Synopsis of Use and Economic Value of Pesticides and Chances for ...

Synopsis of Use and Economic Value of Pesticides
and Chances for Reduced Application Rates
at Different Scales in Hindu Kush Region
By
Professor Fanindra P. Neupane
Senior Agriculturist
Submitted to
Institute of Geoecology,
Department of Hydrology and Landscape Ecology,
Technical University of Braunschweig, Germany
November 2001
CEAPRED, Kathmandu, Nepal

Table of Contents
Page
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. USE OF PESTICIDES AT DIFFERENT SCALES 1
2.1 Nepal 1
2.1.1 Country Level 1
2.1.2 District Level 4
2.1.3 Village Level 5
2.2 Bangladesh 6
2.3 India 7
2.4 Pakistan 9
2.5 China 9
3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF PESTICIDES 10
4. POSSIBLE REDUCTION OF PESTICIDE APPLICATION RATES 10
4.1 Use of Alternatives of Chemical Pesticides 10
4.2 Increase the Level of Awareness of Farmers and General Public 12
4.3 Strengthen Pest and Pesticide Research 12
4.4 Enforcement of Pesticide Acts 12
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 12
REFERENCES 14
2

1. INTRODUCTION
The major crops grown in the Hindu Kush Region [(HKR) Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China,
Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan] are cereals (rice, wheat, maize, millets, buck
wheat), potato, sugarcane, jute, cotton, grain legumes (chickpea, pigeonpea, black and
green grams, soybean, French bean etc), fruit crops (mango, banana, litchi, apple, citrus,
papaya, pineapple etc), vegetable crops (crucifers, cucurbits, egg plant, okra etc), oil seed
crops (rape, mustard, sunflower and peanut), palms (coconut and areca nut), narcotic
plants (tea, coffee and tobacco), spices and condiments (cardamom, black pepper,
turmeric, ginger, chilli, pepper etc) and several others (ICAR, 2000; Neupane, 2001).
These crops suffer from various pests (insects, mites, vertebrates, weeds etc.) and
diseases (ICAR, 2000; Neupane, 2001a; Shrestha, 1991). Among the various pest control
measures, chemical pesticides have become very popular among the farmers of the HKR.
The use of these chemicals is rather increasing every year. Similarly, chemical pesticides
are also being used for the control of human disease vector insects (mosquitoes, flies,
fleas etc).
South and Southeast Asian countries consume 26.7 % of the pesticides in the world
market. Of this amount, insecticides make up 45.8 %, fungicides 21.9 %, herbicides 29.2
% and others 3.1 % (Raheja, 1995). Among the above crops more pesticides are applied
on rice, cotton and vegetables.
The use of chemical pesticides in agriculture, industry, public places and residences has
also created negative impact on human health, wildlife and the environment as a whole.
This paper includes the status of pesticide use within Nepal and some information from
Bangladesh and India, and very little from Pakistan and China. Information from Myanmar
and Bhutan could not be found in spite of search for literature in the local libraries in
Kathmandu, Nepal. This paper is a part of an agreement between Centre for
Environmental and Agricultural Policy research, Extension and Development (CEAPRED),
Nepal, and Technical University of Braunschweig (TUBS), Germany in 1998, in connection
with a research project entitled “Environmental Risks of Pesticides and Sustainable
Development of Integrated Pesticide Management (IPM) for Mountain Areas of Developing
Countries Considering Socio-economic Conditions and Taking Middle Mountains, Central
Nepal as an Example (Develop IPM Nepal)” conducted in Ward No. 4, 5, 6 and 9 of
Panchkhal Village Development Committee of Kabhrepalanchok district of Nepal.
2. USE OF PESTICIDES AT DIFFERENT SCALES
2.1 Nepal
2.1.1 Country Level
Pesticide use in Nepal started in the early 1950s starting with DDT for malaria eradication
(Neupane, 1995). DDT was followed by other organochlorines (BHC, dieldrin, chlordane
etc. and organophosphates (ethyl parathion, methyl parathion, malathion, oxydemeton
methyl and so on). When the green revolution started in Nepal during the mid-sixties, the
traditional farmers were taught to use agrochemicals specially fertilizers, insecticides and
fungicides. Now there are 63 registered technical products (27 insecticides, 19 fungicides,
11 herbicides, 1 acaricide, 2 rodenticides, and 3 others) available in the market (Table 1)
which are being used on various crops throughout the country (Kansakar 2001).
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Table 1: Registered Pesticides in Nepal
Insecticides Oxydemeton methyl Tridemorph
Acephate Permethrin Validamycin
Alphamethrin Phorate Herbicides
Aluminium phosphide Quinalphos 2,4-D Sodium salt
Azadirachtin Triazophos Anilophos
Bacillus thuringiensis Fungicides Atrazine
Carbofuran Benomyl Butachlor
Chlorpyrifos Captan Fluchloralin
Cyfluthrin Carbendazim Glyphosate
Cypermethrin Carboxin Isoproturon
Deltamethrin Thiram Metribuzim
Dichlorvos Copper oxychloride Oxyfluorfen
Dimethoate Copper sulphate Paraquat dichloride
Ensosulfan Dinocap Pendimethalene
Ethion Edifenphos Acadricides
Fenitrothion Kitazin Dicofol
Fenthion Mancozeb Rodenticides
Fenvalerate Metalaxyl Bromadiolone
Lambda-cyhalothrin Metiram Zinc phosphide
Malathion Sulphur Others
Methomyl Thiphonate Alpha naphthyl acetic acid
Methyl prathion Triadimefon Chlormequat chloride
Monocrotophos Tricyclazole Dazomet
Source: Directorate of Plant Protection (DOPP) (2001a)
Most of the pesticides (98 %) are imported from India. A few are also imported from China.
Very few (2 %) are formulated in Nepal (Manandhar and Palikhe, 1999).
Due to open boarder with India, it is very difficult to control the illegal entry of pesticides
into Nepal. As a result the total quantity of imported pesticides is unknown. However, the
import figures for the year 2000 have been presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Imported Pesticides (Technical Products), 2000
Pesticides
Quantity (Mt)
Fungicides 54.5
Insecticides 47.0
Rodenticides 4.0
Herbicides 2.6
Total 108.1
Source: DOPP (2001a)
The consumption of pesticides in terms of commercial formulation (commercial product)
per unit area is only 142 g/ha (Dahal, 1995) which is perhaps one of the lowest in the HKR.
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On ecological basis, highest average number of land holdings use pesticides in Terai (12.6
%) followed by Hills (4.9 %) and Mountains (0.7 %) on the following crops: rice, maize,
wheat, potato and vegetables (Kanskar et al., 2001). These figures are from the National
Sample Census of Agriculture (CBS, 1993) and very old by now. Pesticide consumption in
the country has changed a lot during this one-decade period. The largest quantity of
pesticides is used in rice (40 – 50 %) followed by grain legumes (14 – 20 %), fiber crops
(13 – 15 %), and vegetables and fruits (10 – 20 %), and the use of various pesticides has
been found in the following order: insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, others.
Pesticide use pattern on crops is as follows: use after pest outbreak (59 %) followed by
preventive control (39 %) and post-harvest control (2 %) (Manandhar, and Palikhe, 1999).
Pesticides are marketed by Agriculture Input Corporation (AIC), a government enterprise
which was the main dealer of fertilizers, pesticides and seed for the whole country until
1994 and several private wholesalers and retailers (Palikhe and Mahat, 2001). At the
district and village levels, agro-chemicals including pesticides are distributed by some
agricultural cooperatives and private agro-veterinary dealers. In Terai districts, some Indian
dealers also illegally distribute pesticides directly to the farmers.
These days there are complains from farmers about the low efficacy of various pesticides
they have been using. It has been assumed that the imported pesticides from India as well
as formulated within Nepal are substandard. There is very limited facility for pesticide
analysis in the country (Nepal Environmental Scientific Services, Private Limited,
Thapathali, Kathmandu has limited facility). The DOPP has started checking the quality of
some of the common pesticides from the above company.
There has been misuse of pesticides resulting into poison cases and deaths of people
mainly due to ignorance and carelessness. The Pesticide Act and Regulation (Table 9)
have been introduced about a decade ago (DOPP, 2001). But the government has not
been able to enforce it effectively. Table 3 presents some pesticides that have been
banned in Nepal.
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Table 3. Restricted and Banned Pesticides in Nepal
Pesticide
Remarks
Restricted Pesticides
Bandiocarb
To be used for public health purpose.
Chorpyrihops+ Cypermethrin Not to be used on mustard crop.
Cyfluthrin
To be used for public health purpose.
Dichlorvos
To be sold under official recommendation of APPO.
Etofenprox
To be used for public health purpose.
Lambda cyhalothrin
To be used for public health purpose.
Mehtomyl
To be sold under official recommendation of APPO.
Methyl parathion
To bTo be sold under official recommendation of APPO.
Monocrotophos
To bTo be sold under official recommendation of APPO.
Oxydemeton methyl
To be sold under official recommendation of APPO.
Permethrin
To be used for public health purpose.
Phorate
To be sold under official recommendation of APPO.
Triazophos
To be sold under official recommendation of APPO.
Banned Pesticides
Aldrin
BHC
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Mirex
Organomercury chloride
Phosphamidon
Toxaphene
Source: DOPP (2001a), APPO = Assistant Plant Protection Officer
Nepal has accumulated some 80.4 Mt of obsolete pesticides (Table 4) which has posed a serious
problem for its safe disposal because there is no expertise in this country.
2.1.2 District Level
Table 4. Obsolete Pesticides in Nepal
Pesticide group
Quantity (Mt)
Organochlorines 37.09
Organophosphates 28.62
Organomercury compounds 8.13
Miscellaneous 6.57
Total 80.41
Source: DOPP (2001a)
There are 75 districts in Nepal, and each district has one District Agricultural
Development Office (DADO) under the Department of Agriculture (DOA), His Majesty's
Government of Nepal (HMG/N). Among various agricultural experts, there is one APPO
in this office who is responsible for various plant protection activities in the district
including the responsibilities of Plant Protection Inspector (enforcing the pesticidal
regulations). At the district level, distribution of pesticides is done both by AIC and
4

private dealers. The example of various pesticides being used in Kabhrepalanchok
district have been presented in Table 5.
2.1.3 Village Level
Table 5. Use of Pesticides in Kabhre District, 1999
Pesticides Quantity (kg actual ingredient)
District Panchkhal VDC
Insecticides 15536 997
Fungicides 21403 10605
Weedicides 103 115
Rodenticides 189 12
Total 37231 11729
Source: DADO, Dhulikhel, Kabhrepalanchok District.
For village level study, two villages, namely, Tamaghat and Tinpiple within Panchkhal
VDC were selected. The IPM project conducted by TUBS was concentrated in these two
villages. The following is a summary of the study conducted by CEAPRED (2000):
The major crops grown in these villages are rice, potato, maize, wheat, mustard, tomato,
bitter gourd, chilli, brinjal, beans, gourd, cabbage and cauliflower. Almost all farmers
(more than 97 %) use pesticides for controlling various pests and diseases. The popular
pesticides being used are as follows:
Insecticides: aluminium phosphide, chlorpyriphos, dichlorvos, dimethoate, fenvalerate,
malathion and methyl parathion.
Fungicides: Carbendazim, edifenphos, mancozeb and metalaxyl.
Almost all farmers (97 – 100 %) use pesticides on various crops before harvest and very
few (6 %) use on stored commodities (grains). The criteria followed by farmers for
pesticide application are either the presence of pest or their damage symptoms or both.
Pesticides are very easily available with agricultural cooperatives or dealers in the
neighbouring areas of the farming community. Farmers do not get any kind of training on
pesticide management.
Very few farmers (6 %) use pesticidal plants such as neem (Azadirachta indica), mugwort
(Aretemisia vulgaris), chilli (Capsicum frutescens), garlic (Allium sativum) and
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and cow urine, wood ash and soap for controlling different
insect pests and diseases.
There is excessive (in terms of times of application for a crop for its growing season) use
of pesticides on potato and vegetable crops (Table 6). The certified waiting periods (time
between last application and harvest of a crop) for several pesticides on vegetable crops
have not been followed by the growers. This has created a serious problem of illegal
pesticide residues on vegetables sold in the market. However none of the pesticides
used is found to exceed the recommended rates.
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Farmers have very limited knowledge on pesticides and their applications such as types
of pesticides, their dilution, application, residual effect, expiry dates, precautionary
measures, effect on environment, health hazards, safe disposal of empty containers and
so on. Among male and female farmers the latter has low knowledge on the above
areas.
2.2 Bangladesh
Table 6. Frequency of Pesticide Application on Various Crops
No. of times per crop season
Crop Tamaghat Tinpiple
Insecticide Fungicide Insecticide Fungicide
Rice 2 - 3 1 - 2 2 - 4 2
Maize 1 - - -
Potato 8 - 12 9 6 - 8
Tomato 7 - 15 4 - 11 10 10
Cabbage & Cauliflower 2-4 7 - -
Bittergourd 5 - 13 14 6 - 7 8
Chill and Capsicum 5 - 11 8 7 8
Cucumber 2 - 9 12 - -
Brinjal 2 - 9 2 - 4 6 6
Beans 5 5 - -
Mustard - - 2 1
Source: CEAPRED, (2000)
The information in this section is based on Iles and Maslen (1999). Bangladesh has
registered pesticides comprising of some 92 technical products (for active ingredients), 121
formulations and 245 brand names. Of the technical products 7 are acaricides, 24
fungicides, 44 insecticides, 6 rodenticides and 11 weedicides. More popular insecticides
are cypermethrin, dichlorvos, malathion, carbofuran and mancozeb. The quantity of
pesticides (formulated products) used in 1998 has been reported to be over 11,000 Mt.
About 70 % of pesticides are used on rice. Overall, most pesticides sold annually are
inseticides (about 95 %), herbicides (2.4 %), fungicides (1.8 %) and rodenticides (0.1 %).
Pesticides are used only 2 - 3 times per season on rice. In case of vegetables, pesticides
are used 17 - 150 times per season. This is particularly so on high value vegetable crop
like eggplant, potato, country beans, cabbage and tomato. Crops are often harvested
within 12 - 24 hours of spraying and then sold in the market.
Some of the most persistent and hazardous pesticides have been banned or restricted
(Table 7).
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Table 7. Restricted and Banned Pesticides in Bangladesh
S. N. Pesticide Remarks
Restricted Pesticides
1. Chlordane Permitted to use against certain soil insects.
2. Dieldrin Permitted to use against certain soil insects.
3. Endosufan Not permitted for use on rice and tea.
4. Mercuric fungicides Permitted only for sugarcane seed treatment.
5. Synthetic pyrethroids Not permitted for use on rice and tea.
Banned Pesticides
1. BHC
2. Carbaryl
3. DDT
4. Disulfoton
5. Endrin
6. Ethyl parathion
7. Lindane
8. Methoxychlor
9. Methyl parathion
10. Phorate
11. Telodrin
There are 26 main companies which formulate, distribute or supply pesticides in
Bangladesh. Two of them produce only public health formulations and eight of them
perform more than one of these functions. All these companies are also members of
Bangladesh Pesticides Association.
The pesticide legislation of Bangladesh has been presented in Table 9.
There are very limited analytical facilities and trained staff to adequately address the
demand for services in pesticide quality control and pesticide residue level monitoring in
water, soil, fish and other animals and particularly routine monitoring in vegetables and
other food commodities in different markets.
2.3 India
India has registered 137 pesticides, of them, 57 are manufactured within the country
(Raheja, 1995). The expected total demand of pesticides for the year 2000 was 100000 Mt
(technical grade) for agriculture and 4400 Mt for public health (David, 1992). Among the
pesticides, insecticides are dominant (70 %) in the Indian market. The use of herbicides
has been slowly increasing (Raheja, 1995). In the past DDT, BHC and malathion were very
popular taking a major market share (55 %); and endosulfan and methyl parathion also are
popular insecticides. Now DDT has been banned for use in agriculture, but is still being
used in public health. BHC has been banned in agriculture as well as in public health. The
restricted and banned pesticides in India have been presented in Table 8.
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Pesticide
Restricted
Aluminium
phosphide
Capatafol
Carbaryl
Dieldrin
Ethylene dibromide
Lindane
Methyl bromide
Methyl parathion
Sodium cyanide
Banned
Aldrin
BHC
Calcium cyanide
Chlordane
Chlorobenzilate
Copper acetoarsenite
DDT
Dibromochloropropane (DDCP)
Endrin
Eghyl parathion
Ethyl mercury chloride
Heptachlor
Menazon
Nitrofen
Nichotine sulphate
Paraquuat-di-methyl sulphate
Pentachloronitrobenzene
(PCNB)
Pentachlorophenol (PCB)
Phenyl mercury acetate (PMA)
Sodium methane arsenate
Tetradifon
Toxaphene
Source: PAU (2001)
Table 8. Restricted and Banned Pesticides in India
Remarks
It is to be sold only to Government undertakings /
organisations and to be used under strict
supervision of government expert or pest control
operators.
It is to be used only as seed dresser. Its use as
foliar spray is banned.
Not to be sprayed at flowering stage of crops.
It is to be restricted for locust control in desert
areas.
It is to be used only as a fumigant for food grains
through Central Government/State Government
undertakings / Government organizations.
Use of lindane formulations generating smoke
shall be used for indoor insect pests of field crops.
Restriction of its sale and use is similar to that of
alumimum phosphide.
Use is permitted only on those crops where honey
bees are not acting as pollinators.
Its use shall be restricted for fumigation of cotton
bales by Plant Protection Adviser to the
Government of India.
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The average per hectare consumption of pesticides in India was 440 g. (commercial
product) for the year 1989/90 (Anomymous, 1991). The status of pesticide legislation has
been presented in Table 9.
2.4 Pakistan
In Pakistan only DDT and BHC were locally produced, and other technical grade materials
were imported until 1988. There were more than 200 formulations available in the market,
dominated by insecticides (91.4 %) (Raheja, 1995). The status of pesticide legislation has
been presented in Table 9.
2.5 China
China produces 90 % of the pesticides used in the country. It has more than 400
formulations and consumes more than 200000 Mt of which 70 % are insecticides
(Annonymous, 1991). The status of pesticide legislation has been presented in Table 9.
Status of Pesticide Regulations
The status of pesticide regulations in some of the HKR countries has been presented in
Table No. 9.
Table 9. Pesticide Legislation in Some HKH Region Countries
Country
Pesticide
Legislation
Bangladesh Pesticides
Ordinance, 1971
(amended in 1980
and 1983)
China Regulation for
Pesticide
Registration, 1982
Regulations for
Sale and Use of
Pesticides, 1982
India Insecticides Act,
1968 and
Insecticides
Rules, 1971
Nepal Pesticides Act,
1991; Pesticides
Regulation, 1993
Pakistan Agricultural
Pesticides
Ordinance, 1971
Agricultural
Pesticides Rules,
1983.
Sources: DOPP (2001); Raheja (1995)
Administering
Authority
Pesticide Technical
Advisory Committee
(PTAC), Ministry of
Agriculture
Evaluation Committee
on Pesticide
Registration, Ministry
of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
and Public Health
Department
Central Insecticides
Board, Ministry of
Agriculture.
Pesticides Board,
Ministry of Agriculture
/ Department of
Agriculture
Agricultural
Pesticides Technical
Advisory Committee
(APTAC), Ministry of
Food and Agriculture
Area of Control Methods of Control
Import and
manufacturing
Import and
manufacturing
Handling
use
and
Import,
manufacturing
and sales
Import,
manufacturing
and sales
Import and
manufacturing
Product registration
and import licensing
Product
system
registration
Routine inspection
Product registration,
licensing of factories,
godowns and shops
Product registration,
licensing of factories,
godowns and shops
Product registration
and import licensing
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3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF PESTICIDES
Crop losses (pre- and post - harvest) due to pests (mainly insects, diseases, weeds and
rodents) in Nepal have been estimated at 20-35% (Shrestha, 2001). In many instances
pest control certainly pays to the farmers. In Nepal farmers manage the weeds manually
while pesticides (mostly synthetic chemicals) are used against obnoxious pests and
diseases (for example late blight of potato and tomato, rice blast, armyworms etc).
Commercialization of off-season vegetables has become very popular in Nepal near the
high way corridors and city areas. This has stimulated the growers to use more inputs
(specially chemical fertilizers and pesticides). In most cases farmers have been found to
use more pesticides on vegetables. Even then it has been found to be economical. The
following is an example from the IPM research site in Kabhre district (Table 10).
Table 10. Economics of Production of Potato and Tomato at Panchkhal VDC,
Khabrepalanchok District, Nepal, 2000
Particulars
Cost of Production
(Rs / ha)
Quantity Produced
(kg / ha)
Potato Tomato Potato Tomato
Cultural practices (ploughing, 68490 23681 124010 21800
weeding, manure application etc.)
Agricultural inputs 276435 56776
Chemical fertilizers 77158 35968
Seed 119071 1901
Organic manure 76206 5704
Irrigation 714 3880
Pesticides 3286 3880
Others 0 5444
Total 344925 80457
Calculation of Profit and Loss
Potato: 124010 kg X Rs. 10 = Rs. 1240100 – Rs. 344925 = Rs. 895175 (Profit)
Tomato: 21800 kg X Rs. 15 = Rs. 327000 – Rs. 80457 = Rs. 46543 (Profit)
Source: CEAPRED, 2001
4. POSSIBLE REDUCTION OF PESTICIDE APPLICATION RATES
The following are some of the major areas which could help in the reduction of pesticide
application rates in the Hindu Kush region countries.
4.1 Use of Alternatives of Chemical Pesticides
A. Bio-control Agents
Bio-control agents such as parasitoids (Trichogrammatids, Braconids, Chalcids,
Ichneumonids etc.) and preadors (Chrysopa sp.); and microbeals (Bacillus
thuringiensis), some nuclerar polyhedrosis viruses and a fungus (Trichoderma sp.)
have been used in very limited areas in India (Atwal, 1993). Some of these agents are
used in field trials in Nepal (Neupane, 2000).
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B. Botanical Pesticides
There are enormous plant species within the HKR which have pesticidal properties. In
the past (before the discovery and use of synthetic chemical pesticides) farmers of
this region used such plants for crop protection. But they have almost been forgotten
until now. Now a day some realization has been seen among several workers of
various countries who have started laboratory and field research and extension of the
use of botanical pesticides (Shin Foon, 1984,1987,1989; Schmutterer and Ascher,
1984, 1987; Neupane, 2001). Among the various plants having pesticidal properties,
neem (Azadirachta indica) has been found to possess special chemicals (specially
Azadirachtin) that have insecticidal, repelling, antifeeding, growth inhibiting, and
fungicidal and nematicidal properties. The derivatives of neem have been widely used
in India (Gahukar, 1995; IARI, 1983; Jotwani and Srivastava, 1984) and to some
extent in Nepal (Neupane 2001b). Other potential pesticidal plants available in this
region are Malabar nut tree (Justicia adhatoda), custard apple (Annona reticulata),
sugar apple (Annona squamosa), sweet flag (Acorus calamus), goat weed (Ageratum
conyzoides), pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cineraraefolium), African marigold (Tagetes
erecta), French marigold (Tagetes patula), castor bean (Ricinus communis),
groundnut (Arachis hypogea), derris (Derris elliptica), Chinese yam bean
(Pachyrhizus erosus), ponga oil tree (Pongamia pinnata), ryania (Ryania speciosa),
patchauli (Pogostemon patchouli), chinaberry (Melia azedarach), black pepper (Piper
nigrum), Indian aconite (Aconitum ferox), mowra (Madhuca indica), angel trumpet
(Datura metel), jimsonweed (Datura stramonium), wild tobacco (Nicotiana rustica),
tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), Indian privet (Vitex negundo), Ginger (Zingiber
officinale), Toona sureni, Melia toosendan (Ahmed et al., 1984; Shin-Foon, 1984,
1987).
C. Insect Attractants
Insect food lures such as methyl eugenol and cue-lure are being used in insect
surveillance against fruit flies, Bactrocera dorsalis and B. cucurbitae, respectively, on
fruit crops (mango and citrus) and gourds (cucurbits) (Neuapane, 2001a).
Commercial use of these materials has not yet started in this region.
Some sex lures (pheromones) of the following insects have been identified but their
use is very limited: tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura), potato tuber moth
(Phthorimaea operculella), diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), tomato fruitworm
(Helicoverpa armigera), cutworms (Agrotis ipsilon and A. segetum), cotton spotted
bollworms (Earias vittella and E. insulana), brinjal furit and shoot borer (Leucinodes
orbonalis), grain legume podborer (Maruca vitrata), rice stripped borer (Chilo
suppressalis) and maize borer (Chilo partellus).
D. Resistant Crop Varieties
Crop varieties resistant to various insects and diseases have been developed and
widely used in rice, wheat and several other crops. Some examples are as follows:
Rice: IR26, IR36, IR42 and IR66 against rice brown planthopper (Heinrichs, 1994).
Wheat: RR21, UP262, Nepal 297, BL 1135 against different rusts (AICC, 2001).
Potato: Cardinal against late blight of potato (causal organism: Phytopthora
infestans).
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E. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
IPM has been started in the HKR countries since several years through DOPP.
However, the impact is not very encouraging. It is mainly due to low emphasis on IPM
from the respective governments. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2000)
has prepared guidelines for IPM in some crops, for example, vegetables. The DOA of
HMG/N also has got some assistance from FAO for rice and vegetable IPM. The
achievements made so far in Nepal are as follows:
HMG/Nepal
a) Season-long (one cropping season) training of trainers (officer level) (No.) : 142
b) Total IPM Farmer Field Schools (No.) : 221
c) Season-long training of rice farmers (No.) : 5525
(Source: DOPP)
CEAPRED
a) Season-long training of vegetable farmers (No.) : 551
b) Total IPM Farmer Field Schools (No.) : 23
4.2 Increase the Level of Awareness of Farmers and General Public
Majority of the farmers in the HKR countries are illiterate. Similarly the general public is
ignorant about the impact of pesticides on the environment and the human health. Hence
awareness of both the farmers as well as the general public should be raised on pesticide
issues.
The plant protection personnel of government agencies involved in the field should be
increased both in number as well as quality.
4.3 Strengthen Pest and Pesticide Research
There is still a lot to be studied on the bioecology of various pests and their suppression
methods in the HKR. The manpower involved in this area is limited. Hence, their number
and quality needs to be increased.
4.4 Enforcement of Pesticide Acts
Most of the countries in the HKR have Pesticide Acts (Table 9). But there are complains
against their poor enforcement. Examples can be cited from Nepal and India where most
of the pesticides belonging to chlorinated hydrocarbons (for example, DDT, BHC) have
been banned by law, but these materials are freely available in the market and used by the
people. Hence, governments of these countries should give proper attention in this area.
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Significant amount of crop loss (in the field as well as storage) occurs every year due to
various pests in the HKR countries. Pesticides have been used in this region as a major
weapon to suppress the pests since the green revolution period. They are easily available
at a relatively cheaper price and have been found to be economical in most instances.
12

Hence their demand has been ever increasing. Pesticides have several drawbacks
(provide negative impact on the environment, wildlife, human being and domestic animals)
which have been ignored (mostly unknowingly).
Though these countries have pesticide regulatory acts, their enforcement is very loose as
a result there are still several misuseof pesticides (for example, pesticides of chlorinated
hydrocarbon group such as DDT, BHC, though banned in paper, are still in use).
The farmers as well as the majority of general public are illiterate in the HKR. The quantity
and quality of plant protection personnel is minimal and hard research in IPM has been
ignored.
On the basis of the above observations the following recommendations can be made for
the HKR countries:
The alternatives to synthetic chemical pesticides (mostly biological means) should be
encouraged for pest suppression in agriculture.
The governments should give emphasis on research and extension activities related to
IPM.
The pesticide regulations should be enforced properly.
Awareness of the farmers and consumers should be raised on safe and judicious use of
pesticides.
Information on pesticides and their application should be provided to the farmers in their
native language.
The quality of pesticides and their residue on marketable products soil and water should
be monitored regularly for public safety by the concerned governments.
The agricultural extension workers should have proper training in crop protection.
13

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