Research Papers Simplified - Laramie County Community College

Research Papers Simplified: 

A Step-by-Step Approach 

Leif Swanson 

English Instructor 

Laramie County Community College 

Spring 2009 

1

Simplify, simplify. 

— Henry David Thoreau 

2

Copyright, Terms of Use and Feedback 

Copyright ©2008 Leif Swanson, All Rights Reserved. 

Instructors and students have permission to use the 

materials in this book free of charge; however, materials 

may not be altered, sold, or posted on a different server. 

Please e-mail me at lswanson@lccc.wy.edu with any questions, 

comments, or ideas for improving later editions of Research 

Papers Simplified: A Step-by-Step Approach. 

3

An Introduction for 

Students and Teachers 

I’ll never forget the semester when I discovered how the written word 

could literally change a person’s life. I was an undergraduate at the 

University of Northern Iowa majoring in English, and Dr. Ted Hovet, a 

truly inspirational English professor, assigned Henry David Thoreau’s 

Walden in an American literature course at UNI. After reading the first 

few pages, I felt inspired by the strength of Thoreau’s writing, 

especially when he so clearly and convincingly explained the beauty of 

living a simple life: ―Simplicity, simplicity, simplicity! I say, let your 

affairs be as two or three, and not a hundred or a thousand; instead of a 

million count half a dozen, and keep your accounts on your thumb - 

nail.‖ 

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I have read Walden several times since, and each time I recommit to a 

relatively simpler and ultimately more meaningful life —both personally 

and professionally. Research Papers Simplified: A Step-by- 

Step Approach is my attempt to guide students through the process 

of writing a research paper—from beginning to end—in the simplest, 

most direct way possible. The process for writing a research paper is 

divided into ten manageable steps. 

Step 1: Defining the Research Paper provides students with 

two relatively brief definitions of the research paper. 

Step 2: Study a Completed Research Paper Before You 

Begin allows you to see finished research papers, written according to 

MLA and American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines, before 

you begin the process of writing a research paper. Seeing a finished 

research paper early on in the process usually reduces students’ anxiety 

when they approach a research paper assignment. 

Step 3: Discover the Benefits of Learning to Write 

Research Papers discusses how the research paper assignment is 

perhaps the best preparation for success in your personal, academic, 

and professional endeavors. 

Several LCCC graduates explain, at the conclusion of Step 3, how 

they are using their writing skills to survive and thrive in their chosen 

professions. I think you will find their stories informative and 

inspirational. 

5

Step 4: Create a Schedule for Research and Writing 

helps you develop practical time-management skills, in order to avoid 

the number-one problem with writing research papers: procrastination! 

Step 5: Select Your Topic outlines the process of selecting and 

refining a research paper topic. For some students, this stage of the 

process is particularly difficult, so this step is designed for those 

students who need a little extra help focusing their topics before they 

begin writing their rough drafts. 

Step 6: Locate, Evaluate, and Summarize Your 

Research Sources gives you simple advice for finding and 

analyzing research materials. This step will also cover some simple 

note-taking strategies for avoiding plagiarism when it’s time to blend 

research into your rough draft. 

Step 7: Review Basic Essay Structure briefly describes the 

individual components of a short essay. The short essay is the structural 

building block for a research paper. A sample short essay —written 

according to Modern Language Association (MLA) guidelines —is 

provided, so you can see what a finished product looks like. 

Step 8: Write the Rough Draft shows you how to blend 

research into the paper, avoid common logical fallacies, and develop 

strategies for acknowledging and refuting the opposition. 

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Step 9: Revise the Rough Draft discusses a specific plan for 

rewriting the research paper to improve its overall content, 

organization, and sentence-level clarity. Sentence-level clarity 

includes, but is not limited to, grammar, punctuation, and proper MLA 

and APA documentation. 

Step 10: Perfect Your Writing Process for the Next 

Research Paper gives you a chance to identify the strengths and 

correct the weaknesses of your research paper writing process. 

Throughout the book, you will find links to websites containing free 

information about improving your writing skills in general and your 

research paper writing skills in particular. 

It’s important to note that Research Papers Simplified: A Stepby-Step 

Approach reflects the teaching philosophy I have developed 

over two decades of teaching freshman composition—first as a teaching 

assistant at the University of Northern Colorado from 1988-1990 and 

then as a full-time English instructor at LCCC since 1990. This book 

does not reflect the wonderfully diverse and effective approaches other 

LCCC instructors have used to teach research paper writing to 

thousands of LCCC students over the years. 

My hope is that this book becomes a simple and useful resource as you 

strive to improve your research paper writing skills necessary for 

success in your personal, academic, and professional endeavors. 

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Acknowledgements 

There are many people I need to thank; I would not have written this 

book without them. I would like to thank Arts and Humanities Dean Dr. 

Howard Major for his wisdom, guidance, and encouragement. Thanks 

also go to Vice President of Instruction Dr. Marlene Tignor, LCCC 

President Darrel Hammon and the LCCC Board of Trustees for 

approving my sabbatical so that I could write this e-book. 

Many thanks to the following ten LCCC graduates who gave generously 

of their time to share their stories of how they use writing in their 

professions: Ashley Arneson, John Balser, Chris Black, Marty Carroll, 

Bill Keenan, Amy Krahenbuhl, Jim Massengill, Kelly Ruiz, Roger Van 

Alyne, and Dave Zwonitzer. 

I am indebted to the following LCCC English faculty who willingly set 

aside stacks of papers at the end of the spring 2008 se mester and 

graciously agreed to be videotaped for this book: Randy Fetzer, Mary 

Hart, Liz Jackson, Damien Kortum, Pat Landy, Phyllis Prawl, Arshi 

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Rizwani-Nisley, Liz Skrabacz, and Dave Zwonitzer. I am proud to be a 

member of this outstanding group of colleagues. 

Thanks to Debbie Major, LCCC’s Director of Distributed 

Learning/Outreach Center, for providing her vision, support , and 

encouragement. 

I want to thank LCCC’s Director of Public Relations Lisa Murphy and 

her staff, for their support. I especial ly want to thank Promotions and 

Video Productions Specialist Josh Thein for his exceptional video 

editing. Thanks also to LCCC Public Relations’ summer intern Preston 

Cox for his superb web page design. 

I also want to thank Michael Walters, LCCC’s Vice Pr esident of 

Instructional Technology, for his support. Sherry Winters, LCCC’s 

Telecourse/Telecommunications Specialist, devoted numerous hours to 

videotaping LCCC graduates, faculty, and staff, and I greatly appreciate 

her help. Thanks also to Don Myers, LCCC’s Distance Learning/Audio 

Visual Technician, for helping Sherry with the videotaping. 

LCCC Librarian Meghan Kelly deserves a tremendous amount of credit 

for helping me throughout the project. She not only provided me with 

excellent research sources for the e-book, she did an outstanding job 

writing the Pathfinder guide. 

I also want to recognize Mass Media/Multimedia Instructor Roz 

Schliske for her help in locating LCCC graduates who were willing to 

share their stories. 

LCCC Computer Information Systems Instructor Leah Noonan worked 

her magic and created a sleek Microsoft Word document out of my plain 

manuscript. Thanks, Leah! 

Thanks also to my wife, Lyndee, and our children, Bethany and Jordan. 

They gave me the time, space, and encouragement I needed t o be 

creative. I hope that I can return the favor some day. 

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Last, but certainly not least, I am especially grateful to Jim Weis for 

the countless hours he devoted to editing my manuscript and 

encouraging me along the way. He has significantly shaped my ide as 

about writing, teaching, and life in general. Thanks, Jim. 

10

Table of Contents 

An Introduction For Students And Teachers 4 

Acknowledgements 8 

Table Of Contents 11 

Step 1: Defining The Research Paper 13 

Step 2: Study A Completed Research Paper Before You Begin Writing 

One 18 

Step 3: Discover The Benefits Of Learning To Write Research Papers 21 

Step 4: Create A Schedule For Research And Writing 38 

Step 5: Select Your Topic 42 

Step 6: Locate, Evaluate, And Summarize Your Research Sources 46 

Step 7: Review Basic Essay Structure 57 

Step 8: Write The Rough Draft 74 

Step 9: Revise The Rough Draft 78 

11

Step 10: Reflect On Your Writing Process 80 

Best Websites On College-Level Writing 83 

LCCC Instructors Discuss The College Research Paper 84 

About The Author 89 

12

Step 1: 

Defining the Research Paper 

Regardless of the subject one is studying, a clear definition is more 

often than not a necessary starting point, and the research paper 

assignment is no exception. I have provided two definitions, one I have 

developed and one other from the Capital Community College website. 

Both definitions discuss the process of writing a research paper and the 

finished product. 

Here is my relatively simple, four-part definition of the research paper 

that I have used for years at LCCC: 

13

I can explain my definition in more detail by breaking it down into its 

four components. 

The research paper is an essay consisting of an introduction, 

body paragraphs, and a conclusion. 

This is the first and often most comforting part of the definition . I want 

students, especially students who are nervous about this assignment, to 

realize that the research paper is essentially a basic essay with research 

blended into it. The individual components of a short essay are 

explained in Step 7: Review Basic Essay Structure. 

I’ve always told students that if they can write a short essay without 

research, and all of them can by the time we get to the research paper 

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assignment in freshman composition (English 1010) , then writing the 

research paper is the next logical step. 

Granted, writing a research paper requires a lot more work than a short 

essay without research; however, knowing the basic essay structure 

makes the job much easier. This realization often reduces some of the 

stress students experience with this assignment. 

Let’s move on to the second part of my definition: 

The research paper uses the best information (research) from a 

variety of sources—print, electronic, and other—to explain and 

support the thesis statement. Just like serious professional athletes 

who put the best food into their bodies for top performance, you will 

want to use only the best information available in your research papers, 

so that your papers ―perform‖ at the highest level possible. The thesis 

statement is defined in Step 7: Review Basic Essay 

Structure. 

The research is clearly blended into the essay and properly 

documented. 

The writer uses written signals at the beginning and/or end of the 

research material that clearly lead readers to the source listed at the end 

of the research paper. The most common types of documentation are 

MLA and APA; however, other styles are often required . Step 8: 

Write the Rough Draft explains the process for blending 

researched material into the essay. 

Here’s the final part of the definition: 

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The research paper displays the writer’s use of critical thinking 

skills. 

Critical thinking skills include, among other things, logic and careful 

analysis; critical thinking also includes acknowledging and refuting 

opposing points of view. Critical thinking is explained in Step 3: 

Discover the Benefits of Learning to Write Research 

Papers. The process of acknowledging and refuting opposing points 

of view is explained in Step 8: Write the Rough Draft. 

My definition is only one among many, so take some time to study the 

definitions from the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (MLA 

Handbook), the Publication Manual of the American Psychol ogical 

Association (APA handbook), and the upcoming definition from the 

Hartford, Connecticut, Capital Community College website. These 

definitions further clarify my definition of a research paper. 

Capital Community College provides students with a clear 

definition from their website: 

16

Step 1 Summary 

The comprehensive definition of a research paper discusses both the 

process and the product. The process involves, among other tasks, 

selecting a suitable topic; locating, evaluating and blending research; 

and acknowledging and refuting the opposition. The finished product is 

a fully developed, carefully organized, properly-documented research 

paper. My hope is that this definition gives you a foundation for the 

process of writing an excellent research paper. 

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Step 2: 

Study a Completed 

Research Paper 

Before You Begin 

Writing One 

Students breathe a sigh of relief when we study a sample research paper 

in class before they begin writing one, so I’ve included several for you 

to read. Seeing a finished research paper before you begin may reduce 

your stress level. As you read these research papers, notice how they 

use the following basic essay components, outlined on the next page 

and explained in ―Step 7: Review Basic Essay Structure .‖ 

Sample MLA Paper on Cell Phones 

Sample MLA Paper on Mountain Lions 

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Sample APA Paper on Anorexia Nervosa 

Sample APA Paper on Apes and Language 

Sample MLA Paper on Teenage Pharming 

19


Now that you have carefully studied a few completed research 

papers, my hope is that your anxiety has lessened somewhat, and 

that you are now ready to begin the process of writing your own 

research paper. Seeing a finished research paper before you b egin 

demonstrates that the research paper is built squarely on a basic 

essay foundation. All of you should realize by now that you can 

write a short essay, so the longer research paper is certainly within 

your grasp. Right Right! This reminds me of a Zimb abwean 

proverb: ―If you can walk you can dance, if you talk you can sing.‖ 

Get to work! 

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Step 3: 

Discover the Benefits of 

Learning to 

Write Research Papers 

As a college teacher, I’ve always believed that it’s extremely important 

to discuss with students how they will benefit from learning course 

material. Most of this discussion, at the beginning of the semester, 

encourages students to devote some of their limited time and energy to 

learning the course material. 

Therefore, the ultimate goal of this step is to show you that learning to 

write a research paper is perhaps the most important preparation for 

success in your personal, academic, and professional endeavors. I have 

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assembled some of the best reasons for learning to write research 

papers. 

Reason 1: The research paper assignment develops your 

critical thinking skills. Writer Ernest Hemingway once said that the 

most-important tool for any writer, or any human being for that matter, 

is a built-in crap detector. He was really talking about developing the 

critical thinking skills to sort out the crappy information we are 

bombarded with daily. 

Critical thinking includes, but is not limited to, our ability to think 

clearly and logically about the ideas and choices we encounter in our 

daily lives. 

‣ Which college should I attend 

‣ What should I major in 

‣ Should I buy Product A or Product B 

‣ Should I take this job 

‣ Should I date this person 

‣ Should I marry the person I’m dating 

‣ What’s best for my children and future generations 

‣ Which political candidate should I vote for and why 

‣ Should I continue to accept the values and beliefs of my parents 

and my church 

‣ What part(s) of our culture and other cultures do I admire and 

why 

‣ What part(s) of our culture and other cultures do I d islike and 

why 

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Without good critical thinking skills, we are too easily influenced by 

others’ opinions. With good critical thinking skills, we become 

independent and ultimately more content with ourselves and our 

choices. 

So, how will writing a research paper help to develop these allimportant 

critical thinking skills The entire process of writing a 

research paper—from beginning to end—requires logic, clear thinking, 

and sound judgment. 

Examine the following link about critical thinking: 

The Critical Thinking Community 

Reason 2: The research paper assignment prepares you 

for college-level writing assignments. 

A few decades ago, a movement called ―Writing Acro ss the Curriculum‖ 

emerged, and for college students it meant and still means tha t you can 

expect to write in all academic disciplines—from math, science and 

engineering, to art, education, and social sciences . Writing is no longer 

just a requirement in English classes. This movement was designed to 

use writing to help college students improve their critical-thinking, 

problem-solving, and communication skills. 

Bottom line, learning to write a research paper in freshman composition 

will prepare you for the numerous writing assignments you will 

encounter in other college-level classes. 

For a more detailed discussion of Writing Across the Curriculum, g o to 

Writing Across the Curriculum. 

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Reason 3: The research paper assignment, and college 

writing assignments in general, will help you to survive and 

thrive in your career. Meet the following ten LCCC graduates who 

discuss how they are using their writing skills in their chosen 

professions. Their stories are informative and inspirational. 

 

Ashley Arneson graduated from LCCC in 2006 with a degree in 

Mass Media/Multimedia. She is the primary copy writer for Sierra 

Trading Post’s Core Catalog, which has a yearly circulation of 

approximately 60 million. 

On any given day, Ashley is surrounded by all kinds of merchandise — 

from sleeping bags, outdoor clothing and merino wool socks to jewelry 

costing more than her rent! She writes descriptions of all the new 

products—approximately 150 to 300 every three weeks—that appear in 

Sierra Trading Post’s main catalog. 

In addition to this important responsibility, she manages and designs 

Sierra Trading Post’s quarterly company newsletter which is distributed 

to over 700 employees in Cheyenne and Cody, Wyoming; Reno, 

Nevada; and Meridian, Idaho. Needless to say, a lot is at stake for 

Sierra Trading Post when Ashley sits down to write. 

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John Balser graduated from LCCC in 1998 with a degree in Business 

Administration. As President and CEO of Western Vista Federal Credit 

Union in Cheyenne, Wyoming, John is responsible for the overall 

operational, lending, and financial management of a credit union that 

includes three branches, employs approximately forty people, and 

controls $95,000,000 in assets. 

John’s success and the financial health of his credit union require 

various forms of clear, precise, persuasive writing. John writes 

summaries and reports to the Board of Directors and federal regulators, 

explanations of policies and procedures, employee evaluations, and 

general correspondence (using traditional mail and e-mail). Most 

recently, John authored the credit union’s investment policy. 

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Chris Black graduated from LCCC in 1991 with an Associate of Arts 

degree, and in 1993 she completed her Bachelor of Arts degree in 

Elementary Education at the University of Wyoming. She has been an 

elementary school teacher for Laramie County School District #1 for 

fifteen years. She also owns and manages Kids World, a before-andafter-school 

program for elementary students. 

Writing is certainly one of Chris’s most important daily tasks. As a 

teacher, she writes letters and notes to her students and their parents. 

She writes memos to her colleagues and school administrators. She 

maintains a classroom website, and she models good writing for her 

students on an overhead projector. 

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Chris has also tackled several major writing assignments, including a 

handbook for parents, grant proposals, and suggested curriculum 

changes. She is currently enrolled in an online master ’s degree program 

through Walden University. She must write at least one essay per week, 

and she frequently writes lengthy online postings for students and 

instructors. Without a doubt, good teaching and learning are on the line 

when Chris writes. 

 

Dr. Mar tin Carroll graduated from LCCC in 1975 with an Associate 

of Arts degree, and in 1977 he completed a Bachelor of Science degree 

(with honors) from the University of Wyoming. He then earned a 

Doctor of Optometry degree (Magna Cum Laude) from the Southern 

California College of Optometry in 1981. 

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For twenty-six years Dr. Carroll has been an optometrist at Cheyenne 

Vision Clinic where he serves the vision needs of approximately 20,000 

patients. 

Writing is an integral part of his day-to-day duties. In addition to 

technical charting in patient records, he writes letters and reports to 

patients, staff, physicians, governmental entities, vendors, and lending 

institutions. He has also written peer-reviewed scholarly articles for 

professional journals in his field. 

On a philosophical note, Dr. Carroll believes that ―words and phrases 

give meaning and emotion to life.‖ He says it’s important to ―enjoy 

language and the full use of it.‖ On a practical level, he believes that 

students who are interested in any healthcare field should enhance their 

writing skills by taking creative and technical writing classes in 

college. Patient health and the smooth operation of one of Cheyenne’s 

most-respected vision clinics are at stake when Dr. Carroll writes. 

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Bill Keenan and Jim Massengill graduated from LCCC in 1994 

with Associate of Science degrees in biology; they graduated from the 

University of Wyoming in 1997 with Bachelor of Science degrees in 

Pharmacy. Bill and Jim are pharmacists and co-owners of Hoy’s Drug 

and Hoy’s Hospital Pharmacy in Cheyenne. 

Bill and Jim oversee forty-five employees, serve approximately 10,000 

customers each year, and manage an annual operating budget of 11 

million dollars. 

Bill and Jim write almost every day. They write memos and letters to 

doctors, insurance companies, and their employees. They create 

brochures, advertising copy, and occasional presentations to college 

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classes and community groups. They believe in keeping their written 

messages short, direct, and as simple as possible . 

The primary purpose for their writing is to promote positive outcomes 

for patients. According to Bill, ―We may not cure disease or save a life, 

but we help our patients achieve an optimal outcome.‖ Time, money, 

and, most importantly, a patient’s well-being are at stake when they 

write. 

 

Amy Krahenbuhl graduated from LCCC in 2003 with a degree in 

nursing. She is currently employed as a registered nurse with Cheyenne 

Radiology and MRI. Her primary responsibilities include general 

patient care and assisting technologists and doctors in the Magnetic 

Resonance Imaging/Computerized Tomography (MRI/CT) department . 

Her job requires a lot of writing in the form of charting and 

documenting medical procedures. According to Amy, documentation of 

a procedure is the only hard evidence of what occurred during an exam, 

and an improperly documented procedure can place the patient and 

healthcare providers at risk. 

Because of her excellent written communication skills, Amy was 

selected to author a set of policies and procedures to protect the safety 

and well-being of Cheyenne Radiology and MRI patients. Many of the 

policies also help to keep Cheyenne Radiology and MRI compliant with 

federally mandated Occupational Safety and Health Administration 

(OSHA) regulations. It is easy to see that the viability of Cheyenne 

Radiology and MRI is on the line when Amy writes. 

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Kelly Ruiz graduated from LCCC in 1997 with a degree in Mass 

Media. She is the Public Information Officer for the State of 

Wyoming’s Office of Homeland Security. Her primary responsibilities 

include writing press releases, monitoring media activity, developing 

agency publications, writing reports, developing annual conference 

agendas, and responding to all media and public inquiries. 

She writes speeches, talking papers, and public presentations . During a 

crisis or disaster, her main responsibility is to disseminate emergency 

information to Wyoming residents. 

She also writes a major report to the Wyoming legislature every two 

years. After gathering information from staff members, she compiles 

the report into a cohesive, aesthetically pleasing document. 

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Kelly authored a policy guide for the Wyoming Office of Homeland 

Security’s Joint Operations Center. The Joint Information Center (JIC) 

is a central location for media and the general public to access 

information during a disaster. The policy guide contains contact 

information, templates for press releases, and protocol for releasing 

information. Without a doubt, the safety of Wyoming’s citizens is at 

stake when Kelly writes. 

 

Roger Van Alyne graduated from LCCC in 1980 with an Associate 

of Applied Science degree in Engineering Technology. He then 

completed his Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering from the 

University of Wyoming in 1986. Roger completed his professional 

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military education (Squadron Officers School, Air Command and Staff 

College) at Air University. 

Roger is the Deputy Public Works Director for the Washoe County, 

Nevada Public Works Department where he oversees the day-to-day 

operations of five major divisions. He also serves as the Contingency 

and Domestic Plans Officer for the Nevada National Guard. 

Even though Roger ’s educational background is in engineering, he 

considers writing one of his most important tools for communicating 

with a wide variety of audiences, including the Washoe County Board 

of County Commissioners, other government agenci es, contractors, 

consultants, vendors, and the general public. 

According to Roger, ―The Board of County Commissioners makes 

decisions based on our written reports, each decision directly impacting 

our operations. The information in the staff reports must be clear and 

easily understood and must support our recommendation for the desired 

action.‖ 

Roger has completed several major writing assignments where time, 

money, and safety were at stake. As a ―weekend warrior,‖ he has 

written deployment plans to move personnel, heavy equipment, and 

construction materials to Central America to construct a runway and a 

cargo marshalling area. 

As Deputy Public Works Director, Roger has authored several major 

writing assignments, including, but not limited to, statewide em ergency 

operations plans, departmental policy manuals, and staff reports for the 

Washoe County Board of County Commissioners. 

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David Zwonitizer graduated from LCCC in 1974 with an Associate 

of Arts degree; he completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in English and 

Philosophy at the University of Northern Colorado in 1977. He enrolled 

in an honors program at UNC, where he completed his Master of Arts 

degree in English and Philosophy in 1983. 

Dave has been an Instructor at LCCC for over thirty years. His primary 

teaching assignments are in English, philosophy, and humanities; he has 

also taught weight training, tennis, Japanese, film appreciation, and 

golf at LCCC. Dave is one of LCCC’s master teachers. He earned the 

Teaching Excellence Faculty Achievement Award in 1997. 

Writing has been, and continues to be, vitally important to Dave in his 

lifelong career as an educator. In addition to the papers he wrote as a 

student, Dave published a collection of short stories and two academic 

articles in scholarly journals. 

As an instructor, Dave writes almost every day. He writes lectures, 

notes to students, and memos to colleagues. On a less regular basis, he 

writes lengthy program reviews, proposals, syllabi , grants, and letters 

of recommendation for students. Dave’s successes with students and 

LCCC’s instructional mission depend, in part, on Dave’s ability to write 

clearly and effectively. 

34

All of these graduates were asked to give you suggestions for 

improving your writing skills before entering the world of work . In 

order to improve students’ writing skills, the graduates said: 

35

Reason 4: The research paper is yet another form of creative 

expression. 

Some students give me strange looks when I ask them to think of the 

research paper as an art form and themselves as research paper artists! I 

admit that I may be reaching a bit with this claim; however, I believe 

that the general process of creating a research paper is similar to the 

steps of creating any work of art, especially when you consider that any 

artist begins with an idea, selects a medium (words, clay, wood, etc.), 

makes a series of individual or ―signature‖ choices particular to the art 

form, and completes the process with a finished product. 

I hope that you and I can elevate the research paper to the level of 

artful expression. I know that many students become more engaged with 

and enthusiastic about the process of writing a research paper that 

artfully expresses their own ideas. Students who approach the research 

paper in this way usually end up with better finished products and 

36

ultimately much better feelings about the experience of writing a 

research paper. 


I hope that you see the relevance of learning to write a research paper. 

Again, I believe that learning to write a research paper is the best kind 

of preparation for success in your personal, academic, and professional 

endeavors. Now that we have established the definition of the research 

paper in step one, and the reasons for learning to write a research paper 

in step two, it’s time to begin the actual process of writing one! 

37

Step 4: 

Create a Schedule for 

Research and Writing 

Without a doubt, procrastination is the number-one problem students 

face when writing research papers. All too often during my college 

career, I was the student composing and revising his research paper 

hours before it was due, dragging myself into class the next day to turn 

in the assignment, promising myself that I would never do it this way 

again. 

Whenever I worked on a paper incrementally, over an extended period 

of time, I finished the process with an improved product and a better 

attitude. 

As a college English teacher for twenty years, I have watched students 

write papers both ways. Those students who start early and work on an 

38

assignment incrementally, over an extended period of time, almost 

always submit improved finished products. 

You’ll find a thorough overview of procrastination (especially as it 

applies to writing research papers) in the following link to The Writing 

Center at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill: 

Overcoming Procrastination 

So, the real question is, ―How do I avoid procrastination when it comes 

to writing a research paper‖ Here are some of my time -management 

suggestions: 

‣ Start early! 

Starting early means starting the same day that the resear ch paper is 

assigned! Start by taking out your planner (paper or electronic) and 

scheduling thirty minutes each day to work on the assignment. You 

will have to increase the length of your daily work sessions as the 

due date gets closer, but at least you have made the research paper a 

priority by placing it on your schedule and working on it 

incrementally, over time, rather than all at once a few days before 

it’s due. 

‣ Talk with your instructor one-on-one about the assignment 

within a few days after the assignment has been introduced in 

class. 

Bring possible essay topics, questions about potential resources, and 

other concerns into this conversation. I would even ask for a sample 

paper so that you have a clearer idea of what the finished product 

39

should look like before you begin researching and writing. In any 

case, show your instructor that you’ve begun to seriously consider 

your responsibilities as a thinker and a writer. 

‣ Visit with a reference librarian early on (within the first week 

after your conversation with your instructor). 

Begin locating potential research resources for your paper. Libraries 

are becoming more and more complex, and reference librarians are 

excellent guides ready to help you begin the process of locating 

quality research materials. 

‣ Meet with a tutor early on to talk about a schedule for getting 

extra help with the entire process of writing the research paper — 

from beginning to end. 

At LCCC, English tutors in the Student Success Center handle 

ongoing and drop-in appointments. The Student Success Center is 

located in Room 328 of the Community College Center, and the 

phone number is 778-4315. 

‣ Divide the task into its component parts, and establish a timeline 

for completing the outline, rough draft, revised draft, and final 

draft. 


In short, procrastination usually leads to failure. If you are a 

procrastinator, figure out why, and then take the steps necessary to 

40

correct the problem by creating good time-management techniques. 

Here’s a little comic relief from YouTube on the subject of 

procrastination: 

How to Procrastinate Like a Pro 

41

Step 5: 

Select Your Topic 

Students struggling to find workable topics are stressed-out students! I 

felt this stress firsthand as a student, and I’ve witnessed it as an 

English instructor. I remember feeling, as a student, the tension 

literally leaving my body when I finally honed in on an inter esting, 

acceptable, manageable topic. As an instructor, I’ve watched a student’s 

facial expression soften the moment he or she finds a focus for a paper. 

After giving you some suggestions for selecting a research paper topic, 

I will share with you others’ recommendations. 

1. Determine if the research paper topic is the instructor’s 

choice, your choice, or a combination of the two. 

In some rare cases, the research paper topic is exclusively the 

instructor ’s choice. If your English instructor requires you to 

42

esearch and then write about cloud imagery in William 

Wordsworth’s poem ―The Prelude,‖ then you have to suck it up, bite 

the bullet, research, and then write about cloud imagery in William 

Wordsworth’s ―The Prelude‖! Most instructors, especially English 

instructors, are not this rigid (ha ha). 

On the other end of the spectrum, the entire process, including your 

choice of the topic, belongs to you. This, too, is quite rare, but some 

instructors may believe that the actual experience of writing a 

research paper is more important than the topic you select. ―Lucky 

you,‖ as they say, if you are this fortunate. 

The most common scenario is a combination of both extremes where 

you can choose a topic with certain restrictions imposed by your 

instructor. For example, your Introduction to Sociology instructor 

may allow you to select a research paper topic that stems from a 

particular sociological theory covered in class. Your instructor may 

even limit your focus to a controversial sociological principle 

covered in your textbook. 

1. Select a topic that’s interesting to you. 

If the topic is your choice, even if it’s your choice within certain 

limits set by the instructor, choose a topic that fascinates you. By 

the same token, if it’s a topic dictated to you by the instruct or, find 

a way to become excited about it. 

All of my writing assignments allow students a good deal of freedom 

to select their own topics, with certain restrictions, so I always 

suggest that students focus on their interests. Especially with the 

societal problem research paper for English 1010, I often encourage 

43

students to select topics they have experienced directly or indirectly. 

Students get fired up and produce thoughtful, effective essays when 

they are writing about subjects that affect them and/or th eir loved 

ones. 

2. Select a focused topic. 

Rather than trying to write about the unfocused, broad topic of 

poverty in America, restrict it to a more manageable size, like the 

primary causes of poverty in America, or the primary effects of 

poverty in America, or the primary solutions to poverty in America. 

Focus, focus, focus! Write more about less! 

You have patiently read my suggestions (I hope!); now it’s time to 

consider what others are saying about selecting a topic. The Writing 

Center at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill covers topic 

selection in the following link: 

Understanding Assignments, from the Writing Center at the University 

of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 

The Writing Center at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, provides 

some excellent advice for selecting a topic in the following link: 

Discovering, Narrowing, and Focusing a Researchable Topic 


On the surface, it doesn’t seem that selecting a workable topic could be 

a big problem for students. However, topic selection is probably the 

most difficult early challenge students encounter when writing research 

papers. I am confident that you can lessen the anxiety that accompanies 

44

the process of selecting manageable topics if you implement my 

suggestions. 

45

Step 6: 

Locate, Evaluate, and 

Summarize Your Research 

Sources 

As an avid river runner, I’ve come to realize the importance of 

selecting the best equipment for my next journey. My safety and overall 

enjoyment depend on my having located the proper gear I can rely on in 

all types of weather and river conditions. The same is true with 

research papers: writers must locate and evaluate the best available 

information (research) and then use it appropriately in their personal, 

academic, and professional writing assignments. This step, li ke the 

previous steps, includes my own advice combined with other experts’ 

suggestions for carefully locating, evaluating, and summarizing your 

research. 

46

Locating Quality Research 

My advice is simple: work closely with a reference librarian to develop 

a process for locating the best quality sources for your research paper, 

especially if it’s your first college-level research paper assignment. I 

almost always work with a reference librarian to locate research after 

I’ve searched on my own. It’s amazing how these helpful professionals 

locate the critical source that I, for one reason or another, cannot find. 

If you are a registered LCCC student, you can work with a reference 

librarian in the following three ways: 

1. Face to face by going to the information sign at LCCC’s Ludden 

Library or by making an appointment 

2. Over the phone by calling 307-778-1206 

3. Online by e-mailing a reference librarian at libref@lccc.wy.edu or 

through your online class 

LCCC Reference Librarian Meghan Kelly recommends that students use 

the steps in a Pathfinder guide to locate research sources. A Pathfinder 

guide provides a simple, yet thorough process for locating a wide 

variety of quality sources for any topic. View the following video clip 

where Meghan explains the Pathfinder, and then read the subsequent 

Pathfinder she has developed for an analysis of poverty in America. 

47

Using a Pathfinder to Locate Sources on Poverty 

This Pathfinder guide will direct a student who is writing a research 

paper to a variety of sources on poverty. Poverty is a general subject 

generating resources in many places and formats. General sources and 

brief explanations of these sources are listed in each upcoming section, 

so that students working with other research topics can use the same 

process. 

Internet Sources 

The easiest way to find appropriate internet sources is to use an 

internet directory. These directories, or websites, are a special type of 

search engine. The resources in these directories have been pre -selected 

and screened by librarians or other experts. If you choose to use a 

48

general search engine such as Google, please consider at least the 

following criteria when selecting your sources: 

1. Who is the author, and does he or she possess credentials 

in the area you are researching 

2. When was the information posted 

3. Who is sponsoring the site and why 

Directories 

Internet Public Library 

―The Internet Public Library is a public service organization and a 

learning/teaching environment founded at the University of Michigan School 

of Information and hosted by Drexel University's College of Information 

Science & Technology.‖ The IPL contains over 45,000 links to resources 

which are reviewed individually by Library Science graduate students. It is 

keyword searchable and organized by subject for browsing. 

Librarians' Internet Index 

This directory contains over 20,000 entries for internet sites, maintained by 

librarians and organized into fourteen main topics and nearly 300 related 

topics. Keyword search and browse options are available. All of the sites in 

this directory contain free information. 

Infomine 

―INFOMINE is a virtual library of Internet resources relevant to faculty, 

students, and research staff at the university level. It contains useful Internet 

resources such as databases, electronic journals, electronic books, bullet in 

49

oards, mailing lists, online library card catalogs, articles, directories of 

researchers, and many other types of information.‖ 

General Sources 

The 2008 Statistical Abstract: The National Data Book 

“The Statistical Abstract of the United States , published since 1878, is the 

authoritative and comprehensive summary of statistics on the social, 

political, and economic organization of the United States. Use the Abstract as 

a convenient volume for statistical reference and as a guide to sources of 

more information both in print and on the Web. Sources of data include the 

Census Bureau, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bureau of Economic Analysis, and 

many other federal agencies and private organizations. ‖ This resource is 

available online and in print. 

Infoplease: All the Knowledge You Need 

This resource contains the online versions of the Time Almanac, the Columbia 

Encyclopedia, a dictionary, and a thesaurus. Each so urce can be searched 

individually or the site can be searched. You will find statistical tables and 

short articles here. 

Sources on Poverty 

National Poverty Center 

―The National Poverty Center (NPC) was established in the fall of 2002 as a 

university-based, nonpartisan research center. We conduct and promote 

multidisciplinary, policy-relevant research on the causes and consequences of 

poverty.‖ Research and conference proceedings are available from this site, 

free of charge. 

Institute for Research on Poverty 

50

―IRP is a center for interdisciplinary research into the causes and 

consequences of poverty and social inequality in the United States. It is based 

at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. As one of three Area Poverty 

Research Centers sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services, it has a particular interest in poverty and family welfare in the 

Midwest.‖ 

National Center for Children in Poverty 

―The National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP) is the nation’s leading 

public policy center dedicated to promoting the economic security, health, 

and well-being of America’s low-income families and children. NCCP uses 

research to inform policy and practice with the goal of ensuring positive 

outcomes for the next generation.‖ 

Subscription Resources 

All academic libraries subscribe to online journal databases and/or reference 

databases. These databases primarily contain magaz ine and journal articles 

first published in print, on paper. Database publishers collect these articles, 

format them electronically, and sell subscriptions to educational institutions. 

Any of these databases may cover a range of general topics or limit th eir 

focuses to specific fields or subjects. They may contain full -text articles, 

citations and abstracts, articles from reference sources, and a variety of 

media items. For example, LCCC subscribes to both journal and reference 

databases. The license agreements for these subscriptions only allow offcampus 

access to students and employees of the college. You will find the 

four most relevant databases for a paper on poverty, selected from LCCC’s 

approximately 80 subscriptions, listed below. 

Reference Databases 

Oxford Reference Online 

51

This resource contains ―dictionary, language reference, and subject reference 

works published by Oxford University Press.‖ Many of the entries are short 

definitions, but some of the reference works, such as The Oxford Companion 

to United States History, contain in-depth articles supported by useful 

bibliographies. 

Gale Virtual Reference Library (GVRL) 

This is another online collection that brings together many reference works 

covering a variety of subjects from a specific publisher, Gale. GVRL’s 

references to poverty appear with the following t opics: race and racism, 

human geography, sociology, social welfare history in North America , 

education, and U.S. economic history. 

Journal Databases 

Academic Search Premier (ASP) 

This is one of many databases published by EBSCO. ASP contains full -text 

articles and citations from a wide variety of scholarly publications. It is a 

good place to start, especially for students con sidering popular topics. An 

initial search on poverty reveals 35,084 articles or citations. You can limit 

this search to articles that are available through this database by marking the 

52

full text box on the search screen. 

EBSCO supplies a list of related terms with each set of search results. 

Clicking on one of these terms will limit the search further. Another way to 

limit the search is to add a keyword to each subtopic, to create a separate 

search: for example, ―poverty and history‖ or ―poverty and st atistics.‖ 

Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center 

This database includes mostly current and controversial topics. The interface 

may be slightly more user-friendly than many other databases. Poverty 

appears in the subject list on the front page and takes you directly to a list of 

opinion articles reprinted from the various book series published by Green 

Haven Press. Tabs across the tops of the page allow you to navigate to 

reference sources, journal articles, statistics, and primary sources. 

Depending on the topic and/or the specificity of the search, one or more of 

the tabs may be empty. Opposing Viewpoints provides links to subject terms 

and to broader, narrower, and related terms to assist you in your search. 

Print Sources 

53

In order to find print sources on poverty or any other topic, you will stop first 

at the library online catalog. A link to the catalog is generally prominently 

displayed on a library’s home page. Most online catalogs offer an advanced 

search which will limit your results to books or reference books. Subject 

terms used in a library catalog are found in the catalog record for individual 

books. This is a great place to look for keywords to use when refining your 

search. 

Some possible subject terms to use when looking for books on poverty in 

library catalogs are shown above. You can see that there are many terms 

used by libraries, assigned by the Library of Congress, which we might not 

consider using in a search without seeing them first in a catalog record. 

When choosing which books to use, consider the timeliness of your topic and 

how old the books you use may be. Expand your search to shared catalogs if 

necessary. For example, from the LCCC library you can expand your search 

54

to the University of Wyoming Library, or to all other libraries in Wyoming. 

You can request books at another library by visiti ng LCCC’s library website 

with your library card information or by contacting the other library directly. 

As you can see, the Pathfinder guide is both comprehensive and easy to use 

for virtually any research paper topic. Using this process, along with so me 

guidance from a reference librarian, you will find the very best sources for 

your research paper. 

Evaluating Your Sources 

All sources are not created equal, so it’s important to scrutinize your sources 

carefully, and use only the best information in your research papers. I have 

located two excellent websites that discuss the criteria you should use when 

evaluating potential sources. The first website, ―How to Evaluate the 

Information Sources You Find,‖ is from the ―Collections, Reference, 

Instruction, and Outreach (CRIO) Department at the Cornell University 

Library, located in Ithaca, New York, USA,‖ and it provides you with some 

tips for evaluating general research sources: 

General Research Evaluation 

The next website, ―Evaluating Web Pages: Techniques to Apply and Questions 

to Ask,‖ is from the University of California, Berkeley, and it focuses on 

scrutinizing web pages: 

Web Page Evaluation 

Taking Careful Notes 

You’ve located and evaluated your sources, and you now have a stack of 

excellent information in front of you, parts of which will be blended into 

your research paper. Your next task is to take careful notes from these 

sources. The key word is ―careful‖ because you need to incorporate the 

55

esearch without plagiarizing. The best explanation of note -taking that 

avoids plagiarism comes from Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab 

(OWL): 

Effective Note Taking 


As you can see, carefully locating, evaluating, and summarizing your sources 

are important tasks for writing solid research papers. If you follow the steps I 

have outlined, you will be ready for the next step: writing a rough draft. 

Good luck! 

56

Step 7: 

Review Basic Essay Structure 

You must know the basic components of a short essay before writing a 

research paper because the longer research paper is built squarely on a basic 

essay ―foundation.‖ 

I like to use a house-building analogy. The foundation of a house serves as a 

solid platform for the framework, floors, walls, ceilings, windows, doorways, 

and roof. Without a solid foundation, the house collapses. The same is true 

with a research paper. If a research paper lacks a solid foundation (a basic 

structure), the research paper (even though it may include excellent sources) 

collapses. 

After explaining the essential components of a short essay, I will provide you 

with a short essay—in MLA format—so that you can study one before writing 

one. 

57

The overall format of the essay includes an introduction, body paragraphs, 

and a conclusion. Here’s a visual representation of the short essay: 

Title 

The title is the first thing readers see, so it’s important to create an 

interesting one that draws your reader into the essay. The followi ng 

guidelines will help you to write great titles: 

‣ Invent a title that is enticing. 

If you are writing about the benefits of river running, avoid the bland title, 

―The Benefits of River Running.‖ Try something a little more interesting, 

like ―Floating Rivers to Feed a Hungry Soul‖ or ―Float Trips: Food for the 

Soul.‖ By the way, the title/subtitle method in the last example 

demonstrates your sophistication as a writer, and it’s also a great way to 

convey your essay’s central idea in a simple, straightfo rward way. 

‣ Design a title that actually conveys the topic of your essay to your 

reader. 

This may sound like a ―no-brainer,‖ but sometimes writers get so carried 

away with being clever, they forget to prepare the reader for the essay’s 

content. Here’s an example of a writer trying a little too hard: ―River 

Running, Soul Food, and the Existential Dilemma.‖ I applaud the writer ’s 

efforts, but I would suggest rewriting the title so that it’s both clever and 

clear, like ―Floats Trips: Food for the Soul‖ or ― Floating Rivers to Feed a 

Hungry Soul.‖ 

‣ Avoid the essay-is-due-in-a-minute-I-need-a-title panic! 

These last-minute titles are usually one or two words long (―Rivers‖ or 

―River Running‖), and they put your reader to sleep! 

58

‣ Study the titles you read each day, and create titles that use similar 

strategies. 

For example, I’m currently reading the book One Nation, Underprivileged, 

and I’m already thinking about the variety of titles that might evolve from 

this one. 

Introduction 

The first part of a short essay is the introduction, usually one paragraph, 

consisting of three parts: the lead-in, the thesis statement, and the essay map. 

The Lead-in 

Let’s start with the lead-in. The lead-in is the very first part of the 

introductory paragraph (usually one to si x sentences in a short essay) where 

you are trying to accomplish three specific goals: 

Rule 1: Capture your reader’s attention. 

Let’s talk about capturing your reader ’s attention. Think about the first 

minute of most television programs. If the viewer ’s interest is not sparked 

within the first minute, he or she will more than likely change the channel. 

59

The same is true for most readers; if you don’t catch the reader ’s attention at 

the beginning, he or she will move on to something else. 

Here are the top three ways to catch and hold the reader ’s attention in the 

lead-in to a short essay: 

Strategy 1: Write a lead-in that uses alarming statistical information. 

Statistical information gives your essay a serious tone, and it also shows your 

reader that you’ve done your homework. Here is one example of a lead -in that 

presents an alarming statistic: 

Strategy 2: Catch your reader’s attention with a story. 

Here’s a personal story about my belief in the importance of outdoor 

adventure: 

60

Strategy 3: Try using a quotation from a well-known person. 

Whether you agree or disagree with Lincoln’s quotation, the quotation will 

catch the attention of many readers because of what it says and who is saying 

it. 

Rule 2: Let your reader know the general subject matter of your 

essay. 

The second rule for writing a lead-in is to let your reader know the general 

subject matter of your essay. If you are writing about road rage, make sure 

that your lead-in has something to do with road rage (either directly or 

indirectly). Letting your reader know the general subject matter of the essay 

in the lead-in helps to set the stage for your essay. 

61

Notice how the following lead-in announces the general subject matter of the 

essay that is eventually introduced in the thesis statement (the main idea of 

essay) and the essay map (a preview of essay’s supporting points, shown in 

red below): 

Rule 3: Guide your reader gradually and smoothly into the thesis 

statement. 

The third and final rule for the lead-in has to do with gradually and smoothl y 

preparing your reader for the thesis statement and essay map. A red -carpet 

analogy illustrates this idea. The lead-in is the red carpet that you’ve rolled 

out for your reader, and it leads directly and smoothly to the thesis statement 

and essay map. 

62

Laying out the red carpet in the lead-in suggests that you care about your 

reader getting directly to the thesis statement and essay map without getting 

lost. Take a look at the outdoor adventure lead-in, and notice how it smoothly 

and logically leads the reader to the thesis statement and essay map. 

Additional strategies for writing lead-ins can be found at the Capital 

Community College website on writing: 

Capital Community College: Writing Lead-ins 

The Thesis Statement 

The second part of your introductory paragraph is the thesis statement. 

The thesis statement is the main idea of your essay. I like to use the following 

analogy to explain the importance of the thesis statement: Your heart is to 

your body as your thesis is to your essay. Without a heart, a body dies. 

Without a thesis, the essay dies. That’s a little dramatic, I know, but it 

underscores the importance of the thesis statement in any essay. 

Here are three basic rules for the thesis statement: 

Rule 1: Your thesis statement presents your opinion on a given topic. 

Your job as a writer in the thesis statement is to move beyond a safe 

and simple statement of fact like the following: 

It’s a fact that many people participate in river running activities like rafting 

and kayaking. Readers are looking for you to state your opinion in the thesis 

statement. Rewritten, the following thesis statements assert an opinion: 

63

This thesis statement is definitely an opinion because the reader can eit her 

agree or disagree with the thesis statement. 

Rule 2: Your thesis statement should be focused. 

Have you ever heard the expression, ―Don’t bite off more than you can 

chew‖ The same is true with essay writing: do not take on more than you can 

fully and adequately cover in the space of a few pages when you’re writing a 

short essay. Generally speaking, it’s better to cover less ground using more 

detail than it is to cover more ground superficially. 

Let’s use the river running thesis as an example. Rather than trying to cover 

multiple aspects of river running (e.g., trip planning, safety, and the technical 

aspects of running a rapid), the thesis focuses on one aspect of river running 

(life-long lessons). 

Rule 3: Your thesis statement should be located in the introductory 

paragraph after the lead-in but before the essay map. 

We’ll talk about the essay map next, but think first about sandwiching your 

thesis (the meat) between two slices of bread (the lead -in is the top slice and 

the essay map is the bottom slice). Remember that your thesis statement is 

the most-important part of the essay, so it should stand out clearly. 

Here are three links that give you additional information about the thesis 

statement: 

Writing Center, UNC, Chapel Hill 

Purdue University, OWL 

The Essay Map 

Let’s cover the essay map. The essay map is the last part of the 

introductory paragraph, and its purpose i s to preview the points that 

64

you will develop in support of your thesis. I want to give you another 

television analogy to explain the essay map. I’m a big fan of 60 

Minutes. In the first minute or so of 60 Minutes, I’m able to see what 

three segments will be covered on the show that evening. This oneminute 

segment at the beginning of the show serves as both an 

attention-grabber and a preview of what will appear on the show. 

Again, take a look at the sample introduction paragraph about outdoor 

adventure, and notice that the last sentence (the essay map) previews 

the essay’s supporting points: 

The essay map clearly indicates that the body of the essay will cover 

the following three points in this particular order: 

65

1. Self-confidence 

2. Problem-solving skills 

3. Appreciation for everyday comforts 

The Body Paragraphs 

Body paragraphs have one function: to support the thesis statement. 

There are three specific concepts to keep in mind when writing your 

body paragraphs: 

Each body paragraph should provide plenty of infor mation 

(primarily explanations, examples, and facts). By the end of 

the paragraph, the reader should feel as though he or she has 

acquired enough information to fully understand the paragraph’s 

central idea. 

Each body paragraph should be limited to a single idea 

rather than trying to cover two or more main ideas in one 

paragraph. If your paragraph promises to focus on how river 

running teaches self-confidence, avoid discussing how river 

running leads to better problem-solving skills in that same 

paragraph. 

Each paragraph should include a general topic sentence that 

tells the reader the focus of that particular paragraph. Place 

the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph in most 

instances because readers generally want to know what they are 

getting into. 

66

Here’s an example of a topic sentence that clearly indicates the subject 

of a body paragraph: 

The sentences in each body paragraph should be arranged carefully and 

logically to create a smooth flow of information within the paragraph. 

I often use a food analogy to explain this concept. Think about the 

layers of ingredients that go into a typical pan of lasagna. Depending 

on the particular recipe, lasagna is made by carefully layering pasta, 

cheese, meat, and tomato sauce in a baking dish. Th e same is true with 

paragraph development: good paragraphs are created by a careful and 

deliberate placement of sentences in a particular order. 

The most common pattern of development is deductive order. This is 

when you begin with a general topic sentenc e at the beginning of the 

paragraph and follow it with more specific explanations and examples 

in the remainder of the paragraph. Here’s an example: 

67

Notice how the sentences flow smoothly and logically from the general 

topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph to the more specific 

explanations and examples in the remainder of the paragraph. I’ve 

tried to create a smooth flow of information for the reader. 

I suggest that you review all of your body paragraphs according to the 

previous three guidelines before submitting an essay to your instructor. 

The Conclusion 

In the conclusion, the last paragraph in the essay, you are trying to 

accomplish two specific tasks: 

68

Let’s start with summarizing your thesis statement and supporting 

points. Your goal is to make the information as clear as possible, so I 

recommend a brief, straightforward summary of the thesis statement 

and essay map items at the beginning of the conclusion. Here’s a brief 

restatement of my thesis and essay map for river running: 

The second and final part of the conclusion involves leaving your 

reader with something to think about. This could be a call to action 

where you are encouraging your reader to do something specific as a 

result of reading the essay. It could also be a predic tion of what’s to 

come if action is not taken. It could also be a quotation from a well - 

69

known authority, or it could be a reminder of the story or anecdote used 

in the lead-in. 

I’ll end my conclusion with a call to action: 


The research paper is built on a basic-essay foundation. If you take 

some time to study the basics of the short essay and then write a few 

practice essays, you will be ready to tackle the longer, more complex 

task of writing a research paper. 

70

Sample Short Essay 

Leif Swanson 

Instructor Schwingendorf 

English 1010-01 

1 October 2008 

River Running: Food for the Soul 

I know from firsthand experience that river running feeds 

the soul. From 1985 to 1990, I guided whitewater rafting 

trips on the Colorado and Roaring Fork rivers near Glenwood 

Springs, Colorado. I led approximately four-hundred trips 

and logged over 5,000 river miles. In 1993, I rowed a small 

group of friends and family down one of the most intense 

whitewater runs in the United States—the Grand Canyon. In 

the mid-1990s, I developed and taught whitewater rafting and 

kayaking courses for Laramie County Community College’s 

Physical Education Department. River running provides many 

important life-long lessons. From these experiences I have 

learned that river running teaches self-confidence, problemsolving 

skills, and an appreciation for our everyday comforts 

we all too often take for granted. 

River running teaches self-confidence. Self-confidence 

includes, but is not limited to, a firm belief in one’s strengths 

71

and abilities. For example, I learned much of my selfconfidence 

as a young man when I guided whitewater rafting 

trips on the Colorado and Roaring Fork Rivers. As a guide, I 

was ultimately responsible for quickly training and then 

leading a group of paddlers on a whitewater rafting trip. I 

developed a degree of self-confidence that helped me to 

survive the challenges of college, work, and life in general. 

As a guide, I enjoyed witnessing a crew member ’s selfconfidence 

grow in a matter of a few hours on the river. 

Without a doubt, river running teaches self-confidence, 

necessary for success in any career. 

River running helps to build one’s problem-solving skills. 

Most well-planned river trips involve few real problems; 

however, an occasional safety situation arises that needs to be 

addressed. For example, I remember a whitewater rafting trip 

when I got off line in a major rapid and lost one of two large 

oars just seconds before descending into a half-mile stretch of 

continuous and intense whitewater on the Colorado River. 

Losing an oar before a major rapid is like a bird losing the use 

of its wing in mid-air: the problem needs to be solved 

quickly! I had to quickly and calmly instruct my crew to use 

their much smaller and less effective paddles to help navigate 

the first part of the rapid while I unstrapped the spare oar and 

slid it into the oarlock and regained control of the boat. This 

is just one of many examples where I needed to solve 

problems very quickly on a river-running adventure. All of 

these experiences have contributed to my development of the 

72

problem-solving skills I use in my personal and professional 

endeavors. 

River running develops an appreciation for the everyday 

comforts we all too often take for granted. It’s human nature 

to take for granted the things that make our lives 

comfortable—electricity, plumbing, a house with a soft bed, 

to name a few, and there’s nothing like roughing it to make us 

appreciate these modern amenities. Our crew of five went 

without any modern amenities for two weeks when we floated 

the Colorado River 235 river miles down the Grand Canyon. 

We slept on thin sleeping pads, bathed in the silty Colorado 

River, and went to the bathroom in ammo cans that we carried 

with us for the entire trip. I would not trade that trip for 

anything, but I have to admit that a hot shower, a cold beer, a 

home-cooked meal, and a deep sleep in my own bed were 

wonderful experiences at the end of the trip! Without a doubt, 

river running gave us a whole new appr eciation for modern 

conveniences. 

My firsthand experiences on western rivers lead me to 

believe that river running teaches self-confidence, problemsolving 

skills, and an appreciation for our everyday comforts 

we all too often take for granted. I enc ourage everyone to 

strap on a life jacket, grab a paddle, and float a river. You’ll 

be amazed at the benefits. 

73

Step 8: 

Write the Rough Draft 

An experienced river runner ―scouts‖ unfamiliar rapids to identify the 

safest, most thrilling ―line‖ through the turbulence. However, at some 

point the scouting must come to an end, and the rapids must be run. 

The same is true with writing a research paper. You can, and should, 

spend a lot of time preparing to write; however, at some point the 

preparation must end, and the writing must begin. 

This step includes general advice about writing a rough draft, followed 

by specific suggestions for integrating research into your papers and 

documenting your sources. 

Suggestion 1: Start early, and work incrementally over an 

extended period of time. 

74

Begin writing several weeks before the paper is due, and try to write at 

least two or three paragraphs a day. It’s best to break the much larger 

task of writing a research paper into its component parts and chip away 

at it paragraph by paragraph. 

Suggestion 2: Create a simple outline before you begin writing. 

Don’t worry about the cumbersome outline with Roman numerals and a 

confusing sub-heading system. Limit your outline to your central idea 

in one sentence at the top (tentative thesis statement), with your 

supporting points listed below. It should be simple enough for you to 

use while writing your rough draft, and it should be easy for others to 

read and understand. 

Suggestion 3: Remember the essay basics as you write. 

Don’t forget that a longer research paper includes an introduction 

comprised of a lead-in, a thesis statement, and an essay map; body 

paragraphs using topic sentences, full development, u nity, and 

coherence; and a two-part conclusion not only summarizing your 

supporting points but also emphasizing your message with an effective 

concluding strategy. Study Step 7: Review Basic Essay 

Structure before, during, and after writing your rough draft. 

Strategy 4: Temporarily lower your standards as you write the 

rough draft. 

All too often, we expect finished-draft quality from our rough drafts. 

Rough drafts are named ―rough‖ for a good reason. If you lower your 

expectations early on, and silence your inner critic, your words will 

flow onto the page. Remember, there will be plenty of opportunities for 

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evising your rough draft, but you can’t revise what you haven’t 

written. 

Strategy 5: Avoid logical fallacies. 

As writers, we strive to be logical, reasonable, and ultimately 

persuasive. However, when we sometimes succumb to our emotions, our 

biases, our writing becomes illogical, unreasonable, and unconvincing. 

The following link to the University of North Carolina’s Writing Center 

defines logical fallacies and then explains how to avoid them in your 

writing: 

Logical Fallacies 

In addition to identifying logical fallacies, we must also consider how 

writers construct solid arguments in their research papers. Study the 

following link to the University of North Carolina Writing Center that 

explains creating solid arguments: 

Constructing Solid Arguments 

Most instructors require students to use either Modern Language 

Association (MLA) or American Psychological Association (APA) 

documentation guidelines. The following links to Purdue University’s 

Online Writing Lab (OWL) fully explain MLA and APA documentation 

guidelines: 

MLA Formatting, In-text Citations, and the Works Cited page 

APA Formatting, In-text Citations, and Reference List 


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In conclusion, writing a rough draft is manageable if you start early, 

work on the draft incrementally, and follow the suggestions outlined in 

this step. Good luck! 

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Step 9: 

Revise the Rough Draft 

Congratulations! You have managed to get through the rough draft. 

Now it’s time to revise your paper. One of my professors once said, 

―Good writing is writing that has been rewritten.‖ I agree, and I would 

add a few words to the end of his sentence: ―Good writing is writing 

that has been rewritten several times!” After giving you needed general 

advice, I will show you what other experts have to say about revision. 

The first piece of general advice is to find some distance from the 

rough draft. Take off a day or two from writing, and then review your 

draft with ―fresh eyes.‖ You will be amazed at how you begin to clearly 

see what needs to be rewritten. 

After you return from your brief writing break, focus on the “big 

picture” by revising the content and organization of your paper. ―Big - 

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picture‖ revision includes adding and/or deleting information; it also 

involves reorganizing passages, if necessary. For example, you want to 

make sure that your body paragraphs follow the or der of the topics in 

your essay map. All content-and-organization revision depends on the 

needs of your reader. Always ask yourself if the writing will be clear to 

the reader. 

After you have completed any major changes in structure and content, 

shift your attention to sentence-level issues, which include proper 

punctuation, grammar, usage, and documentation. 

Rewriting also depends on quality feedback from a variety of people. 

More than likely, all kinds of questions (regarding outside sources, 

paragraph topics, word choices and so forth) will arise along the way. 

Bring your specific questions to your instructor, classmates, tutors , and 

friends. Seek out these people at all stages of the writing process, 

especially while revising your writing. 

Study the following link from Purdue University’s OWL for advice 

about revision: 

Revision 


Rewriting is central to the process of writing a solid research paper. 

Revise the content and organization concerns first, and then focus on 

the sentence-level issues at the very end of the process. Seek help from 

others throughout the process of writing a research paper. 

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Step 10: 

Reflect on Your 

Writing Process 

At the end of most river trips, I find myself thinking about how to 

improve the next trip down the river. Whether I focus on a better 

paddling technique or a new piece of equipment, I’m always thinking 

about improving the overall experience. The same is true with writing: 

many times when I finish a piece of writing, I find myself thinking 

about how I can improve my writing process. This step is designed to 

help you focus on identifying and improving your own writing process. 

The very first thing that I recommend is an honest assessment of your 

strengths. Create a specific list of methods that you felt succeeded. For 

example, when I think about the experience of writing this e -book, my 

list of positives includes the following: 

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1. I started early and worked incrementally. 

2. I asked for and received help from a few key people while 

writing and revising the manuscript. 

3. At key times along the way, I managed to find some 

distance from my writing. 

After listing your strengths, honestly assess your weaknesses. 

Admitting one’s weaknesses can be difficult; however, it’s the all - 

important first step toward self-improvement of any kind. For example, 

I’ve identified three key weaknesses while writing this book: 

1. Regular routines are important to me, and I was unable to 

maintain a consistent time for daily writing. 

2. I found myself procrastinating frequently, and this led to 

unnecessary stress along the way. 

3. I was unable to silence my inner critic and lower my 

expectations with the first draft, which led to 

procrastination, stress, and anxiety. 

The third and final part of this step involves making a specific plan for 

improvement. My list includes the following three items: 

1. Create a regular reading and writing ritual, which 

includes a specific time and place for work. 

2. Lower my standards with the first draft in order to avoid 

procrastination, which leads to stress and anxiety. 

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3. Schedule regular breaks when I can truly distance myself 

from the writing and come back refreshed. 


I recommend creating this three-part list every time you complete a 

formal writing assignment. Also, I would refer to these items before, 

during, and after tackling your next writing task. Learn from your 

mistakes, but also celebrate your successes. 

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Best Websites on 

College-Level Writing 

Study the following websites and their suggestions about college -level 

writing: 

The OWL at Purdue 

UNC Writing Center 

Capital Community College–Online Resources for Writers 

The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin 

St. Cloud State Literary Education Online 

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LCCC Instructors 

Discuss the 

College Research Paper 

The following LCCC English instructors share their suggestions for 

writing college-level research papers: 

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86 

’

About the Author 

Leif Swanson was born and raised in Sioux 

City, Iowa. After graduating from high 

school in 1983, he attended Kirkwood 

Community College in Cedar Rapids, 

Iowa, where he earned an Associate of Arts 

degree in 1985; he completed a Bachelor 

of Arts degree in English at the University 

of Northern Iowa in Cedar Falls in 1987. 

He finished his Master of Arts degree at 

the University of Northern Colorado in 

1990. 

Leif started teaching English at LCCC in 1990. His primary classes are 

English 1010, English 1020, and Writing Your Life. He has also taught 

American Literature I and II, Business Communication, Whitewater 

Rafting, and Whitewater Kayaking. He earned the Teaching Excellence 

Faculty Achievement Award in 1996 and 2006. 

Leif is married to Lyndee, who is a third-grade teacher at Anderson 

Elementary School in Cheyenne, Wyoming. They have two children, 

Bethany and Jordan, and four dogs—Jasper, Kirby, Louie, and Roscoe. 

Leif enjoys teaching, reading, writing, and numerous outdoor activities, 

including camping, hiking, cycling, and river-running. 

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