.
The current long term controls and year of release include
Deltapine 16 (1970), Namcala (1978), Sicala V-2 (1994), Sicot
189 (1996), Sicot 71 (2002) and Sicot 75 (2006). Important older
varieties now excluded from experiments because of susceptibility
to Fusarium wilt include Siokra 1-4 (1988), Siokra L22 (1990) and
Siokra V-16 (1998). Deltapine 16 and Namcala were imports from
the US and used as commercial varieties in Australia until local
varieties were developed from 1983.
As new improved varieties are discovered, they replace
older varieties commercially but some older varieties stay in
experiments as long term controls. The large dataset of breeding
experiments provides powerful information to enhance our
research practices and to understand why yield improvements
have been made. Each season, these experiments are sown with
the same seed lot of each breeding line or variety and the same
planter, picker and gin are used, so that measured differences are
due to soil, disease, climate and management at each site.
Figure 1 illustrates the magnitude of adoption of a few major
varieties through time. A single variety may occupy up to 70 per
cent of the conventional area, but generally lasts for less than
10 years before being replaced. Siokra 1-4 (1980s), Sicala V-2
(1990s) and Sicot 71 (2000s) were widely grown commercially;
Siokra L23 and Sicala 40 were also dominant for short periods;
and Sicot 189 and Siokra V-16 were also grown widely in the
1990s.
Experimental design
One of the most important aspects of this dataset analysis
was the use of new complex statistical techniques that take
account of spatial variation in the field due to row effects and
head to tail differences. Such analyses allow more precision with
the yield means of each breeding line and so we can have more
FIGuRE 1: The dynamics of cotton variety
adoption as illustrated by major varieties
grown from 1983 to 2009
Sowing a cotton trial.
Note this figure relates to conventional cotton only – which occupied less than five per cent
of the cotton area by 2010.
20 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

confidence in the ranking of new breeding lines compared with
control varieties.
The analyses show that some sites have been more reliable in
providing accurate data than other sites. With this information
we believe that six reliable sites, repeated over three seasons
using three to four field replications can provide equal or better
data than what was previously obtained with up to 12 sites with
four replications over a similar period. Economy and efficiency
gains with such a change are obvious. It is challenging to get six
conventional trial sites in this transgenic era. If sites are found,
there are difficulties with pest control and avoiding glyphosate
drift.
Yield progress
In the period from 1980 to 1994, yield improvement due to
new varieties was modest, averaging about 9 kg lint per hectare
per year. The highest yielding varieties were Sicala V-2 and Sicot
189. The greatest improvements due to breeding were in the
cooler short season locations, although from a lower yield base.
Regional adaptation of varieties was strong, with Siokra 1-4 and
Sicot 189 having relatively better yield in warmer full season
locations, while Siokra V-15 and Sicala V-2 were relatively better
in cooler short season locations.
In the period from 1995 to 2009, yield improvements due
to new varieties doubled to about 18 kg lint per hectare/year
with Sicot 71 being the highest yielder. Regional adaptation of
varieties was reduced compared with the 1980 to 1995 period,
but Sicot 80 and Sicot 71 had relatively better yield in warmer full
season locations, while Sicala 40 was relatively better in cooler
short season locations.
Varieties can also be ranked for their stability in yield across
Measuring
Module Moisture
years and environments. Sicot 71, Sicot 189 and Siokra V-16
were average in stability. One group of varieties which tended to
yield relatively more at high yielding sites, but relatively less at low
yielding sites, were CS 50, Sicot 53, Sicot 80 and Siokra L23. At
the other end of the spectrum were varieties such as Sicala V-2,
Sicala 40 and Sicot 75 with relatively lower yield at high yielding
sites, but relatively better at low yielding sites.
Over the period 1980–1994 to 1995–2009, there was a 95
kg per hectare increase in lint yield due to management alone.
Components of that increase were likely to have been better
management of soil, water, nutrition and pests – these aspects
have not been measured or classified to allow a thorough
interpretation of what specific management contributed to this
yield increase.
One remarkable aspect of the pooled analysis was the
existence of a strong variety by management interaction for
yield – modern varieties responded better to modern agronomy
than older varieties. The data shows that variety contributed 48
per cent of the yield gain (160 kg per hectare); management
contributed 28 per cent (95 kg per hectare); and the interaction
between variety and management contributed 24 per cent (80 kg
per hectare for the best varieties) (Figure 2).
On examination of variety disease rankings, it is evident
that Verticillium wilt resistance was a strong component of the
variety by management interaction because older Verticillium
wilt susceptible varieties such as Siokra 1-4, Siokra L22, Siokra
L23 and CS50 were unable to respond to modern management.
A variety such as Sicot 71 with high yield potential and good
disease resistance can respond to best agronomy.
Even up to 2002, an economic assessment of the cotton
FIGuRE 2: The components of cotton yield
increase from 1985–1995 to 1995–2009.
Improved varieties contributed nearly half
of the yield increase, increased management
another 28 per cent, and better response to
modern management by modern varieties
contributed 24 per cent
Please contact us to find out more
www.vomax.com.au
Richard Millyard:
0428 573 511
richardm@vomax.com.au
Data from 1985 to 2009 with 325 experiments comparing the same conventional varieties.
22 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

eeding program calculated that breeding had contributed $5
billion in Net Present Value in industry value from yield increase
as well as the expansion of the cotton industry into dryland and
short season regions. For every dollar spent on cotton breeding,
there was $86 gained in benefit (Centre for International
Economics, 2002).
This large data set has been compiled from research with
conventional varieties. The constant turnover of traits prevents
any long term analysis of transgenic breeding material. Although
conventional varieties are not grown on more than five per cent
of area anymore, they provide the platform from which to base
transgenic traits that have revolutionised cotton insect and weed
management in Australia. Bollgard II/Roundup Ready Flex varieties
such as Sicot 71BRF and Sicot 74BRF, now provide the bulk of
the planted area. New germplasm and new knowledge of better
field design and statistical analysis ensures ready identification of
better transgenic varieties as well.
Lessons for plant breeding from this analysis include using
better sites for experiments so that best yielding lines can be
identified. There is also a need to better classify sites for disease
incidence and management inputs. More research in farming
systems (rotation, tillage, nutrition, irrigation, pests, weeds,
etc) would identify the most important factors involved in the
variety by management interaction, so that component of yield
improvement can be further improved.
It is important to acknowledge growers who have willingly and proactively
supported the CSIRO cotton breeding program by hosting breeding
experiments over a long period. Funding has been provided by CSIRO, CSD
(through Cotton Breeding Australia) and CRDC.
Mobile sowing and harvesting equipment enables a large number of experiments to be sown across the Australian cotton industry.
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 23

Irrigation
feature…
Adaptive control
to improve
surface irrigation
efficiency
THERE are potential water use efficiency improvements
in surface irrigation through the use of automation and
control systems to account for spatial variability of water
requirements within the field.
It is envisaged that this technology will lead to a fully
automated irrigation decision-making and control system. This
will involve soil and crop sensors that can be mounted on onfarm
vehicles to collect data while spraying or tilling. Data from
these sensors feed into the control strategy which determines
the irrigation application and/or timing. This control strategy then
automatically sends control actions to control valves into each
furrow or group of furrows to start, end or adjust the irrigation
application.
Research conducted by Dr Alison McCarthy of the National
Centre for Engineering in Agriculture (NCEA), a research centre
within the University of Southern Queensland, is evaluating
adaptive control systems for surface irrigation systems, and
providing a step towards a fully automated irrigation system.
“My research demonstrates that irrigation requirements may
be determined using adaptive control and provides potential for
yield and water use improvements,” Alison said.
The research is funded by the Cotton Research and
Development Corporation. The aim of this research is to
account for the spatial variability of irrigation requirements
across the field. This has been achieved using control systems
that determine site-specific irrigation application. These control
systems require:
■ Infield soil and plant measurements;
■ Real-time advance rate data;
■ A control strategy to determine irrigation application and/or
timing; and,
■ Actuator hardware to adjust irrigation application.
A crop model-based control strategy was applied to surface
irrigation in a field experiment in 2011–12. This involved:
■ Calibrating a crop production model (OzCOT) using the
available weather, soil and plant data;
■ Using the crop model to predict the irrigation timing and/or
volume that produces the desired performance; and,
■ Using the surface irrigation model SISCO to determine
the irrigation flow rate and advance trajectory that best
corresponds to the optimal irrigation distribution.
Flow meters and controllable valves that receive control
signals to adjust flow rate or stop irrigation.
Plant sensing apparatus under shroud.
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24 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

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December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 25

Irrigation
feature…
A surface irrigation trial over 14 furrows in the 2011–12
cotton season showed cotton yield improvements of 10 per cent
and water use reductions of 12 per cent using adaptive control
compared with the grower’s treatment.
The required models and data input ability have been enabled
with a software framework ‘VARIwise” created by Alison during
her PhD. VARIwise was developed to simulate and compare the
performance of alternative site-specific irrigation strategies with
user-defined, spatially variable input parameters.
The field evaluation of the VARIwise control strategies used a
Soil sensor in field to detect soil moisture and advance front.
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Visible, red and infrared images obtained using on -the-go
plant sensor.
weather station, EM38 surveys, infield soil moisture probes and
plant sensor apparatus. The plant sensor apparatus, developed
for the project, consisted of three cameras and an ultrasonic
distance sensor mounted on a trolley under a shroud and pushed
down the cotton rows.
The three cameras obtained red, infrared and visible images of
the cotton crop to estimate leaf area index, flower count and boll
count, whilst the distance sensor determined the height of the
cotton crop. These plant parameters are required to calibrate the
crop model. The cameras captured an image of the cotton every
metre along the furrow with its GPS location.
“The plant sensor I developed enables plant data to be
collected at a high spatial resolution, and in an automated control
system this is often required to determine the crop stage and
water requirements,” says Alison.
The collected field data and irrigation control strategy
determine the optimal site-specific irrigation volumes, and the
surface irrigation model (SISCO) predicts the closest achievable
surface irrigation distribution and advance trajectory.
Four advance rate sensors were installed in each furrow which
each sent a signal to the main controller when triggered by the
advance front. The main controller then compared the actual
and optimised advance trajectories and transmitted the required
control signals to the valve on each siphon to adjust the flow rate
or stop the irrigation.
“This technology is flexible in its application as it can also be
scaled up to look at groups of furrows, or alternatively to adjust
the flow rate within individual furrows.”
“Our next surface irrigation evaluation will compare the
performance of different resolutions of irrigation control.”
A research project due to commence at the NCEA by Professor
Rod Smith funded by the CRDC would see the development of
a commercial prototype smart automation system for furrow
irrigation of cotton. This would provide the automation of
irrigation application in surface irrigation systems using Rubicon
technology, which can be utilised by the VARIwise control system
when fully developed.
“Surface irrigation offers the greatest benefits for adaptive
irrigation control because this is the predominant method of
irrigation used for cotton in Australia. But the control systems can
equally be applied to pressurised or other irrigation systems.
“For example, variable-rate hardware is commercially available
for centre pivots and lateral moves. But these systems provide no
or only rudimentary decision-making support based on historical
yield or EM38 maps of the field.”
Alison’s 2012–13 cotton irrigation trial is on a centre pivot
irrigation machine in Jondaryan. The plant sensor apparatus
developed for the surface irrigation fieldwork has been adapted
to be mounted to an irrigation machine. For this trial, one span of
the irrigation machine has been instrumented with a GPS, three
plant sensors and variable-rate irrigation hardware.
This will enable a comparison of adaptive control performance
on pressurised and surface irrigation systems.
26 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

How good is
your water use
efficiency
EVER wondered how you are performing in terms of water
use efficiency (bales per ML) or energy use efficiency ($/
bale, GJ/ML, GJ/ha) compared to other cotton irrigators in
your region
NSW DPI is working with cotton irrigators to do just that –
establish water and energy benchmarks for their farms.
Water use efficiency benchmarks
Water use efficiency benchmarks will be established for the
Australian cotton industry for the 2012–13 season.
NSW DPI first collected irrigation benchmarks for the industry
for the 2006–07 cotton season. The data collected showed a
significant increase in Gross Production Water Use Index at the
farm scale (GPWUIfarm) of around 40 per cent since the previous
collection of irrigation data 10 years before. This survey was
repeated in 2008–09 and confirmed the 40 per cent increase in
GPWUIfarm.
These surveys took place in years when water availability was
low along with relatively low cotton prices. As a result the area
planted to cotton was significantly smaller. There has been a
significant turn-around in recent years with full storage dams
and record plantings. The 2012–13 benchmarks are important to
Irrigation
feature…
Phil Szabo, NCEA is trialling a pump performance monitor
this season.
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December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 27

Irrigation
feature…
also see how efficiently Australian cotton irrigators are managing
water when their farms are in full production.
Janelle Montgomery, Irrigation Officer, said NSW DPI will be
working with irrigators from Central Queensland to southern
NSW to establish benchmarks for the 2012–13 season, which will
help to improve individual performance and provide the industry
with valuable benchmarks.
“We use the on-line benchmarking program Watertrack Rapid
developed by Aquatech Consulting, Narrabri. This program not
only calculates a range of standardised performance indicators,
but evaluates crop water use and estimates on farm water
losses” she says.
Watertrack Rapid requires a variety of inputs of which are
easily extracted from farm records. This data includes yield, crop
area, sowing date, irrigation dates and soil type along with daily
rainfall, storage volumes at start and end of season, irrigation
water pumped and harvested, and soil moisture reserves.
Energy use efficiency benchmarks
Energy use benchmarking is in its infancy. In collaboration with
the National Centre for Engineering in Agriculture (NCEA) of the
University of Southern Queensland, NSW DPI is conducting on-farm
energy assessments which identify where, and how efficiently,
energy is used and explore ways to reduce energy use and costs.
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Hamish Johnstone, ‘ Macintyre Downs ’ is trialling EnergyCalc
Lite to assess energy use across his farm.
NCEA has developed assessment tools – EnergyCalc (webbased)
and EnergyCalc Lite (ipad app) which assess direct on-farm
energy use, costs and GHG emissions, diesel, petrol, LPG and
electricity consumption. They examine energy use right across the
farm providing energy use benchmarks for the various farming
practices such as tillage, spraying and irrigation. The availability of
input data for these programs varies across farms.
If actual measurements of energy use have not been taken,
each tool has calculators that can provide estimates. But NSW
DPI and NCEA are encouraging irrigators and consultants to keep
more extensive records and conduct measurements that enable
robust assessments of on-farm energy use.
This season, NSW DPI and NCEA are working with Hamish
Johnstone, ‘Macintyre Downs’, Goondiwindi to measure energy
use associated with irrigation.
Water pumping is a significant energy user, so it’s vital pumps
are working efficiently. NCEA is developed a pump performance
monitor that is currently being trialled at Macintyre Downs. Phil
Szabo, NCEA said the monitor measures diesel consumption,
suction and discharge pressures and water flow during pumping
events. This data is then transferred via telemetry to NCEA where
they analyse it to determine pump performance. In addition,
the monitor provides more accurate information on energy use
required for Energy Calc and EnergyCalc Lite.
Hamish is also trialling the ipad app EnergyCalc Lite. While
the pump monitor will provide irrigation information, he will also
be recording diesel consumption for each farming operation.
This will involve bowser readings before and after an operation
such as planting on inter-row cultivation. Hamish plans to take
measurements from one field and extrapolate the results over
his entire cotton area to benchmark energy use across the whole
farm.
We are looking for more cotton irrigators to get involved in
energy benchmarking with the long term aim to produce industry
energy benchmarks, as we have done for water use efficiency.
Then irrigators can use these benchmarks to compare their
performance and strive for continuous improvement.
This work is part of NSW DPI’s Cotton Research Development Corporation
(CRDC) funded project Promoting Water Smart Infrastructure Investment.
For further information please contact Janelle Montgomery, NSW DPI Moree
0428 640990 or Stuart Bray NSW DPI Gunnedah 02 6741 8367.
28 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

Cotton irrigators
continue to
improve
Irrigation
feature…
FIGuRE 1: Improvements to furrow irrigation
A2011 survey by GHD Hassall with the Cotton CRC D&D
team, showed that over the past five years, 96 per cent of
irrigators surveyed had made some form of improvement
to their furrow irrigation systems or had changed to an alternate
irrigation type.
Figure 1 shows that maintenance of field slope was the most
widely used improvement.
Almost half of the surveyed irrigators had made changes to
the flow or size of their siphons and 20 per cent had metered
their siphons. A small percentage (five per cent) of irrigator
respondents had installed alternate irrigation systems.
‘Other’ methods identified for improving furrow irrigation
included:
■ Increased head/flow;
■ Monitoring storage/water table;
■ Timing;
■ Use of probes;
■ Channel maintenance/changes;
■ Changes to water outlet (siphon/sprinkler); and,
■ Pipes through bank (PTB).
Specialising in:
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Goondiwindi:
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Gunnedah:
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Mark Schmitt
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Email: mark@pivotirrigation.com.au
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 29

CSIRO Researcher Profile: Greg Constable
Breeding excellent research
■ By Natalia Bateman
COMMITMENT is probably the best word to describe what
is needed to succeed in the business of breeding cotton
in Australia. The process of breeding cotton can be very
slow and not fully understood or recognised by those outside the
industry, but the personal and professional rewards can be great,
as CSIRO’s Dr Greg Constable knows.
Commitment to cotton scientific research has been the centre
of his life as a scientist for more than 40 years, displaying his
hunger for challenges and outstanding levels of dedication and
enthusiasm.
“The early years were challenging times as public and
government perceptions of the cotton industry were strongly
negative on water and pesticide issues. Since then CSIRO
has been developing commercial cotton varieties adapted to
Australian conditions with a strong focus on making the crop
sustainable,” he said.
Greg was born and raised in Glen Innes, NSW and attended
The University of Sydney from 1966 to 1969. Other than three
years at The Australian National University to complete a PhD,
he has lived in Narrabri since 1972. His time in Narrabri has been
dedicated to cotton research, particularly plant breeding, but also
plant physiology, crop agronomy and efficient farming systems.
He is recognised for his contribution to the development
of scientifically based approaches to agriculture, such as novel
breeding strategies for increased yield and water use.
“CSIRO research overall has facilitated a large increase in
cotton yield while halving environmental impact, which is a
pleasing result,” he says.
Greg feels passionately about improving the lives of the people
who live in the cotton areas and about promoting awareness and
adoption of new technologies to growers.
“It’s great working with farmers because you learn their
challenges and when a new variety improves their profitability,
the benefits to the farmer and the whole production chain is
pleasing to see,” he said.
It is largely thanks to the efforts of he and his team that
Australian cotton is recognised nationally and internationally
for its high quality and the industry is regarded as one of the
most successful in the country. They have made great strides in
the development of elite cotton varieties which dominate the
Australian industry and are now grown around the world.
“The collaborative approach of our CSIRO teams in Narrabri,
Canberra and Geelong, and the way in which the work is
undertaken with great care and commitment is the key to the
high impact of our research,” he says.
Greg was judged ‘Australia’s smartest scientist’ by the
influential Australian business magazine the Bulletin in 2003.
This recognition focused on the quality, originality, innovation
and community benefit of his research. In that year, an economic
evaluation of the breeding team’s research showed that for every
dollar invested in the group, $86 was returned to the Australian
cotton industry.
In 2008 he received the prestigious Outstanding Research
Award in Cotton Physiology, at the 2008 Physiology and
Agronomy Conference as part of the Beltwide Cotton
Greg Constable.
Conferences in the US. This was the first time the award had
been given to a researcher from outside the US.
The cotton breeding and biotechnology groups have also been
recognised in a number of other major awards including the
CSIRO Chairman’s Medal in 2003 and 2011 and the Clunies Ross
Award in 2006.
Greg continues to work at Narrabri. He stood down from
Stream and Group Leader roles in mid 2012 to concentrate on
some breeding priorities and to help guide the new CSIRO cotton
leadership team. He is also mentoring two CSIRO Post Doctoral
Fellows working in cultivar variation in water use efficiency (WUE)
and developing breeding procedures to achieve high yield and
high quality simultaneously. These pursuits will help to ensure
that his and his team’s effort will persist long into the future.
Lewis Wilson
and Greg
Constable,
CSIRO Plant
Industry
researchers in
Narrabri.
30 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

Two new appointments at
Cotton Seed Distributors
COTTON Seed Distributors Ltd (CSD) has appointed a new
Director and a new General Manager – Development and
Communications to assist to meet the needs of the future.
Juanita Hamparsum joins the CSD Board and fills the casual
vacancy created by the resignation of Harvey Gaynor, who was
recently appointed CEO of Auscott Limited.
“Juanita brings a range of skills to the board and has solid
experience in primary production, finance and accounting,” said
James Kahl, CSD Chairman.
Her experience
includes her previous
roles as senior
accountan/auditor
for Ernst and Young
and accountant for
Goldman Sachs Bank,
as well as natural
resource management,
economic analysis,
strategic planning,
community leadership
and consultation.
Juanita is a Chartered
Accountant and
Director, Finance and
Accounting Manager
for Hamparsum Family
trust and Kalori Pty Ltd Juanita Hamparsum.
– a family agribusiness that operates across a range of farming
activities at Breeza in NSW.
Juanita is the current Chairperson of the Cotton Innovation
Network, delegate on the Great Artesian Basin Coordinating
Committee and is the Deputy Chair and Risk and Audit Chair
for the Namoi Catchment Management Authority. She has also
held past positions on the CRDC, Upper Namoi Water Users
Association, NSW Department of Natural Resources and Upper
Namoi Cotton Growers Association.
CSD has also
announced the
appointment of
former Cotton CRC
CEO, Philip Armytage
to the new role of
General Manager –
Development and
Communications.
Philip joins the
management team
of CSD to actively
guide and assist with
the implementation
of CSD’s Strategic
Plan. With a particular
focus on business
development
initiatives, Philip
Philip Armytage.
will be contributing to the management of the CSD’s current
research investments and implementing a whole of company
communication strategy.
In this role Philip will also be responsible for the effective
operation of CSD’s new $1 million per year commitment to the
cotton industry’s regionally based Development and Delivery
(D&D) team, led by Ian Taylor from CRDC. This new initiative will
provide research based knowledge to growers and agribusinesses
in key cotton growing regions. D&D is a three way collaboration
between Cotton Australia (CA), CRDC and CSD and was
announced at the 2012 Cotton Conference in August this year.
“On the back of the highly successful Cotton CRC, Philip
brings significant experience, skills and strong leadership
capabilities which complement our plans for the future”, said
Peter Graham, Managing Director of CSD.
Previously, Philip has worked in marketing, business
development and agronomy for agchem retailer Cotton Growers
Services as well as product development and range enhancement
for global crop protection company Syngenta.
“Through good seasons and execution of a careful strategy,
CSD is in a strong position to build for the long term future of
our industry. Juanita and Philip bring excellent skills which will
greatly assist CSD in generating prosperity for Australian cotton
growers,” concluded Peter Graham.
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December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 31

World CoMModity Watch
US
The US crop is close to 75% ginned and harvest is complete. The
overall crop on the High Plains was not as good as many thought,
and will most likely finish closer to five million bales of Texas
cotton. Reduced production in Texas will be made up for by the final
numbers in the Mid-South and Southeast as yields were higher than
last year. Most growers continue to talk down cotton for new crop as
the price is not at levels where they can make money. We are hearing
talk of 30–40% reduction in Mid-South, Southeast and California as
they have so many alternatives such as corn and soybeans. Texas
is also looking to cut back cotton acres, however the margins in
cotton for larger scale West Texas growers are still favorable to the
alternatives, so the swing to grains will not be as great in West Texas
compared to other regions. Corn may however be the crop of choice
in South Texas and the area north of Lubbock. Conditions remain dry
in Texas as a whole however, so rain is required before we see a take
up of crops of any kind next summer.
Brazil
Brazil’s CONAB has forecast the nation’s
production in 2012–13 to drop by as
much as 27%. Reasons include expected
higher returns for corn & soybeans which
have also seen a lot of growers adopt
the ‘Safrinha’ or ‘little harvest’ method
of following a soybean crop with cotton.
While it yields less than conventionally
grown cotton it also requires less inputs
therefore costing less to grow. This
form of double cropping will form the
major portion of Brazil’s acreage in
2012–13. Due to persistent rains delaying
the planting of the soybean crop, the
predicted sowing dates for this form of
cotton growing have been pushed back
to December and the New Year. Planting
for conventional style growers is well
under way and its estimated 10% of this
season’s crop is in the ground.
From the field to t
Queensland Cotto
Queensland Cotton has the longest supply

World CoMModity Watch
India
Indian mills have been a major benefactor of
the increase in Chinese demand for imported
yarn. To feed this demand Indian spinners have
predominately sourced local cotton with limited
demand for imported Extra Long Staple. A
recent announcement by the Minister for Indian
Textiles confirmed there would be no ban on
Indian cotton exports this marketing year due to
the Indian Cotton Advisory Board predicting an
exportable surplus of 5.5 million bales. This is
currently a full two million bales more than the
3.5 million estimated by the USDA. Nationwide
daily seed cotton arrivals are relatively steady
as farmers opt to hold onto it as the Indian
domestic price softened.
China
China’s CNCRC is currently holding in reserve one whole years’ worth of consumption
in warehouses. What they propose to do with it is arguably the main focus point
of traders worldwide. Current figures put the Reserve procurement for the year at
over 3.6 million tonnes (16 million bales) and there appears no sign of the Reserve
slowing down in this regard. The high price of Chinese domestic cotton and an ever
dwindling import quota of cheaper overseas cotton has seen Chinese demand for
imported yarn increase rapidly at the expense of its local mills. India and Bangladesh
have been the main beneficiaries of this increased demand for yarn. Harvest of
the Chinese crop is almost complete and classing is two thirds through, which is
advanced progress from this time last year. Looking ahead at their next crop (to be
planted April/May 2013) Chinese growers are still predicted to continue to produce
cotton given it is still provides a better financial option over other crops, however we
await the announcement of the new minimum support price in March.
Australia
Planting got off to a fine start with many
growers very pleased with the progress of
their crops to date. After a few cold snaps,
summer has finally arrived, with dryland
crops in significant need of rainfall, and
irrigated crops are consuming more
water than usual for this time of year. A
few growers in SW Qld and the Border
Rivers region are keeping a close eye on
their water supply, as concerns for supply
for their final irrigation are starting to
surface. The rivers will need to run before
we can begin to speculate on 2014 crop
cotton acreage. Back to the season at
hand, recent reports suggest our crop to
be 3.9–4 million bales, down from initial
estimates due to reduced dryland planting
and ongoing dry conditions. Marketing for
2013 season is off to a slow start with the
crop historically undersold for this stage
of the season.
* Ex-gin price bids and basis for
middling 1 1/8 inch cotton
he shirt you wear,
n is at every step.
chain in the Australian cotton industry.
55 Wyandra Street, Newstead
Queensland Australia 4006,
Tel: 61 7 3250 3300
Fax: 61 7 3852 1600

marketing
The world cotton market
■ By Michael Edwards, Cotton Outlook
SINCE our previous contribution to The Australian
Cottongrower in early October, international cotton prices
have remained within the trading range established for
several months now. During the period, the Cotlook A Index
has touched a low point of 79.40 US cents per lb, and a peak of
85.30. While it is no doubt still true to say that trade sentiment
is inclined to the bear side, the market’s resistance to downside
pressures, in particular during the Northern Hemisphere harvest
period, when financial pressures are wont to undermine the
market, has given some pause for thought.
Moreover, the period under review has seen some fairly active
and broad-based mill purchasing, though few spinners are willing
to cover their requirements beyond the nearby shipment period.
For most, the prices currently obtainable for medium count yarns
appear remunerative with raw cotton replacement costs in the
region of 80.00 cents per lb, CFR Far East.
A glance at global supply and demand fundamentals is
sufficient, but to warn against any undue optimism with
regard to the future direction of prices. At the time of writing,
Cotton Outlook’s statistics indicate that production will exceed
consumption during 2012–13 by 3,682,000 tonnes – to add to a
surplus of more than 5,500,000 tonnes accumulated during the
previous season.
Phil Sloan
Amy Billsborough
PO Box 1203
GOONDIWINDI Qld 4390
Ph: (07) 4671 0222
Fax: (07) 4671 3833
AGENTS:
Pete Johnson
Left Field Solutions
Mob: 0409 893 139
Paul Kelly
Moree Real Estate
MOREE
Ph: (02) 6751 1100
Cargill’s Cotton Division –
Buying cotton bales
direct from the grower
Roger McCumstie
BRISBANE
Ph: (07) 3367 2629
David Dugan
Lucy Watson
TRANGIE
Ph: (02) 6888 7122
cotton_aust@cargill.com
www.cargill.com.au
FIGuRE 1: Cotlook A Index since January 2012
But as we have noted before, a very substantial proportion
of the excess supply resides in China, and is effectively in the
control of the Chinese government. By the end of November,
procurement by the state reserve – at a price far above the
international market – was approaching three and a half million
tonnes.
Taking into account import purchases and procurements last
season (some of which were released back onto the local market
Specialists in the
Sale and Valuation
of Rural Properties
• Rural Properties • Cargill Cotton Agents
• Town Sales
• Registered Valuers
• Property Management • Auctions
• Clearing Sales
MOREE REAL ESTATE
www.moreerealestate.com.au
Phone: 02 7651 1100
Fax: 02 6751 1766
After Hours:
Paul Kelly 0428 281 428
Cliff Brown 02 6752 3970
Allan Gobbert 0428 523 375
34 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

marketing
FIGuRE 2: China state reserve procurement
during September), it is estimated that government-held stocks
have increased to more than 7,500,000 tonnes, equivalent to the
lion’s share of the global surplus referred to above.
Self-evidently, the fate of China’s accumulated reserves and
the prospects for the international market are intimately linked.
Yet, despite months of conjecture, the intentions of policy-makers
in Beijing remain impossible to discern – always assuming that
the latter have themselves formulated a plan of action.
Whatever the case may be, most outside observers believe
that the current arrangements will not prove sustainable for much
longer. Not only is the massive stockpiling of cotton absorbing a
huge amount of public money and placing a strain on warehousing
capacity, the resultant market distortion has also placed the country’s
spinning industry at a huge competitive disadvantage vis-à-vis mills
with access to cotton at international prices.
Chinese raw cotton consumption has taken a serious knock in
consequence. Cotton yarn imports have risen sharply, surpassing
one million tonnes during the first 10 months of this year, almost
double the volume imported during the corresponding period of
2011. China’s appetite for foreign-spun cotton yarn has also been
one factor that has contributed to the restoration of spinners’
profitability in several parts of the world, and in turn helped to
support international raw cotton prices at their recent level.
While China’s influence over the coming months remains
a great unknown, that of India also deserves examination. As
we reported in our previous contribution to the The Australian
Cottongrower, confidence in the production outlook in India
has been restored, following a lengthy period during which the
crop appeared at risk from a delay in the arrival of monsoon
rains, most notably in the important producing state of Gujarat.
This has raised expectations that downward pressure on the
international market might come in the guise of more aggressive
Indian offers, should harvest-time, financial pressures begin to
weigh on local prices. Thus far, the anticipated downturn has
failed to materialise, though the harvest remains at a relatively
early stage.
As in China, the scale of government intervention may prove
significant. In June of this year, the government announced
an appreciable rise in Minimum Support Prices for seed
cotton, as well as those for several other commodities. Private
sector participants are not bound by the MSP, which instead
represents the level at which the Cotton Corporation of India
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 35

marketing
will intervene in the market, in order to support prices. Its
effectiveness therefore depends on the scale of intervention by
the Corporation, and on the resources placed at the disposal of
that organisation. Should CCI buying prove sufficiently active
to maintain market prices at close to the MSP, the scope for a
downturn in Indian export offers would be limited.
In contrast to India or China, the US generally establishes
cotton policy for a five-year period, enshrined in the Farm Bill.
By now a new US Farm Bill should have been passed, covering
the period from 2013–14 to 2017–18. But for want of space
in the pre-election, legislative timetable, and the increasing
preoccupation with fiscal and budgetary matters, no measure has
yet been enacted.
At the time of writing, the possibility of passing a new law
before the year-end has not been ruled out entirely, though time
is short. If that does not occur, it remains to be seen whether
the current law will be extended for a year, or new legislation
brought forward in 2013. From a cotton perspective, the main
innovation of the draft versions of the law that ultimately stalled
in Congress was the replacement of Direct and Counter-Cyclical
Payments, to which producers are entitled under the existing
programme, with an insurance-based, revenue protection
scheme, known as the Stacked Income Protection Plan (STAX).
Such a system may be more palatable to some critics of the
cotton program, but until it is tested, one cannot predict how
tangible will be the influence of STAX on producers’ planting
decisions.
Some key elements of the cotton program, moreover, are likely
to be left intact, albeit with some adjustments. These include the
Marketing Loan, which is of major potential significance to the
international market, since it facilitates the export marketing of
US cotton, however depressed world prices might become. That
mechanism was incorporated into the US cotton programme in
the mid-1980s, and provides for payment of a marketing subsidy,
based on the difference between the US loan rate and the world
price, should the latter fall below the former. That condition has
not been met for some years, and would require a substantial
further decline of world prices to be triggered.
Market forces, rather than legislative considerations, are
already tending to shape the outlook for US cotton plantings
in 2013–14. Cotton is expected to lose ground, in face of the
lucrative returns currently obtainable for alternative crops such
as corn and soybeans. If the shift away from cotton is replicated
elsewhere, and economic conditions allow a more robust
recovery of consumption, world supply and demand may move
toward a more healthy equilibrium next season.
2013
Farm
Study
Tours
UK/Ireland (departs July 9 for 22 days)
Cast off those BAS Blues in early July and head to Old Blighty and
the Emerald Isle for three fantastic weeks. We’ll visit some of the
best farming operators in the UK. There will be plenty of time to
sample all the beauty and cultural attractions of the cities and
the countryside. Visit southern and northern Ireland, England,
Wales and Scotland. This tour also coincides with the Ashes and
Wimbledon.
South America (departs Aug 5 for
24 days)
From the beautiful lakes of Chile to rugged Patagonia, the
Argentine Pampas, Iguassu Falls, incredible farm developments
in Brazil and Rio. Then Peru – think Macchu Pichu. Plus options to
the Amazon, Galapagos, Easter Islands etc.
Turkey/Ukraine/Poland (departs Aug 21 for 23 days)
Turkey is one of the most fascinating countries to visit in the world
with its mix of cultures – east and west; Europe and Asia. We
will visit Gallipoli, and then travel through western and central
Turkey visiting some extremely productive agricultural regions.
A quick flight across the Black Sea to the Ukraine with its huge
areas of highly fertile soil. We will drive right through to Poland
visiting amazing new agricultural developments and onto southern
Germany.
Express your interest by giving us a call on
07 4659 3555 or
email travel@greenmountpress.com.au
or visit
www.greenmounttravel.com.au
Licence No. ABN 57085 828011
TAG 1608 IATA 96-804831
Ph: 07 4659 3555
www.greenmounttravel.com.au
E: travel@greenmountpress.com.au
Fax: 07 4638 4520

3100% Australian Cotton
3100% Australian Owned
Wee Waa Trangie Moree Goondiwindi Toowoomba
Ph: 02 6790 3000 Ph: 02 6888 9611 Ph: 02 6752 5599 Ph: 07 4671 6900 Ph: 07 4631 6100
Fax: 02 6795 4036 Fax: 02 6888 9678 Fax: 02 6752 5357 Fax: 07 4671 6999 Fax: 07 4631 6190
www.namoicotton.com.au
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 37

Ginning & fibre quality
Series supported by ECOM Commodities
Recycled textile fibre as a
reinforcement for composites
■ Dr Menghe Miao 1 , Samuel Ello-Ekombo 1 and Dr Stuart Gordon 1
ABOUT one million tonnes of textile fibre waste is
generated each year in Australia, of which about
900,000 tonnes goes to landfill. As 35–40 per cent of
textile products are cotton, the cotton pipeline has a significant
environmental responsibility to fulfil.
Pre-consumer textile waste is manufacturing waste generated
by processing fibres (be they natural or synthetic fibres) and
the production of finished yarns and textiles, technical textiles,
nonwovens, garments and footwear, including off-cuts,
selvages, shearings, rejected materials and B-grade garments.
Post-consumer textile waste consists of any type of garments or
FIGuRE 1: Left – Natural fibres are used to make
50 Mercedes-Benz E-Class components.
Right – Interior parts of the Mercedes A-200
made by Natural Mat Thermoplastic.
household textile (such as sheets or towels) that the consumer
no longer needs and decides to discard, either because they are
worn out, damaged, outgrown, or have gone out of fashion.
Recycling of textile waste gives the fibre a second life in a
rejuvenated life cycle and thus increases the total value of the
fibre. Much recycled fibre ends up in low-value product such as
furniture fillers and under-lays. The development of new, higher
value products from recycled fibres will encourage utilisation of
this ‘waste’ material and contribute to the future sustainability of
the cotton industry.
In textile products, fibres are held together by friction and
fibre length plays a very important role. The fibres recovered from
cotton textile wastes are usually sound in mechanical properties
although they are shorter than virgin fibres due to breakages
occurred in the reclaiming process. But in fibre reinforced polymer
composites, fibres are bonded together by the polymer resin and
the fibre length required to achieve load transfer is much shorter
than that in a friction-held textile structure.
In recent years, bast fibres (fibres from outer bark of straws),
such as flax, hemp, jute and kenaf, have been successfully
manufactured into polymeric composites (known as natural fibre
composites) and used as automotive parts, furniture, building and
packaging materials.
In comparison with glass fibres, natural fibres are lighter and
cheaper and offer multifunctional properties such as thermal and
TABLE 1: Fibre properties.
Fibre
Density Elongation
Tensile strength
Modulus
g/cm 3
%
MPa
cN/tex
GPa
cN/tex
Cotton [1,2] 1.5 7 400 30–40 5.5–12.6 500–700
Flax [3] 1.5 3 669 46 20 1377
Hemp [3] 1.4 2.2 645 44 17 1177
Jute [1,2] 1.3 1.8 393–773 31 26.5 1720
Kenaf [4] 1.3 1.6 430 33 26.9 2070
Polyester [2] 1.4 37 660 47 12 880
E–glass [1,2] 2.5 0.5 2000–3500 75 70 2940
Ginning & Fibre Quality
proudly brought to you with the support of…
A tradition of service since 1849
38 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

acoustic comfort, which are important for interiors of buildings
and transport vehicles.
Cotton has traditionally been used in tyre cords (cotton/rubber
composites). Current uses of virgin cotton in polymer composites
are limited to some niche products, for example, cottonreinforced
phenolic composites are used as electrical insulators.
The main attractions of recycled cotton fibre as an alternative
feedstock to composite materials are its low cost and reduced
impact to the environment.
Cotton fibre is similar in chemical composition to bast fibres
(overwhelmingly cellulose). As shown in Table 1, cotton has similar
tensile strength as jute and kenaf, but lower than flax and hemp.
Cotton fibre is much more extensible than bast fibres, as indicated
by its large elongation before breaking. Consequently, cotton has
a considerably lower elastic modulus, or stiffness than bast fibres.
CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering has carried out
a preliminary study to look into the mechanical properties of
polymer composites reinforced with reclaimed textile fibres, in
comparison with similar composites made from virgin flax and
hemp fibres.
There are a wide range of commercial thermosetting and
FIGuRE 2: Composite manufacturing process
Cotton Trade Desk
Matthew Bradd
Scott Biffin
Shipping and Logistics Manager
John Burbidge
Head Office
Suite 801, Level 8
15 Castlereagh Street Sydney NSW 2001
GPO Box 29 Sydney NSW 2001
Ph: 02 9223 3631
Fax: 02 9233 6206
Agents:
Reclaimed fibres
➜
Namoi Valley, Gwydir Valley &
Macquarie Valley
Steve Dalton
AgVantage Commodities Pty Ltd
Ph: 02 6792 2962
MacIntyre Valley
Geoff Webb
AgVantage Commodities Pty Ltd
Ph: 07 4671 1225
Darling Downs
Simon Donaldson
Gebar Farming
Ph: 0428 636 924
St George & Dirranbandi
Kelvin Bella
Our-Tek Pty Ltd
Ph: 0428 717 284
Nonwoven mat
➜
Composite panel
Central Highlands & Dawson–Callide
Don Cooper
Cooper Consulting
Ph: 0428 794 698
Riverina/Lachlan
Ross Harvie
Rivcom P/L
Ph: 0458 567 776
E: webcottonoz@ecomtrading.com
www.ecomcommodities.com.au
www.ecomtrading.com
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 39

FIGuRE 3: Polyester thermoset composites.
s Reclaimed fibre reinforced composite.
u Virgin natural fibre reinforced composites
from published literature.
FIGuRE 4: Polypropylene thermoplastic
composites. l unreinforced polypropylene
plastic. s Reclaimed fibre reinforced composite.
u Virgin natural fibre reinforced composites
from published literature.
thermoplastic polymer matrices in which fibres can be set to
make a composite product. In this preliminary study, we used:
■ Unsaturated polyester (thermosetting resin type F61347 from
Fibre Glass International); and,
■ Polypropylene (thermoplastic fibre supplied by a local textile
factory) matrices.
■ The decision on which matrix to use is based on cost and
performance. The reclaimed textile fibre used in the study was
supplied from a textile fibre recycling factory in Victoria.
Two important performance criteria for engineering materials are
strength to break and stiffness (elastic modulus). These properties
may be tested by a tensile test or a flexural test.
Test results
Thermoset composite
The reclaimed textile fibre was opened and converted
into a lapped mat on a mini carding machine. The mat was
consolidated on a laboratory needle-punching machine. The
unsaturated polyester resin was applied to the material which
was then cured at room temperature while being held in a press
set to a five-tonne constant pressure. The resulting composite
sample was 3.12 mm in thickness with a density of 1.33 g/cm 3 .
The fibre:resin ratio in the final composite was 56:44.
The final composite sample showed a flexural strength of 55
MPa and an elastic modulus of 4.2 GPa. When compared with
published results of composite materials made from virgin natural
fibre mats, we find that the composite made from reclaimed
fibres was within the range, albeit sitting at the lower end, as
shown in Figure 3. Considering the lower material cost and other
potential benefits, it is still a worthwhile alternative to consider.
Thermoplastic composite
The reclaimed textile fibre was blended with the polypropylene
fibre at 50:50 weight ratio. The blended material was carded and
needle-punched to produce a consolidated mat (the preform).
The preform was cut to rectangular swatches according to the
size of the mould.
The swatches were stacked in the mould and placed in a hot
press. The two heated platens on the hot press were closed and
the temperature was raised to 190°C that was maintained for
20 min before the heating elements were switched off to let the
sample cool down. A constant pressure of 0.5 MPa was applied
throughout the process.
The thermoplastic composite material from reclaimed fibres
showed much better mechanical properties (strength 78MPa
and modulus 7.2 GPa) than the thermosett composite. The
mechanical properties of the final composites are compared with
published results of thermoplastic composites made from virgin
natural fibre mats in Figure 4. The composite from reclaimed
fibres was one of composites with the best combined mechanical
properties.
In summary, we converted recycled fibres into thermosett
and thermoplastic polymeric composites and evaluated their
mechanical performance. The composites reinforced by the
recycled fibres show similar mechanical properties as those
reinforced by virgin plant fibres such as hemp, flax and jute
that are being increasingly used as automotive parts, furniture,
building and packaging materials.
1
CSIRO Materials, Science and Engineering Division, Belmont, Victoria 3216.
Emails: Menghe.Miao@csiro.au, Stuart.Gordon@csiro.au
40 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

From Kingsgrove to Qingdao: A
story of exporting success
AT the 2012 Premier’s NSW Export Awards in October,
United World Enterprises Pty Ltd (which goes by the trade
name of UWE), a small to medium sized agricultural
commodities company based in the Sydney suburb of Kingsgrove,
was recognised for its significant exporting achievements by
winning the NSW category for Asian Exporter of the Year.
The win follows a long and varied history for the company
since its inception as a family-run business in 1993 by husband
and wife directors Jimmy and Freda Liu.
Responding to increasing demand
While the company began as a rag trader importing clothes
from Chinese manufacturers and selling to Australian retail
companies such as Best and Less, Gazal and Reebok, UWE
has diversified to become an exporter of their own wine label
(Jimmy Wine) and trader in agricultural commodities. UWE is
now well known to the Australian cotton industry. It was the first
Australian company to export cottonseed to China and is one
of the leading Australian exporters of cottonseed to Asia as the
award for Asian Exporter of the Year indicates.
Prior to 2008, Australia did not export much cottonseed
to China. But Jimmy had his ear to the ground and saw the
potential demand for Australian cottonseed in China. In a bold
move, UWE put a couple of shipping containers on the water
to test that potential. This opened up a significant market, and
while the company’s export volumes are varied due to shipping
capacity, its exports now average around 200,000 tonnes each
year.
Supplying directly to public and private entities
UWE sources its cottonseed from various gins, growers and
traders in Queensland and New South Wales and currently ships
cottonseed from ports in those states to ports in Shanghai and
Qingdao. The company has continued to push into the Chinese
market, supplying directly to the Chinese oilseed crushers.
Main buyers of the company’s cottonseed are larger Chinese
companies, including state-owned enterprises, publicly listed
companies and some private entities.
UWE also has an office on the ground in Shanghai which is
run by Jimmy and Freda’s daughter, Julia Liu and fiancé Dan zhu.
Financial challenges with rapid growth
Recently, UWE approached its bank ANz to increase their
banking facilities in order to meet growing business demand.
Since commencing its cottonseed exports three years ago, it has
established more concrete business networks, identified new
buyers and suppliers and needed working capital to offer more
flexible payment terms.
But due to a lack of security the bank was unable to provide
the funding UWE requested.
UWE and ANz approached Export Finance and Insurance
uWE Managing Director Jimmy Liu with Christine Tonkin,
Managing Director of ANZ Global Loans and Transactions.
TwinN – nitrogen fixing microbes
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Decrease input costs
Boost mid-season crop vigour
l TwinN microbes fix N from the
atmosphere into your crop
l TwinN microbes improve root growth
TwinN@mabiotec.com 07 5445 7151 Techs 0458 989 282 www.mabiotec.com
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 41

Winners of the NSW export awards.
Corporation (EFIC), a federal government agency established to
support Australian exporting companies for funding assistance.
Initially, EFIC felt the company was still not developed enough
in cottonseed trading to satisfy its internal lending requirements.
But over a 12 to 18 month period, UWE began to gain further
experience and approached EFIC again, this time with a proven
track record of success. The government agency saw growth in
the company and undertook due diligence. EFIC was able to offer
a A$3 million guarantee to ANz to provide UWE with a revolving
working capital facility.
Under this facility, UWE was able to purchase much larger
volumes of cottonseed direct from its Australian suppliers and
sell to the Chinese market, meeting the increased demand the
company was experiencing.
EFIC provides financing solutions for Australian exports when
there is no commercial market appetite. The government-owned
agency does this mainly through guarantees to commercial
banks. Track record and financial performance are part of
its assessment: once EFIC became comfortable with its due
diligence, it was able to offer a facility to UWE.
Being an AAA-rated entity, EFIC provides a bank, in this case
ANz, additional security without needing bricks and mortar. If
there is a default due to the buyer not making payment to UWE,
then ANz can call on EFIC’s guarantee to be repaid for any losses
incurred.
EFIC’s role is not to crowd out the commercial market but
more so to promote commercial lending appetite. By having
EFIC take the risk over a number of transactions, the banks can
get comfortable that the exporter and the financing structure is
robust and a more ‘bankable’ proposition.
In the case of UWE, its bank has expressed its support and
now, after having completed a few transactions, is prepared to
take a share in the risk. This is a positive step from both UWE’s
and EFIC’s point of view because, ANz will, over time become
more comfortable with the risk and will eventually bear the
entire risk without EFIC support. EFIC has recognised the growing
need to support agriculture and has set up a specialised team to
handle all agri-financing.
UWE has demonstrated a good business model and strong
relationship with their Chinese buyers. This has enabled UWE
to grow rapidly as a business in response to identified demand
in the Asian market; a great success story in times when many
businesses have struggled with tough economic conditions. The
cottonseed market continues to pose an exciting opportunity
for UWE and the company looks forward to building on their
accolade of NSW Asian Exporter of the Year.
2013
Farm
Study
Tours
UK/Ireland (departs July 9 for 22 days)
Cast off those BAS Blues in early July and head to Old Blighty and the Emerald Isle
for three fantastic weeks. We’ll visit some of the best farming operators in the UK.
There will be plenty of time to sample all the beauty and cultural attractions of the
cities and the countryside. Visit southern and northern Ireland, England, Wales and
Scotland. This tour also coincides with the Ashes and Wimbledon.
South America (departs Aug 5 for 24 days)
From the beautiful lakes of Chile to rugged Patagonia, the Argentine Pampas,
Iguassu Falls, incredible farm developments in Brazil and Rio. Then Peru – think
Macchu Pichu. Plus options to the Amazon, Galapagos, Easter Islands etc.
Turkey/Ukraine/Poland
(departs Aug 21 for 23 days)
Turkey is one of the most fascinating countries to visit in the world with its mix of
cultures – east and west; Europe and Asia. We will visit Gallipoli, and then travel
through western and central Turkey visiting some extremely productive agricultural
regions. A quick flight across the Black Sea to the Ukraine with its huge areas
of highly fertile soil. We will drive right through to Poland visiting amazing new
agricultural developments and onto southern Germany.
Express your interest by giving us a call on
07 4659 3555 or
email travel@greenmountpress.com.au
or visit
www.greenmounttravel.com.au
Licence No. ABN 57085 828011
TAG 1608 IATA 96-804831
Ph: 07 4659 3555
www.greenmounttravel.com.au
E: travel@greenmountpress.com.au
Fax: 07 4638 4520

IT’s
back!
Your gateway to
the Cotton Industry
incorporating…
NorthCrop –
Northern Cropping Systems Expo
including all summer and winter
crops, both irrigated and broadacre.
May 29–30, 2013
Moree TaFE
Newell Highway, Moree
For any information about the trade show contact:
BOOKINGS —
Brian O’Connell Ph: 02 6778 3255
Mob: 0413 130 777
ADMINISTRATION —
David Dowling Ph: 07 4659 3555
Email: tradeshow@greenmountpress.com.au
www.cottontradeshow.com.au
save time
book your site online – go to
www.cottontradeshow.com.au

Managing glyphosate resistant
weeds in summer cropping systems
■ By Graham Charles, NSW DPI
THE 2012–13 summer will see a new chapter unfold for
many cotton growers, as well as other farmers in the
northern cropping areas. It might be a good cropping
season, but it will almost certainly be a season of frustration,
with more and more weed control failures following glyphosate
applications.
This prediction is easy to make, given the alarmingly large
number of failures that were reported last summer, with weeds
such as awnless barnyard grass, feathertop Rhodes grass,
windmill grass and flaxleaf fleabane being very difficult to
control, even with a double-knock of glyphosate followed by
something like paraquat.
Unfortunately, glyphosate tolerant and resistant weeds are
now a reality in the cotton system, with the number of confirmed
cases of resistance escalating last season and many more
unreported cases observed. This hasn’t happened due to a failure
with the Roundup Ready Flex Crop Management Plan, or a failure
in the plan’s implimentation, but due to a failure in the farming
system, and primarily in the summer fallow component of the
system. The problem has been over reliance on glyphosate as the
primary weed control tool for too long in zero-tillage systems.
zero-tillage has been adopted on much of the cropping area
since the 1980s or early 1990s, with some fields now in zerotillage
for over 20 years and a few over 30 years.
The continuous use of glyphosate for summer weed control over
this period has placed very strong selection pressure on weeds and
the result has been a rapid increse in the emergence of glyphosate
resistant and tolerant weeds over the past couple of years.
Even where fields have been well managed or don’t have a
long history of glyphosate, all too often resistant weeds have
been introduced from an extenal source. Fleabane and windmill
grass are readily moving across the landscape in strong winds,
easily moving from property to property, and machinery such as
headers are notorious for introducing unwelcome weeds.
In hindsight, the emergence of a weed with resistance to
glyphosate was inevitable, although many experts at the time
maintained that resistance could never occur due to the mode
of action of glyphosate. Today, there are 23 different weeds with
resistance to glyphosate in 20 countries.
Interestingly, resistance is generally occurring in different
species in each situation. For example, Palmer amaranth has
developed resistance in the US and is a major problem there, but
no amaranths with resistance to glyphosate have been found in
Australia to date.
Nevertheless, this has been a wake-up call. Resistance to any
herbicide can occur if it is overused.
The summer fallow
Much of the success of the northern cropping system has
been due to the adoption of zero-tillage fallows, often with
retained stubble. These fallows have been relatively easy and
inexpensive to maintain with glyphosate, but will be much more
expensive and difficult to maintain once they become dominated
by glyphosate resistant weeds.
Many farmers are now moving to products such as Flame to
reduce the pressure on glyphosate and control the more difficult
Glyphosate resistant windmill grass is the latest in the series of resistant weeds and is becoming obvious around many cotton
fields. The resistant windmill plants on this head ditch have been burnt - off by herbicide but not killed.
44 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

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December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 45

cultivation. Cultivation has been seen as a no-no to the zerotillage
purists, but is now becoming the fall-back position for
many when weeds such as feathertop Rhodes grass become
dominant. Nobody wants to see a return to the old days of fully
cultivated fallows, but the regular use of a strategic cultivation
can be very valuable and will prolong the effective life of the
herbicides. Cultivation is probably the most effective tool for
managing tap-rooted and perennial weeds such as fleabane and
Australian bindweed once they are well established. Cultivation
can also be the most effective option for a double-knock when
weeds become stressed following the first herbicide. A doubleknock
with a herbicide followed by cultivation will control most
glyphosate resistant, tap-rooted and perennial weeds.
Alternative crops
As is the case in fallows, there are also many alternative
herbicides available for use in other crops, but many of these
have the same issues of potential for resistance or prolonged
plant-back periods to cotton.
Cotton growers need to be cautious of using any residual
herbicides in a rotation crop or fallow, even if past experience
has not indicated problems with the herbicide, as a lack of
damage symptoms from a residual herbicide does not necessarily
show that the crop has not been damaged. Work I undertook
with atrazine, for example, showed a 15 per cent yield loss
from atrazine without the crop displaying any obvious damage
symptoms. Smaller yield losses of five or 10 per cent could easily
be caused by herbicide residues without the crop showing any
herbicide damage symptoms. Such losses may seem small but
can add up to a lot of money over a field and a farm. Even
some of the ‘non-residual’ herbicides can have soil activity and a
surprisingly long half-life in the soil.
A management strategy
The primary aim of weed management is to drive down the
weed seed-bank, reducing the competition for crops and the
pressure on herbicides.
Cotton growers need to make use of all their oportunities to
achieve this. Growers need to ensure that in cotton they:
■ Enter the cropping phase with low weed numbers;
■ Use residual herbicides as necessary to reduce the pressure on
in-crop glyphosate applications; and,
■ Always undertake a post-spray audit after every glyphosate
and control any survivors using an alternative tool before they
set seed.
Fields expected to have moderate or high weed numbers
should have residual herbicides applied to manage these weeds
before the problems occur.
In fallows, growers should maintain stubble cover as long as
possible, but:
■ Should not rely on a single herbicide strategy to manage
weeds;
■ Should include a residual herbicide in the system to reduce the
selection pressure on the contact herbicides (provided there
are no plant-back issues with the residual herbicide);
■ Should ensure any survivors are managed using an alternative
tool before they set seed; and,
■ Should use strategic cultivation if necessary to manage
perennial and taprooted weeds and remove stressed survivors
before they set seed.
Allowing weeds to get away in a rotation crop will contribute
to problems in the following fallow, requiring additional inputs
later in the system.
Cotton growers need to think about their expected weed
issues and available herbicides before they consider growing
rotation crops. Some herbicides that appear to be ideal for a
rotation crop may not fit into a cropping system that includes
cotton. Also, the use of some cotton herbicides may damage the
following rotation crop.
In order to manage glyphosate resistant and tolerant weeds,
cotton growers need to be more proactive in their weed
management in all components of their cropping system. They
need to use Roundup Ready Flex cotton not as a ‘cheap’ option
for glyphosate, but as an opportunity to reduce the weed
pressure in their farming system by including residual herbicides
as necessary, regularly monitoring weed pressure and responding
aggressively to ensure weed numbers are driven down.
This season has seen some bad examples of poor field preparation with weeds not adequately managed before planting to
cotton. Much of the sowthistle and fleabane in this field, for example, has survived the first in - crop glyphosate, is setting seed
and is now difficult and expensive to manage.
46 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

Herbicide options shrinking for
cotton
■ By Brogan Micallef and Stephen Powles, Australian Herbicide Resistance Initiative
AT A GLANCE…
■ Over-reliance on glyphosate and Roundup Ready crops has
led to a major glyphosate resistant weed problem in the US;
■ Australia is at risk of a similar situation, especially in cotton
regions with the almost universal uptake of RR cotton;
■ Cotton growing regions and the northern grain region are
closely aligned, increasing the resistance risk as glyphosate is
used in many situations; and,
■ To face the herbicide resistance challenge, diversity is key.
NSW, populations of three common grass weeds – awnless
barnyard grass, liverseed grass and annual ryegrass (also
occurring in southern NSW) – now have resistance to glyphosate.
Adding to this issue is the increasingly frequent observation of
weeds with resistance to multiple herbicides.
THE evolution of herbicide resistant weeds currently
threatens global crop productivity as grain and fibre
production is substantially underpinned by the use of
herbicides for weed control. In recent years, the high adoption of
RR crops and over-reliance on glyphosate in the US has led to the
evolution of glyphosate resistant weeds.
To consider the global herbicide resistance challenge, the
Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) funded
Australian Herbicide Resistance Initiative (AHRI), based at the
University of Western Australia (UWA), will host an international
conference on herbicide resistance in crops and weeds. The
Global Herbicide Resistance Challenge conference will take place
in the portside city of Fremantle, Western Australia from February
18–22, 2013 (www.herbicideresistanceconference.com.au).
Glyphosate resistance: A world-wide issue
Due to over-reliance on glyphosate and Roundup Ready (RR)
crops, along with the subsequent emergence of glyphosate
resistant weeds, the US now has a major resistance problem.
Of the 90 million hectares of corn, soybean and cotton crops
in the US, nearly all grow RR varieties. In RR corn, glyphosate
is used alone for weed control in 85 per cent of cases; 94 per
cent in RR soybean crops, and 89 per cent in RR cotton. US
farmers, researchers and the agricultural industry are now
doing everything possible to manage the subsequent resistance
problem, including hand weeding, a practise not seen in Western
agriculture for 100 years. Currently, 52 per cent of cotton crops
in Arkansas are hand weeded at high cost.
Given the uptake of RR technology by the nation’s cotton
industry, there is a risk of a similar situation developing in
Australia. Typically, there are two to three applications of
glyphosate used for summer fallow, and two for winter fallow.
In RR cotton, two applications of glyphosate is the norm. The
good news is that herbicides can be kept working, but Australian
cotton growers must be encouraged to do all they can to avoid a
similar situation to the US. To ensure sustainable systems for the
future, we need to practise diversity.
The Australian story: Glyphosate resistance in
NSW and QLD
Herbicide resistant weed populations are increasingly common
in agricultural systems of NSW and Queensland. In northern
Jason Norsworthy inspecting a field with plenty of pigweed.
C O N F E R E N C E
Herbicide resistance
threatens global food
and fibre production
From 18-22 February 2013,
world resistance experts
will be in Perth to address
this serious issue.
This is a unique opportunity
to learn how to ensure long
term sustainability of grain
and fibre crops.
To register, go to:
www.herbicideresistanceconference.com.au
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 47

To date, there is only one documented case of a glyphosate
resistant species (Barnyard grass) in an Australian dryland cotton
farming system. But cotton growing regions are closely aligned
with the northern grains region, and across this area there are
16 weed species that have developed resistance to at least one
herbicide mode of action. Most recently, liverseed grass with
resistance to glyphosate has been confirmed in this region.
Although there is still a diversity of herbicides used in
conjunction with cultivation and other farming practices, there
is an increasing reliance on glyphosate for the majority of weed
control in cotton production systems. This reliance not only
occurs in GM cotton varieties, but also in conventional cotton
and other crops used for fallow weed control, hence increasing
the risk of glyphosate resistance evolution in these systems.
Facing the resistance problem with the world’s
best
A major and concerted effort is required to tackle the lack of
new herbicide options available for grain and fibre farming across
the world’s most productive agricultural regions. The Global
Herbicide Resistance Challenge conference will bring together
leading authorities on herbicide resistance from across the globe
to consider the state-of-the-science. It will address issues ranging
from molecular evolution through to crop science, agro-ecology,
resistance management and socio-economics in a variety of
agricultural systems.
Dr Jason Norsworthy, Professor and Elms Farming Chair
The Global Herbicide Resistance Challenge will be held in Perth Western
of Weed Science at the University of Arkansas, winner of
Australia, February 18–22, 2013. For further information please visit the
numerous O B S 9 awards 7 8 2 Cfor G . his p dresearch f P aachievements, g e 1 1 0 and / 1 Council 2 / 1 2 , 3 :
conference
4 8 P M
website, www.herbicideresistancechallenge.com.au, or contact
Conference Chair, Lisa Mayer, T: 08 6488 7870, E: lisa.mayer@uwa.edu.au.
of Australasian Weed Societies (CAWS) Orator at the Global
Herbicide Resistance Challenge conference, knows only too well
Put your paddock
in your pocket.
the US herbicide resistance situation, and can fully comprehend
the threat currently faced by Australia.
Jason is recognised as a national and international authority,
and key influencer in the area of understanding and managing
herbicide resistance.
Jason’s presentation on Thursday, February 21 at the Global
Herbicide Resistance Challenge conference will focus on best
management practices to prevent herbicide resistance evolution
in cotton and soybean crops, and will demonstrate that
diversity is the key to ensuring the long-term success of weed
management programs.
Representatives from the Australian cotton industry are
encouraged to take this opportunity to attend the conference to
learn how leading researchers and nations are tackling herbicide
resistance in the great crops of the world, and help tackle the
Global Herbicide Resistance Challenge.
Standard Conference registration can be purchased for $1100
(inc. GST). This includes four-day conference registration, along with
the opening and closing event hospitality. A special price for oneday
delegates is $275 (incl GST) or $165 (incl GST) for students. This
all inclusive price includes full one-day conference registration, daily
catering package and the conference closing function.
Further information:
Global Herbicide Resistance Challenge, www.herbicideresistanceconference.
com.au
Australian Herbicide Resistance Initiative, www.ahri.uwa.edu.au
Cotton Research and Development Corporation, www.crdc.com.au
Acknowledgements: Stephen Powles (AHRI), Jeff Werth (QDAFF), David
Thornby (QDAFF), James Hill (NSW DPI), Graeme Charles (NSW DPI).
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48 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

The essentials for successful
cotton in the Burdekin
■ By Stephen Yeates and Paul Grundy
IN this article we tell the story of some of Burdekin growers
pioneering cotton and how their partnership with local R&D is
progressing robust production practices for this unique cotton
growing environment.
Burdekin farmers evaluating cotton over the past five summers
agree that growing in the tropical wet season, combined with
the need for cotton to be compatible with sugar in rotation,
have required both locally developed management practices and
customising production costs that reflect the yield potential of
the climate.
Lyndsay Hall and sons Peter and Russell have planted cotton in
the Burdekin since 2004. Lindsay has long recognised the need
for crops to break a sugar monoculture.
“We saw two opportunities for cotton in our business,”
he says. “Firstly, along with grain crops it could provide an
alternative to sugar when prices are low, and secondly as a break
crop between sugar crops – that is grow cotton rather than have
valuable irrigation land fallow during summer. Water is not a
limitation in the Burdekin.”
The reasoning was similar for long-term sugar growers Wayne
and Angelo Dal Santo who grew their first cotton crop in 2008.
In most years, 20 per cent of their land lies fallow between
cutting the last rattoon around November and planting cane
in about April, therefore a cash crop that could provide weed
control and had a tap-root was desirable. The approval for
growing genetically modified Bollgard II Roundup Flex cotton
varieties in Northern Australia granted late in 2006 provided the
catalyst to test cotton during the following wet season’s fallow.
“We were already spraying glyphosate to control weeds during
the fallow, so by growing cotton we could also generate income
FIGuRE 1: Closing the gap between seasonal
yield potential (climate study), top commercial
farm and Burdekin valley average (all farms)
for 2008–12 when sown at the same dates
and provide a break between sugar crops,” said Wayne.
In hindsight, planting a commercial area of cotton in 2008
when the Halls, Dal Santos and 10 others first did was a brave
decision as there was no local knowledge on how to grow the
crop – just a ‘best bet’ based on a desktop assessment of the best
sowing date and extrapolation of husbandry practices from other
areas. Variety, nutrition, growth regulator management, row
spacing and planting population were all speculative.
An overwhelming demonstration of this risk was the
difference in performance between the varieties available at
the time, Sicot 80BRF and Sicala 60BRF, which when averaged
over 12 fields in 2008 had a yield average of 4.0 and 8.6 bales
per hectare respectively. For the growers who tossed a coin
to choose between these two varieties with no local data, the
contrast between outcomes could not have been more stark. Not
surprisingly with examples such as this, yields were variable in
2008 with some promising yields of around 10 bales per hectare
and excellent fibre quality being produced in some fields.
History has repeatedly shown for new crops that farming
practices cannot be simply transferred from traditional
agricultural areas to northern Australia. They are most likely to be
unsuitable, and destined for failure. Cotton research commenced
in 2008 to meet the need for local production knowledge, and in
the hope of avoiding past errors in northern Australia.
The research that was conducted over a subsequent five year
period had two objectives:
■ To examine ways to mitigate the risk of wetter than average
years so that growers who used cotton as an annual rotation
cropping option for cane could do so without suffering losses
in wet years and achieve good returns in average or drier than
average years; and,
■ The development of agronomic practices that better suit local
conditions.
The approach was to work closely with the farmers growing
Commercial yields were down as growers were learning to deal with wet season cropping
in 2008 and 2009. The gap between potential and commercial yields reduced during
2010–12, but cloudy weather during autumn, particularly during 2011 and 2012 reduced
yield potential compared with earlier years.
Pioneering Burdekin cotton farmer Lindsay Hall speaking at a
field walk on his farm.
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 49

Jeff Marson grew a very good first crop on sandy – loam soil
in 2012.
cotton, and much of the research has been conducted on their
farms. Having pioneering growers sowing commercial scale areas
of cotton helped to focus research priorities and identify problems.
Research found that many southern production practices
required modification for Burdekin growing conditions. The
most notable issues were growth regulators, nitrogen fertiliser
management and identification of regionally appropriate
varieties. Sowing date was confirmed to be just prior to the
monsoon (in late December to early January) so that crops are
most likely to avoid cloudy weather during flowering and boll
growth in March and April. Yield potential was found to be
dependent on:
■ Sunny weather conditions during March and April; and,
■ Responsive management.
So what was the actual impact of this partnership between
R&D and commercial test farming of cotton in the Burdekin We
believe the following two examples indicate the success of this
research program.
Closing the gap between commercial and
potential yield
Figure 1 shows the gap between average commercial yields
and yield potential (derived from small plot experiments on a well
drained soil) together with the best commercial farm average
picked each season. The gap between yield potential and the
valley average has narrowed considerably since 2008 despite lower
overall yields since 2010. Prolonged cloudy weather in March
has been confirmed to have a strongly negative impact on yield
potential. Cloudy conditions during March in 2010–12 capped yield
potential for these seasons. A run of wetter than average seasons
has gripped the Burdekin since 2007, and 2012 had the wettest
monthly total on record for March. Two consecutive weeks of
cloudy weather after March 16 significantly reduced both R&D and
commercial test farm yields. This contrasts with 2008 and 2009,
which were very wet prior to flowering (2009 is the wettest season
on record with over 1800 mm falling during January and February)
but had sunny conditions during March and April allowing crops to
compensate and produce high potential yields.
The benefits of locally-focused research and
development
The commercial and research partnership in the Burdekin
has allowed new growers who tried cotton for the first time
from 2010 onwards to avoid the costly learning curve that was
experienced by the initial pioneering growers between 2008–09.
Layton and Sheree MacDonald grew their first crop of cotton
in 2011 and Jeff Marson in 2012. By this time the varieties Sicot
74BRF and Siokra 24BRF had been shown to be best suited and
significant advances had been made in tailoring growth regulator
and nitrogen management to wet season conditions.
Layton and Sheree came to the Burdekin to be closer to family,
shifting from Emerald. They brought a reasonably run-down cane
farm near the township of Millaroo that offered tremendous
potential once the fields were re-worked and the weeds better
Angelo Dal Santo evaluated cotton as a break crop between sugar crops.
50 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

managed. Layton identified that cotton could have an excellent
fit as a high value crop that with Roundup Flex technology
would give them an edge with weed management. Despite the
challenging seasonal conditions of 2011 and 2012, and trying
a new crop on a new farm in a new area, the MacDonald’s
produced the highest farm yields in both seasons using a tailored
management approach based knowledge gained from the R&D
and previous growers. They have grown crops with good margins
as a result of carefully managing inputs to suit conditions as the
season has progressed each year.
Sugar grower Jeff Marson grew cotton for the first time in
2012. He had observed cotton on a neighbour’s farm and also
saw an opportunity for a rotation crop during the cane fallow.
Jeff grew cotton on clay and sandy textured soils (the former
proving challenging) and despite a lack of suitable equipment
was able to grow a reasonable crop of cotton for the conditions
of 2012. He is looking forward to having a test field planted to
cotton again this coming season.
Jeff’s crops in 2012 confirmed the experience of others
that yields on clay soils were less than sandier textured soils.
Insufficient crop nitrogen uptake has been identified as one
reason for lower yields on clay soils. We had expected nitrogen
losses to be greater on the sandy soils than the clay soils due to
leaching below the roots but research has shown this not to be
the case provided most nitrogen is applied in-crop. Improving
the nitrogen uptake efficiency in heavy clay soils is the subject
of current research. There have been promising results with slow
release fertilisers applied at sowing and in-crop application of
stabilised ammonia forms of nitrogen.
To sum up
A five year partnership between local farmers new to cotton in
the tropics and research has shown cotton can be feasibly grown
in the Burdekin. But the profile of climatic risks and production
costs are very different to southern production systems due to the
occurrence of wetter than average seasons rather than droughts.
Being a continuous cropping region permits fixed costs to be
calculated for the growing season only and not include the time
Sheree and Layton MacDonald grew cotton for the first time
in 2011.
land would otherwise be spelled in southern production systems
for soil moisture conservation or a drought-induced fallow.
It is the spectre of wetter than average seasons that limits yield
potential in the Burdekin region. In these seasons (which occur
approximately one third of the time), yield potential is limited by
cloudy weather and is likely to fall within a range of 6.5-8.5 bales
per hectare. In the remaining sunnier seasons, yields are likely to
be much higher with test planting suggesting potential for greater
than 10 bales per hectare. Yield potential is difficult to predict at
planting, so managing a crop in terms of minimising early season
input expenses is critical so that costs do not exceed returns in the
seasons that end up having more intense and cloudy monsoon
conditions with reduced yield potential.
In addition to the growers mentioned in this article we would like to thank
Barry Breadsell, Mark Hansen, Jan and Megan Lafrenz, Mark and Paul Hatch
(research collaborators); Barry Braden (AgnVet), John Marshall (CSD), Andrew
Franklin (Northern Agronomic Services), Greg Constable and the CSIRO
breeding team, Rick Jones (QC), the Cotton Catchment Communities CRC and
the Cotton R&D Corporation.
More information contact Stephen Yeates (CSIRO) 0417 015633 or
Paul Grundy (QDAFF) 0427 929172.
Layton and Sheree MacDonald ’ s crop in 2012.
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 51

CLASSIC TRACTOR TALES
Adolphe Kégresse and his
crawler tracks
■ By Ian M. Johnston
Following the outbreak of the turbulent Russian
revolution of 1917, Tsar Nicholas II, whose cruelty and
despotism were legendary, was dragged into prison by a
jeering mob of Bolshevik revolutionists. A year or so later,
In July 1918, at a place called Ekaterinburg, he was taken
out and shot along with other members of The Russian
Royal Family.
The Rolls Royce
Nicholas II had been a keen hunter and enjoyed roaming his
vast estates in the rear of his absurdly ostentatious Rolls Royce
Silver Ghost open tourer. In addition to the chauffeur, he was
usually accompanied by an Officer of The Imperial Guard, whose
job it was to provide the Tsar with a loaded rifle should a bear or
wolf present itself. But if it proved to be a dreary day and no such
luckless animal appeared, Nicholas could always take a pot shot
at the odd peasant labourer or two – to while away the time.
A heavy snow fall greeted the arrival of the bitter winter of
1916. The Tsar entered a state of apoplectic rage when the Rolls
Royce failed to proceed! It had slipped into a snow drift and
bogged! He had two alternatives. Shoot the chauffeur or send
him off to fetch a draught horse. The horse arrived but alas
history does not record the ultimate fate of the chauffeur!
But no snow fall was going to prevent Nicholas from
continuing with his hunting trips!
Adolphe Kégresse, the French technical manager of the
Imperial Garages was summoned. He was ordered to render the
Rolls Royce bog proof! A tall order indeed, but failure to carry out
an instruction from the Tsar could result in much unpleasantness,
including experiencing the ambience of the chamber of horrors
administered by Gregory Yefimovich Novykh’s (Rasputin), the mad
mystic upon whose guidance the Tsar depended!
So Kégresse set to work with an unusual degree of anxious
energy.
He had observed the effectiveness, in boggy conditions, of
heavy steel crawler tracks fitted to tractors and military vehicles.
But with the limited engineering resources available within the
Imperial Garages, he determined it would be impossible to
convert the Rolls Royce into a conventional full track crawler
vehicle.
But Adolphe Kégresse was a born innovator. He extended the
massive chassis of the big car and attached a second rear axle
of the ‘lazy’ type, i.e. non-driving. He then fitted four relatively
small diameter wheels with pneumatic tyres to the two rear
axles. The harness maker was then called in to make two endless
rubberised fabric belts, which could be wrapped around the
outer circumference of each pair of rear wheels whilst the tyres
were deflated.
It was a simple matter then to inflate the four tyres, which
served to increase their diameter. This in turn, stretched the belts
and held them in place by friction engagement around the tyres.
The Tsar was ecstatic when he witnessed the test of his
modified Rolls Royce being driven through snow drifts and sloppy
mud without even a sensation of hesitation. Kégresse was richly
rewarded for his endeavours.
André Citroen
In 1917, with the Tsars family entombed in jail, the Bolsheviks
commenced rounding up all the unfortunate individuals who had
been close to The Royal Family. The name of Kégresse was on the
list. Following a harrowing overland journey, and leaving behind
a number of cars which he had converted to friction engagement
The Kégresse principle of belt (track) engagement to the
driving wheel. (A sketch by the author)
TOP: An archival photo taken by Adolphe Kégresse in 1924
showing two of the cars in the Trans - Sahara Expedition,
meeting up with an astonished group of Bedouin tribesmen,
who had possibly never before sighted a motor vehicle.
(IMJ archives)
BOTTOM: The expedition negotiating the sand dunes in
Algeria. (IMJ archives)
52 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

half-tracks, Kégresse escaped into Finland and finally arrived back
home in his native France.
The Bolsheviks commandeered the vehicles and used them
as military transports in action against the Polish army. It seems
that one of the half-tracks fell into the hands the Poles, who in
turn handed it over to their French allies. The French military saw
great potential in the simplicity and effectiveness of the friction
engagement tracks and approached the car maker André Citroen
to further develop the principle.
Hitherto, crawler tracks had been constructed with steel
grousers bolted to a steel chain, driven by a sprocket and
supported by rollers and a steel idler at the opposing end.
Kégresse’s design was lightweight, inexpensive, silent and
followed the contours of the ground, thus providing excellent
traction. Plus, it was not a daunting exercise to convert a
standard vehicle to take the tracks.
Citroen employed Kégresse with a brief to further develop
his unorthodox track design. The first Citroen Autochenille was
released in 1921. It was effectively a Citroen 10CV car equipped
with the friction engagement half-tracks. The Swiss Post Office
purchased several, fitted with snow skis in place of the front
wheels.
A clipping from a 1929 () Victorian newspaper, showing a
Kégresse Citreon climbing the steps of Parliament House,
Melbourne, as a promotional stunt. (IMJ archives)
Challenges
One of the great challenges yet unconquered in 1922 was for
a motor vehicle to be driven north to south across the Sahara.
This astonishing feat, hitherto considered an impossibility, was
achieved for Citroen in the latter part of that year, extending into
1923, by Georges Haardt and a dedicated team, driving a convoy
of no less than five 1425 cc Citroen-Kégresse specially equipped
desert vehicles.
The expedition attracted world wide publicity, which included
a report featured in the January 1924 edition of The National
Geographic Magazine.
Interestingly, each car had three seats, one reserved for a
possible local guide picked up along the way. The rear was
loaded with provisions, spare parts, charts, plus a rifle for each
man and (remarkably) a machine gun borrowed from a fighter
aircraft! In addition each car carried a tent, extra petrol tanks and
eight gallons of water.
Roaming Bedouin tribesmen, aloft on their camels, would
undoubtedly have been shocked to witness five motor vehicles
appearing over the sand dunes, where no cars had ever before
ventured.
A further expedition was successfully undertaken in 1923–24
when a Citroen-Kégresse convoy travelled from Algeria to The
Cape of Good Hope.
In 1934 four specially constructed Citreon-Kégresse cars
were shipped to Alberta, Canada, to form the nucleus of a Polar
expedition. A group of wealthy adventurers believed they could
drive the vehicles to the north pole!
But crossing the unforgiving frozen wastelands of northern
Canada proved a greater confrontation than crossing the sand
dunes of The Sahara. The Polar expedition was obliged to turn
back before it reached the half way point and had not even
sighted one polar bear! The rubberised tracks were unable to
cope with the scores of ice faults and ravines that crisscrossed
the route and all but one of the vehicles had to be abandoned.
Surprisingly this particular unit has been restored and is now in
an Alberta museum.
What followed
By now the friction engagement design of crawler tracks was
being deployed by various vehicle manufacturers. But care had
to be taken that the Kégresse patents were not violated. On May
The sole remaining Citroen of the ill - fated Canadian Polar
expedition of 1934. (Photo IMJ)
This Oliver OC4 was available with the Air - Track system,
using the Kégresse principle, but with a bogie self adjusting
undercarriage. (IMJ archives)
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 53

Tom Bates of Swan Hill, Victoria, owns this Ferguson TEA 20
with rubberised tracks equipped with grousers for extra grip.
(Photo IMJ)
3, 1927 Kégresse registered his design Patent No. 1627287 with
the United States Patent Office. Accordingly an array of variations
appeared from the design team of other manufacturers, but all
carefully avoiding the Kégresse patents.
Fast forwarding to the 1940s, it is interesting to note that
Harry Ferguson, the great tractor innovator, saw considerable
merit in the friction engagement track principle and approved
several after market designs for fitting to the Ferguson TE20 and
subsequent models.
Several Ferguson tractors thus equipped, performed admirably
in Antarctica. Indeed on January 4, 1958 a TEA20, fitted with
friction engagement tracks, became the first vehicle to be
successfully driven overland to the South Pole!
In more recent times, the giant conglomerates Caterpillar and
A Caterpillar Challenger 55 equipped friction engaged
rubberised tracks. (Photo IMJ)
John Deere introduced a range of agricultural tractors propelled
on rubberised tracks of the friction engagement design! They
claimed that these tractors represented a revolutionary new
approach to track design and each company insisted that the
other was in breach of the other’s patent rites. At considerable
expense a global legal battle was put in motion between the two
giant corporates, including in Australia.
But common sense prevailed when an Australian expert
witness, presented evidence of Kégresse’s patents and the
scores of other subsequent friction engagement designs, which
included those fitted to an Oliver OC4 crawler of the 1950s and
the Ferguson TEA 20. In Australia at least, the matter was settled
quietly and harmoniously ‘out of court’.
■
IAN’s MysTEry TrACTor QUIZ
Question: What on earth is it
Clue: Yes. It is a tractor – and yes it does go! The engine is
below the radiator. And no – they definitely are not Kégresse
style tracks! (Photos IMJ)
Degree of difficulty: Best thing is to simply give up! Go grab
a cold beer.
Answer: See page 64.
A John Deere 8400T fitted with friction engaged rubberised
tracks. (Photo IMJ)
54 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

Germinating
ideas
By CSD Extension and Development
Team
IN this edition of Germinating Ideas, we address the key
cotton plant growth phases from flowering to cut-out and
the management required through this period to produce an
efficient crop.
Since the introduction of Bollgard II technology, effectively
controlling the major pest of cotton (Heliothis), cotton growers
have been afforded more time to concentrate on some of
the intricate management practices that if gotten wrong can
cost yield. These are in the form of irrigation and nutrition
management and the monitoring of vegetative growth rate
and node production. The most important time is through the
development of fruit, which ultimately will determine the yield of
the crop.
Irrigation management
The crop as it moves towards flowering does two things. It
starts to develop fruiting structures and with warm temperatures
FIGuRE 1: Seasonal water use in mm/day for
cotton production
occurring through most regions in December the vegetative
growth rate accelerates and the demand for water increases. This
can be seen in Figure 1.
Once flowering occurs the water demand increases steadily to
a point at peak flowering where the crop is using up to eight mm
a day. The impact of water stress through this period can have a
major impact on yield as seen in Figure 2.
It is for this reason that it is essential that bores and pumps
have been serviced pre season and that pumping capabilities
are not restricted through the season, particularly at flowering.
FIGuRE 3: Segmented picking comparison of
Sicot 71BRF managed under differing irrigation
regimes
Crop A is a normal
Bollgard II field
where Sicot 71BRF is
managed for Bollgard
II.
Crop B is a
conventional field
where Sicot 71BRF has
been inserted into the
trial and the field is
being managed as a
conventional field.
FIGuRE 2: The impact of one day’s water stress
varies with growth stage
Source: Hearn and Constable, 1984.
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 55

Furthermore, during the season the monitoring of the crop in
terms of water requirements is critical. The use of C-probes has
helped in indicating when crops will require further water. The
effect of delayed watering on Bollgard II crops has been well
documented and will affect yield. As an example, when Bollgard
II is grown using conventional crop irrigation management, a
yield loss is seen in the Bollgard II compared to the conventional
due to the Bollard II requiring different irrigation management.
A trial was setup using Sicot 71BRF in a Bollard II field and
also in a conventional field to look at what impact conventional
management would have on a Bollgard II variety.
The results can be seen in Figure 3. The impact of a late first
irrigation was stressing the Bollgard II variety in the conventional
trial (Crop B) and overall caused the Sicot 71BRF to be shorter
with less fruiting branches and caused premature cut-out,
compared to the normal Bollgard II field (Crop A).There were
less secondary fruit, as well as less top fruit which meant that
under the conventional irrigation management regime the Sicot
71BRF in the conventional field yielded less than the conventional
varieties in the trial. Therefore irrigation management is critical,
particularly as we get into flowering where there is peak demand
for water by the crop. Timing is critical so that the crop does not
stress as Bollgard II varieties generally have a higher early fruit set
than conventional varieties.
The impact of water stress on the plant also can affect cotton
quality. Water stress occurring during peak flowering will have
an impact on fibre length while late flowering moisture stress
will affect fibre maturity or micronaire. Typically, the top fruit
under moisture stress will be aborted which will allow more
carbohydrates to be redistributed to lower developing bolls. This
can lead to high micronaire in the crop. Hence, the importance of
watering on time for the whole season and developing the top
fruit on the plant.
Nutrition management
Crop nutrition is an important part of managing the crop to
maximise yield potential. Outside of the weather we can control
the amount of fertiliser and soil nutrition through knowing what
status the soil is in, in terms of macro and micro nutrients via
thorough soil, petiole and leaf testing.
There is a definite improving yield trend with the right
FIGuRE 4: Crop nitrogen uptake kg/ha versus
yield (two decades work at ACRI, CRC 2008)
application of nitrogen as seen in Figure 4. What is important
is getting the balance right to maximise yield potential while
reducing the chances of too much nitrogen being left in the soil
profile which can cause issues with regrowth and poor defoliation
at the end of the season.
The most important point to make is not to be short on
nutrition as this can have a major impact on yield. Constable and
Bange (2006) assessed the likely nutrient requirements of a four
bale per acre versus a seven bale per acre crop. This can be seen
in Table 1 where the requirement just for nitrogen alone differs
by 125 kg N/ha when comparing a four bale per acre crop versus
a seven bale per acre crop at an uptake rate of 10 kg N per bale.
As important is the removal of nitrogen from the soil. A seven
bale per acre crop would take 173 kg N per hectare from the soil
at an uptake of 10 kg N per bale. This could impact on following
crops if not managed properly.
Simular responses from high yielding crops can be seen with
the uptake and removal of both potassium and phosphorus.
TABLE 1: Comparing the nutrient requirements
of a 7 bale/acre and 4 bale/acre crop
4 7
bales/acre bales/acre
12 kg N
198 347
per bale
Uptake (kg/ha)
10 kg N
165 290
per bale
Nitrogen
12 kg N
120 208
per bale
Removal (kg/ha)
10 kg N
100 173
per bale
Uptake (kg/ha) 200 350
Potassium
Removal (kg/ha) 80 140
Phosphorus Removal (kg/ha) 26 45
Based on Constable and Bange (2006).
Getting the balance right in terms of knowing what the soil
nutritional status is, what yields came off the previous crop and
how much removal of nutrients occurred in that crop gives a
good indication for future crop requirements.
Vegetative growth management
The balancing act for the grower or manager is keeping a lid
on excessive vegetative growth while maintaining good fruit set.
An out of control vegetative plant puts all its energy into leaf and
stem and produces a poor node to height ratio with excessive
shading of lower bolls. It can be prone to poor fibre development
particularly in relation to micronaire and also the potential for
boll rots at a later stage of the crop’s life if humid and rainy
conditions exist. Internode length in this circumstance is usually
quite long (9–10 cm) which leads to poor overall node and fruit
development.
Monitoring the crop through this period using the Crop
Development Tool (CRC website) will help with monitoring
the vegetative growth rate (VGR) through this period. It works
by recording the crop height and number of nodes on two
occasions, four to seven days apart. The VGR is plotted against
day degrees accumulated for the crop during the flowering
period. The aim is to maintain the crop’s VGR between the upper
and lower limits. Warmer regions and more fertile soils will tend
to have higher VGR. A VGR value greater than 5.5 cm per node
would require the use of a plant growth regulator.
56 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

FIGuRE 5: A high vegetative growth rate
scenario where the crop is tracking above the
upper limit
Ideally, the VGR should be maintained between the upper
and lower limits of the crop development graphs based on the
seasonal day degrees as seen in Figure 5.
This crop may require an application of Mepiquat Chloride to
control excessive vegetative growth and redirect resources back
into fruiting structures.
Another way of looking at this is using a number of crop
indicators that allow agronomists to make decisions on whether a
crop needs growth regulation.
These indicators can be used at first flower to assess where a
crop is up to in terms of vegetative growth and whether growth
regulation is required. Only having one of these indicators does
not necessarily mean growth regulation is required, but having
several indicates a likely response to growth regulation.
Once in flowering it is important to monitor the crop
internode growth. Another way of looking at ascertaining where
the crop is up to is by looking at the 4th to 5th internode interval
from the top of the plant, which gives a good understanding
of what the crop is doing. This node represents 90 per cent of
its current length. If this node is longer than 7.5 cm, look at the
previous nodes 6th to 7th from the top and the younger nodes
TABLE 2: Some growth parameters that may
indicate need for growth regulation
Growth parameters at first flower that indicate likely
Pix response
Parameter
Pix Indicated
Height
>70 cm
Growth rate
>2.5 cm per day
Node growth rate
7.5 cm
Vegetative nodes >7
Bottom five retention

news & new products
Foliar fertilisers enhance fibre
quality
THE application of foliar fertilisers at flowering helps to
maximise yields and improve cotton fibre quality, especially
in soils with a potassium deficiency.
Jamie McMaster, director of liquid fertiliser specialist SLTEC,
says that foliar fertilisers are ideal for the strategic application of
nutrients.
“It’s a way of supplementing feeding to achieve optimum
yields. You’re topping up the plant to prevent over stressing.
“The root system will always be the main nutritional source
but there are times when it can’t meet all the plant’s needs.
“Variability in soils such as pH can prevent the uptake of
important trace elements and there can be times during the
growth cycle where the root system just can’t keep up with
demand.
“Foliars are very quickly absorbed and can be the difference
between maximising your potential or not,” Jamie explained.
SLTEC’s regional sales manager and agronomist in New South
Wales and Queensland, Phil Peterson, says the physiology of the
cotton plant makes foliar applications of potassium a particularly
important consideration.
“Potassium is a key mineral required for fibre quality. But as
the plant passes peak flowering, senescence of the root system
sets in, reducing its ability to take up potassium.
“You can have adequate levels of potassium in the soil but the
plant may still not be getting enough to achieve optimum yield
and fibre quality, both of which have a bearing on returns.
“A pre-plant liquid pop-up would typically provide a good
source of N, P and K but there could still be a deficiency in K at
the very time it’s needed most.
“That’s where a foliar application of potassium it can be very
beneficial especially if applied with phosphorus as well.
“It’s about maximising potential by ensuring the plant has all
the nutrition it requires at the time of critical need,” Phil said.
“The foliar application of potassium is also very important in
waterlogging situations where you might get rain after irrigation,
for example.
“I’ve heard a number of agronomists in the cotton industry
say that the foliar application of potassium really assists in plant
recovery and reducing stress after waterlogging.
“In these situations plants really need a lot of potassium to
hold onto bolls and fill them.”
Phil said that while some soils where cotton is grown have
adequate levels of potassium, there are many places where the
mineral is naturally deficient. “Foliar applications are even more
important in these situations.
“The foliar application of zinc, either straight or in
combination, is also very beneficial in cotton,” Phil added.
Jamie said SLTEC strongly supported balanced agronomy.
“Liquid fertilisers provide growers with many more choices than
granular. We already have a huge range of options available,
and we can readily provide custom blends to meet specific crop
demands.
“We plan to make our unique Balanced Agronomy software
available to agronomists, and then work with them to provide
their clients’ crops with the best nutritional package. This is how
you achieve maximum yields and the best fibre quality, and of
course, the best bottom-line.
“We’re very serious about foliar nutrition and foliar research.
We’re planning several replicated trials of foliar nutrients this
season,” he said.
For further information on SLTEC’s foliar fertilisers call Jamie McMaster on
0407 317 288 or email enquiries@sltec.com.au
Jamie McMaster.
58 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

connect
inform
update
Global cotton information when you need it fast!
For up-to-date authoritative
English-language news about
China (and the rest of the cotton
world) from well informed
sources, visit Cotton Outlook’s
website, www.cotlook.com
• From Liverpool to Mumbai, Memphis to
Beijing, Alexandria to São Paulo, we have the
cotton world covered
• Prices, daily news as it unfolds, daily market
summaries and the weekly Cotton Outlook - all
available electronically
• Source of the Cotlook A Index, the barometer
of world cotton prices
www.cotlook.com
I N F O R M A T I O N I S P O W E R

news & new products
Commitment to
Fertcare
INCITEC Pivot Fertilisers has reaffirmed its commitment to
promoting farm productivity while protecting the environment,
following the renewal of its Fertcare licence.
Renewing the licence means that the company’s frontline
employees have been trained to handle fertilisers responsibly and
to advise about their use while minimising environmental and
food safety risks.
The licence allows Incitec Pivot Fertilisers to display the Fertcare
logo on all its stationery and premises across the eastern States.
Fertcare is a national stewardship program which trains people
involved in handling, transporting and applying fertilisers. It also
offers accreditation for agronomists advising farmers about using
fertilisers.
The program is a joint initiative of the Fertilizer Industry
Federation of Australia (FIFA) and the Australian Fertiliser Services
Association (AFSA).
James Whiteside, chief
operating officer of Incitec Pivot
Fertilisers, said the Fertcare licence
gave customers, farmers and the
wider community confidence that
the company’s products were
being sold and used responsibly.
“As a business, we are
committed to promoting
responsible use of fertilisers and
sustainable farming practices to
everyone in the Australian farming James Whiteside.
sector,” James said.
“It is important that we take a leadership role in the industry,
not only to promote responsible use but also to help growers
optimise productivity.”
Fertcare training operates at three levels :
■ Level A is for people involved in the direct handling of
fertilisers and has a strong focus on environmental and food
safety risk management, particularly in relation to transport,
storage and spreading.
■ Level B is for sales and marketing staff and aims to improve
their knowledge of fertiliser products while enabling them to
provide warnings and simple advice.
■ Level C is for plant nutrition advisers and covers a detailed and
complex knowledge of environmental issues, including the use
of a fertiliser environmental risk assessment and management
methodology.
James urged all serious participants in the fertiliser industry to
commit to Fertcare.
Fertcare is also being actively promoted in the industry by the
Fertilizer Industry Federation of Australia.
Over coming months, FIFA will continue to create Fertcare
awareness among farmers and distributors in areas recognised as
environmentally sensitive, including north Queensland.
The aim of this campaign is to create awareness among
farmers about the value of using Fertcare-accredited advisers and
licensed businesses.
ICA president
and board
members elected
THE results of the elections for the ICA leadership team
have been announced at the Association’s Annual General
Meeting, which was held during its ‘Hong Kong 2012’
trade event In November.
Ahmed Elbosaty (Chairman & Managing Director, Modern
Nile Cotton Company) takes on the role of ICA President. Ahmed
will be supported by Mohit Shah (Director, Gill & Co) as First Vice
President and Jean-Marc Derossis (Managing Director, Plexus
Cotton Ltd) as Second Vice President, who re-joins the board
this year. Also re-joining the board is Jamie Welsh (Owner, DJ
Welsh Consulting) and new to the board is Richard Pollard (Senior
Trader, Ecom Agroindustrial Asia Ltd).
Now consisting of 22 members, representing 14 countries, the
new board line-up continues to represent the Association’s global
membership across all sectors of the supply chain and builds on
the ICA’s international credentials to engage the entire cotton
community.
On accepting the role of President, Ahmed said: “ICA’s
fate and direction is not about its president, it is about a
common vision shared by its entire board, its past presidents, its
management and, most importantly, its members.
“ICA’s ultimate goal is to provide a safer trading environment.
One way we can do this is through membership, making sure
it encompasses everyone along the value chain. Membership
cannot be viewed as an exclusive club or a group of cotton
merchants – it isn’t, we now have membership categories for all
firms. It cannot be viewed purely to serve the interests of the big
merchants – it doesn’t, I represent a small trading house out of
Egypt. It is not about being English or European – I am African,
the Vice President is Indian and our board is truly international. I
know that my role as ICA President is not going to be easy, but
I promise to follow in the footsteps of previous presidents and
preserve the values of the ICA.”
Visit the ICA website at www.ica-ltd.org/about-us/our-board to view the
full ICA Board line-up.
The ICA new Board leaders l - r: Mohit Shah, Ahmed Elbosaty,
Jean - Marc Derossis
60 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

District Reports…
Central Queensland
The season is well underway in Central Queensland with about
16,000 hectares of irrigated cotton planted around Emerald and
5000 hectares in the Callide/Dawson region. There was little need
for replanting with plant stands generally good. Crops that were
planted both early or later in the window around Emerald seemed
to avoid the cold shock days and are growing well. Plants that
emerged during the cooler period were a bit slower but are now
recovering. There have been a few fields in the Callide/Dawson
area with stunted, slow to develop patches and investigations as
to the cause of these patches are continuing.
Most farms have had the first irrigation with some starting on
the second one. Early crops are starting to flower with all crops well
into the squaring stage. There was some cool, cloudy weather with
early Helicoverpa pressure that caused the early crops to shed some
squares, but they seem to have recovered well. Other pest pressure
has been low in the area with a few mirids and thrips around.
Mealybug numbers have been zero to low in fields, around both
Emerald and Theodore, but there are still significant numbers on
ratoons and volunteers providing a future risk.
In-field weed control has been reasonably good this year, but
with the unusually wet winter, control of ratoons and volunteers
has been a big challenge and are an issue in some crops,
although in-crop cultivations have helped.
Gail Spargo
November 30, 2012
St George and Dirranbandi
Well it would seem incredible that only nine months after
the largest flood in the recorded history of St George we need
another flood or at least a flow in the river to ensure that the
channel farms around St George will have enough water to finish
the season.
Although we had more than 400,000 megs a day going past
during the flood the fact that Beardmore Dam is but a small
puddle of 81,000 megs seems to leave these growers in this
predicament again. Considering that the last decent rain was
back in May we are either in for a wet summer or another bloody
long drought.
River farms at St George and Dirranbandi at this stage have
enough water to ensure that they will finish crops off and have
some water left over for next season as well. Unfortunately
a heat wave during the past two weeks with temperatures
averaging 41–44ºC has certainly increased the evaporation rates.
And due to the dry lower soil profile, irrigations have tended to
average 1–1.2 megs per hectare instead of the normal 0.8–1
megs.
But on the upside, fields in both areas look great due to the
dry weather which has given growers the ability to control the
crops’ growth more easily compared to the past two seasons –
which saw crops waterlogged for the first two to three months.
Growers tended to hold off planting till the beginning or
middle of October this year, which has made a real difference to
the start the crops have had. Fields planted during the first week
of October are now flowering and are on track at this stage. Day
Degrees so far are just above the long term average.
Perhaps due to the heat wave conditions and the extremely
high numbers of beneficials throughout the crops, pest numbers
are very low at this stage. The only concern is that with the heat
wave we will most likely see a flare up of whitefly later in the
season though this will allow a few growers to finally get rid of
their Admiral stocks.
As we can have a flow in the river (half the size of last years
will be fine) we should be in for a good season as long as the
dollar drops back to say 65 cents and the bale price rises to $500.
Dallas King
December 10, 2012
Border Rivers
The planting and establishment process this year has been
a very difficult and unforgiving one courtesy of a dry winter,
minimal rainfall in October and predominantly back-to-back
cotton.
Most planting was starting to get under way in the first week
of October but a cool and wet period around October 12 put a
halt to proceedings and the bulk of the district was planted in the
two-week period after this. Weather conditions during this time
were generally drying – making conditions extremely unforgiving.
While replant levels were generally lower than the past couple of
seasons, the number of crops requiring a flush two to four weeks
from planting was more common.
Temperature-wise, the season has been slightly warmer than
usual with day degrees about 10 per cent higher than average
for October – November and cold shocks (13) and days over
36°C (5) both above average also. More telling is the rainfall total
of 34 mm for this two-month period which included only one
individual fall more than 10 mm. There have been some areas
around the district that have been fortunate enough to get some
storm rain but it has been patchy.
Early indications on planted areas are around 45,000 hectares
and 20,000 of irrigated cotton in the Macintyre and Mungindi
respectively. This is a 20–25 percent reduction from last season.
District Reports
are proudly supported by
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 61

District Reports…
The dryland cotton area is back to 4000–5000 hectares – about
20 per cent of the previous season’s total.
The drop in dryland is a combination of lower price and lack
of opportunity. The scarcity of rain and the drying conditions
throughout October meant planting opportunities were few and
far between. The majority of crops that were planted have a less
than ideal plant population but are generally holding on OK.
Sorghum planted at the same time is similarly patchy.
Thrips were quite prevalent throughout October, causing some
leaf distortion. There are low numbers of mirids and flea beetles
– the probable cause of the low level early square damage. To
date there are minimal signs of aphids, mites or whitefly.
Seedling disease was quite prevalent this year – obviously
worsened by the predominance of back-to-back cotton. Fields
that were flushed early exhibited higher levels of disease –
particularly fusarium.
Crops have generally improved a lot in the second half of
November as their root systems have got down into moisture.
Most are now at 9–12 nodes and squaring nicely. The first main
in-crop irrigation is starting in the last week of November but
others will hold on for one to two weeks.
Because it has taken more water than anticipated to get the
crops to this point and there has been minimal help from rainfall,
many irrigated growers will be relying on significant in-crop rain
and/ or a stream flow for their crops to reach their full potential.
David Kelly
November 30, 2012
Darling Downs
The start of the 2012–13 season has been challenging. Good
general rain at the start of the planting window allowed growers
to get away to a good start. But periods of early cool weather
slowed germinating and emerging crops, resulting in many of the
early planted crops being uneven and patchy.
Destructive hail storms across large areas of the Darling Downs
in mid November impacted significantly on the establishing
crops. Stretching from Brookstead on the southern end of the
Downs through to Warra on the northern end, these storms
brought large hail and heavy rain in a wide band. Several crops
were completely destroyed and had to replanted. At the same
time, large areas were severely set back and plant populations
significantly reduced. These crops are slowly recovering and there
may not be a significant long term cost, but the real impact may
not be realised until harvest.
Summer weeds including cotton regrowth and volunteers
have been a major problem early in establishing crops and
fallowed areas. The dry winter coupled with relatively good
early planting rainfall has seen major weed germination in all
cropping areas. Spray drift has already had a serious impact on
many cotton crops. With large areas of sorghum planted and
many winter cereal crops having been double cropped out of
cotton the previous season, spray drift will continue to be a
major concern for all growers. Coupled with very unfavourable
weather conditions for spraying that are presently being
experienced, the problem may cause more problems as we get
future into the season.
The Darling Downs Cotton Growers Association has entered
into an exciting new era with the election of a new president and
expansion of the executive:
President: Chris Barry
Vice-President: Stuart Armitage
Secretary: Meg Kummerow
Treasurer: Johnathon Mengel
Regional Representatives: Greg Bender, Jamie Grant,
Ian Hayllor, Chris Hornick and Georgie Krieg.
Stuart stepped down from his role as president following his
election as a grower representative to Cotton Australia. Stuart
oversaw the DDCGA through a very difficult and challenging
period including two devastating floods, Murry Darling
Management Plan and coal seam gas. His efforts cannot be
understated and greatly appreciated by growers throughout
the Downs. The regional representatives bring a wealth of
knowledge and experience to the executive.
Duncan Weir
December 7, 2012
Gwydir Valley
Irrigated cotton crops are progressing well after a reasonable
establishment. Many are receiving irrigation at the end of
November and will require another couple before the end of the
year if current conditions continue. At the end of November, the
majority of the crops are in early squaring.
There has been minimal dryland cotton planted with limited
opportunities during the planting window. Those that did get
a planting opportunity are presented with a mixed bag – some
stands will be viable while others may have to be ploughed in
unless there is follow up rainfall in the near future.
The complete absence of effective rainfall in the district as
well as consistent hot dry winds is affecting crops and irrigation
schedules at present. Many are rushing to apply additional
fertiliser and cultivate field prior to this irrigation. Timetables for
these operations have caused some crops to experience some
moisture stress in this pre-squaring, pre-flowering stage.
Those lucky enough to get under a storm have really seen the
value of the additional rainfall, easing the pressure on watering
requirements and operational timetables.
Thrips moved in late from maturing winter cereals, and have
caused some deformation of the true leaves, but this damage
seems to have diminished in recent weeks with healthy growth
returning. Heliothis pressure and aphids which threatened earlier
in the year has been limited to date.
There has been some seedling death due to a number of
factors – a combination of dry conditions, moisture stress and
Fusarium. We are still seeing seedlings dropping out as growth
rate starts to accelerate into squaring in affected fields.
It is expected with the completion of this irrigation and the
continuation of sunny days that the crop will respond positively in
the coming month in the lead up to first flower. If rainfall remains
absent from the valley it will make irrigation management critical
– the crops managed with minimal stress will yield well.
Winter crop harvest has progressed and finished
uninterrupted. Early planted crops performed best while later
planted crop were a little disappointing due a lack of late rain to
finish these crops off.
James Quinn
November 30, 2012
62 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013

Namoi Valley
Dry and hot best summarises the season so far. We have just
experienced our first heat wave in over three years and it came
as a bit of a shock for both cotton growers and agronomists.
With virtually no rain for over four months it has been a very
dry spring. It has been so dry that only a small portion of the
projected dryland cotton and sorghum crop has been planted.
Growers have been busy harvesting winter crops and
watering summer crops. Some cotton crops have had up to
three irrigations including watering up and water budgets are
beginning to look under done for the current crop. Winter crop
harvest is almost complete with generally below average yields.
Later planted durum wheat was particularly disappointing while
chickpea crops handled the dry finish reasonably well.
Irrigated cotton plantings in the Namoi are down on last year’s
record. A total of 69,000 hectares has been planted (including
Walgett). The dryland area is a mere shadow of last season due
to an absence of planting rain and low lint prices. The dryland
area is only about 5500 hectares and poor plant stands may lead
to some of this being removed over the next few weeks.
Although we saw quite a lot of seedling disease including
black root rot after planting the crop is now growing out of any
early symptoms of the disease. The majority of the crop is now
squaring and looking good. Early symptoms of verticillium are
not evident this year and continued hot conditions should see the
crop remain free of the disease.
Thrips numbers were moderate during October and November
but the cool start led to significant damage in some crops. Other
insects have been relatively quiet. Heliothis egg lays have been
present at very low numbers throughout the valley. Crickets have
been causing some damage to dryland crops as have kangaroos
and hares! Predator levels seem good and whitefly remain at low
levels, but will require careful management given the recent hot
weather.
Weeds pressure has been low with Roundup sprays timed
between irrigations. Unfortunately the first signs of hormone
damage have appeared in a few crops.
All we want for Christmas is $500 per bale!
Robert Eveleigh
December 4, 2012
Macquarie Valley
The recent spell of hot weather has put pressure on irrigating
cotton fields. Many will have received three irrigations prior
to Christmas which is unusual for the area. Irrigating over the
Christmas period may be a possibility for some. This year, many
cotton fields are back to back and side dressing with both Big N
and urea is occurring prior to irrigations.
There will be around 40,000 hectares in the valley this season.
Planting audits will confirm the final area when the figures are
available. This compares to over 44,000 hectares last season.
The few dryland fields planted this year are really struggling due
to the recent heat wave and lack of rain. There has been an
increased area planted to corn.
Many fields struggled early and have now just started to really
pick up. There was heavy thrip pressure early in the season and
the crops have now grown away from the damage. Some fields
were sprayed for thrips to prevent excessive damage. Pressure
from other insects has generally been light so far.
Burrendong Dam is now at 74 per cent with several thousand
District Reports…
megalitres a day being released downstream as the season
approaches peak irrigation demand.
Ginning has been completed in the region with the last
gin finishing early this month. It has been a very long season
ginning both local and southern cotton through the gins here.
Maintenance will be a high priority before the next ginning
season.
Establishment of pigeon pea refuges has generally been good
and weed control has been an issue in some fields. The use of
residual herbicides has helped reduce weed pressure and in crop
control will be required in those fields where weeds have got
away.
With the winter crop harvest all but completed in the area, full
attention will now turn to cotton and summer crops and weed
control in fallow fields for next year’s winter cropping programs.
The Macquarie Valley Cotton Awards Dinner will be held at
the Lazy River Estate in Dubbo on Friday, February 15, 2013.
Craig McDonald
December 3, 2012
Southern NSW
The 2012–13 planting season started off well, with the early
plantings getting away, helped by some early heat. It was not
until the first week in October that the area received the cold
snap. Frosts were recorded in all areas. Growers who had sown
dry waited until the second week in October to water up, but
anyone who watered in the first week of October was faced
with emergence issues. Crops took between 18 and 28 days to
emerge. Once again growers who had planted on beds running
east-west saw the northern rows appear first. Some growers
decided to replant the southern rows only to see all the seed
emerge 10 days later when the temperature warmed up.
This year there was a mix of both pre-irrigated and wateredup
country. The pre-irrigated crops needed a flush towards the
end of October but these crops are looking better due to the
Left: Seed fertiliser treatment. Right: Nil.
December 2012–January 2013 The Australian Cottongrower — 63

District Reports…
warmth that was held in the bed. By now most growers are
approaching the first true in crop irrigation, with the majority
of the crops around the 8–9 leaf stage and the first squares
appearing. All planting dates are showing to be above the
average for heat units but they are behind last season (see
Table 1).
TABLE 1: Day Degrees for Hillston and Griffith
districts for three planting dates
District
Day
Degrees
2012–13
Day
Degrees
2011–12
Average
Hot
Shock
Griffith
543
Sept 15 plant
578 488 2 46
Griffith
Oct 1 plant
459 485 418 2 32
Griffith
Oct 15 plant
381 421 340 2 19
Hillston
605
Sept 15 plant
630 544 4 43
Hillston
Oct 1 plant
506 523 463 4 30
Hillston
Oct 15 plant
413 450 375 4 18
ANswEr To IAN’s MysTEry
TrACTor QUIZ
Cold
Shock
The mystery tractor was photographed at Ashburton, New
Zealand, and is owned by R.S. Hart.
Bob Lukin of WA restored the green example. The tractors
are identical models of a 1932 Hofherr-Schrantz-Clayton-
Shuttleworth, manufactured in Budapest. Quite a number
of these odd-ball single cylinder semi-diesel machines were
imported into Australia prior to and after World War II. Hard
to start, even with the required blow lamp, but once started –
unstoppable!
On the insect front, thrips have only just started to become a
problem as the wheat crops in the area start to hay off. Pumpkin
beetles have also started to become a nuisance as most have
been feeding on the weeds (melons and bladder ketmia) and as
growers have sprayed their first Roundup Ready over the crop,
these pests have started to chew on the cotton. Under warmer
conditions this would not be a problem, but with the odd cool
days growers have had to spray to keep the leaf and growing
points viable (some tipping out being noticed).
It has been a big season for wireworm problems. Planting
insecticides, either seed dressings or in-furrow, have run their
course. Growers have been experiencing plant losses up to and
beyond the four leaf stage.
The expectation on some of these products has been high.
With the time it has taken for the crop to emerge (18 to 28 days
in southern NSW) some of the products only had a week of
protection before growers were starting to see signs of damage.
Some crops were also drying back, so the protection zone was
well below the seed placement and the wireworms were causing
damage five cm or more below the surface.
There have been some encouraging results from the use
of seed dressing with fertiliser. Early seedling vigour and plant
numbers have seen crops being 1 to 2 leaves above the nil
treatment. Early season vigour is extremely important for
growers in the south due to the cooler planting conditions. This
can be seen in the photo, where the nil is on the right and the
seed fertiliser treatment is on the left. This work will be carried
through to yield to see if there is an advantage.
Ginning is still underway. With the reduction in area this
year we hope not to see this drag out again. Yields and fibre
quality have been good for the area so far, but with the lower
price the area has come back to around 14,000 hectares for the
Lachlan (Hillston, Forbes and Condobolin) and 27,000 for the
Murrumbidgee (Griffith, Whitton, Coleambally and Hay).
Jorian Millyard
November 26, 2012
Aquatech Consulting....................26
Austral Rope & Cordage ..............19
Australian Cotton Trade Show ......43
Australian Herbicide Resistance ...47
Barcoo Lodge ..............................57
Barmac .......................................23
Bayer............................................9
BMC Partnership ...........................3
Caltex ......................................... 11
Cargill Cotton ..............................34
Case IH .......................................13
CGS............................................ IFC
Charlton................................ 18, 21
Convey-All.....................................8
Cotton Outlook............................59
CSD...............................................5
Countryco Training ......................16
Dinner Plain..................................1
Excel Ag ......................................45
Ecom Commodities ......................39
Gessner Industries..................Insert
Advertiser’s Index
Lindsay Corporation ....................27
Mapleton Agri Biotec ...................41
Moree Picker Parts ......................31
Moree Real Estate .......................34
Murray Valley Lasers...................28
Namoi Cotton..............................37
Neils Parts ....................................6
New Holland .................................7
Observant ...................................48
Omni Specialities ........................17
Pivot Irrigation............................29
Queensland Cotton......................35
S&G Cotton ................................IBC
SLTEC Fertilisers ..........................15
SMK Consultants............................2
Study Tours ................36, 42, Insert
Sumitomo ................................ OBC
The Appointments Group ...............2
Valmont ......................................25
Vomax Instrumentation ...............22
64 — The Australian Cottongrower December 2012–January 2013