Thinking in C++ 2nd ed Volume 1 Revision 6

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Publisher: Alan Apt Production Editor: Mona Pompilli Development Editor: Sondra Chavez Book Design, Cover Design and Cover Photo: Daniel Will-Harris, daniel@will-harris.com Copy Editor: Shirley Michaels Production Coordinator: Lori Bulwin Editorial Assistant: Shirley McGuire ©2000 by Bruce Eckel, MindView, Inc. Published by Prentice Hall Inc. A Paramount Communications Company Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632 The information in this book is distributed on an “as is” basis, without warranty. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, neither the author nor the publisher shall have any liability to any person or entitle with respect to any liability, loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by instructions contained in this book or by the computer software or hardware products described herein. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems without permission in writing from the publisher or author, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review. Any of the names used in the examples and text of this book are fictional; any relationship to persons living or dead or to fictional characters in other works is purely coincidental. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 0-13-979809-9 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada, Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hisapnoamericana, S.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro
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Page 1 and 2: Thinking in C++ 2 nd edition Volume
Page 3 and 4: TICA18: July 29, 1999. Rewrote Chap
Page 5 and 6: TICA7, August 14, 1998. Strings cha
Page 7 and 8: http://www.microsoft.com/typography
Page 9: In Bruce Eckel President, MindView
Page 13 and 14: Dedication To the scholar, the heal
Page 15 and 16: 2: Making & Using Objects 87 The pr
Page 17 and 18: Type-safe linkage............. 323
Page 19 and 20: protected ............. 618 protect
Page 21 and 22: Preface Like any human language, C+
Page 23 and 24: So the short answer is: what isn’
Page 25 and 26: end up losing some portion of the a
Page 27 and 28: Chapters C++ is a language in which
Page 29 and 30: Chapter 5: Hiding the Implementatio
Page 31 and 32: existing type. In this chapter you
Page 33 and 34: (and official mirror sites) where i
Page 35 and 36: note that the CD ROM is browser-bas
Page 37: Constantine, Lucy Lockwood, Tom Kef
Page 40 and 41: But computers are not so much machi
Page 42 and 43: the solution will run. There’s st
Page 44 and 45: So, although what we really do in o
Page 46 and 47: middle portion is not shown. If you
Page 48 and 49: necessary to achieve the functional
Page 50 and 51: more specific types of trash are de
Page 52 and 53: Shape +draw() +erase() +move() +get
Page 54 and 55: Thermostat Controls Cooling System
Page 56 and 57: BirdController What happens when fl
Page 58 and 59: doStuff(c); What’s happening here
Page 60 and 61:
The second approach is to create ob
Page 62 and 63:
Analysis and design The object-orie
Page 64 and 65:
It’s often proposed that you “b
Page 66 and 67:
Phase 1: What are we making In the
Page 68 and 69:
eveal itself in the fullness of tim
Page 70 and 71:
getting into too much detail too ea
Page 72 and 73:
2. Object assembly. As you’re bui
Page 74 and 75:
Phase 4: Iteration This is the poin
Page 76 and 77:
will still function. You need not f
Page 78 and 79:
You’re already on the learning cu
Page 80 and 81:
large, complex program, there’s n
Page 82 and 83:
first time, so it should not be mis
Page 84 and 85:
Performance issues A common questio
Page 86 and 87:
alternatives. Even if you eventuall
Page 88 and 89:
By reading this chapter first, you
Page 90 and 91:
takes several steps. The transition
Page 92 and 93:
variable in another object module,
Page 94 and 95:
point of definition the compiler al
Page 96 and 97:
In a function declaration, you give
Page 98 and 99:
cause the preprocessor to search fo
Page 100 and 101:
until link time, one possibility is
Page 102 and 103:
This book will use Standard C++ (an
Page 104 and 105:
included the header file but all th
Page 106 and 107:
"Hello, world!" And now, finally, t
Page 108 and 109:
int main() { // Specifying formats
Page 110 and 111:
Simple file manipulation Standard I
Page 112 and 113:
This upward compatibility from C to
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iostream object. It’s that simple
Page 116 and 117:
it’s much easier if you have each
Page 118 and 119:
so if you have an array a and you w
Page 120 and 121:
while(in >> word) is what gets the
Page 122 and 123:
Exercises Solutions to selected exe
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If you’ve never seen C before, th
Page 126 and 127:
} x = y = z; // ... It turns out th
Page 128 and 129:
In cfunc( ), the first if that eval
Page 130 and 131:
to a nonzero value). Other conditio
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while(guess != secret) { // Compoun
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curly brace ‘{’. This is in con
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switch(selector) { case integral-va
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using namespace std; void removeHat
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: C03:AutoIncrement.cpp // Shows us
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The first part of the program defin
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: C03:Specify.cpp // Demonstrates t
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All the variables, and even the fun
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from dog, bird is four bytes away f
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: C03:PassByValue.cpp #include usi
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pointers later, but this is arguabl
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All possible combinations of basic
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variable was defined. That is, a sc
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int main() { //.. { // Begin a new
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using namespace std; int globe; voi
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want a value to be extant throughou
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} int i; // The data definition voi
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The const was taken from C++ and in
Page 168 and 169:
Operators and their use This sectio
Page 170 and 171:
Introduction to preprocessor macros
Page 172 and 173:
Bitwise not produces the opposite o
Page 174 and 175:
An interesting bit pattern: unsigne
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x = a * -b; but the reader might ge
Page 178 and 179:
Common pitfalls when using operator
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checking to catch errors. Once you
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(4) Implicit type conversions, norm
Page 184 and 185:
Can't use xp as an X* at this point
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Keyword Meaning xor_eq ^= (bitwise
Page 188 and 189:
The struct declaration must end wit
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int main() { Structure3 s1, s2; Str
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You can see how much more readable
Page 194 and 195:
Once you perform an assignment, the
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for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++) cout
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Even though func1( ) and func2( ) d
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#include using namespace std; int
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++, which “adds one to the pointe
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int* ip = a; P(*ip); P(*++ip); P(*(
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in all upper case. A common flag na
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punctuation are concatenated into a
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Defining a function pointer To defi
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Using a function pointer Once you d
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Make: an essential tool for separat
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multiple rules. Many make programs
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target1.exe: target2.exe: If you ju
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Declare: Declare.o $(CPP) $(OFLAG)D
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lectures, exercises, and guided sol
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values in your instance and print t
Page 226 and 227:
flag. You will need to consult your
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to switch from some language that y
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:~ A tag name like CStashTag is gen
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delete []s->storage; } } ///:~ init
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new unsigned char[newBytes]; The ge
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: C04:CLibTest.cpp //{L} CLib // Te
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Each separate C file is a translati
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of all their function names. So ini
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C library converted to C++ // Decla
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You can see that all the member fun
Page 246 and 247:
: C04:CppLibTest.cpp //{L} CppLib /
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What's an object Now that you’ve
Page 250 and 251:
Object details A question that come
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most of the time, except when struc
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included throughout the system, the
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This will yield a true result, and
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end up “turning off” namespaces
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} void Stack::initialize() { head =
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Read file and store lines in the St
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etween what the user of the structu
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16. Modify Stash to use a vector as
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5: Hiding the Implementation A typi
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The second reason for access contro
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Although func( ) can access any mem
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void Z::initialize() { j = 99; } vo
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private: Holder* h; int* p; public:
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second argument) for n bytes past t
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Any object belonging to this class
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The examples in this book, however,
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void initialize(); void push(void*
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Here’s a simple example demonstra
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u.cleanup(); } ///:~ The only thing
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9. Copy the implementation and test
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This not only provides a single uni
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Now, when an object is defined, voi
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The destructor is called automatica
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eginning of a scope. If a construct
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However, some confusion may result
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pointer “down” (a relative term
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} storage = b; // Point to new memo
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Stack with constructors & destructo
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ut is not responsible for cleaning
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Now if you decide to add another el
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zz[i].print(); } ///:~ Notice that
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Safety during coding is a big issue
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7: Function Overloading & Default A
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Although function overloading is a
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int f(); This works fine when the c
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~Stash(); int add(void* element); v
Page 327 and 328:
Both constructors are exercised in
Page 329 and 330:
Although the member functions civil
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(outside all functions and classes)
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Placeholder arguments Arguments in
Page 335 and 336:
Mem::Mem(int sz) { mem = 0; size =
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int main() { MyString s("My test st
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Notice that a call to ensureMinSize
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7. Create a new version of the Stac
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This provides safety and control in
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const). Storage must be allocated b
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situations, const means “a piece
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has the option of doing constant fo
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const int* const x = &d; // (1) int
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Function arguments & return values
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Returning by value as a const becom
Page 358 and 359:
temporary X. However, f7( ) takes i
Page 360 and 361:
that attempting to modify the desti
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Error: const temporary created by f
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void print(); }; Fred::Fred(int sz)
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until Chapter 10: static. The stati
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The “enum hack” in old code In
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non-const member function. Thus, an
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cq.lastQuote(); // OK //! cq.quote(
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} int main() { const Z zz; zz.f();
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char Comm::read(int index) const {
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9. Write a const pointer to a doubl
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assign via a void* (without a cast)
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In C, one of the ways to preserve e
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granted. In the un-parenthesized ve
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mixed together, so a problem like t
Page 388 and 389:
space than the code generated to do
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Here, the class user never has dire
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void setWidth(int w) { width = w; }
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updateLocal(); return local.tm_sec;
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if(storage != 0) delete []storage;
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The Stack class makes even better u
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Inlines & the compiler To understan
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class Forward { int i; public: Forw
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interface and thereby making the cl
Page 406 and 407:
Because there are actually two stat
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} } exit(1); inline void assure(std
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C++ is complicated enough without a
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second function, without the need f
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10: Name Control Creating names is
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function. C and C++ allow you to cr
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int i; public: X(int ii = 0) : i(ii
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static Obj b inside f( ) and the st
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all you’ve done is change the vis
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Creating a namespace The creation o
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names in an unnamed namespace, you
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Integer a, b, c; Integer divide(Int
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} #endif // USINGDECLARATION_H ///:
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is not very safe. Global data can b
Page 435 and 436:
ws.print(); } ///:~ Here, the quali
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static const X x3; static const X x
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A static member function cannot acc
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int main() { //! Egg x(1); // Error
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zeroing of the storage occupied by
Page 445 and 446:
definition for the Initializer init
Page 447 and 448:
constructor, so you can tell if the
Page 449 and 450:
} static Dependency1 dep1; return d
Page 451 and 452:
across the various translation unit
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that when you give the argument wit
Page 455 and 456:
your namespace into that function s
Page 457:
a Mirror object, which it assigns t
Page 460 and 461:
Although references also exist in P
Page 462 and 463:
2. Once a reference is initialized
Page 464 and 465:
} ///:~ The call to f(1) produces a
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how does the compiler know how to p
Page 468 and 469:
farther to provide storage for the
Page 470 and 471:
output for bigfun( ), you can see i
Page 472 and 473:
When the local object goes out of s
Page 474 and 475:
} }; int HowMany2::objectCount = 0;
Page 476 and 477:
cout.width(width); cout
Page 478 and 479:
Temporary objects Line 15 begins th
Page 480 and 481:
cout
Page 482 and 483:
Here’s an example: //: C11:NoCopy
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combined with the object dereferenc
Page 486 and 487:
fp = &Simple2::f; } ///:~ In the de
Page 488 and 489:
underlying implementation without a
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the member functions const and prov
Page 492 and 493:
21. Create a simple class without a
Page 494 and 495:
The difference is that the argument
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} }; i += rv.i; return *this; int m
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operator++(Integer& a); // Postfix:
Page 500 and 501:
} Byte operator!() const { cout
Page 502 and 503:
an example of all the operators you
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friend int operator=(const Integer&
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if(&left == &right) {/* self-assign
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} #define TRYC(OP) \ out
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%= right.b; return *this; } Byte& o
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} Byte b3 = 92; b1 = b2 = b3; int m
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ack the object that was changed. Th
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left-hand side of an equal sign. Th
Page 518 and 519:
class ObjContainer { vector a; publ
Page 520 and 521:
#include #include "../require.h" u
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pointer,” although the example sh
Page 524 and 525:
around and calls operator( ) for th
Page 526 and 527:
eturn i[x]; } friend ostream& opera
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Operator &= |= %= >>=
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When you create an operator=, you m
Page 532 and 533:
} ~Dog() { cout
Page 534 and 535:
it. However, if your object require
Page 536 and 537:
: p(dog), houseName(house) { cout
Page 538 and 539:
Before you make any modifications (
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Automatic operator= creation Becaus
Page 542 and 543:
In this case, automatic type conver
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Reflexivity One of the most conveni
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using namespace std; class Stringc
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: C12:TypeConversionFanout.cpp clas
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(the creator of the class) or the u
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16. Add an int data member to both
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13: Dynamic Object Creation Sometim
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Object creation When a C++ object i
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... sometime later: obj->destroy();
Page 561 and 562:
with a call to free( )). Just as a
Page 563 and 564:
Before a pointer to that block is r
Page 565 and 566:
If you have a memory leak in your p
Page 567 and 568:
The other change is the replacement
Page 569 and 570:
can prevent a memory leak (more ele
Page 571 and 572:
However, for the string pointers, i
Page 573 and 574:
Now the array elements in q can be
Page 575 and 576:
Another issue is heap fragmentation
Page 577 and 578:
} free(m); class S { int i[100]; pu
Page 579 and 580:
} for(int i = 0; i < psize; i++) if
Page 581 and 582:
empty bracket syntax to indicate ar
Page 583 and 584:
In both cases you’re handed the s
Page 585 and 586:
When the program runs, it does not
Page 587 and 588:
Notice that operator new only retur
Page 589 and 590:
5. Repeat the above exercise, but a
Page 591 and 592:
14: Inheritance & Composition One o
Page 593 and 594:
int i; public: X() { i = 0; } void
Page 595 and 596:
public: Y() { i = 0; } int change()
Page 597 and 598:
The solution is simple: Call the co
Page 599 and 600:
This makes built-in types act a lit
Page 601 and 602:
#define CLASS(ID) class ID { \ publ
Page 603 and 604:
properly reverse the order of the c
Page 605 and 606:
in the new class. In the next chapt
Page 607 and 608:
Name hiding comes into play here be
Page 609 and 610:
~GameBoard() { cout
Page 611 and 612:
ecause that function was not explic
Page 613 and 614:
implementation hiding themselves, s
Page 615 and 616:
} operator ifstream&() { return fil
Page 617 and 618:
inherit privately, you’re “impl
Page 619 and 620:
int read() const { return i; } void
Page 621 and 622:
organic, evolutionary creature, rat
Page 623 and 624:
your diagrams any way you find help
Page 625 and 626:
Child object to a Parent& (if you c
Page 627 and 628:
#include #include using namespace
Page 629 and 630:
types inside the new type. Typicall
Page 631 and 632:
class BusinessTraveler from Travele
Page 633 and 634:
15: Polymorphism & Virtual Function
Page 635 and 636:
quickly see the usefulness of this
Page 637 and 638:
“narrow” that interface, but ne
Page 639 and 640:
virtual void play(note) const { cou
Page 641 and 642:
class Brass : public Wind { public:
Page 643 and 644:
The keyword virtual tells the compi
Page 645 and 646:
pointer (the VPTR) into the structu
Page 647 and 648:
instrument pointer brass object VPT
Page 649 and 650:
call word ptr [bx+4] Finally, the s
Page 651 and 652:
from the previous assembly-language
Page 653 and 654:
instrument virtual void play() virt
Page 655 and 656:
cout
Page 657 and 658:
may be a common piece of code that
Page 659 and 660:
virtual string sit() const { return
Page 661 and 662:
the examples you’ve seen here, an
Page 663 and 664:
exists) and Dog, which no longer ex
Page 665 and 666:
x = d2.f(); //! d2.f(s); // string
Page 667 and 668:
int main() { Bird b; Cat c; Pet* p[
Page 669 and 670:
Order of constructor calls The seco
Page 671 and 672:
that is called last. This is anothe
Page 673 and 674:
int main() { Base1* bp = new Derive
Page 675 and 676:
The only distinction occurs when yo
Page 677 and 678:
ely on portions of an object that h
Page 679 and 680:
} Object* peek() const { return hea
Page 681 and 682:
Creating containers that hold Objec
Page 683 and 684:
using namespace std; class Shape {
Page 685 and 686:
picture” of class relationships.
Page 687 and 688:
12. Create a model of a greenhouse
Page 689 and 690:
has no default constructor, so why
Page 691 and 692:
16: Introduction to Templates Inher
Page 693 and 694:
} int pop() { return stack[top > 0
Page 695 and 696:
need an object, create it with new,
Page 697 and 698:
object-based hierarchy with its con
Page 699 and 700:
code. The container no longer holds
Page 701 and 702:
In main( ), you can see how easy it
Page 703 and 704:
people see software as a service, a
Page 705 and 706:
} }; class Number { float f; public
Page 707 and 708:
}* head; public: Stack() : head(0)
Page 709 and 710:
changeable throughout the lifetime
Page 711 and 712:
#ifndef AUTOCOUNTER_H #define AUTOC
Page 713 and 714:
The destructor for CleanupCheck doe
Page 715 and 716:
in the program, and you don’t nec
Page 717 and 718:
int main() { Stack ac; // Ownership
Page 720 and 721:
array, copying the old array to the
Page 722 and 723:
of the underlying container) for an
Page 724 and 725:
} friend ostream& operator
Page 726 and 727:
} // Jump an iterator forward itera
Page 728 and 729:
void push(T* dat) { head = new Link
Page 730 and 731:
dereference operator performs the e
Page 732 and 733:
To create the end sentinel: iterato
Page 734 and 735:
} inflate(); storage[next++] = elem
Page 736 and 737:
int main() { { // To force destruct
Page 738 and 739:
class Square : public Shape { publi
Page 740 and 741:
drawAll(p); cout
Page 742 and 743:
that, to acquire a library from a t
Page 744 and 745:
16. (Advanced) Modify PointerToMemb
Page 746 and 747:
Although many of these issues have
Page 748 and 749:
Begin and end comment tags A very i
Page 750 and 751:
void func(int a) { you immediately
Page 752 and 753:
The issue of where to put the openi
Page 754 and 755:
Use of require( ) and assure( ) The
Page 756 and 757:
also from the insights of friends i
Page 758 and 759:
elationship where it doesn’t exis
Page 760 and 761:
22. Don’t use private inheritance
Page 762 and 763:
than global variables, although you
Page 764 and 765:
the heap, the catcher must know to
Page 766 and 767:
has enough information to deal with
Page 768 and 769:
768 Thinking in C++ www.BruceEckel.
Page 770 and 771:
C Thinking in C: Foundations for Ja
Page 772 and 773:
Analysis & Design Extreme Programmi
Page 774 and 775:
mathematical determinism and the il
Page 776 and 777:
# compiler under dos: { all } # Obj
Page 778 and 779:
C07:MemTest.cpp C09:Cpptime.cpp C12
Page 780 and 781:
Index -, 177 --, 178 !, 177 !=, 172
Page 782 and 783:
linking compiled C code with C++, 4
Page 784 and 785:
declaration, 93, 245, 256 analyzing
Page 786 and 787:
static member, 378, 440, 477 using
Page 788 and 789:
Love, Tom, 777 lvalue, 170, 358 mac
Page 790 and 791:
organization code, 260 code in head
Page 792 and 793:
short, 145 side effect, 170, 178 si
Page 794 and 795:
assembly-language code generated by
Page 796 and 797:
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