Research Papers Simplified - Laramie County Community College

Research Papers Simplified:
A Step-by-Step Approach
Leif Swanson
English Instructor
Laramie County Community College
Spring 2009
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Simplify, simplify.
— Henry David Thoreau
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Copyright, Terms of Use and Feedback
Copyright ©2008 Leif Swanson, All Rights Reserved.
Instructors and students have permission to use the
materials in this book free of charge; however, materials
may not be altered, sold, or posted on a different server.
Please e-mail me at lswanson@lccc.wy.edu with any questions,
comments, or ideas for improving later editions of Research
Papers Simplified: A Step-by-Step Approach.
3

An Introduction for
Students and Teachers
I’ll never forget the semester when I discovered how the written word
could literally change a person’s life. I was an undergraduate at the
University of Northern Iowa majoring in English, and Dr. Ted Hovet, a
truly inspirational English professor, assigned Henry David Thoreau’s
Walden in an American literature course at UNI. After reading the first
few pages, I felt inspired by the strength of Thoreau’s writing,
especially when he so clearly and convincingly explained the beauty of
living a simple life: ―Simplicity, simplicity, simplicity! I say, let your
affairs be as two or three, and not a hundred or a thousand; instead of a
million count half a dozen, and keep your accounts on your thumb -
nail.‖
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I have read Walden several times since, and each time I recommit to a
relatively simpler and ultimately more meaningful life —both personally
and professionally. Research Papers Simplified: A Step-by-
Step Approach is my attempt to guide students through the process
of writing a research paper—from beginning to end—in the simplest,
most direct way possible. The process for writing a research paper is
divided into ten manageable steps.
Step 1: Defining the Research Paper provides students with
two relatively brief definitions of the research paper.
Step 2: Study a Completed Research Paper Before You
Begin allows you to see finished research papers, written according to
MLA and American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines, before
you begin the process of writing a research paper. Seeing a finished
research paper early on in the process usually reduces students’ anxiety
when they approach a research paper assignment.
Step 3: Discover the Benefits of Learning to Write
Research Papers discusses how the research paper assignment is
perhaps the best preparation for success in your personal, academic,
and professional endeavors.
Several LCCC graduates explain, at the conclusion of Step 3, how
they are using their writing skills to survive and thrive in their chosen
professions. I think you will find their stories informative and
inspirational.
5

Step 4: Create a Schedule for Research and Writing
helps you develop practical time-management skills, in order to avoid
the number-one problem with writing research papers: procrastination!
Step 5: Select Your Topic outlines the process of selecting and
refining a research paper topic. For some students, this stage of the
process is particularly difficult, so this step is designed for those
students who need a little extra help focusing their topics before they
begin writing their rough drafts.
Step 6: Locate, Evaluate, and Summarize Your
Research Sources gives you simple advice for finding and
analyzing research materials. This step will also cover some simple
note-taking strategies for avoiding plagiarism when it’s time to blend
research into your rough draft.
Step 7: Review Basic Essay Structure briefly describes the
individual components of a short essay. The short essay is the structural
building block for a research paper. A sample short essay —written
according to Modern Language Association (MLA) guidelines —is
provided, so you can see what a finished product looks like.
Step 8: Write the Rough Draft shows you how to blend
research into the paper, avoid common logical fallacies, and develop
strategies for acknowledging and refuting the opposition.
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Step 9: Revise the Rough Draft discusses a specific plan for
rewriting the research paper to improve its overall content,
organization, and sentence-level clarity. Sentence-level clarity
includes, but is not limited to, grammar, punctuation, and proper MLA
and APA documentation.
Step 10: Perfect Your Writing Process for the Next
Research Paper gives you a chance to identify the strengths and
correct the weaknesses of your research paper writing process.
Throughout the book, you will find links to websites containing free
information about improving your writing skills in general and your
research paper writing skills in particular.
It’s important to note that Research Papers Simplified: A Stepby-Step
Approach reflects the teaching philosophy I have developed
over two decades of teaching freshman composition—first as a teaching
assistant at the University of Northern Colorado from 1988-1990 and
then as a full-time English instructor at LCCC since 1990. This book
does not reflect the wonderfully diverse and effective approaches other
LCCC instructors have used to teach research paper writing to
thousands of LCCC students over the years.
My hope is that this book becomes a simple and useful resource as you
strive to improve your research paper writing skills necessary for
success in your personal, academic, and professional endeavors.
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Acknowledgements
There are many people I need to thank; I would not have written this
book without them. I would like to thank Arts and Humanities Dean Dr.
Howard Major for his wisdom, guidance, and encouragement. Thanks
also go to Vice President of Instruction Dr. Marlene Tignor, LCCC
President Darrel Hammon and the LCCC Board of Trustees for
approving my sabbatical so that I could write this e-book.
Many thanks to the following ten LCCC graduates who gave generously
of their time to share their stories of how they use writing in their
professions: Ashley Arneson, John Balser, Chris Black, Marty Carroll,
Bill Keenan, Amy Krahenbuhl, Jim Massengill, Kelly Ruiz, Roger Van
Alyne, and Dave Zwonitzer.
I am indebted to the following LCCC English faculty who willingly set
aside stacks of papers at the end of the spring 2008 se mester and
graciously agreed to be videotaped for this book: Randy Fetzer, Mary
Hart, Liz Jackson, Damien Kortum, Pat Landy, Phyllis Prawl, Arshi
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Rizwani-Nisley, Liz Skrabacz, and Dave Zwonitzer. I am proud to be a
member of this outstanding group of colleagues.
Thanks to Debbie Major, LCCC’s Director of Distributed
Learning/Outreach Center, for providing her vision, support , and
encouragement.
I want to thank LCCC’s Director of Public Relations Lisa Murphy and
her staff, for their support. I especial ly want to thank Promotions and
Video Productions Specialist Josh Thein for his exceptional video
editing. Thanks also to LCCC Public Relations’ summer intern Preston
Cox for his superb web page design.
I also want to thank Michael Walters, LCCC’s Vice Pr esident of
Instructional Technology, for his support. Sherry Winters, LCCC’s
Telecourse/Telecommunications Specialist, devoted numerous hours to
videotaping LCCC graduates, faculty, and staff, and I greatly appreciate
her help. Thanks also to Don Myers, LCCC’s Distance Learning/Audio
Visual Technician, for helping Sherry with the videotaping.
LCCC Librarian Meghan Kelly deserves a tremendous amount of credit
for helping me throughout the project. She not only provided me with
excellent research sources for the e-book, she did an outstanding job
writing the Pathfinder guide.
I also want to recognize Mass Media/Multimedia Instructor Roz
Schliske for her help in locating LCCC graduates who were willing to
share their stories.
LCCC Computer Information Systems Instructor Leah Noonan worked
her magic and created a sleek Microsoft Word document out of my plain
manuscript. Thanks, Leah!
Thanks also to my wife, Lyndee, and our children, Bethany and Jordan.
They gave me the time, space, and encouragement I needed t o be
creative. I hope that I can return the favor some day.
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Last, but certainly not least, I am especially grateful to Jim Weis for
the countless hours he devoted to editing my manuscript and
encouraging me along the way. He has significantly shaped my ide as
about writing, teaching, and life in general. Thanks, Jim.
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Table of Contents
An Introduction For Students And Teachers 4
Acknowledgements 8
Table Of Contents 11
Step 1: Defining The Research Paper 13
Step 2: Study A Completed Research Paper Before You Begin Writing
One 18
Step 3: Discover The Benefits Of Learning To Write Research Papers 21
Step 4: Create A Schedule For Research And Writing 38
Step 5: Select Your Topic 42
Step 6: Locate, Evaluate, And Summarize Your Research Sources 46
Step 7: Review Basic Essay Structure 57
Step 8: Write The Rough Draft 74
Step 9: Revise The Rough Draft 78
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Step 10: Reflect On Your Writing Process 80
Best Websites On College-Level Writing 83
LCCC Instructors Discuss The College Research Paper 84
About The Author 89
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Step 1:
Defining the Research Paper
Regardless of the subject one is studying, a clear definition is more
often than not a necessary starting point, and the research paper
assignment is no exception. I have provided two definitions, one I have
developed and one other from the Capital Community College website.
Both definitions discuss the process of writing a research paper and the
finished product.
Here is my relatively simple, four-part definition of the research paper
that I have used for years at LCCC:
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I can explain my definition in more detail by breaking it down into its
four components.
The research paper is an essay consisting of an introduction,
body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
This is the first and often most comforting part of the definition . I want
students, especially students who are nervous about this assignment, to
realize that the research paper is essentially a basic essay with research
blended into it. The individual components of a short essay are
explained in Step 7: Review Basic Essay Structure.
I’ve always told students that if they can write a short essay without
research, and all of them can by the time we get to the research paper
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assignment in freshman composition (English 1010) , then writing the
research paper is the next logical step.
Granted, writing a research paper requires a lot more work than a short
essay without research; however, knowing the basic essay structure
makes the job much easier. This realization often reduces some of the
stress students experience with this assignment.
Let’s move on to the second part of my definition:
The research paper uses the best information (research) from a
variety of sources—print, electronic, and other—to explain and
support the thesis statement. Just like serious professional athletes
who put the best food into their bodies for top performance, you will
want to use only the best information available in your research papers,
so that your papers ―perform‖ at the highest level possible. The thesis
statement is defined in Step 7: Review Basic Essay
Structure.
The research is clearly blended into the essay and properly
documented.
The writer uses written signals at the beginning and/or end of the
research material that clearly lead readers to the source listed at the end
of the research paper. The most common types of documentation are
MLA and APA; however, other styles are often required . Step 8:
Write the Rough Draft explains the process for blending
researched material into the essay.
Here’s the final part of the definition:
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The research paper displays the writer’s use of critical thinking
skills.
Critical thinking skills include, among other things, logic and careful
analysis; critical thinking also includes acknowledging and refuting
opposing points of view. Critical thinking is explained in Step 3:
Discover the Benefits of Learning to Write Research
Papers. The process of acknowledging and refuting opposing points
of view is explained in Step 8: Write the Rough Draft.
My definition is only one among many, so take some time to study the
definitions from the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (MLA
Handbook), the Publication Manual of the American Psychol ogical
Association (APA handbook), and the upcoming definition from the
Hartford, Connecticut, Capital Community College website. These
definitions further clarify my definition of a research paper.
Capital Community College provides students with a clear
definition from their website:
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Step 1 Summary
The comprehensive definition of a research paper discusses both the
process and the product. The process involves, among other tasks,
selecting a suitable topic; locating, evaluating and blending research;
and acknowledging and refuting the opposition. The finished product is
a fully developed, carefully organized, properly-documented research
paper. My hope is that this definition gives you a foundation for the
process of writing an excellent research paper.
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Step 2:
Study a Completed
Research Paper
Before You Begin
Writing One
Students breathe a sigh of relief when we study a sample research paper
in class before they begin writing one, so I’ve included several for you
to read. Seeing a finished research paper before you begin may reduce
your stress level. As you read these research papers, notice how they
use the following basic essay components, outlined on the next page
and explained in ―Step 7: Review Basic Essay Structure .‖
Sample MLA Paper on Cell Phones
Sample MLA Paper on Mountain Lions
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Sample APA Paper on Anorexia Nervosa
Sample APA Paper on Apes and Language
Sample MLA Paper on Teenage Pharming
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Step 2 Summary
Now that you have carefully studied a few completed research
papers, my hope is that your anxiety has lessened somewhat, and
that you are now ready to begin the process of writing your own
research paper. Seeing a finished research paper before you b egin
demonstrates that the research paper is built squarely on a basic
essay foundation. All of you should realize by now that you can
write a short essay, so the longer research paper is certainly within
your grasp. Right Right! This reminds me of a Zimb abwean
proverb: ―If you can walk you can dance, if you talk you can sing.‖
Get to work!
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Step 3:
Discover the Benefits of
Learning to
Write Research Papers
As a college teacher, I’ve always believed that it’s extremely important
to discuss with students how they will benefit from learning course
material. Most of this discussion, at the beginning of the semester,
encourages students to devote some of their limited time and energy to
learning the course material.
Therefore, the ultimate goal of this step is to show you that learning to
write a research paper is perhaps the most important preparation for
success in your personal, academic, and professional endeavors. I have
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assembled some of the best reasons for learning to write research
papers.
Reason 1: The research paper assignment develops your
critical thinking skills. Writer Ernest Hemingway once said that the
most-important tool for any writer, or any human being for that matter,
is a built-in crap detector. He was really talking about developing the
critical thinking skills to sort out the crappy information we are
bombarded with daily.
Critical thinking includes, but is not limited to, our ability to think
clearly and logically about the ideas and choices we encounter in our
daily lives.
‣ Which college should I attend
‣ What should I major in
‣ Should I buy Product A or Product B
‣ Should I take this job
‣ Should I date this person
‣ Should I marry the person I’m dating
‣ What’s best for my children and future generations
‣ Which political candidate should I vote for and why
‣ Should I continue to accept the values and beliefs of my parents
and my church
‣ What part(s) of our culture and other cultures do I admire and
why
‣ What part(s) of our culture and other cultures do I d islike and
why
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Without good critical thinking skills, we are too easily influenced by
others’ opinions. With good critical thinking skills, we become
independent and ultimately more content with ourselves and our
choices.
So, how will writing a research paper help to develop these allimportant
critical thinking skills The entire process of writing a
research paper—from beginning to end—requires logic, clear thinking,
and sound judgment.
Examine the following link about critical thinking:
The Critical Thinking Community
Reason 2: The research paper assignment prepares you
for college-level writing assignments.
A few decades ago, a movement called ―Writing Acro ss the Curriculum‖
emerged, and for college students it meant and still means tha t you can
expect to write in all academic disciplines—from math, science and
engineering, to art, education, and social sciences . Writing is no longer
just a requirement in English classes. This movement was designed to
use writing to help college students improve their critical-thinking,
problem-solving, and communication skills.
Bottom line, learning to write a research paper in freshman composition
will prepare you for the numerous writing assignments you will
encounter in other college-level classes.
For a more detailed discussion of Writing Across the Curriculum, g o to
Writing Across the Curriculum.
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Reason 3: The research paper assignment, and college
writing assignments in general, will help you to survive and
thrive in your career. Meet the following ten LCCC graduates who
discuss how they are using their writing skills in their chosen
professions. Their stories are informative and inspirational.
Ashley Arneson graduated from LCCC in 2006 with a degree in
Mass Media/Multimedia. She is the primary copy writer for Sierra
Trading Post’s Core Catalog, which has a yearly circulation of
approximately 60 million.
On any given day, Ashley is surrounded by all kinds of merchandise —
from sleeping bags, outdoor clothing and merino wool socks to jewelry
costing more than her rent! She writes descriptions of all the new
products—approximately 150 to 300 every three weeks—that appear in
Sierra Trading Post’s main catalog.
In addition to this important responsibility, she manages and designs
Sierra Trading Post’s quarterly company newsletter which is distributed
to over 700 employees in Cheyenne and Cody, Wyoming; Reno,
Nevada; and Meridian, Idaho. Needless to say, a lot is at stake for
Sierra Trading Post when Ashley sits down to write.
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John Balser graduated from LCCC in 1998 with a degree in Business
Administration. As President and CEO of Western Vista Federal Credit
Union in Cheyenne, Wyoming, John is responsible for the overall
operational, lending, and financial management of a credit union that
includes three branches, employs approximately forty people, and
controls $95,000,000 in assets.
John’s success and the financial health of his credit union require
various forms of clear, precise, persuasive writing. John writes
summaries and reports to the Board of Directors and federal regulators,
explanations of policies and procedures, employee evaluations, and
general correspondence (using traditional mail and e-mail). Most
recently, John authored the credit union’s investment policy.
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Chris Black graduated from LCCC in 1991 with an Associate of Arts
degree, and in 1993 she completed her Bachelor of Arts degree in
Elementary Education at the University of Wyoming. She has been an
elementary school teacher for Laramie County School District #1 for
fifteen years. She also owns and manages Kids World, a before-andafter-school
program for elementary students.
Writing is certainly one of Chris’s most important daily tasks. As a
teacher, she writes letters and notes to her students and their parents.
She writes memos to her colleagues and school administrators. She
maintains a classroom website, and she models good writing for her
students on an overhead projector.
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Chris has also tackled several major writing assignments, including a
handbook for parents, grant proposals, and suggested curriculum
changes. She is currently enrolled in an online master ’s degree program
through Walden University. She must write at least one essay per week,
and she frequently writes lengthy online postings for students and
instructors. Without a doubt, good teaching and learning are on the line
when Chris writes.
Dr. Mar tin Carroll graduated from LCCC in 1975 with an Associate
of Arts degree, and in 1977 he completed a Bachelor of Science degree
(with honors) from the University of Wyoming. He then earned a
Doctor of Optometry degree (Magna Cum Laude) from the Southern
California College of Optometry in 1981.
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For twenty-six years Dr. Carroll has been an optometrist at Cheyenne
Vision Clinic where he serves the vision needs of approximately 20,000
patients.
Writing is an integral part of his day-to-day duties. In addition to
technical charting in patient records, he writes letters and reports to
patients, staff, physicians, governmental entities, vendors, and lending
institutions. He has also written peer-reviewed scholarly articles for
professional journals in his field.
On a philosophical note, Dr. Carroll believes that ―words and phrases
give meaning and emotion to life.‖ He says it’s important to ―enjoy
language and the full use of it.‖ On a practical level, he believes that
students who are interested in any healthcare field should enhance their
writing skills by taking creative and technical writing classes in
college. Patient health and the smooth operation of one of Cheyenne’s
most-respected vision clinics are at stake when Dr. Carroll writes.
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Bill Keenan and Jim Massengill graduated from LCCC in 1994
with Associate of Science degrees in biology; they graduated from the
University of Wyoming in 1997 with Bachelor of Science degrees in
Pharmacy. Bill and Jim are pharmacists and co-owners of Hoy’s Drug
and Hoy’s Hospital Pharmacy in Cheyenne.
Bill and Jim oversee forty-five employees, serve approximately 10,000
customers each year, and manage an annual operating budget of 11
million dollars.
Bill and Jim write almost every day. They write memos and letters to
doctors, insurance companies, and their employees. They create
brochures, advertising copy, and occasional presentations to college
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classes and community groups. They believe in keeping their written
messages short, direct, and as simple as possible .
The primary purpose for their writing is to promote positive outcomes
for patients. According to Bill, ―We may not cure disease or save a life,
but we help our patients achieve an optimal outcome.‖ Time, money,
and, most importantly, a patient’s well-being are at stake when they
write.
Amy Krahenbuhl graduated from LCCC in 2003 with a degree in
nursing. She is currently employed as a registered nurse with Cheyenne
Radiology and MRI. Her primary responsibilities include general
patient care and assisting technologists and doctors in the Magnetic
Resonance Imaging/Computerized Tomography (MRI/CT) department .
Her job requires a lot of writing in the form of charting and
documenting medical procedures. According to Amy, documentation of
a procedure is the only hard evidence of what occurred during an exam,
and an improperly documented procedure can place the patient and
healthcare providers at risk.
Because of her excellent written communication skills, Amy was
selected to author a set of policies and procedures to protect the safety
and well-being of Cheyenne Radiology and MRI patients. Many of the
policies also help to keep Cheyenne Radiology and MRI compliant with
federally mandated Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) regulations. It is easy to see that the viability of Cheyenne
Radiology and MRI is on the line when Amy writes.
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Kelly Ruiz graduated from LCCC in 1997 with a degree in Mass
Media. She is the Public Information Officer for the State of
Wyoming’s Office of Homeland Security. Her primary responsibilities
include writing press releases, monitoring media activity, developing
agency publications, writing reports, developing annual conference
agendas, and responding to all media and public inquiries.
She writes speeches, talking papers, and public presentations . During a
crisis or disaster, her main responsibility is to disseminate emergency
information to Wyoming residents.
She also writes a major report to the Wyoming legislature every two
years. After gathering information from staff members, she compiles
the report into a cohesive, aesthetically pleasing document.
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Kelly authored a policy guide for the Wyoming Office of Homeland
Security’s Joint Operations Center. The Joint Information Center (JIC)
is a central location for media and the general public to access
information during a disaster. The policy guide contains contact
information, templates for press releases, and protocol for releasing
information. Without a doubt, the safety of Wyoming’s citizens is at
stake when Kelly writes.
Roger Van Alyne graduated from LCCC in 1980 with an Associate
of Applied Science degree in Engineering Technology. He then
completed his Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering from the
University of Wyoming in 1986. Roger completed his professional
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military education (Squadron Officers School, Air Command and Staff
College) at Air University.
Roger is the Deputy Public Works Director for the Washoe County,
Nevada Public Works Department where he oversees the day-to-day
operations of five major divisions. He also serves as the Contingency
and Domestic Plans Officer for the Nevada National Guard.
Even though Roger ’s educational background is in engineering, he
considers writing one of his most important tools for communicating
with a wide variety of audiences, including the Washoe County Board
of County Commissioners, other government agenci es, contractors,
consultants, vendors, and the general public.
According to Roger, ―The Board of County Commissioners makes
decisions based on our written reports, each decision directly impacting
our operations. The information in the staff reports must be clear and
easily understood and must support our recommendation for the desired
action.‖
Roger has completed several major writing assignments where time,
money, and safety were at stake. As a ―weekend warrior,‖ he has
written deployment plans to move personnel, heavy equipment, and
construction materials to Central America to construct a runway and a
cargo marshalling area.
As Deputy Public Works Director, Roger has authored several major
writing assignments, including, but not limited to, statewide em ergency
operations plans, departmental policy manuals, and staff reports for the
Washoe County Board of County Commissioners.
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David Zwonitizer graduated from LCCC in 1974 with an Associate
of Arts degree; he completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in English and
Philosophy at the University of Northern Colorado in 1977. He enrolled
in an honors program at UNC, where he completed his Master of Arts
degree in English and Philosophy in 1983.
Dave has been an Instructor at LCCC for over thirty years. His primary
teaching assignments are in English, philosophy, and humanities; he has
also taught weight training, tennis, Japanese, film appreciation, and
golf at LCCC. Dave is one of LCCC’s master teachers. He earned the
Teaching Excellence Faculty Achievement Award in 1997.
Writing has been, and continues to be, vitally important to Dave in his
lifelong career as an educator. In addition to the papers he wrote as a
student, Dave published a collection of short stories and two academic
articles in scholarly journals.
As an instructor, Dave writes almost every day. He writes lectures,
notes to students, and memos to colleagues. On a less regular basis, he
writes lengthy program reviews, proposals, syllabi , grants, and letters
of recommendation for students. Dave’s successes with students and
LCCC’s instructional mission depend, in part, on Dave’s ability to write
clearly and effectively.
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All of these graduates were asked to give you suggestions for
improving your writing skills before entering the world of work . In
order to improve students’ writing skills, the graduates said:
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Reason 4: The research paper is yet another form of creative
expression.
Some students give me strange looks when I ask them to think of the
research paper as an art form and themselves as research paper artists! I
admit that I may be reaching a bit with this claim; however, I believe
that the general process of creating a research paper is similar to the
steps of creating any work of art, especially when you consider that any
artist begins with an idea, selects a medium (words, clay, wood, etc.),
makes a series of individual or ―signature‖ choices particular to the art
form, and completes the process with a finished product.
I hope that you and I can elevate the research paper to the level of
artful expression. I know that many students become more engaged with
and enthusiastic about the process of writing a research paper that
artfully expresses their own ideas. Students who approach the research
paper in this way usually end up with better finished products and
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ultimately much better feelings about the experience of writing a
research paper.
Step 3 Summary
I hope that you see the relevance of learning to write a research paper.
Again, I believe that learning to write a research paper is the best kind
of preparation for success in your personal, academic, and professional
endeavors. Now that we have established the definition of the research
paper in step one, and the reasons for learning to write a research paper
in step two, it’s time to begin the actual process of writing one!
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Step 4:
Create a Schedule for
Research and Writing
Without a doubt, procrastination is the number-one problem students
face when writing research papers. All too often during my college
career, I was the student composing and revising his research paper
hours before it was due, dragging myself into class the next day to turn
in the assignment, promising myself that I would never do it this way
again.
Whenever I worked on a paper incrementally, over an extended period
of time, I finished the process with an improved product and a better
attitude.
As a college English teacher for twenty years, I have watched students
write papers both ways. Those students who start early and work on an
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assignment incrementally, over an extended period of time, almost
always submit improved finished products.
You’ll find a thorough overview of procrastination (especially as it
applies to writing research papers) in the following link to The Writing
Center at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill:
Overcoming Procrastination
So, the real question is, ―How do I avoid procrastination when it comes
to writing a research paper‖ Here are some of my time -management
suggestions:
‣ Start early!
Starting early means starting the same day that the resear ch paper is
assigned! Start by taking out your planner (paper or electronic) and
scheduling thirty minutes each day to work on the assignment. You
will have to increase the length of your daily work sessions as the
due date gets closer, but at least you have made the research paper a
priority by placing it on your schedule and working on it
incrementally, over time, rather than all at once a few days before
it’s due.
‣ Talk with your instructor one-on-one about the assignment
within a few days after the assignment has been introduced in
class.
Bring possible essay topics, questions about potential resources, and
other concerns into this conversation. I would even ask for a sample
paper so that you have a clearer idea of what the finished product
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should look like before you begin researching and writing. In any
case, show your instructor that you’ve begun to seriously consider
your responsibilities as a thinker and a writer.
‣ Visit with a reference librarian early on (within the first week
after your conversation with your instructor).
Begin locating potential research resources for your paper. Libraries
are becoming more and more complex, and reference librarians are
excellent guides ready to help you begin the process of locating
quality research materials.
‣ Meet with a tutor early on to talk about a schedule for getting
extra help with the entire process of writing the research paper —
from beginning to end.
At LCCC, English tutors in the Student Success Center handle
ongoing and drop-in appointments. The Student Success Center is
located in Room 328 of the Community College Center, and the
phone number is 778-4315.
‣ Divide the task into its component parts, and establish a timeline
for completing the outline, rough draft, revised draft, and final
draft.
Step 4 Summary
In short, procrastination usually leads to failure. If you are a
procrastinator, figure out why, and then take the steps necessary to
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correct the problem by creating good time-management techniques.
Here’s a little comic relief from YouTube on the subject of
procrastination:
How to Procrastinate Like a Pro
41

Step 5:
Select Your Topic
Students struggling to find workable topics are stressed-out students! I
felt this stress firsthand as a student, and I’ve witnessed it as an
English instructor. I remember feeling, as a student, the tension
literally leaving my body when I finally honed in on an inter esting,
acceptable, manageable topic. As an instructor, I’ve watched a student’s
facial expression soften the moment he or she finds a focus for a paper.
After giving you some suggestions for selecting a research paper topic,
I will share with you others’ recommendations.
1. Determine if the research paper topic is the instructor’s
choice, your choice, or a combination of the two.
In some rare cases, the research paper topic is exclusively the
instructor ’s choice. If your English instructor requires you to
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esearch and then write about cloud imagery in William
Wordsworth’s poem ―The Prelude,‖ then you have to suck it up, bite
the bullet, research, and then write about cloud imagery in William
Wordsworth’s ―The Prelude‖! Most instructors, especially English
instructors, are not this rigid (ha ha).
On the other end of the spectrum, the entire process, including your
choice of the topic, belongs to you. This, too, is quite rare, but some
instructors may believe that the actual experience of writing a
research paper is more important than the topic you select. ―Lucky
you,‖ as they say, if you are this fortunate.
The most common scenario is a combination of both extremes where
you can choose a topic with certain restrictions imposed by your
instructor. For example, your Introduction to Sociology instructor
may allow you to select a research paper topic that stems from a
particular sociological theory covered in class. Your instructor may
even limit your focus to a controversial sociological principle
covered in your textbook.
1. Select a topic that’s interesting to you.
If the topic is your choice, even if it’s your choice within certain
limits set by the instructor, choose a topic that fascinates you. By
the same token, if it’s a topic dictated to you by the instruct or, find
a way to become excited about it.
All of my writing assignments allow students a good deal of freedom
to select their own topics, with certain restrictions, so I always
suggest that students focus on their interests. Especially with the
societal problem research paper for English 1010, I often encourage
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students to select topics they have experienced directly or indirectly.
Students get fired up and produce thoughtful, effective essays when
they are writing about subjects that affect them and/or th eir loved
ones.
2. Select a focused topic.
Rather than trying to write about the unfocused, broad topic of
poverty in America, restrict it to a more manageable size, like the
primary causes of poverty in America, or the primary effects of
poverty in America, or the primary solutions to poverty in America.
Focus, focus, focus! Write more about less!
You have patiently read my suggestions (I hope!); now it’s time to
consider what others are saying about selecting a topic. The Writing
Center at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill covers topic
selection in the following link:
Understanding Assignments, from the Writing Center at the University
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
The Writing Center at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, provides
some excellent advice for selecting a topic in the following link:
Discovering, Narrowing, and Focusing a Researchable Topic
Step 5 Summary
On the surface, it doesn’t seem that selecting a workable topic could be
a big problem for students. However, topic selection is probably the
most difficult early challenge students encounter when writing research
papers. I am confident that you can lessen the anxiety that accompanies
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the process of selecting manageable topics if you implement my
suggestions.
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Step 6:
Locate, Evaluate, and
Summarize Your Research
Sources
As an avid river runner, I’ve come to realize the importance of
selecting the best equipment for my next journey. My safety and overall
enjoyment depend on my having located the proper gear I can rely on in
all types of weather and river conditions. The same is true with
research papers: writers must locate and evaluate the best available
information (research) and then use it appropriately in their personal,
academic, and professional writing assignments. This step, li ke the
previous steps, includes my own advice combined with other experts’
suggestions for carefully locating, evaluating, and summarizing your
research.
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Locating Quality Research
My advice is simple: work closely with a reference librarian to develop
a process for locating the best quality sources for your research paper,
especially if it’s your first college-level research paper assignment. I
almost always work with a reference librarian to locate research after
I’ve searched on my own. It’s amazing how these helpful professionals
locate the critical source that I, for one reason or another, cannot find.
If you are a registered LCCC student, you can work with a reference
librarian in the following three ways:
1. Face to face by going to the information sign at LCCC’s Ludden
Library or by making an appointment
2. Over the phone by calling 307-778-1206
3. Online by e-mailing a reference librarian at libref@lccc.wy.edu or
through your online class
LCCC Reference Librarian Meghan Kelly recommends that students use
the steps in a Pathfinder guide to locate research sources. A Pathfinder
guide provides a simple, yet thorough process for locating a wide
variety of quality sources for any topic. View the following video clip
where Meghan explains the Pathfinder, and then read the subsequent
Pathfinder she has developed for an analysis of poverty in America.
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Using a Pathfinder to Locate Sources on Poverty
This Pathfinder guide will direct a student who is writing a research
paper to a variety of sources on poverty. Poverty is a general subject
generating resources in many places and formats. General sources and
brief explanations of these sources are listed in each upcoming section,
so that students working with other research topics can use the same
process.
Internet Sources
The easiest way to find appropriate internet sources is to use an
internet directory. These directories, or websites, are a special type of
search engine. The resources in these directories have been pre -selected
and screened by librarians or other experts. If you choose to use a
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general search engine such as Google, please consider at least the
following criteria when selecting your sources:
1. Who is the author, and does he or she possess credentials
in the area you are researching
2. When was the information posted
3. Who is sponsoring the site and why
Directories
Internet Public Library
―The Internet Public Library is a public service organization and a
learning/teaching environment founded at the University of Michigan School
of Information and hosted by Drexel University's College of Information
Science & Technology.‖ The IPL contains over 45,000 links to resources
which are reviewed individually by Library Science graduate students. It is
keyword searchable and organized by subject for browsing.
Librarians' Internet Index
This directory contains over 20,000 entries for internet sites, maintained by
librarians and organized into fourteen main topics and nearly 300 related
topics. Keyword search and browse options are available. All of the sites in
this directory contain free information.
Infomine
―INFOMINE is a virtual library of Internet resources relevant to faculty,
students, and research staff at the university level. It contains useful Internet
resources such as databases, electronic journals, electronic books, bullet in
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oards, mailing lists, online library card catalogs, articles, directories of
researchers, and many other types of information.‖
General Sources
The 2008 Statistical Abstract: The National Data Book
“The Statistical Abstract of the United States , published since 1878, is the
authoritative and comprehensive summary of statistics on the social,
political, and economic organization of the United States. Use the Abstract as
a convenient volume for statistical reference and as a guide to sources of
more information both in print and on the Web. Sources of data include the
Census Bureau, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bureau of Economic Analysis, and
many other federal agencies and private organizations. ‖ This resource is
available online and in print.
Infoplease: All the Knowledge You Need
This resource contains the online versions of the Time Almanac, the Columbia
Encyclopedia, a dictionary, and a thesaurus. Each so urce can be searched
individually or the site can be searched. You will find statistical tables and
short articles here.
Sources on Poverty
National Poverty Center
―The National Poverty Center (NPC) was established in the fall of 2002 as a
university-based, nonpartisan research center. We conduct and promote
multidisciplinary, policy-relevant research on the causes and consequences of
poverty.‖ Research and conference proceedings are available from this site,
free of charge.
Institute for Research on Poverty
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―IRP is a center for interdisciplinary research into the causes and
consequences of poverty and social inequality in the United States. It is based
at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. As one of three Area Poverty
Research Centers sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, it has a particular interest in poverty and family welfare in the
Midwest.‖
National Center for Children in Poverty
―The National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP) is the nation’s leading
public policy center dedicated to promoting the economic security, health,
and well-being of America’s low-income families and children. NCCP uses
research to inform policy and practice with the goal of ensuring positive
outcomes for the next generation.‖
Subscription Resources
All academic libraries subscribe to online journal databases and/or reference
databases. These databases primarily contain magaz ine and journal articles
first published in print, on paper. Database publishers collect these articles,
format them electronically, and sell subscriptions to educational institutions.
Any of these databases may cover a range of general topics or limit th eir
focuses to specific fields or subjects. They may contain full -text articles,
citations and abstracts, articles from reference sources, and a variety of
media items. For example, LCCC subscribes to both journal and reference
databases. The license agreements for these subscriptions only allow offcampus
access to students and employees of the college. You will find the
four most relevant databases for a paper on poverty, selected from LCCC’s
approximately 80 subscriptions, listed below.
Reference Databases
Oxford Reference Online
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This resource contains ―dictionary, language reference, and subject reference
works published by Oxford University Press.‖ Many of the entries are short
definitions, but some of the reference works, such as The Oxford Companion
to United States History, contain in-depth articles supported by useful
bibliographies.
Gale Virtual Reference Library (GVRL)
This is another online collection that brings together many reference works
covering a variety of subjects from a specific publisher, Gale. GVRL’s
references to poverty appear with the following t opics: race and racism,
human geography, sociology, social welfare history in North America ,
education, and U.S. economic history.
Journal Databases
Academic Search Premier (ASP)
This is one of many databases published by EBSCO. ASP contains full -text
articles and citations from a wide variety of scholarly publications. It is a
good place to start, especially for students con sidering popular topics. An
initial search on poverty reveals 35,084 articles or citations. You can limit
this search to articles that are available through this database by marking the
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full text box on the search screen.
EBSCO supplies a list of related terms with each set of search results.
Clicking on one of these terms will limit the search further. Another way to
limit the search is to add a keyword to each subtopic, to create a separate
search: for example, ―poverty and history‖ or ―poverty and st atistics.‖
Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center
This database includes mostly current and controversial topics. The interface
may be slightly more user-friendly than many other databases. Poverty
appears in the subject list on the front page and takes you directly to a list of
opinion articles reprinted from the various book series published by Green
Haven Press. Tabs across the tops of the page allow you to navigate to
reference sources, journal articles, statistics, and primary sources.
Depending on the topic and/or the specificity of the search, one or more of
the tabs may be empty. Opposing Viewpoints provides links to subject terms
and to broader, narrower, and related terms to assist you in your search.
Print Sources
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In order to find print sources on poverty or any other topic, you will stop first
at the library online catalog. A link to the catalog is generally prominently
displayed on a library’s home page. Most online catalogs offer an advanced
search which will limit your results to books or reference books. Subject
terms used in a library catalog are found in the catalog record for individual
books. This is a great place to look for keywords to use when refining your
search.
Some possible subject terms to use when looking for books on poverty in
library catalogs are shown above. You can see that there are many terms
used by libraries, assigned by the Library of Congress, which we might not
consider using in a search without seeing them first in a catalog record.
When choosing which books to use, consider the timeliness of your topic and
how old the books you use may be. Expand your search to shared catalogs if
necessary. For example, from the LCCC library you can expand your search
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to the University of Wyoming Library, or to all other libraries in Wyoming.
You can request books at another library by visiti ng LCCC’s library website
with your library card information or by contacting the other library directly.
As you can see, the Pathfinder guide is both comprehensive and easy to use
for virtually any research paper topic. Using this process, along with so me
guidance from a reference librarian, you will find the very best sources for
your research paper.
Evaluating Your Sources
All sources are not created equal, so it’s important to scrutinize your sources
carefully, and use only the best information in your research papers. I have
located two excellent websites that discuss the criteria you should use when
evaluating potential sources. The first website, ―How to Evaluate the
Information Sources You Find,‖ is from the ―Collections, Reference,
Instruction, and Outreach (CRIO) Department at the Cornell University
Library, located in Ithaca, New York, USA,‖ and it provides you with some
tips for evaluating general research sources:
General Research Evaluation
The next website, ―Evaluating Web Pages: Techniques to Apply and Questions
to Ask,‖ is from the University of California, Berkeley, and it focuses on
scrutinizing web pages:
Web Page Evaluation
Taking Careful Notes
You’ve located and evaluated your sources, and you now have a stack of
excellent information in front of you, parts of which will be blended into
your research paper. Your next task is to take careful notes from these
sources. The key word is ―careful‖ because you need to incorporate the
55

esearch without plagiarizing. The best explanation of note -taking that
avoids plagiarism comes from Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab
(OWL):
Effective Note Taking
Step 6 Summary
As you can see, carefully locating, evaluating, and summarizing your sources
are important tasks for writing solid research papers. If you follow the steps I
have outlined, you will be ready for the next step: writing a rough draft.
Good luck!
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Step 7:
Review Basic Essay Structure
You must know the basic components of a short essay before writing a
research paper because the longer research paper is built squarely on a basic
essay ―foundation.‖
I like to use a house-building analogy. The foundation of a house serves as a
solid platform for the framework, floors, walls, ceilings, windows, doorways,
and roof. Without a solid foundation, the house collapses. The same is true
with a research paper. If a research paper lacks a solid foundation (a basic
structure), the research paper (even though it may include excellent sources)
collapses.
After explaining the essential components of a short essay, I will provide you
with a short essay—in MLA format—so that you can study one before writing
one.
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The overall format of the essay includes an introduction, body paragraphs,
and a conclusion. Here’s a visual representation of the short essay:
Title
The title is the first thing readers see, so it’s important to create an
interesting one that draws your reader into the essay. The followi ng
guidelines will help you to write great titles:
‣ Invent a title that is enticing.
If you are writing about the benefits of river running, avoid the bland title,
―The Benefits of River Running.‖ Try something a little more interesting,
like ―Floating Rivers to Feed a Hungry Soul‖ or ―Float Trips: Food for the
Soul.‖ By the way, the title/subtitle method in the last example
demonstrates your sophistication as a writer, and it’s also a great way to
convey your essay’s central idea in a simple, straightfo rward way.
‣ Design a title that actually conveys the topic of your essay to your
reader.
This may sound like a ―no-brainer,‖ but sometimes writers get so carried
away with being clever, they forget to prepare the reader for the essay’s
content. Here’s an example of a writer trying a little too hard: ―River
Running, Soul Food, and the Existential Dilemma.‖ I applaud the writer ’s
efforts, but I would suggest rewriting the title so that it’s both clever and
clear, like ―Floats Trips: Food for the Soul‖ or ― Floating Rivers to Feed a
Hungry Soul.‖
‣ Avoid the essay-is-due-in-a-minute-I-need-a-title panic!
These last-minute titles are usually one or two words long (―Rivers‖ or
―River Running‖), and they put your reader to sleep!
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‣ Study the titles you read each day, and create titles that use similar
strategies.
For example, I’m currently reading the book One Nation, Underprivileged,
and I’m already thinking about the variety of titles that might evolve from
this one.
Introduction
The first part of a short essay is the introduction, usually one paragraph,
consisting of three parts: the lead-in, the thesis statement, and the essay map.
The Lead-in
Let’s start with the lead-in. The lead-in is the very first part of the
introductory paragraph (usually one to si x sentences in a short essay) where
you are trying to accomplish three specific goals:
Rule 1: Capture your reader’s attention.
Let’s talk about capturing your reader ’s attention. Think about the first
minute of most television programs. If the viewer ’s interest is not sparked
within the first minute, he or she will more than likely change the channel.
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The same is true for most readers; if you don’t catch the reader ’s attention at
the beginning, he or she will move on to something else.
Here are the top three ways to catch and hold the reader ’s attention in the
lead-in to a short essay:
Strategy 1: Write a lead-in that uses alarming statistical information.
Statistical information gives your essay a serious tone, and it also shows your
reader that you’ve done your homework. Here is one example of a lead -in that
presents an alarming statistic:
Strategy 2: Catch your reader’s attention with a story.
Here’s a personal story about my belief in the importance of outdoor
adventure:
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Strategy 3: Try using a quotation from a well-known person.
Whether you agree or disagree with Lincoln’s quotation, the quotation will
catch the attention of many readers because of what it says and who is saying
it.
Rule 2: Let your reader know the general subject matter of your
essay.
The second rule for writing a lead-in is to let your reader know the general
subject matter of your essay. If you are writing about road rage, make sure
that your lead-in has something to do with road rage (either directly or
indirectly). Letting your reader know the general subject matter of the essay
in the lead-in helps to set the stage for your essay.
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Notice how the following lead-in announces the general subject matter of the
essay that is eventually introduced in the thesis statement (the main idea of
essay) and the essay map (a preview of essay’s supporting points, shown in
red below):
Rule 3: Guide your reader gradually and smoothly into the thesis
statement.
The third and final rule for the lead-in has to do with gradually and smoothl y
preparing your reader for the thesis statement and essay map. A red -carpet
analogy illustrates this idea. The lead-in is the red carpet that you’ve rolled
out for your reader, and it leads directly and smoothly to the thesis statement
and essay map.
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Laying out the red carpet in the lead-in suggests that you care about your
reader getting directly to the thesis statement and essay map without getting
lost. Take a look at the outdoor adventure lead-in, and notice how it smoothly
and logically leads the reader to the thesis statement and essay map.
Additional strategies for writing lead-ins can be found at the Capital
Community College website on writing:
Capital Community College: Writing Lead-ins
The Thesis Statement
The second part of your introductory paragraph is the thesis statement.
The thesis statement is the main idea of your essay. I like to use the following
analogy to explain the importance of the thesis statement: Your heart is to
your body as your thesis is to your essay. Without a heart, a body dies.
Without a thesis, the essay dies. That’s a little dramatic, I know, but it
underscores the importance of the thesis statement in any essay.
Here are three basic rules for the thesis statement:
Rule 1: Your thesis statement presents your opinion on a given topic.
Your job as a writer in the thesis statement is to move beyond a safe
and simple statement of fact like the following:
It’s a fact that many people participate in river running activities like rafting
and kayaking. Readers are looking for you to state your opinion in the thesis
statement. Rewritten, the following thesis statements assert an opinion:
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This thesis statement is definitely an opinion because the reader can eit her
agree or disagree with the thesis statement.
Rule 2: Your thesis statement should be focused.
Have you ever heard the expression, ―Don’t bite off more than you can
chew‖ The same is true with essay writing: do not take on more than you can
fully and adequately cover in the space of a few pages when you’re writing a
short essay. Generally speaking, it’s better to cover less ground using more
detail than it is to cover more ground superficially.
Let’s use the river running thesis as an example. Rather than trying to cover
multiple aspects of river running (e.g., trip planning, safety, and the technical
aspects of running a rapid), the thesis focuses on one aspect of river running
(life-long lessons).
Rule 3: Your thesis statement should be located in the introductory
paragraph after the lead-in but before the essay map.
We’ll talk about the essay map next, but think first about sandwiching your
thesis (the meat) between two slices of bread (the lead -in is the top slice and
the essay map is the bottom slice). Remember that your thesis statement is
the most-important part of the essay, so it should stand out clearly.
Here are three links that give you additional information about the thesis
statement:
Writing Center, UNC, Chapel Hill
Purdue University, OWL
The Essay Map
Let’s cover the essay map. The essay map is the last part of the
introductory paragraph, and its purpose i s to preview the points that
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you will develop in support of your thesis. I want to give you another
television analogy to explain the essay map. I’m a big fan of 60
Minutes. In the first minute or so of 60 Minutes, I’m able to see what
three segments will be covered on the show that evening. This oneminute
segment at the beginning of the show serves as both an
attention-grabber and a preview of what will appear on the show.
Again, take a look at the sample introduction paragraph about outdoor
adventure, and notice that the last sentence (the essay map) previews
the essay’s supporting points:
The essay map clearly indicates that the body of the essay will cover
the following three points in this particular order:
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1. Self-confidence
2. Problem-solving skills
3. Appreciation for everyday comforts
The Body Paragraphs
Body paragraphs have one function: to support the thesis statement.
There are three specific concepts to keep in mind when writing your
body paragraphs:
Each body paragraph should provide plenty of infor mation
(primarily explanations, examples, and facts). By the end of
the paragraph, the reader should feel as though he or she has
acquired enough information to fully understand the paragraph’s
central idea.
Each body paragraph should be limited to a single idea
rather than trying to cover two or more main ideas in one
paragraph. If your paragraph promises to focus on how river
running teaches self-confidence, avoid discussing how river
running leads to better problem-solving skills in that same
paragraph.
Each paragraph should include a general topic sentence that
tells the reader the focus of that particular paragraph. Place
the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph in most
instances because readers generally want to know what they are
getting into.
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Here’s an example of a topic sentence that clearly indicates the subject
of a body paragraph:
The sentences in each body paragraph should be arranged carefully and
logically to create a smooth flow of information within the paragraph.
I often use a food analogy to explain this concept. Think about the
layers of ingredients that go into a typical pan of lasagna. Depending
on the particular recipe, lasagna is made by carefully layering pasta,
cheese, meat, and tomato sauce in a baking dish. Th e same is true with
paragraph development: good paragraphs are created by a careful and
deliberate placement of sentences in a particular order.
The most common pattern of development is deductive order. This is
when you begin with a general topic sentenc e at the beginning of the
paragraph and follow it with more specific explanations and examples
in the remainder of the paragraph. Here’s an example:
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Notice how the sentences flow smoothly and logically from the general
topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph to the more specific
explanations and examples in the remainder of the paragraph. I’ve
tried to create a smooth flow of information for the reader.
I suggest that you review all of your body paragraphs according to the
previous three guidelines before submitting an essay to your instructor.
The Conclusion
In the conclusion, the last paragraph in the essay, you are trying to
accomplish two specific tasks:
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Let’s start with summarizing your thesis statement and supporting
points. Your goal is to make the information as clear as possible, so I
recommend a brief, straightforward summary of the thesis statement
and essay map items at the beginning of the conclusion. Here’s a brief
restatement of my thesis and essay map for river running:
The second and final part of the conclusion involves leaving your
reader with something to think about. This could be a call to action
where you are encouraging your reader to do something specific as a
result of reading the essay. It could also be a predic tion of what’s to
come if action is not taken. It could also be a quotation from a well -
69

known authority, or it could be a reminder of the story or anecdote used
in the lead-in.
I’ll end my conclusion with a call to action:
Step 7 Summary
The research paper is built on a basic-essay foundation. If you take
some time to study the basics of the short essay and then write a few
practice essays, you will be ready to tackle the longer, more complex
task of writing a research paper.
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Sample Short Essay
Leif Swanson
Instructor Schwingendorf
English 1010-01
1 October 2008
River Running: Food for the Soul
I know from firsthand experience that river running feeds
the soul. From 1985 to 1990, I guided whitewater rafting
trips on the Colorado and Roaring Fork rivers near Glenwood
Springs, Colorado. I led approximately four-hundred trips
and logged over 5,000 river miles. In 1993, I rowed a small
group of friends and family down one of the most intense
whitewater runs in the United States—the Grand Canyon. In
the mid-1990s, I developed and taught whitewater rafting and
kayaking courses for Laramie County Community College’s
Physical Education Department. River running provides many
important life-long lessons. From these experiences I have
learned that river running teaches self-confidence, problemsolving
skills, and an appreciation for our everyday comforts
we all too often take for granted.
River running teaches self-confidence. Self-confidence
includes, but is not limited to, a firm belief in one’s strengths
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and abilities. For example, I learned much of my selfconfidence
as a young man when I guided whitewater rafting
trips on the Colorado and Roaring Fork Rivers. As a guide, I
was ultimately responsible for quickly training and then
leading a group of paddlers on a whitewater rafting trip. I
developed a degree of self-confidence that helped me to
survive the challenges of college, work, and life in general.
As a guide, I enjoyed witnessing a crew member ’s selfconfidence
grow in a matter of a few hours on the river.
Without a doubt, river running teaches self-confidence,
necessary for success in any career.
River running helps to build one’s problem-solving skills.
Most well-planned river trips involve few real problems;
however, an occasional safety situation arises that needs to be
addressed. For example, I remember a whitewater rafting trip
when I got off line in a major rapid and lost one of two large
oars just seconds before descending into a half-mile stretch of
continuous and intense whitewater on the Colorado River.
Losing an oar before a major rapid is like a bird losing the use
of its wing in mid-air: the problem needs to be solved
quickly! I had to quickly and calmly instruct my crew to use
their much smaller and less effective paddles to help navigate
the first part of the rapid while I unstrapped the spare oar and
slid it into the oarlock and regained control of the boat. This
is just one of many examples where I needed to solve
problems very quickly on a river-running adventure. All of
these experiences have contributed to my development of the
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problem-solving skills I use in my personal and professional
endeavors.
River running develops an appreciation for the everyday
comforts we all too often take for granted. It’s human nature
to take for granted the things that make our lives
comfortable—electricity, plumbing, a house with a soft bed,
to name a few, and there’s nothing like roughing it to make us
appreciate these modern amenities. Our crew of five went
without any modern amenities for two weeks when we floated
the Colorado River 235 river miles down the Grand Canyon.
We slept on thin sleeping pads, bathed in the silty Colorado
River, and went to the bathroom in ammo cans that we carried
with us for the entire trip. I would not trade that trip for
anything, but I have to admit that a hot shower, a cold beer, a
home-cooked meal, and a deep sleep in my own bed were
wonderful experiences at the end of the trip! Without a doubt,
river running gave us a whole new appr eciation for modern
conveniences.
My firsthand experiences on western rivers lead me to
believe that river running teaches self-confidence, problemsolving
skills, and an appreciation for our everyday comforts
we all too often take for granted. I enc ourage everyone to
strap on a life jacket, grab a paddle, and float a river. You’ll
be amazed at the benefits.
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Step 8:
Write the Rough Draft
An experienced river runner ―scouts‖ unfamiliar rapids to identify the
safest, most thrilling ―line‖ through the turbulence. However, at some
point the scouting must come to an end, and the rapids must be run.
The same is true with writing a research paper. You can, and should,
spend a lot of time preparing to write; however, at some point the
preparation must end, and the writing must begin.
This step includes general advice about writing a rough draft, followed
by specific suggestions for integrating research into your papers and
documenting your sources.
Suggestion 1: Start early, and work incrementally over an
extended period of time.
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Begin writing several weeks before the paper is due, and try to write at
least two or three paragraphs a day. It’s best to break the much larger
task of writing a research paper into its component parts and chip away
at it paragraph by paragraph.
Suggestion 2: Create a simple outline before you begin writing.
Don’t worry about the cumbersome outline with Roman numerals and a
confusing sub-heading system. Limit your outline to your central idea
in one sentence at the top (tentative thesis statement), with your
supporting points listed below. It should be simple enough for you to
use while writing your rough draft, and it should be easy for others to
read and understand.
Suggestion 3: Remember the essay basics as you write.
Don’t forget that a longer research paper includes an introduction
comprised of a lead-in, a thesis statement, and an essay map; body
paragraphs using topic sentences, full development, u nity, and
coherence; and a two-part conclusion not only summarizing your
supporting points but also emphasizing your message with an effective
concluding strategy. Study Step 7: Review Basic Essay
Structure before, during, and after writing your rough draft.
Strategy 4: Temporarily lower your standards as you write the
rough draft.
All too often, we expect finished-draft quality from our rough drafts.
Rough drafts are named ―rough‖ for a good reason. If you lower your
expectations early on, and silence your inner critic, your words will
flow onto the page. Remember, there will be plenty of opportunities for
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evising your rough draft, but you can’t revise what you haven’t
written.
Strategy 5: Avoid logical fallacies.
As writers, we strive to be logical, reasonable, and ultimately
persuasive. However, when we sometimes succumb to our emotions, our
biases, our writing becomes illogical, unreasonable, and unconvincing.
The following link to the University of North Carolina’s Writing Center
defines logical fallacies and then explains how to avoid them in your
writing:
Logical Fallacies
In addition to identifying logical fallacies, we must also consider how
writers construct solid arguments in their research papers. Study the
following link to the University of North Carolina Writing Center that
explains creating solid arguments:
Constructing Solid Arguments
Most instructors require students to use either Modern Language
Association (MLA) or American Psychological Association (APA)
documentation guidelines. The following links to Purdue University’s
Online Writing Lab (OWL) fully explain MLA and APA documentation
guidelines:
MLA Formatting, In-text Citations, and the Works Cited page
APA Formatting, In-text Citations, and Reference List
Step 8 Summary
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In conclusion, writing a rough draft is manageable if you start early,
work on the draft incrementally, and follow the suggestions outlined in
this step. Good luck!
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Step 9:
Revise the Rough Draft
Congratulations! You have managed to get through the rough draft.
Now it’s time to revise your paper. One of my professors once said,
―Good writing is writing that has been rewritten.‖ I agree, and I would
add a few words to the end of his sentence: ―Good writing is writing
that has been rewritten several times!” After giving you needed general
advice, I will show you what other experts have to say about revision.
The first piece of general advice is to find some distance from the
rough draft. Take off a day or two from writing, and then review your
draft with ―fresh eyes.‖ You will be amazed at how you begin to clearly
see what needs to be rewritten.
After you return from your brief writing break, focus on the “big
picture” by revising the content and organization of your paper. ―Big -
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picture‖ revision includes adding and/or deleting information; it also
involves reorganizing passages, if necessary. For example, you want to
make sure that your body paragraphs follow the or der of the topics in
your essay map. All content-and-organization revision depends on the
needs of your reader. Always ask yourself if the writing will be clear to
the reader.
After you have completed any major changes in structure and content,
shift your attention to sentence-level issues, which include proper
punctuation, grammar, usage, and documentation.
Rewriting also depends on quality feedback from a variety of people.
More than likely, all kinds of questions (regarding outside sources,
paragraph topics, word choices and so forth) will arise along the way.
Bring your specific questions to your instructor, classmates, tutors , and
friends. Seek out these people at all stages of the writing process,
especially while revising your writing.
Study the following link from Purdue University’s OWL for advice
about revision:
Revision
Step 9 Summary
Rewriting is central to the process of writing a solid research paper.
Revise the content and organization concerns first, and then focus on
the sentence-level issues at the very end of the process. Seek help from
others throughout the process of writing a research paper.
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Step 10:
Reflect on Your
Writing Process
At the end of most river trips, I find myself thinking about how to
improve the next trip down the river. Whether I focus on a better
paddling technique or a new piece of equipment, I’m always thinking
about improving the overall experience. The same is true with writing:
many times when I finish a piece of writing, I find myself thinking
about how I can improve my writing process. This step is designed to
help you focus on identifying and improving your own writing process.
The very first thing that I recommend is an honest assessment of your
strengths. Create a specific list of methods that you felt succeeded. For
example, when I think about the experience of writing this e -book, my
list of positives includes the following:
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1. I started early and worked incrementally.
2. I asked for and received help from a few key people while
writing and revising the manuscript.
3. At key times along the way, I managed to find some
distance from my writing.
After listing your strengths, honestly assess your weaknesses.
Admitting one’s weaknesses can be difficult; however, it’s the all -
important first step toward self-improvement of any kind. For example,
I’ve identified three key weaknesses while writing this book:
1. Regular routines are important to me, and I was unable to
maintain a consistent time for daily writing.
2. I found myself procrastinating frequently, and this led to
unnecessary stress along the way.
3. I was unable to silence my inner critic and lower my
expectations with the first draft, which led to
procrastination, stress, and anxiety.
The third and final part of this step involves making a specific plan for
improvement. My list includes the following three items:
1. Create a regular reading and writing ritual, which
includes a specific time and place for work.
2. Lower my standards with the first draft in order to avoid
procrastination, which leads to stress and anxiety.
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3. Schedule regular breaks when I can truly distance myself
from the writing and come back refreshed.
Step 10 Summary
I recommend creating this three-part list every time you complete a
formal writing assignment. Also, I would refer to these items before,
during, and after tackling your next writing task. Learn from your
mistakes, but also celebrate your successes.
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Best Websites on
College-Level Writing
Study the following websites and their suggestions about college -level
writing:
The OWL at Purdue
UNC Writing Center
Capital Community College–Online Resources for Writers
The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin
St. Cloud State Literary Education Online
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LCCC Instructors
Discuss the
College Research Paper
The following LCCC English instructors share their suggestions for
writing college-level research papers:
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’

About the Author
Leif Swanson was born and raised in Sioux
City, Iowa. After graduating from high
school in 1983, he attended Kirkwood
Community College in Cedar Rapids,
Iowa, where he earned an Associate of Arts
degree in 1985; he completed a Bachelor
of Arts degree in English at the University
of Northern Iowa in Cedar Falls in 1987.
He finished his Master of Arts degree at
the University of Northern Colorado in
1990.
Leif started teaching English at LCCC in 1990. His primary classes are
English 1010, English 1020, and Writing Your Life. He has also taught
American Literature I and II, Business Communication, Whitewater
Rafting, and Whitewater Kayaking. He earned the Teaching Excellence
Faculty Achievement Award in 1996 and 2006.
Leif is married to Lyndee, who is a third-grade teacher at Anderson
Elementary School in Cheyenne, Wyoming. They have two children,
Bethany and Jordan, and four dogs—Jasper, Kirby, Louie, and Roscoe.
Leif enjoys teaching, reading, writing, and numerous outdoor activities,
including camping, hiking, cycling, and river-running.
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