Thinking in C++ 2nd ed Volume 1 Revision 6

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The copy-constructor465 Passing & returning by value465 Copy-construction ............ 472 Default copy-constructor ... 478 Alternatives to copyconstruction .................... 481 Pointers to members483 Functions ........................ 485 Summary............. 488 Exercises ............. 489 12: Operator Overloading 493 Warning & reassurance494 Syntax................. 495 Overloadable operators496 Unary operators ............... 497 Binary operators .............. 501 Arguments & return values 512 Unusual operators ............ 515 Operators you can’t overload524 Nonmember operators525 Basic guidelines ............... 527 Overloading assignment .......... 528 Behavior of operator=....... 529 Automatic type conversion ........... 541 Constructor conversion ..... 541 Operator conversion ......... 543 Type conversion example .. 545 Pitfalls in automatic type conversion....................... 547 Summary............. 549 Exercises ............. 550 13: Dynamic Object Creation 555 Object creation ..... 557 C’s approach to the heap... 558 operator new ................... 560 operator delete ................ 560 A simple example............. 561 Memory manager overhead 562 Early examples redesigned............563 delete void* is probably a bug563 Cleanup responsibility with pointers...........................565 Stash for pointers .............565 new & delete for arrays571 Making a pointer more like an array ...............................572 Running out of storage573 Overloading new & delete ..................574 Overloading global new & delete..............................575 Overloading new & delete for a class ...............................578 Overloading new & delete for arrays .............................581 Constructor calls...............584 placement new & delete.....585 Summary .............588 Exercises ..............588 14: Inheritance & Composition 591 Composition syntax592 Inheritance syntax .594 The constructor initializer list .........596 Member object initialization 597 Built-in types in the initializer list ..................................597 Combining composition & inheritance ........599 Order of constructor & destructor calls.................600 Name hiding .........603 Functions that don’t automatically inherit608 Inheritance and static member functions..........................612 Choosing composition vs. inheritance ......612 Subtyping ........................614 private inheritance ............616
protected ............. 618 protected inheritance........ 619 Multiple inheritance619 Incremental development ........ 620 Upcasting............. 621 Why “upcasting” ............. 622 Upcasting and the copyconstructor...................... 623 Composition vs. inheritance (revisited) ....................... 626 Pointer & reference upcasting628 A crisis............................ 628 Summary............. 628 Exercises ............. 629 15: Polymorphism & Virtual Functions 633 Evolution of C++ programmers634 Upcasting............. 635 The problem......... 637 Function call binding ......... 637 virtual functions.... 638 Extensibility..................... 639 How C++ implements late binding .......... 642 Storing type information ... 643 Picturing virtual functions.. 645 Under the hood ................ 647 Installing the vpointer....... 649 Objects are different......... 649 Why virtual functions650 Abstract base classes and pure virtual functions.............. 652 Pure virtual definitions ...... 656 Inheritance and the VTABLE................ 658 Object slicing ................... 660 Overloading & overriding ............ 663 Variant return type........... 665 virtual functions & constructors..........668 Order of constructor calls...669 Behavior of virtual functions inside constructors............670 Destructors and virtual destructors ...........671 Pure virtual destructors .....673 Virtuals in destructors .......676 Creating an Object-based hierarchy .........................677 Downcasting .........681 Summary .............684 Exercises ..............685 16: Introduction to Templates 691 Containers ............692 The need for containers .....694 Overview of templates695 The template solution........698 Template syntax ....699 Non-inline function definitions701 IntStack as a template ......703 Constants in templates ......704 Stack and Stash as templates .............706 Templatized pointer Stash..708 Turning ownership on and off .................714 Holding objects by value....................717 Introducing iterators720 Stack with iterators...........727 PStash with iterators .........731 Why iterators.......737 Function templates............740 Summary .............741 Exercises ..............742 A: Coding Style 745 General ...........................746 File names ............747
Page 1 and 2: Thinking in C++ 2 nd edition Volume
Page 3 and 4: TICA18: July 29, 1999. Rewrote Chap
Page 5 and 6: TICA7, August 14, 1998. Strings cha
Page 7 and 8: http://www.microsoft.com/typography
Page 9 and 10: In Bruce Eckel President, MindView
Page 11 and 12: MindView Ad Space
Page 13 and 14: Dedication To the scholar, the heal
Page 15 and 16: 2: Making & Using Objects 87 The pr
Page 17: Type-safe linkage............. 323
Page 21 and 22: Preface Like any human language, C+
Page 23 and 24: So the short answer is: what isn’
Page 25 and 26: end up losing some portion of the a
Page 27 and 28: Chapters C++ is a language in which
Page 29 and 30: Chapter 5: Hiding the Implementatio
Page 31 and 32: existing type. In this chapter you
Page 33 and 34: (and official mirror sites) where i
Page 35 and 36: note that the CD ROM is browser-bas
Page 37: Constantine, Lucy Lockwood, Tom Kef
Page 40 and 41: But computers are not so much machi
Page 42 and 43: the solution will run. There’s st
Page 44 and 45: So, although what we really do in o
Page 46 and 47: middle portion is not shown. If you
Page 48 and 49: necessary to achieve the functional
Page 50 and 51: more specific types of trash are de
Page 52 and 53: Shape +draw() +erase() +move() +get
Page 54 and 55: Thermostat Controls Cooling System
Page 56 and 57: BirdController What happens when fl
Page 58 and 59: doStuff(c); What’s happening here
Page 60 and 61: The second approach is to create ob
Page 62 and 63: Analysis and design The object-orie
Page 64 and 65: It’s often proposed that you “b
Page 66 and 67: Phase 1: What are we making In the
Page 68 and 69:
eveal itself in the fullness of tim
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getting into too much detail too ea
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2. Object assembly. As you’re bui
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Phase 4: Iteration This is the poin
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will still function. You need not f
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You’re already on the learning cu
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large, complex program, there’s n
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first time, so it should not be mis
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Performance issues A common questio
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alternatives. Even if you eventuall
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By reading this chapter first, you
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takes several steps. The transition
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variable in another object module,
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point of definition the compiler al
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In a function declaration, you give
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cause the preprocessor to search fo
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until link time, one possibility is
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This book will use Standard C++ (an
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included the header file but all th
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"Hello, world!" And now, finally, t
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int main() { // Specifying formats
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Simple file manipulation Standard I
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This upward compatibility from C to
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iostream object. It’s that simple
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it’s much easier if you have each
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so if you have an array a and you w
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while(in >> word) is what gets the
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Exercises Solutions to selected exe
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If you’ve never seen C before, th
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} x = y = z; // ... It turns out th
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In cfunc( ), the first if that eval
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to a nonzero value). Other conditio
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while(guess != secret) { // Compoun
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curly brace ‘{’. This is in con
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switch(selector) { case integral-va
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using namespace std; void removeHat
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: C03:AutoIncrement.cpp // Shows us
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The first part of the program defin
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: C03:Specify.cpp // Demonstrates t
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All the variables, and even the fun
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from dog, bird is four bytes away f
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: C03:PassByValue.cpp #include usi
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pointers later, but this is arguabl
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All possible combinations of basic
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variable was defined. That is, a sc
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int main() { //.. { // Begin a new
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using namespace std; int globe; voi
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want a value to be extant throughou
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} int i; // The data definition voi
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The const was taken from C++ and in
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Operators and their use This sectio
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Introduction to preprocessor macros
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Bitwise not produces the opposite o
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An interesting bit pattern: unsigne
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x = a * -b; but the reader might ge
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Common pitfalls when using operator
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checking to catch errors. Once you
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(4) Implicit type conversions, norm
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Can't use xp as an X* at this point
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Keyword Meaning xor_eq ^= (bitwise
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The struct declaration must end wit
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int main() { Structure3 s1, s2; Str
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You can see how much more readable
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Once you perform an assignment, the
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for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++) cout
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Even though func1( ) and func2( ) d
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#include using namespace std; int
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++, which “adds one to the pointe
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int* ip = a; P(*ip); P(*++ip); P(*(
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in all upper case. A common flag na
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punctuation are concatenated into a
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Defining a function pointer To defi
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Using a function pointer Once you d
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Make: an essential tool for separat
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multiple rules. Many make programs
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target1.exe: target2.exe: If you ju
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Declare: Declare.o $(CPP) $(OFLAG)D
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lectures, exercises, and guided sol
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values in your instance and print t
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flag. You will need to consult your
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to switch from some language that y
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:~ A tag name like CStashTag is gen
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delete []s->storage; } } ///:~ init
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new unsigned char[newBytes]; The ge
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: C04:CLibTest.cpp //{L} CLib // Te
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Each separate C file is a translati
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of all their function names. So ini
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C library converted to C++ // Decla
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You can see that all the member fun
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: C04:CppLibTest.cpp //{L} CppLib /
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What's an object Now that you’ve
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Object details A question that come
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most of the time, except when struc
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included throughout the system, the
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This will yield a true result, and
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end up “turning off” namespaces
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} void Stack::initialize() { head =
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Read file and store lines in the St
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etween what the user of the structu
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16. Modify Stash to use a vector as
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5: Hiding the Implementation A typi
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The second reason for access contro
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Although func( ) can access any mem
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void Z::initialize() { j = 99; } vo
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private: Holder* h; int* p; public:
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second argument) for n bytes past t
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Any object belonging to this class
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The examples in this book, however,
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void initialize(); void push(void*
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Here’s a simple example demonstra
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u.cleanup(); } ///:~ The only thing
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9. Copy the implementation and test
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This not only provides a single uni
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Now, when an object is defined, voi
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The destructor is called automatica
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eginning of a scope. If a construct
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However, some confusion may result
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pointer “down” (a relative term
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} storage = b; // Point to new memo
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Stack with constructors & destructo
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ut is not responsible for cleaning
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Now if you decide to add another el
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zz[i].print(); } ///:~ Notice that
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Safety during coding is a big issue
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7: Function Overloading & Default A
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Although function overloading is a
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int f(); This works fine when the c
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~Stash(); int add(void* element); v
Page 327 and 328:
Both constructors are exercised in
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Although the member functions civil
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(outside all functions and classes)
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Placeholder arguments Arguments in
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Mem::Mem(int sz) { mem = 0; size =
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int main() { MyString s("My test st
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Notice that a call to ensureMinSize
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7. Create a new version of the Stac
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This provides safety and control in
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const). Storage must be allocated b
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situations, const means “a piece
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has the option of doing constant fo
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const int* const x = &d; // (1) int
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Function arguments & return values
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Returning by value as a const becom
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temporary X. However, f7( ) takes i
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that attempting to modify the desti
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Error: const temporary created by f
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void print(); }; Fred::Fred(int sz)
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until Chapter 10: static. The stati
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The “enum hack” in old code In
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non-const member function. Thus, an
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cq.lastQuote(); // OK //! cq.quote(
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} int main() { const Z zz; zz.f();
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char Comm::read(int index) const {
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9. Write a const pointer to a doubl
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assign via a void* (without a cast)
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In C, one of the ways to preserve e
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granted. In the un-parenthesized ve
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mixed together, so a problem like t
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space than the code generated to do
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Here, the class user never has dire
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void setWidth(int w) { width = w; }
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updateLocal(); return local.tm_sec;
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if(storage != 0) delete []storage;
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The Stack class makes even better u
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Inlines & the compiler To understan
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class Forward { int i; public: Forw
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interface and thereby making the cl
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Because there are actually two stat
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} } exit(1); inline void assure(std
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C++ is complicated enough without a
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second function, without the need f
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10: Name Control Creating names is
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function. C and C++ allow you to cr
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int i; public: X(int ii = 0) : i(ii
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static Obj b inside f( ) and the st
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all you’ve done is change the vis
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Creating a namespace The creation o
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names in an unnamed namespace, you
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Integer a, b, c; Integer divide(Int
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} #endif // USINGDECLARATION_H ///:
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is not very safe. Global data can b
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ws.print(); } ///:~ Here, the quali
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static const X x3; static const X x
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A static member function cannot acc
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int main() { //! Egg x(1); // Error
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zeroing of the storage occupied by
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definition for the Initializer init
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constructor, so you can tell if the
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} static Dependency1 dep1; return d
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across the various translation unit
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that when you give the argument wit
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your namespace into that function s
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a Mirror object, which it assigns t
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Although references also exist in P
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2. Once a reference is initialized
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} ///:~ The call to f(1) produces a
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how does the compiler know how to p
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farther to provide storage for the
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output for bigfun( ), you can see i
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When the local object goes out of s
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} }; int HowMany2::objectCount = 0;
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cout.width(width); cout
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Temporary objects Line 15 begins th
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cout
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Here’s an example: //: C11:NoCopy
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combined with the object dereferenc
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fp = &Simple2::f; } ///:~ In the de
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underlying implementation without a
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the member functions const and prov
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21. Create a simple class without a
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The difference is that the argument
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} }; i += rv.i; return *this; int m
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operator++(Integer& a); // Postfix:
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} Byte operator!() const { cout
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an example of all the operators you
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friend int operator=(const Integer&
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if(&left == &right) {/* self-assign
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} #define TRYC(OP) \ out
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%= right.b; return *this; } Byte& o
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} Byte b3 = 92; b1 = b2 = b3; int m
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ack the object that was changed. Th
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left-hand side of an equal sign. Th
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class ObjContainer { vector a; publ
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#include #include "../require.h" u
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pointer,” although the example sh
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around and calls operator( ) for th
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eturn i[x]; } friend ostream& opera
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Operator &= |= %= >>=
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When you create an operator=, you m
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} ~Dog() { cout
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it. However, if your object require
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: p(dog), houseName(house) { cout
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Before you make any modifications (
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Automatic operator= creation Becaus
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In this case, automatic type conver
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Reflexivity One of the most conveni
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using namespace std; class Stringc
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: C12:TypeConversionFanout.cpp clas
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(the creator of the class) or the u
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16. Add an int data member to both
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13: Dynamic Object Creation Sometim
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Object creation When a C++ object i
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... sometime later: obj->destroy();
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with a call to free( )). Just as a
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Before a pointer to that block is r
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If you have a memory leak in your p
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The other change is the replacement
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can prevent a memory leak (more ele
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However, for the string pointers, i
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Now the array elements in q can be
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Another issue is heap fragmentation
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} free(m); class S { int i[100]; pu
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} for(int i = 0; i < psize; i++) if
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empty bracket syntax to indicate ar
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In both cases you’re handed the s
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When the program runs, it does not
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Notice that operator new only retur
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5. Repeat the above exercise, but a
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14: Inheritance & Composition One o
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int i; public: X() { i = 0; } void
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public: Y() { i = 0; } int change()
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The solution is simple: Call the co
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This makes built-in types act a lit
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#define CLASS(ID) class ID { \ publ
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properly reverse the order of the c
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in the new class. In the next chapt
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Name hiding comes into play here be
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~GameBoard() { cout
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ecause that function was not explic
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implementation hiding themselves, s
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} operator ifstream&() { return fil
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inherit privately, you’re “impl
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int read() const { return i; } void
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organic, evolutionary creature, rat
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your diagrams any way you find help
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Child object to a Parent& (if you c
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#include #include using namespace
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types inside the new type. Typicall
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class BusinessTraveler from Travele
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15: Polymorphism & Virtual Function
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quickly see the usefulness of this
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“narrow” that interface, but ne
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virtual void play(note) const { cou
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class Brass : public Wind { public:
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The keyword virtual tells the compi
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pointer (the VPTR) into the structu
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instrument pointer brass object VPT
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call word ptr [bx+4] Finally, the s
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from the previous assembly-language
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instrument virtual void play() virt
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cout
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may be a common piece of code that
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virtual string sit() const { return
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the examples you’ve seen here, an
Page 663 and 664:
exists) and Dog, which no longer ex
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x = d2.f(); //! d2.f(s); // string
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int main() { Bird b; Cat c; Pet* p[
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Order of constructor calls The seco
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that is called last. This is anothe
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int main() { Base1* bp = new Derive
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The only distinction occurs when yo
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ely on portions of an object that h
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} Object* peek() const { return hea
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Creating containers that hold Objec
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using namespace std; class Shape {
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picture” of class relationships.
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12. Create a model of a greenhouse
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has no default constructor, so why
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16: Introduction to Templates Inher
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} int pop() { return stack[top > 0
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need an object, create it with new,
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object-based hierarchy with its con
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code. The container no longer holds
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In main( ), you can see how easy it
Page 703 and 704:
people see software as a service, a
Page 705 and 706:
} }; class Number { float f; public
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}* head; public: Stack() : head(0)
Page 709 and 710:
changeable throughout the lifetime
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#ifndef AUTOCOUNTER_H #define AUTOC
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The destructor for CleanupCheck doe
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in the program, and you don’t nec
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int main() { Stack ac; // Ownership
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array, copying the old array to the
Page 722 and 723:
of the underlying container) for an
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} friend ostream& operator
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} // Jump an iterator forward itera
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void push(T* dat) { head = new Link
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dereference operator performs the e
Page 732 and 733:
To create the end sentinel: iterato
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} inflate(); storage[next++] = elem
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int main() { { // To force destruct
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class Square : public Shape { publi
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drawAll(p); cout
Page 742 and 743:
that, to acquire a library from a t
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16. (Advanced) Modify PointerToMemb
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Although many of these issues have
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Begin and end comment tags A very i
Page 750 and 751:
void func(int a) { you immediately
Page 752 and 753:
The issue of where to put the openi
Page 754 and 755:
Use of require( ) and assure( ) The
Page 756 and 757:
also from the insights of friends i
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elationship where it doesn’t exis
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22. Don’t use private inheritance
Page 762 and 763:
than global variables, although you
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the heap, the catcher must know to
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has enough information to deal with
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768 Thinking in C++ www.BruceEckel.
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C Thinking in C: Foundations for Ja
Page 772 and 773:
Analysis & Design Extreme Programmi
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mathematical determinism and the il
Page 776 and 777:
# compiler under dos: { all } # Obj
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C07:MemTest.cpp C09:Cpptime.cpp C12
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Index -, 177 --, 178 !, 177 !=, 172
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linking compiled C code with C++, 4
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declaration, 93, 245, 256 analyzing
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static member, 378, 440, 477 using
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Love, Tom, 777 lvalue, 170, 358 mac
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organization code, 260 code in head
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short, 145 side effect, 170, 178 si
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assembly-language code generated by
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