ENVIRONMENTAL - International Erosion Control Association

I N T E R N A T I O N A L E R O S I O N C O N T R O L A S S O C I A T I O N
ENVIRONMENTAL
OCTOBER 2007 | VOLUME 1 · ISSUE 1
INSIDE
OUR PREMIER ISSUE
CORAL REEF TELLS THE STORY OF
SOIL EROSION IN KENYA
CASE STUDY: MAHO BAY
WATERSHED EROSION REDUCTION
PROJECT
DESIGNING FOREST ROADS
THAT REDUCE SOIL LOSSES

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ContentsOCTOBER 2007
©iStockphoto.com/Tammy Peluso
16
18
22
COLUMNS
5
From the Editor
By Rebecca Milot-Bradford, MBS
7
Tech Talk
Tackifiers: Types and Uses
By Julie Etra, CPESC
9
Research Briefs
Improving Soil Conditions and
Cover Tends to Reduce Erosion
By Rich McLaughlin, PhD
11
Business Matters
Planning for Profits, Part 2–
Designing a Marketing Plan that
Works By Judith M. Guido
13
Viewpoint
Natural Model for Draining the
Rain By Tony Watkins
FEATURES
16
Ancient Malindi Coral Reef Tells
the Story of Soil Erosion in Kenya
Researchers use coral samples from
the Indian Ocean to create a 300-
year record of topsoil loss in Kenya.
By Maria José Viñas
18
Case Study
The Maho Bay Watershed Erosion
Reduction Project decreases
sediment production rates from an
unpaved road segment in St. John,
U.S. Virgin Islands.
By Carlos E. Ramos-Scharron, PhD
22
Using an Erosion Model for
Designing Roads That Reduce Soil
Losses in the Forest
Study shows that WEPP can be used
to create more erosion-resistant roads
in southern Appalachian forests.
By Greg Northcutt
IECA MEMBERS
25
Member Spotlight: Geri DeLaMare
As an erosion control professional,
DeLaMare combines the role of
student and teacher, pursuing two
master’s degrees while strengthening
her Chapter’s educational programs.
27
Emerald Member Profile
Ground Service Technology, Inc.,
offers full-service erosion control to
keep its customers in compliance.
NEWSWORTHY AND NOTABLE
29
Your Vote Counts
Voting for the 2008 IECA Board of
Directors began August 15 and ends
November 1. Find out how you can
make the most informed choice.
29
Conference Corner
Drive to success with EC08–
IECA’s international Environmental
Connection conference and expo
to be held February 18-21. Details
inside.
29
Education Corner
Discover how IECA’s electronic
format saves you precious time
and costly travel expenses while
delivering education on demand.
ALSO INSIDE
32 Advertisers.com
32 Advertisers’ Index
34 Blooper of the Month
OCTOBER 2007 • 3

Published for
IECA mission: Connect, educate and develop the worldwide erosion and sediment
control community.
Environmental Connection is the quarterly magazine (published January, April, July, and
October) for members of the International Erosion Control Association (IECA). Our goal
is to present industry and association news, highlight member contributions to
society, and promote the exchange of scientific and technical information. Each issue of
Environmental Connection includes peer-reviewed articles on a wide variety of timely erosion
and sediment control topics, as well as regular features that provide thought-provoking
accounts of people, programs, and issues in the erosion and sediment control profession.
Environmental Connection welcomes submission of articles of interest to erosion and sediment
control professionals at all levels. Complete instructions to authors are published
online at www.ieca.org.
3001 S. Lincoln Ave., Suite A
Steamboat Springs, CO 80487 USA
Phone: 800.455.IECA (4322) or 970.879.3010
Fax: 970.879.8563 • Email: ecinfo@ieca.org
Website: www.ieca.org
Editorial Review Panel
Steven Bubnick
Thomas Carpenter, CPESC
Joe Crea, CPESC, CPSWQ
Dr. Sherri Dunlap, CPESC
Julie Etra, CPESC
John Gonzales, BSET, CPSWQ
Martha Mitchell, CPESC
Rick Morse, CPESC
Jane Rickson, PhD
Michael Sprague
Aaron Staup, CPESC
Ray Walke, PE
Editor
Becky Milot-Bradford
Members are encouraged to submit comments
and news items to
Becky Milot-Bradford at becky@ieca.org
Published by
IECA membership: Individuals receive Environmental Connection by being members
of IECA. Professional membership costs $170 USD. Call 800.455.4322 or go online to
www.ieca.org for more information.
Change of address: IECA members, notify IECA 60 days in advance. Journals undeliverable
because of incorrect address will be destroyed by the post office and cannot
be replaced. We cannot guarantee to supply back issues on late renewals or late address
corrections.
IECA is grateful for the support of its Cornerstone Members
Central Fiber Corporation Hydro Rock Company Inc.
Envirotraxx
KriStar Enterprises, Inc.
ErosionControlBlanket.com North American Green Inc
Erosion Eel
Profile Products LLC
Environmental Connection is printed on recycled paper using vegetablebased
inks and an environmentally-sensitive publishing process. The paper
contains 10% total recovered fiber/all post-consumer fiber, and meets EPA
and FTC guidelines for recycled coated papers.
Naylor, LLC
5950 NW First Place
Gainesville, FL 32607 USA
Phone: 800.369.6220 or 352.332.1252
Fax: 352.331.3525
Website: www.naylor.com
Publisher
Catherine Upton
Managing Editor
Colleen Raccioppi
Marketing
Danielle Van Doren
Project Manager
Tom Schell
Advertising Director
Diane Markey
Advertising Sales
Michael McMahon, Geri Newman, Josh
Rothburd, Rick Sauers, Eric Singer
and Shawn Wiggins
Layout & Design
Dave Reimer
Advertising Art
David Cheetham
For advertising information and ad rates, please
contact Tom Schell at toms@naylor.com.
©2007 International Erosion Control
Association. All rights reserved. The contents
of this publication may not be reproduced,
in whole or in part, without the prior written
consent of the publisher.
Published October 2007/IEC-Q0307/6532
4 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION

From the Editor
Welcome to the fi rst issue of IECA’s new members-only publication—Environmental Connection.
We will use Environmental Connection to bring you articles written by members for members, and you
will know you can trust what you read. You asked us for more feature articles and more technical information,
and that’s exactly what you will see within these pages. Technical articles will undergo peer review, and
every article that has been reviewed will be clearly indicated. If you see the “peer review” logo at the beginning of an
article, you will know it has been reviewed by experts in the field.
Call for Articles
We would like to give you the opportunity to showcase your work and share your expertise with your peers. Please
consider submitting your paper for publication here. You can find complete instructions for authors plus submittal instructions
at www.ieca.org > members only > Environmental Connection > instructions to authors.
Our goal is to publish articles that report both the practical applications of research findings and the knowledge
gained by experienced professionals. This mission includes, whenever possible, integrating these two sources of knowledge,
providing practitioners with the most accurate information available, and providing a forum for the exchange of
information between the many disciplines involved in erosion and sediment control.
Environmental Connection does not publish original scientific research. If your paper is not a case study and includes
methods and results sections, this is a good indication it is original research that would be more appropriate for a research
journal.
Speak Your Mind
We invite your comments. Please feel free to correspond about articles you read here. Letters to the editor can be sent
to becky@ieca.org. Or you can comment on articles online at www.ieca.org > members only > Environmental Connection.
As an IECA member, you can post comments about any of the articles in our online archives—this includes conference
proceedings as well as magazine articles. Just open an article and then click on the “Discuss” link at the beginning or end
of the article.
Thanks to…
A tremendous amount of effort has gone into the making of this magazine. I can’t thank everyone who participated
individually, but I would like to extend an extra thank you to:
• The Environmental Connection Editorial Review Panel for being there to make sure this magazine upholds IECA’s
high educational standards, even when it meant reviewing articles over a holiday;
• Our Board of Directors for taking a leap of faith;
• The IECA Membership Team for conducting the member benefits survey that prompted us to launch a new magazine;
• Naylor, LLC, our publishing partner in this venture;
• Jeff Chandler and Bill Kraemer for sharing their experience; and
• Sherri Dunlap and Rick Morse for endless hours of consultation and suggestions. We couldn’t implement all of their
suggestions (yet), and they aren’t to blame for any shortcomings in this magazine.
Rebecca Milot-Bradford, MBS
Editor
OCTOBER 2007 • 5

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PEER
review
Tech Talk
Tackifiers: Types and Uses
This article discusses the various types of tackifiers available on the market today, as well as the
considerations that go into determining which tackifier to use for a particular project.
By Julie Etra, CPESC
Author’s disclaimer:
The author has had
no personal experience
applying synthetic
tackifiers or clays.
Introduction
Tackifiers are fundamentally “glues” that usually are used in combination with
wood fiber and recycled paper mulch to bind the product and hold it on the soil
surface. They also are used over other mulches such as straw, pine needles, and
wood products.
Tackifiers can include dust suppressant products but are different in that they
never harm seed or inhibit vegetation. They also are different than Bonded Fiber
Matrices (BFMs), which can include tackifiers and other products such as coir or
gypsum.
Many products on the market are readily available and offer designers and contractors
a range of choices. Performance-based selection is primarily on site conditions
such as soil type, slope length and steepness, prevailing wind as well as duration
of functionality as some products are more persistent than others. Price varies
greatly among products.
There are essentially two basic types of tackifiers: 1. organic, and 2. synthetic
copolymers.
Organic (Plant or Soil Derived) and Mineral Tackifiers
These currently include tackifiers manufactured from Guar, Plantago, corn
starch, and clays.
Plantago tackifiers are manufactured from the outer coat of the seed of Plantago
ovata or plantain plant. Psyllium or Ispaghula is another common name used for
several members of this genus (Plantago). And yes, this same product is used for
the production of mucilage, a dietary fiber (laxative), so you can indeed have your
tackifier and eat it too.
The plant is grown in India and a major cultural problem limiting psyllium production
in the Midwest of the United States is the shattering characteristic of the
mature crop. Some success has been achieved by cross-breeding high yielding Indian
varieties with varieties that are more shatter resistant so production is likely to
be restricted to environments that consistently provide a cool, dry harvest season.
Rates of application vary with soil type, percent slope, and prevailing wind but
generally range from 40 to 150 lbs/acre. The viscous product is easy to apply and is
effective on a range of soil types. Persistence varies with soils and climate but plantago
tackifiers generally last six to eight months. Plantago is sold as a powder.
Guar is derived from the seed (endosperm) of the leguminous Cyamopsis
tetragonoloba plant. This nitrogen-fi xing annual plant grows best under conditions
with frequent rainfall but can tolerate arid conditions. Eighty percent of world production
is in India, but due to strong demand, it is being introduced into new areas.
It also is a thickener used in many food products such as ice cream and cheese.
OCTOBER 2007 • 7

Tackifiers: Types and Uses
Industrial applications include the paper
and textile industry, ore flotation,
the manufacture of explosives, and the
exploitation of oil and gas reserves [3] .
Cornstarch is another organic tackifier
preferred by some contractors.
Although some literature indicates it
is a short-lived product, one Nevada,
USA, contractor and IECA member
has indicated that cornstarch tacks
can persist up to eight months to a
year for dust control in dusty, windy
Reno, Nevada.
Starches can contain up to 8 percent
nitrogen in mineral form and thus can
have a slow-release function. Starches
also are hydrophilic and can absorb
water while stabilizing the mulch [1] .
Another contractor and IECA member
has indicated that due to the recent
push in ethanol production and rise in
corn prices in the United States, cornstarch
may lose its economic edge, with
some suppliers considering processed
soybeans.
Only one clay tackifier is currently
on the market. This bentonite claybased
tackifier (aluminosilicate of sodium,
calcium, magnesium and iron)
works in conjunction with gelling
agents for soil stabilization.
Synthetics
Liquid soil-bonding agents can
maintain their effectiveness for up to
two years, biodegrading in response to
plant growth, site conditions, and disturbance
[2] . Synthetic tackifiers consist
of polyacrylamides, polyacrylates, or a
co-polymer of acrylamide or acrylate
and are supplied as a liquid, some resembling
a watered-down version of Elmer’s
glue. They frequently are used for temporary
erosion control and don’t necessarily
need to be combined with seed.
Summary
Designers and contractors must thoroughly
consider all aspects of site conditions
and constraints as well as project
objectives when selecting a product. The
industry always responds to the needs of
the market, but for now you can have
your organic tack in a variety of forms
(tortillas, cheese, ice cream, and a laxative).
Stay tuned.
References
[1]
Carlson, B. 2003. Tackifiers Put to the
Test: Erosion and Sediment Control
Comes to a Natural Conclusion. Land
and Water. July/August:10 – 14.
[2]
Trotti, J. 2000. Hydraulic Seeding and
Stabilization. Erosion Control Magazine.
November/December: 56 – 61.
[3]
Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org.
Julie Etra, CPESC, will be reporting
on erosion and sediment control technology
in each issue of Environmental Connection.
Julie has more than 20 years of
experience in the fi elds of erosion control;
revegetation; restoration; botanical
surveys; environmental documents; and
wetland delineation, mitigation, and
restoration. She is bilingual (English and
Spanish) and has served on the IECA
Board of Directors since 2004, and
served as the Western Chapter President
prior to that.
Manufacturers – you can send your
press releases to Julie at julieetra@aol.com
for consideration for this column.
340567_RoLanka.indd
8 • ENVIRONMENTAL 1 CONNECTION
8/15/07 12:21:46 PM

PEER
review
Research Briefs
Improving Soil Conditions and
Cover Tends to Reduce Erosion
The purpose of this column is to provide knowledge to readers of Environmental Connection by summarizing the latest
results of relevant research. The sources are mostly refereed science and engineering journals, which means the information
has been reviewed by other scientists and engineers before it was published.
This process doesn’t ensure that the data reported is entirely accurate or reflects typical conditions, but it gives us some
confidence that the study was performed and the analysis stated in a reasonable manner. It always is up to the reader
to interpret the results relative to his or her experience. Papers from conference proceedings, which usually are not peer
reviewed, may occasionally be included if the results are deemed reasonable and timely.
This review cannot cover all papers published in all journals, but hopefully the ones we include will be helpful to the
reader. For more details, the reader is encouraged to look up the referenced articles.
By Rich McLaughlin, PhD
Wood Strands as Effective as Straw
Wood strands, one of the newer erosion control products, have been the subject of
several studies recently. One study was conducted under laboratory conditions using a
flume and artificial rainfall, and found that the strands worked as well as straw in reducing
erosion by 98 percent [3] . More recently, this was confirmed in two different soils,
although the wood strands had some advantage in a finer textured-soil [10] .
This has been updated with a field study comparing strands to straw and shredded
wood in two Idaho forest areas similar to post-fire conditions [4] . The wood strands applied
at 48 percent cover had about the same reduction in erosion as the straw applied at
67 percent cover—about 80 percent compared to bare soil. The shredded wood, applied
at 50 percent cover, only reduced erosion by 41 percent, but that was still a significant
reduction. The vegetation coverage, however, was best on the bare soil plots, although it
had a maximum of only 7 percent. The main difference in the ground cover treatments
was that the wood strands stayed intact during the year-long investigation, while the
straw and shredded wood lost 29–36 percent of their ground coverage. This may be
important in dry areas where vegetation establishment takes many years.
Using Topsoil and Compost to Repair Disturbed Areas
Establishment of vegetation in disturbed areas in semi-arid Mediterranean climates
can be a challenge. One approach that was found to be successful was to spread stockpiled
topsoil from a nearby area [9] . This material not only improved soil properties, but
it already contained a seed bank of local plants that already were adapted to the area.
The additional treatment of hydroseeding with either local or “standard” seed mixes
improved vegetation cover further, but in the end the local plants dominated. The investigators
suggested that the amendments in the hydroseeding mix (wood fiber, fertilizer,
humic acid) enhanced the topsoil treatment. It is not clear that the “local” plants were
necessarily “native,” so it is important not to interpret that term. Kudzu is local in the
Southeast United States, but few would consider it native. The depth of topsoil was not
provided in the article, only that it had been stockpiled for less than three months and
that it came from a nearby vineyard.
OCTOBER 2007 • 9

Improving Soil Conditions and Cover Tends to Reduce Erosion
In another study, topsoil was added to
exposed subsoil in Iowa, USA, and both
topsoiled and subsoil areas were farmed
for 28 years prior to testing for changes
in soil properties [5] . This might be similar
to the difference between trying to
grow cover vegetation on unamended
construction site soil, which is usually
a subsoil, and adding topsoil back
once grading is completed. Soil organic
matter was much less and bulk density
much more in the subsoil areas compared
to those that were topsoiled. The
researchers even found that there was a
migration of organic matter downward
in the profi le with the topsoiling, which
indicates some improvement in the subsoil
over time.
Adding compost is another approach
to “fi xing” construction site soils, and
this was the focus of another paper from
Iowa [8] . Adding compost, either to the
surface or incorporated, improved soil
moisture retention and plant species
diversity on a road embankment. The
incorporation treatment had a slight
advantage over surface applications.
Similarly, Faucette et al. [2] found that
composts improved early (three months)
vegetation establishment compared to
hydroseeding alone (which included just
seed, fertilizer, and lime), although after
one year the hydroseeding resulted in
more vegetation. The difference was that
the hydroseeded areas had mostly weeds
instead of the Bermuda grass that was
planted. One point of caution was that
the loss of added nutrients in the hydroseeding
application was much greater
than the composted areas, primarily because
the fertilizer is added to the soil
surface with the mulch, seed, and lime.
Maximizing Performance of
Ground Covers
Another study in the semi-arid region
of Mediterranean Spain examined
the relative capability of grass, herbs,
and shrubs to withstand concentrated
flow [1] . For 26 different species, actual
plants were excavated to determine root
density and diameter as a measure of
resistance to erosion. The relationship
between root properties and erosion resistance
was established for several species
under controlled conditions. Several
grasses, such as spiny rush (Juncus acutus),
and shrubs, such as saltcedar (Tamarix
canariensis), were top performers although
these can be invasive depending
on the setting. Root densities of up to 20
kg m -3 and 120 km m -3 were found for
grasses and shrubs, respectively.
The benefits of using polyacrylamide
(PAM) as an additive to ground covers
were recently published [7] . Polyacrylamide
at 19 kg ha -1 in combination with
straw, straw blankets and either wood fiber
or bonded fiber matrix hydromulch
were tested. One clear result was that
PAM alone on bare soil can significantly
reduce runoff turbidity, but any ground
cover, even without PAM, is much better.
In general, PAM reduced runoff
turbidity, but the effect was not always
statistically significant, especially for the
hydromulches. There was better vegetative
cover with PAM treatment overall.
The take-home message was that mulches
work well and PAM may improve
them further. Previous work by this
group had suggested that lower rates of
PAM (

PEER
review
Business Matters
Planning for Profits, Part 2–
Designing a Marketing Plan
that Works
This is the concluding segment on developing a strategic marketing plan. Remember that marketing is the overall process
of determining what potential business exists (or may exist) within your geographic area and determining whether your
company can and should pursue the business. If you determine that you should pursue the business then marketing will
help to determine how to pursue it effectively and what changes within the company are necessary to take advantage of
the new business.
So how do we build a strategic and usable marketing plan There are at least
seven steps that you want to take in designing a well-crafted marketing
plan.
By Judith M. Guido
Step One: The SWOT
Start by performing an internal analysis to identify your Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, and Threats (a SWOT analysis) so that you can objectively
determine your goals and objectives, capabilities, and company direction.
This business analysis includes looking at current customer segments you serve,
geographic areas, and the products and services you deliver to the market.
Look at trends, growth patterns, and demographics (i.e. age, gender, income)
in your market. Be sure that your marketing goals reflect the overall company
mission, culture, core competencies, and demographics. Measure your name,
brand, and service awareness. Does your audience know who you are and what
you do Look at your service offerings, pricing, and delivery. Can you deliver
your products and services to your customer when they need them and at their
price point
Look at past marketing campaigns and analyze what has been successful and
where you need to improve your efforts.
Step Two: Target Your Market
Target your market. You need to identify both current and potential primary
and secondary markets. This requires data and some digging both within and
outside the company. You can collect this data from your professional association
(such as IECA) as well as local real estate agents, banks, and the state.
You need to conduct your own primary research with your existing customers,
prospects, and defectors. Inquire as to what criteria they use when selecting
an erosion control professional, what gaps exist in services or products
provided, ascertain how they define value, and ask how you compare to your
competition.
OCTOBER 2007 • 11

Planning for Profits, Part 2—Designing a Marketing Plan that Works
Also determine who has the greatest
need for your services and who is
qualified to buy your services. The
match needs to be perfect—your customers
must have a specific need and
be qualified—otherwise you are both
wasting your time and money.
Step Three: Positioning
Develop your positioning strategy.
The position your company strives to
achieve in the marketplace is the key
to your brand, promise, identity, and
the direction of your marketing plan.
There are two key elements in developing
your company position: define
your marketing objectives and identify
your marketing strategies.
To do this you must go back and
review your SWOT analysis. This
SWOT analysis is the foundation
upon which you will build both your
objectives and strategies. Write down
realistic solutions for your SWOT
analysis.
Objectives and strategies must
work together in harmony but play
separate roles in your marketing plan.
It is easy to confuse objectives with
strategies. Objectives are specific to an
individual challenge or goal, are measurable
and have quantifiable results,
have an identifiable time period, and
often focus on changing target market
behavior.
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For example, introducing a new
product or service to a particular customer
segment within a 12-month period
and netting a 10 percent profit
is a marketing objective. Developing
an integrated marketing communications
program through advertising,
personal selling, and public relations
is a marketing strategy. Developing
marketing objectives is done after reviewing
historic “real data” like sales
figures, call-backs due to problems,
warranties, customer satisfaction, and
profitability.
Your marketing strategy takes your
objectives and articulates how your
objectives will be achieved. While
your objectives are written as specifics
in terms of quantifiable goals,
your strategies will be more descriptive
in explaining how the goals will
be achieved. Strategies help to define
how you’ll position your product or
service.
Step Four: Sales Objectives
Set your sales objectives. This gives
you measurable, quantifiable goals
that you can then develop strategies
to support. It gives you a clear picture
of revenue and timeframe. Like marketing
objectives, sales objectives need
to be specific to an individual product
or service, be measurable and have
quantifiable results, have an identifiable
time frame, and should focus on
changing customer purchasing behavior.
Also like marketing goals, sales
goals need to take into consideration
economic and marketplace trends
while measuring the capacity of your
company to deliver the desired products
and services.
Step Five: Tactics
Now that you’ve identified your
services, products, position, and the
strategies needed to establish your
brand and identity—you need to identify
your tactics. Identify your tactics
around media and promotional planning
(i.e. Web, trade publications,
direct mail, events, educational newsletters),
pricing (low, medium, or high
cost provider) and public relations and
sales (personal selling, events planning,
networking, e-sales).
Step Six: Budgeting
Build a budget and establish time
frames. Budgeting helps you to manage
your critical financial resources in
terms of both cash flow and return on
investment. Marketing expenditures
are investments (not merely expenses)
in the future growth of your company.
Each activity (tactic) should have
an expense and a metric to determine
success or failure. Each tactic should
include a payback analysis.
If an expense doesn’t warrant the
investment, eliminate it. And with
each tactic and expense you need to
assign a person responsible as well as
a timeline. The marketing calendar is
critical to ensure that the plan is well
thought out, executed on a timely basis
and matches your customer’s needs
and expectations.
Step Seven: Execution and Evaluation
Once your marketing plan has
been completed, it is time to execute
the plan. This is where the rubber
meets the road. Once executed it is
critical to measure and communicate
the results. Communication allows
us to celebrate successes and make
necessary refinements and adjustments
to the plan. Public awareness
surveys, focus groups, Web surveys,
customer satisfaction rankings, and
customer interviews all are necessary
feedbacks metrics for objective evaluation
of our plan.
Conclusion
Stick to these tried and true rules
and yield the profits you so justly deserve.
As I’ve said for so many years,
the company that doesn’t need marketing
is the company that doesn’t
need customers!
Judith Guido will be sharing tips
to make your business a success in each
issue of Environmental Connection.
Judith is principal of Guido and Associates,
an organization that has been
helping erosion control and green companies
grow their people and profi ts for
20 years. If you have any questions, you
can reach Judith at 818-800-0135,
jmguido@sbcglobal.net or
www.guidoassoc.com.
12 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION
340619_Bowie.indd 1 8/17/07 7:47:46 AM

Viewpoint
Natural Model for
Draining the Rain
This opinion piece fi rst appeared in the June 6, 2007, issue of The New Zealand Herald.
Reprinted with permission from Tony Watkins.
By Tony Watkins
Some years ago an inspector called in to check that no stormwater was entering
my foul drainage system. I explained I did not have any stormwater.
He bristled, as inspectors tend to do, at the thought that someone was trying
to get smart with him. Nevertheless he responded to my invitation to come on in.
He looked up at the roof of the house and could not believe what he was seeing.
“You don’t have any gutters!” he stuttered. I followed his gaze and found I had to
agree with him.
“That’s all right,” he continued “you indeed don’t have any stormwater.”
I suddenly realized where stormwater comes from. Stormwater is not some curse
given by God to suffering human beings for them to deal with.
If stormwater is a problem, it is a problem of our own making and one that could
simply disappear with a change of attitude.
When councils explain that they need a substantial budget to deal with “the
stormwater problem” they really mean that they are about to use scarce resources to
enlarge a problem that did not exist before they arrived.
Is this problem really necessary The best, and most inexpensive, way of dealing
with any problem is always to simply avoid it.
Our problem is not water but, rather, badly designed roads, badly designed architecture,
and badly designed cities. Good urban design simply integrates the beauty
of the water cycle into the built environment, and there is no problem.
The fi rst easy and zero-cost urban design move is to do a language check. We need
to acknowledge that stormwater is not water that results from storms.
It is not necessary to be an ecologist to observe that when a storm brings heavy
rainfall to an area covered in bush, the rivers rise a little and then they continue
flowing for many days after the storm has passed. The bush absorbs most of the
stormwater and releases it slowly over time.
When the trees are cut down everything changes. Venice floods. Matata floods.
It is unreasonable to blame the storms. The responsibility lies with the society
that cut down the trees. More specifically, one group of people make a profit out of
cutting down trees, while another group of people carry the cost of the damage to
the water cycle.
Design in nature slows down the passage of water. However, the many curves in a
river do much more than just slow down the river. They also allow sediment to drop
out. They allow for purification as an inherent characteristic of the water cycle.
When streams are put into pipes and those pipes become straight lines, the result
OCTOBER 2007 • 13

Natural Model for Draining the Rain
is that pollutants, heavy metals, and
dog excrement fi nd their way directly
to our harbors in the shortest possible
time. There is no purification.
Unfortunately it gets worse. The result
of this engineering strategy is the
desalination of our harbours and the
collapse of salt-water ecological systems.
Rates are being used to destroy the
very things we love. We value coastal
properties, but it seems that we do not
value the ecological integrity of the
coastal environment.
Buildings and cities need to become
collectors, like the forests. In a carbonneutral,
zero-waste world this would be
taken for granted. We can no longer
afford fashionable architecture that irresponsibly
converts valuable resources
into junk.
The era when you could tip whatever
you felt you did not want over the fence
to become someone else’s problem has
brought us to the point of ecological
collapse. Adopting an ethic of doing no
harm to the natural environment is now
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a matter of common sense.
Attitudes can change. It took an
enormous effort by Sir Dove Myer Robinson
to convince the council of the
day that it was not a good idea to spend
money pouring raw sewage into the
Waitemata. The time has come to stop
spending money pouring what is euphemistically
called “stormwater” into our
harbors.
Urban design should have nothing
to do with cosmetic appearance and
fashion trends. When the water cycle
and other natural cycles are fully integrated
into the design of buildings and
cities, beauty will flow from the inner
integrity, wholesomeness, and goodness
of our architecture.
Ugliness in a carbon-neutral future
will be watching yet another gigantic
excavation being dug to take ever more
enormous culverts to conceal the passage
of water through the city environment.
Our attitude toward stormwater is
more dangerous than boy-racing.
In the wonderful fantasy world of
architectural magazines, it never rains
and there are no people. At fi rst the architecture
seems very impressive, but
after a few pages it becomes dull, boring,
and repetitive.
One joyless award-winning building
ends up looking like all the other joyless
award-winning buildings. It is a relief
to go outside and watch a rain squall
sweeping up the harbor. We need to
celebrate the water cycle, not deny it.
It is unreasonable to expect Metrowater
ratepayers to pick up the tab
for bad architecture and bad urban design.
Investing in ecological collapse is
a very bad investment indeed.
With responsible design the numerous
springs that have dried up
on the Auckland isthmus could once
again bubble forth with life and bring
us joy.
Tony Watkins is an architect and urban
designer. He was a co-author of the
first Maritime Plan in New Zealand,
and introduced the concept of protecting
the natural character of the Waitemata
Harbour. This led to a campaign to recover
the water cycle in Auckland city,
with many of the streams being brought
back to life.
14 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION
340927_Erosion.indd 1 7/31/07 12:04:27 PM

Ancient Malindi Coral Reef
Tells Story of Soil Erosion in Kenya
By Maria José Viñas
Reprinted with permission from the Stanford Report, April 11, 2007.
http://news.stanford.edu
Coral reefs, like tree rings, are natural
archives of climate change.
But oceanic corals also provide
a faithful account of how people make
use of land through history, says Robert
B. Dunbar of Stanford University.
In a study published in the Feb. 22
issue of Geophysical Research Letters,
Dunbar and his colleagues used coral
samples from the Indian Ocean to create
a 300-year record of soil erosion in
Kenya, the longest land-use archive ever
obtained in corals. A chemical analysis
of the corals revealed that Kenya has
been losing valuable topsoil since the
early 1900s, when British settlers began
farming the region.
“We found that soil erosion in Kenya
increased dramatically after World War I,
coinciding with British colonialism and a
series of large-scale agricultural experiments
that provoked a dramatic change in human
use of the landscape,” said Dunbar, a professor
of geological and environmental sciences.
“Today, the Kenyan landscape continues
to lose topsoil to the Indian Ocean,
primarily because of human pressure.”
Erosion is a serious threat, he noted,
because the loss of fertile soil often is
accompanied by a decrease in food production.
According to one recent study,
soil erosion is a global problem that has
caused widespread damage to agriculture
and animal husbandry, placing
about 2.6 billion people at risk of famine.
“This is particularly worrisome in
East and sub-Saharan Africa, where per
capita food production has declined for
the last half-century,” Dunbar said.
Coral Bands
For the study, Dunbar and his colleagues
donned scuba gear and dove to
the Malindi coral reef near the mouth
of the Sabaki River, the second longest
river in Kenya. Draining about 11 percent
of Kenya’s landmass, the Sabaki
transports sediments to the sea.
The researchers took core samples
from two large coral colonies, each more
than 12 feet tall and about 15 feet wide.
To find out how sediment flux has varied
over the years, Dunbar’s team measured
the ratio of two elements—barium and
calcium—in the coral skeleton, which
is composed of calcium carbonate. “It
turns out that there is a lot of barium in
soils,” Dunbar said. “So whenever something
changes the landscape and causes
the soil to erode and wash into the rivers,
the soil is delivered to the sea. And
with that soil comes the barium.”
The corals then incorporate the barium
in well-developed bands that pro-
vide a record of annual growth, similar
to tree rings, he added. To measure barium
levels in the corals, Dunbar’s team
applied an innovative technique that
quickly vaporizes the carbonate, then
analyzes its chemical composition with
a mass spectrometer.
“In the past we used a dentist drill,”
Dunbar said. “We drilled out a little bit
of powder, and then we dissolved the
powder and took it to the lab, where
we measured the barium with a wet
chemical technique. It was a very slow
process, very painful. It took forever to
get data.” The new method, developed
by researchers at the Australian National
University, “increased the speed at
which we could collect data by a factor
of 50,” he noted.
Equilibrium Loss
An analysis of barium levels revealed
that prior to about 1915, the Kenyan
landscape was in equilibrium—rain
washed out some soils moderately from
decade to decade in a regular cycle that
was only altered by periods of drought.
“But in the late 1910s, the amount of
barium coming down to the coast suddenly
shoots up, and it keeps rising and
rising,” Dunbar said. “This represents
colonial land change, when the British
16 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION

Population Pressure
Another factor driving soil erosion in
Kenya is human pressure. As the population
grows, more trees are harvested
for fuel, which contributes to erosion,
Dunbar said.
“Furthermore, a dramatic increase
in population following independence
wrote. Erosion remains a serious problem
today, they added, thanks in part
to continued urban sprawl, deforestation,
poor farming practices and other
human activities.
The authors called for stronger soil
conservation efforts—a goal that Kenya
is unlikely to achieve on its own because
In 2005, Professor Robert Dunbar and his
colleagues collected core samples from a large
coral colony near Easter Island. That colony
is about the same size as the coral reef that
was the focus of Dunbar’s Kenya study. Photo
Credit: Robert Dunbar
came in and tried some grand-scale experiments,
like the clearing of bush to
create coffee plantations.”
Before the plantations were developed,
the primary long-term land uses in the
region were nomadic animal husbandry
and small-scale agriculture—sustainable
practices that were compatible with the
natural vegetation, Dunbar said. But then
the colonialists began clear-cutting some
of the coastal forests and burning vegetation
to make room for the plantation experiments.
What followed was a drastic
increase in soil erosion that turned the
rivers muddy and brown. “It’s a natural
thing,” Dunbar explained. “When you
perturb a landscape and you cut down
trees and bushes—the plants that normally
help hold the soils together—the
next time you have a big rain or a flood,
the soils go to the rivers.”
Although colonialism ended decades
ago and plantations along the coast were
abandoned, the landscape remains out
of equilibrium, he said, “This would be
a lesson for other parts of the planet:
When you perturb a system by clearcutting
the natural vegetation and it
responds in a negative way, it loses its
essence, and it responds not just for a
few years or a few decades but maybe a
century or even more.”
The researchers took core samples from two large coral colonies, each more
than 12 feet tall and about 15 feet wide.
[in 1963] together with unregulated
land use, deforestation, and severe
droughts in the early 1970s all contributed
to an unprecedented rate
of soil erosion and flux of suspended
sediment [and barium] to Malindi reef
between 1974 and 1980,” the authors
Robert Dunbar and his colleagues used coral
samples from the Indian Ocean to create a
300-year record of soil erosion in Kenya.
Photo Credit: Linda A. Cicero / Stanford
News Service
of a lack of economic resources, they
noted. However, if soil devastation continues,
the socioeconomic consequences
could be dire, Dunbar said. “Loss of
soils constitutes loss of valuable natural
capital for the people of East Africa,” he
noted. “A follow-on effect is that loss of
the soils down the rivers can also have
a damaging effect of the coastal zone,
particularly the health of local fisheries
and the corals reefs that drive a local
tourist economy.”
The Dunbar lab’s next research effort
will focus on mega-droughts—periods
of severely reduced rainfall that lasted
for decades in East Africa. The most
recent mega-drought occurred between
1750 and 1820. “If you think how many
people live in East Africa now, if a
mega-drought happened today, it would
be devastating,” Dunbar said.
Other co-authors of the study are
Dominik Fleitmann, a former Stanford
researcher now at the University of
Bern; Malcolm McCulloch and Stephen
Eggins of the Australian National University;
Manfred Mudelsee of Climate
Risk Analysis in Germany; Mathias
Vuille of the University of Massachusetts;
Tim McClanahan of the Wildlife
Conservation Society; and Julia Cole of
the University of Arizona.
The study was supported by the U.S.
National Science Foundation, the Swiss
National Science Foundation and the
Australian Research Council.
OCTOBER 2007 • 17

PEER
review
Case Study:
Maho Bay Watershed Road Erosion
Reduction Project, St. John, USVI
By Carlos E. Ramos-Scharron, PhD
Increased sediment delivery associated with land development and unpaved roads is a key stressor of nearshore coral reef
systems in the U.S. Virgin Islands. This article briefl y describes eff orts to reduce sediment production rates from an unpaved
road segment in the island of St. John, USVI. Five insloped cemented swales and a paved ditch were built along a 230 m
long road segment to reduce the forces applied by fl owing water on the road surface. The method proved to be eff ective as
sediment production data collected with a sediment trap showed that post-treatment erosion rates were only 30 percent of
pre-treatment levels.
The increased rate of sediment delivery
that typically accompanies
land development is one of the
greatest stressors threatening the coral
reef systems of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Previous studies conducted on St. John-
USVI have identified the unpaved road
network as the most important source
of sediment on the island [1,2] . These
studies indicate that unpaved roads
erode at rates that may be up to 10,000
times higher than undisturbed hillslopes
[3,4] , and that sediment delivery
into coastal waters from watersheds
containing unpaved roads are 300–900
percent higher than from undisturbed
watersheds [5,6] .
An important goal of erosion studies
conducted between 1992 and 2001 by
Colorado State University (CSU) and
Island Resources Foundation (IRF) in
St. John was to provide guidance for
public and private agencies, as well as
local communities, in the development
and application of sediment control
strategies. Between 1999 and 2003 we
collaborated with the VI-Department
of Planning and Natural Resources
(VI-DPNR), VI National Park, and
homeowner associations in the development
and application of strategies
to reduce sediment loading rates into
several bays on St. John. An evaluation
of these efforts was performed with the
GIS-based STJ-EROS model [7] , and it
concluded that erosion control projects
reduced watershed-scale sediment load
rates by 24, 36, and 5 tons per year into
Lameshur Bay, Fish Bay, and Cinnamon
Bay, respectively. These reductions
represented a 10–45 percent drop in
sediment yields relative to rates preceding
the implementation of the erosion
control projects. Within some of these
watersheds, sediment yields have continued
to increase in spite of these efforts
as the unpaved road network continues
to grow.
The Maho Bay Watershed Erosion
Reduction Project was a derivation of
CSU’s and IRF’s efforts to actively participate
in locally-based erosion control
efforts. The road providing access to the
Maho Bay Camps (hereafter referred to
as Maho-Road) (Figure 1) was selected
as an adequate site for an erosion control
demonstration project for several
reasons. First, for many years managers
and maintenance crews at Maho Bay
Camps puzzled at trying to develop a
cost-effective strategy to reduce erosion
along Maho-Road. Maintaining
a drivable surface on Maho-Road was
very difficult, particularly during the
rainy season, as it tended to suffer severe
rilling damage during intense rain
events (Figure 2). Secondly, previous
field data identified Maho-Road as an
erosion ‘hot-spot,’ because observed
sediment production rates from Maho-
Road were higher than most other road
segments being monitored as part of
those studies.
Maho-Road also was visited by
community members and government
employees representing both territorial
and federal agencies during a 1999 University
of the Virgin Islands Water Resources
Research Institute special seminar
directed by this author. Seminar
participants observed the approximately
27 m 3 of sediment that had accumulated
on a silt-fence used for monitoring
sediment production from Maho-Road
over the previous two years. This visual
corroboration of the volume of
sediment that was being produced by
18 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION

Figure 1. Map of the Maho Bay area of St. John showing
the location of Maho-Road, the trap used to measure
sediment production, and the rain gauge.
a fast eroding unpaved road convinced
all stakeholders on the imminent need
to reduce sediment production from
Maho-Road. The attention gained during
this field visit led to informal meetings
between CSU-IRF personnel with
Maho Bay Camps and Friends of the
VI National Park staff in 1999, and
prepared the path for the development
of this project. The project was funded
in 2000 through by the Environmental
Protection Agency’s 319(h) Non-Point
Sources of Pollution Program administered
by VI-DPNR.
Since its inception, the “Maho Bay
Watershed Road Erosion Reduction
Project” was conceived as a demonstration
project with the following three
objectives: (a) reduce the rate of sediment
production from Maho-Road by
improving its drainage pattern; (b)
evaluate the effectiveness of road drainage
improvements in reducing sediment
production rates; and (c) if the erosion
control method was found to be effective,
encourage its application elsewhere
in the Virgin Islands through a proactive
dissemination campaign.
The road segment is 230 m long,
has a total road tread area of 1130 m 2 ,
and an average slope of 12.5 percent [8] .
Maho-Road has a steep section with a
26 percent slope that had been previously
paved with a thin layer of nonreinforced
concrete placed on top of a
poorly prepared native surface. Some of
the concrete had broken apart to expose
the underlying native soil, and this partially-paved
section accounted for about
15 percent of the total road segment area
(about 48 m in length or 190 m 2 ). Prior
to the implementation of the erosion
control method the unpaved portions
of Maho-Road were regraded once or
twice a year to facilitate the daily traffic
flow of four to six heavy trucks and
100–270 light vehicles into the Maho
Bay Camps area.
The erosion control plan consisted
of constructing five cemented swales
to force runoff into an erosion-resistant
ditch and a well-protected outlet. The
combined use of the swales and the
ditch was meant to reduce road erosion
by avoiding the accumulation of large
quantities of runoff on the unpaved
travelway. The paved ditch and swales
also provided a protective cover for the
underlying road surface material. The
ditch and the swales were constructed
between 2002 and 2003. An effectiveness
evaluation was done by comparing
pre-treatment sediment production
rates against rates measured after
the installation of the erosion control
method. Seven sediment production
measurements were taken with a sediment
trap during the pre-treatment
period (1998–1999), while five observations
represent post-treatment sediment
production rates (2003–2005).
The mean sediment production rate
during the post-treatment period was
74 kg per cm of rainfall (109 Mg ha -1
yr -1 ), or only 30 percent of the mean
OCTOBER 2007 • 19

Maho Bay Watershed Road Erosion Reduction Project, St. John, USVI
Mean sediment Standard Deviation
Period production (kg cm-1) (kg cm-1)
Pre-treatment 240.5054282 91.27083025
Post-treatment 74.17300726 53.11734379
350
300
Sediment production (kg cm -1)
250
200
150
100
50
0
Pre-treatment
Post-treatment
Figure 2. Middle portions of Maho-Road
prior to the installation of the five cemented
swales. The deep rill meandering across the
road travelway formed as a result of the
approximately 5–10 cm of rainfall associated
with Hurricane Georges in September 1998.
pre-treatment rate of 240 kg cm -1 (300
Mg ha -1 yr -1 ) (Figure 4). These mean
rates were found to be statistically different
based on a standard T-Test comparison.
Differences in precipitation
patterns could not account for the disparity
as the post-treatment period was
characterized by rainfall intensities that
slightly exceeded those during the pretreatment
phase. Data analyses proved
that the establishment of five cemented
swales and a paved ditch induced a significant
reduction in the rate of sediment
production from Maho-Road.
The decrease in sediment production
Figure 3. Middle portions of Maho-Road
after the installation of the cemented swales
and the inside ditch.
rates is attributed to three factors: (a) a
decrease in the erosive energy of runoff
flowing over the road surface; (b) the
additional protective cover provided
by the cemented swales and the paved
ditch; and (c) an increase in the resistance
to erosion caused by coarsening
of the road material due to the reduced
need to re-grade the road surface. The
results of this study should stimulate
the use of this erosion control method
elsewhere in St. John and other islands
of the Eastern Caribbean wherever the
application of more costly methods are
not economically feasible or desirable.
Figure 4. Mean sediment production rates
in kg per centimeter of rainfall for the pretreatment
and post-treatment periods. Error
bars refer to one standard deviation.
The results of this study have encouraged
us at Island Resources Foundation
to recommend the application of a very
similar method for an erosion control
strategy for the Fish Bay watershed
being funded by the Gulf of Mexico
Foundation and the National Fish and
Wildlife Foundation.
Dr. Ramos-Scharrón is a Hydro-Geomorphologist
with a PhD from Colorado
State University. He is currently a program
associate with the Island Resources
Foundation and a post-doctoral researcher
with the University of Puerto Rico.
References
[1]
MacDonald, L.H., Anderson, D.M., Dietrich, W.E., 1997. “Paradise threatened: Land use and erosion on St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands.” Environmental
Management, 21(6): 851-863.
[2]
MacDonald, L.H., Sampson, R.W., Anderson, D.M. 2001. “Runoff and road erosion at the plot and road segment scales, St. John, US Virgin
Islands.” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 26: 251-272.
[3]
Ramos-Scharrón, C.E., MacDonald, L.H. 2005. “Measurement and prediction of sediment production from unpaved roads, St. John, U.S.
Virgin Islands.” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 30(10): 1283-1304.
[4]
Ramos-Scharrón, C.E., MacDonald, L.H. in press. “Measurement and prediction of erosion rates from natural and anthropogenic sources of
sediment in St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands.” Catena Special Issue-Soil water erosion on rural areas.
[5]
Ramos-Scharrón, C.E., 2004. “Measuring and predicting erosion and sediment yields on St. John, U.S Virgin Islands.” Ph.D. Dissertation,
Department of Geosciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
[6]
Anderson, D.M., MacDonald, L.H. 1998. “Modelling road surface sediment production using a vector geographic information system.”
Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 23: 95-107.
[7]
Ramos-Scharrón, C.E., MacDonald, L.H. 2007. “Development and application of a GIS-based sediment budget model.” Journal of Environmental
Management, 84: 157-172.
[8]
Ramos-Scharrón, C.E., MacDonald, L.H. 2007. “Runoff and suspended sediment yields from an unpaved road segment, St. John, U.S. Virgin
Islands.” Hydrological Processes, 21(1): 35-50.
20 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION

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1 8/17/07 8:05:10 AM

PEER
review
Using an Erosion Model for
Designing Roads That Reduce
Soil Losses in the Forest
Research comparing the accuracy of the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model
in predicting soil loss and runoff volumes from the surfaces and slopes of roads with actual
fi eld measurements, shows that WEPP can be used to design more erosion-resistant
roads in southern Appalachian forests.
By Greg Northcutt
When it comes to controlling
erosion, forests are a natural.
The canopies of trees and
other vegetation cushion the fall of
rain drops to reduce their erosive impact
on slopes. Meanwhile, their roots
help hold soil in place against the force
of stormwater runoff. But the roads
built to provide access for recreation,
logging, and other uses of the forest
are another matter. Typically devoid
of any erosion-controlling vegetation,
compacted by vehicle traffi c, and disrupting
natural drainage patterns and
concentrating flows of stormwater
runoff, they can have accelerated erosion
losses.
However, the results of an eight-year
study, conducted by IECA member and
research engineer Johnny Grace, III, are
being used to design roads in a way that
reduces this loss of forest soils.
Grace is based at the U.S. Forest
Service Southern Research Station in
Auburn, Alabama, USA. His technical
paper describing this study—Modeling
Erosion from Forest Roads with WEPP—
earned IECA’s 2007 Most Distinguished
Technical Paper Award.
In this study, Grace and his assistant,
engineering technician Preston
Steele Jr., measured stormwater runoff
and sediment losses from road surfaces
in the Chattachoochee National Forest
in Georgia, USA, and from cut and fi ll
side slopes in the Talladega National
Forest in Alabama. In all, the researchers
studied 27 different plots at two
different locations. They compared
their measured sediments losses and
runoff volumes with those predicted by
the Water Erosion Prediction Project
(WEPP) model. As Grace points out,
this model was originally developed for
use on agricultural land.
“We wanted to provide forest managers
with scientific data on erosion losses
from the different treatments to see if
WEPP can be used as a tool to compare
various erosion control alternatives in
designing forest roads to reduce their
environmental impact,” Grace says.
Side Slope Studies
The plots on the clay loam cut slopes
and the silt loam fi ll slopes received
one of four treatments: Seeded with either
exotic or native vegetation; seeded
with exotic vegetation and protected
by a Rolled Erosion Control Product
22 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION

(RECP); or left untreated (bare slopes
were allowed to vegetate naturally).
The sediment losses from the side
slope portion of the project were measured
over all eight years of the project.
The input fi les for the WEPP model included
slope, climate, soil, and management
for each treatment on both types
of slopes.
Sediment losses the fi rst year after
establishment of both the native and
exotic vegetation represented from 60
to 90 percent of the total losses from
the cut and the fi ll slopes over the eight
years. On cut slopes, 81 percent of total
sediment losses occurred during the
fi rst year of stand establishment. By
contrast, just 38 percent of total sediment
loss from fi ll slopes was observed
during the fi rst year.
These results reflect different soil
conditions between the two types of
slopes, Grace explains. Because they
represent a mixture of topsoil and subsurface
soil, fi ll slopes tend to have a
looser texture. This improves infi ltration
of water, reducing runoff volume,
and makes it easier for vegetation to
establish compared to cut slopes, where
most, if not all, of the looser texture
topsoil has been removed.
“In this study, the fi ll slopes exhibited
100 percent cover of vegetation after
two years,” he says. “It took more than
a year longer to achieve a 90 percent to
100 percent vegetative cover on the cut
slopes.”
Sediment losses from the control
plots on both the cut and the fi ll slopes
continued at a high rate until the fourth
year after disturbance.
Differences in Efficiency
WEPP predictions of sediment
losses over the eight years for the native
and RECP treatments agreed with the
actual measured losses on both cut and
fi ll slopes, Grace reports.
“The model was most efficient in predicting
soil loss from the native treatment
on both types of slopes and it was
high for the RECP treatments on the
cut and fi ll slopes, too,” he says. “It was
least efficient in predicting sediment
losses from the cut and the fi ll slopes
with both the exotic treatment and the
control,” he says. “This reflects the inability
to characterize the vegetation
mixture in the WEPP management fi le
for the erosion control treatments.
“It’s also significant that the native
vegetation was as effective as the exotic
in controlling erosion of the side slopes
over the eight-year period,” Grace adds.
“For the fi rst two years, sediment losses
from the RECP were less than the other
treatments. However, as time went on,
sediment losses from vegetation treatments
decreased and there was no statistical
difference between them.”
Road Surface Results
The crowned unsurfaced roads
consisted of native sandy loam soil
overlaying a clay loam subsoil. The
Figures 1 – 3 show equipment used to measure runoff from the road section part of the research in the Chattahoochee National Forest in Georgia, USA.
Figure 1: The white trapezoidal flume on the
ground includes a submerged pressure transducer
that measures the depth of runoff from a
section of the forest road. This information is
used to calculate the flow rate. Photo Credit:
Johnny M. Grace, III.
Figure 2: The white pole-mounted box is the
instrumentation hut. It contains a stormwater
sampler, a flow meter and batteries to operate
these instruments. A computer is connected
to these devices to download the information
they’ve collected. Photo Credit: Johnny M.
Grace, III.
Figure 3: Engineering technician Preston
Steele, Jr., measures water collected in a manual
rain gauge. Electronic rain gauges also
were used to measure rainfall. Photo Credit:
Johnny M. Grace, III.
OCTOBER 2007 • 23

Using an Erosion Model for Designing Roads That Reduce Soil Losses in the Forest
Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the equipment used to collect runoff and sediment from slopes for the
portion of the research conducted in the Talladega National Forest in Alabama, USA. This study
examined the effect of native and exotic vegetation and a Rolled Erosion Control Product for controlling
erosion and on the road slopes. The plastic pipes collected all the runoff and sediment from
each of four plots, located on the slopes at each site, and directed it to the blue storage containers. The
researchers measured the amount of runoff and sediment collected in each container.
Figure 4. Photo Credit: Johnny M. Grace, III.
researchers measured sediment and
runoff amounts from 164-ft. (50-m)
long sections of the road following
eight storm events over a 12-month
period. Precipitation for each of the
storms ranged from .1 in. to 5.5 (2.5
mm to 140.2 mm).
WEPP predictions of sediment
yields for the simulated storms were
consistent with measurements made at
the study sites. “The results indicate a
strong, but not a one-to-one, relationship
between predicted and observed
sediment yield for the road sections,”
Grace says. “However, predictions of
runoff yields were not nearly as good.
This is likely due to the inability of
adequately describing the effective
hydraulic conductivity and soil texture
to optimize sediment and runoff
yields predictions simultaneously.”
That, in turn, indicates the need
for additional field data and studies,
he notes. “We want to take a more detailed
look at some of the factors that
may be affecting runoff yields, such
as hydraulic conductivity and how it
differs with different road surfaces,”
Grace says. “Studies by the Forest
Service’s Rocky Mountain Research
Station in Colorado indicate that hydraulic
conductivity may be considerably
higher than previously thought.”
Figure 5. Photo Credit: Johnny M. Grace, III.
The Next Step
After confi rming the ability of
WEPP to predict sediment and runoff
in the two forests involved in this
project fairly accurately, Grace is now
looking at applying it to other forests
in the Appalachian Mountains,
coastal plains and piedmont areas of
the Southeast.
The Rocky Mountain Research Station
has done a lot work in validating
WEPP for conditions in the western
United States, he notes. His research
will help fi ll in a knowledge gap concerning
its validity in the Southeast.
“Assuming WEPP is valid in these
areas, forest managers will be able to
use it compare different erosion control
scenarios before designing and
building roads.”
Grace’s technical paper is available
at www.ieca.org > Information > Proceedings
2007 to present.
24 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION

IECA members
Member Spotlight:
Geri DeLaMare
IECA member Geri
DeLaMare, CPESC,
serves on the board for the
Northern Plains Chapter,
and works to strengthen
the Chapter’s educational
programs.
Pursuing a Love for Learning
In her work as an erosion control professional,
IECA member Geri DeLaMare,
CPESC, combines the role of teacher and
student.
Part of her job as water resources
development engineer with the city of
Calgary, Alberta, Canada, is teaching
developers and home builders about erosion
and sediment control practices. As
Alberta representative for IECA’s Northern
Plains Chapter, one of her goals is to
help strengthen the Chapter’s educational
programs.
At the same time, she’s eager to add to
her own store of knowledge. In fact, she
was fi rst exposed to the erosion and sediment
control field when she volunteered
to lead a development initiative for the
city to learn more about the rapid rate of
land development that Calgary was experiencing.
Now, DeLaMare is once again
a student as she pursues two master’s
degrees—one in civil engineering, the
other in distance education—to improve
her skills in teaching adults and professionals.
Spreading Knowledge
“I’m one of those life-long learners,”
she says. “Whatever I’m involved in, I
want to know as much as I can about it.
I like to learn and I like to help others
learn.”
That includes IECA and the erosion
control industry. A member of IECA
since 2001, DeLaMare joined IECA to
learn more about erosion and sediment
control. She regularly attends the Environmental
Connection conferences,
including the professional development
courses. Each year, she has taught a
course on the Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE) as part of a week of
erosion and sediment control education
and awareness that the city of Calgary
presents.
This March, DeLaMare taught an introductory
erosion and sediment control
class for people just entering the construction
industry. Her CPESC credentials
offer other teaching opportunities,
too. “A group of us CPESCs in Calgary
put on courses through the University of
Alberta Extension to educate contractors,
consultants and developers about solving
erosion and sediment control challenges
in other areas of the province,” she says.
Working with Water and Soils
DeLaMare, who originally considered
becoming an architect, began her professional
career after completing the architectural
technology program at Northern
Alberta Institute of Technology in
Edmonton. For several years, she and a
partner operated their own fi rm, designing
custom homes and doing drafting
work for architects. Seeking more job
freedom, she went back to school and
earned a B.S. in civil engineering at the
University of Calgary.
“The idea was to combine my architectural
background with the engineering
degree and offer a one-stop design
and engineering shop,” DeLaMare explains,
“But, during my studies I became
very interested in hydraulics, soils, and
the environment. Unlike materials used
in building concrete and steel structures,
in which you can estimate their behavior
using equations, water flows, and soil
properties and their interaction with the
environment are affected by a number of
variables. I fi nd it challenging to work
with them.”
Her engineering education led to her
work with the city of Calgary. One of
DeLaMare’s fi rst positions was in the
Urban Development Division, where she
was one of the engineers who coordinated
activities of developers and consultants
on land use projects ranging from small
residential, commercial construction, and
»
OCTOBER 2007 • 25

« IECA members
industrial sites to development of land
tracts as large as about 500 acres (200
ha). “I was involved with all engineering
aspects of development,” DeLa-
Mare says.
During this time, she was introduced
to the field of erosion and sediment
control when she spent a year
working with others on water resource
concerns, including stormwater management
and protection of wetlands.
That’s when she joined IECA.
Dealing with Drainage
In her current position with the
city’s Water Resources Division, DeLa-
Mare works with developers and their
consultants to ensure compliance with
Calgary’s underground utility requirements,
especially those dealing with
stormwater management. Numerous
elevation changes and long slopes present
a real challenge, she notes.
“If things aren’t designed properly,
we could have some serious stormwater
Pick Cotton.
Pick
management and erosion and sediment
control problems,” she says.
Part of her job is to prevent those
problems. “We want to get a handle
on drainage issues in advance to
make sure nothing falls through the
cracks as far as conveying stormwater
runoff down the slopes,” DeLaMare
says. Consequently, her duties have
included reviewing erosion and sediment
control plans for individual sites
as well as master drainage plans and
stormwater management reports and
handling any post-construction drainage
issues.
Education is another key area of her
work. “Development activities are moving
so quickly that education of the construction
community is still needed to
make sure that stormwater runoff is managed
appropriately on site and, if released,
that it’s handled properly,” she says.
Teaching the Pros
DeLaMare would like to combine
her work experience in solving stormwater
management problems with her
master’s in distance education degree
to provide distance (online) educational
opportunities for professionals in the
fields of water resource protection and
environmental management.
“Distance education is becoming an
integral part of adult education these
days,” she says. “Adults have a personal
interest in learning how to advance in
their jobs or professions. I want to help
them learn.”
Part of that, she says, will mean providing
courses that meet the unique
needs of adults for practical and interactive
training.
“Based on my learning experiences,
adults with the motivation to improve
their professional skills want courses
that apply to their real life situation
and allow them to interact with their
instructors and fellow students,” she
says. “The challenge as an instructor is
to meet these needs by creating a more
satisfying and successful educational
experience for them.
“I’ve had a lot of support in my education,
and now I want to be part of
supporting others in their efforts to expand
their knowledge.”
26 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION
332316_NorthAmerican.indd 1
8/20/07 1:41:53 PM

IECA members
Emerald Member Profile:
Ground Service Technology, Inc.
Emerald Members receive an article in Environmental Connection
as part of their member benefi ts package. To upgrade your membership,
please contact IECA.
Focus on Full Service Keeps Customers
in Compliance
Ground Service Technology, Inc.,
in Escondido, California, USA, started
out as a hydraulic seeding contactor six
years ago. But IECA Emerald Member
Hank Erler and his wife, Jennifer, who
own and operate the firm, located in
the San Diego metropolitan area, soon
saw an opportunity that others were
missing.
“No contractors were providing a
full range of in-house erosion control
services,” recalls Jennifer. “They would
do some of the work themselves and
hire sub-contractors to provide other
services.”
As a result, she says, coordination
of the various erosion control activities
tended to suffer. So did quality
of the work and timely completion of
the project. Offering an alternative,
Ground Service Technology established
itself as a full-service erosion
control company.
Today, the company’s consulting
and Phase II compliance services include
design, implementation and
monitoring of Storm Water Pollution
Prevention Plans, installation and
maintenance of erosion control Best
Management Practices, and stormwater
analysis and treatment. The company
also sells and rents a wide range
of erosion control products.
This long menu of services makes
compliance with NPDES requirements
easier for customers, Jennifer notes.
“We’re committed to meeting and exceeding
expectations of the construction
community, and we make sure
that the erosion and sediment control
work is done properly and in a timely
manner,” she says. “We take pride in
the high quality and professional service
we provide our customers. None of
them have had any stormwater permit
violations or fines.”
Well-Qualified Personnel
In addition to its sales and office
staff, Ground Service Technology employs
40 or more field people, depending
on the season. “Our crew leaders,
equipment operators and installers are
the backbone of our company,” Jennifer
says. “They bring years of experience
and a high level of professionalism to
every project.
“Our staff has designed, engineered,
and implemented erosion control
devices that have been approved
by local municipalities, as well as the
California Regional Water Quality
Control Board, California Department
of Wildlife, Fish & Game, and the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers.”
The company’s employees, who include
several IECA members, receive
training on erosion and sediment control
practices, products and rules and
regulations conducted by IECA as
well as other organizations involved
with stormwater compliance, Jennifer
reports.
Hydroseeding projects involve
residential developments, highways,
parks, and sports fields as well as
mitigation projects, such as wetlands
revegetation.
Some of the jobs can be challenging.
On one project, for example, the »
OCTOBER 2007 • 27

«
IECA members
company stabilized disturbed soils
on a one-mile (1.6-km) section of
pipeline that featured slopes ranging
in steepness from 2:1 to 1:1. After
installing fiber rolls and gravel bag
chevrons to reduce slope length, the
crew hydraulically seeded a native
mixture and then applied a bonded
fiber matrix (BFM).
Because of the steep angles, the
hydroseeding rig could only spray
material about one-fourth of the
way up the slopes. “We couldn’t use
regular high-density hoses to pump
slurry the rest of the way because of
the loss in pressure when connecting
the hose to the hydroseeding unit,”
Jennifer says. “We used a solid wall
pipe system to apply the BFM where
we needed to.”
More Projects
Other examples of the types of
projects undertaken by Ground
Service Technology:
• Providing all erosion control services
for the city of Poway;
• Installing fiber rolls, straw bale
barriers and gravel bags and hydroseeding
slopes to control erosion
and sediment after wild fires
had blackened more than 7,000
acres;
• Providing SWPPP inspection and
monitoring services for as many as
six sites at a time for a local school
district;
• Hydroseeding and installing silt
fence, fiber rolls, erosion control
blankets and storm drain inlet
protection for a highway construction
project.
The company also offers expertise
in installing and maintaining dewatering
and stormwater treatment
projects.
On one construction project, the
company worked with a team of hydrologists
and soils engineers who designed
the dewatering plan to lower
the water table by 15 ft. (4.6m). “The
height of the water table varied by
6 feet (1.8 m) or more over about a
6-acre (2.4-ha) area,” she says. “The
real challenge was dropping the water
table evenly across the project.”
Her crew drilled 23 wells, most
about 22 to 30 ft. (6.7 to 9.1 m) deep.
Then, they set up the pumping system
and water holding tanks with
baffles and screens to retain sediment
in the water that was pumped from
the ground. After letting the sediment
settle, they pumped water off
the top of the tanks and through an
underground pipe system to adjacent
property where it was used to control
dust.
More information about
the company is available at
www.ErosionController.com.
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28 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION
338877_Vitamin.indd 1 7/26/07 5:18:38341317_SacramentoBag.indd PM
1 7/31/07 9:20:28 PM

IECA news
Your Vote Counts
Voting for the 2008 IECA Board of Directors began August 15 and will end November 1. Profi les of this year’s candidates
are posted online at www.ieca.org/applications/boardvote.asp. Be sure to read each profi le carefully and make
an informed decision. Members have the opportunity to vote for the candidates of their choice.
The process only works if IECA members get involved. Take the opportunity to vote and show you care about the
future of your association.
Conference Corner
Drive Your Professional Future to Greater Success
Take the smart route to enhancing your erosion control career and head to EC08—IECA’s international
Environmental Connection conference and expo. The industry’s foremost annual educational event will be
held February 18–21, 2008, in Orlando, Florida, USA.
“The merging of knowledge, ideas, and technology will give you the tools and resources to keep pace with the
fast-changing developments in this dynamic industry,” says Kate Nowak, IECA’s events and sales director.
• Cutting-edge education
Attend day-long training courses to benefit from the practical experience and knowledge of top
experts in the field, such as Dave Rosgen, a hydrologist renowned for his expertise in restoring
damaged river systems. Explore the latest thinking in a wide range of erosion and sediment control
practices at dozens of technical sessions, including peer-reviewed papers, informative case studies and
how-to workshops.
• Incredible expo
If there’s a product or service for limiting soil losses from wind and water, you’ll fi nd it here at the
world’s largest display of erosion control technology. You’ll see and
touch traditional BMPs as well as the newest alternatives to expand
your choices of problem-solving materials and techniques. Exhibitors,
too, can learn about new applications and new markets for their
products and services. “Some exhibit space is still available,” says
Nowak. “But, you’ll have to hurry. The expo has sold out the last two
years.”
• Vital networking
You’ll be able to gather valuable tips, insights and contacts at
receptions, meals and refreshment breaks. They include the EC08 Golf
Tournament—the best ever—at one of the best courses in the country.
• Great location
All EC08 events will be held under one roof at Disney’s Coronado
Springs Resort. Take advantage of the many nearby attractions to
combine your education with a family vacation. Disney Magical
Express will even deliver your bags from the airport to your hotel
room.
• Don’t miss out
“EC08 offers professional development opportunities you won’t find
anywhere else,” says Nowak. “This is one event that you can’t afford to
miss.”
Details are available at www.ieca.org > Events & Programs > Annual
Conference.
Education Corner
IECA’s Electronic Education Format
Saves Precious Time and Costly Travel
Earlier this year, a contractor on the
U.S. West Coast faced an ultimatum—
either train his crew in the proper way to
inspect and maintain their construction
site for compliance with erosion and
sediment control requirements within
15 days or pay a hefty five-figure fine.
So, the contractor did the smart thing.
He contacted IECA to provide the required
training.
In less than two weeks, IECA organized
a day-long training session for
10 employees in 10 different locations.
The training was presented live by an
IECA-approved instructor from a different
part of the country. What’s more, »
Calendar of Events Find upcoming events at www.ieca.org.
OCTOBER 2007 • 29

«
IECA news
the contractor avoided paying the painful
penalty.
Such timely, on-demand education
was made possible by IECA’s Webinar
program. IECA webinars are 60- to 90-
minute online training sessions that you
can attend in your office, at home, or
anywhere in the world where you have
access to a computer with a high-speed
Internet connection and a phone.
“It provides real-time interaction between
you and your instructor, complete
with visual presentations, as in a classroom,”
says Kim Kline, IECA’s technical
resources director. “Even though you
may be thousands of miles apart, you
and your instructor can ask questions
and get responses using the phone or instant
online chat feature. You can save
thousands of dollars in travel time and
expenses and still maintain the interpersonal
contact so important to learning.”
Most are based on the full-day training
courses offered at IECA’s annual
international Environmental Connection
conference. They are presented in
a series of once-a-week sessions and include
the review for the Certified Profes-
sional in Erosion and Sediment Control
(CPESC) exam.
You can attend all or individual sessions
to meet your specific needs. Also,
because these live sessions are recorded,
you can view them at your convenience.
For each hour of Webinar training,
you earn 1 CEU for meeting the Certified
Professional in Erosion and Sediment
Control (CPESC) requirements or
1 PDU to apply to your “IECA Trained”
designation.
For more information contact IECA
or visit ieca.webex.com.
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Solutions Resource • 800-736-9089
30 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION
337791_TerraAqua.indd 1 8/3/07 11:55:19 AM

education.indd 1 8/22/07 8:33:23 AM
IECA CareerCenter
www.ieca.org/careers
[ the best source of erosion control jobs and resumes ]
Register online today!
IECA CareerCenter
is an online service located at www.ieca.org/careers. The service
is free for job seekers and very affordable for employers. For more
information, visit www.ieca.org/careers.
OCTOBER 2007 • 31
CareerCenter.indd 1 8/22/07 8:36:41 AM

Advertisers.com
Bowie Industries, Inc. ............................. www.bowieindustries.com ...............................12
Brockton Equipment/Spilldam, Inc. ... www.spilldam.com ............................................21
Contractors-Services, LLC ....................... www.contractors-services.us ....inside back cover
Deltalok ......................................................www.deltalok.com ............................................33
Erosion Tech, Inc. ...................................... www.scourstop.com ..........................................14
Ewing Irrigation ....................................... www.ewing1.com ................... outside back cover
Finn Corporation ...................................... www.finncorp.com ................... inside front cover
Fischbach; and More, LLC ....................... www.fischbachandmore.com ...........................32
JMD Company ............................................www.jmdcompany.com ....................................21
KriStar Enterprises, Inc........................... www.kristar.com................................................33
North American Green ............................ www.nagreen.com ............................................26
Northstar Impex Corp. ............................ www.northstarimpex.com ...............................33
Profile Products, LLC ............................... www.profileproducts.com ..................................6
RoLanka International, Inc. .................. www.rolanka.com ...............................................8
Sacramento Bag Mfg., Co. ..................... www.sacbag.com ..............................................28
SiltShield, LLC ............................................ www.siltshield.com ...........................................33
StormKlear ................................................. www.stormklear.com ................inside back cover
Terra Aqua Gabions.................................. www.terraaqua.com ..........................................30
Triangular Silt Dike Co, Inc..................... www.tri-siltdike.com .........................................21
Vitamin Institute ..................................... www.superthrive.com .......................................28
Advertisers’ Index
BAGS
Sacramento Bag Mfg., Company .................................28
BLANKETS/MATS
North American Green .................................................26
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
North American Green .................................................26
CONDITIONERS/FERTILIZERS
Pacific Coast Seed, Inc. ................................................ 32
CONSULTANTS
Fischbach; and More LLC ............................................. 32
DUST CONTROL
Northstar Impex Corp. ................................................. 33
EQUIPMENT
Brockton Equipment/Spilldam, Inc. ............................ 21
Finn Corporation .................................. inside front cover
EROSION CONTROL BLANKETS (ECBS)
JMD Company .............................................................. 21
EROSION CONTROL PRODUCTS
SiltShield LLC ............................................................... 33
EROSION CONTROLS
Profile Products LLC .......................................................6
RoLanka International, Inc. ...........................................8
FIBER MATRIX
Profile Products LLC .......................................................6
GABIONS
TerraAqua Gabions ......................................................30
GREEN WALLS & SLOPES
Deltalok ....................................................................... 33
HYDROSTRAW MULCH
North American Green ................................................. 26
Pacific Coast Seed, Inc. ................................................ 32
IRRIGATION
Ewing Irrigation ................................. outside back cover
MULCHING MACHINES
Bowie Industries, Inc. .................................................. 12
RUMBLE TRACK SHORING & STREET PLATES
Contractors-Services, LLC .....................inside back cover
SANDBAGS
Northstar Impex Corp. ................................................. 33
SEDIMENT CONTROL PRODUCTS
Contractors-Services, LLC .....................inside back cover
North American Green ................................................. 26
StormKlear............................................inside back cover
Triangular Silt Dike Co., Inc. ......................................... 21
SEED
Pacific Coast Seed, Inc. ................................................ 32
STABILIZATION, SHORELINE
North American Green ................................................. 26
STABILIZATION, SLOPE
North American Green ................................................. 26
STABILIZATION, STREAMBANK
North American Green ................................................. 26
335587_Pacific.indd 1
Robert C. Fischbach
7/18/07
STORMWATER TREATMENT PRODUCTS
3:00:55 PM
Erosion Tech, Inc. ......................................................... 14
KriStar Enterprises, Inc. ............................................... 33
Fischbach; and more, LLC
Sales Agents / Consultants
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2512 W. Courtland Avenue 509/325-2882
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email: rcfischbach@comcast.net Cell: 509/981-8555
TACKIFIERS/EMULSIONS
Northstar Impex Corp. ................................................. 33
TURF REINFORCEMENT
North American Green ................................................. 26
Profile Products LLC .......................................................6
TURF REINFORCEMENT MATS
Profile Products LLC .......................................................6
VITAMINS - HORMONES
Vitamin Institute .........................................................28
32 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION
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stormwater management products.
Call Today 1.800.579.8819
Rice Straw
Fiber Rolls
(wattles)
Rice Straw Fiber Rolls (wattles) restrict the
movement of sediment but not runoff. They
are also effective at providing a stable
medium for the germination of seedlings.
SlopeGard ® 3, the ONLY
weighted fi ber roll, is used around
drainage inlets to prevent
sediment, but not the runoff,
from entering the inlet.
Contact KriStar today for
product pricing or the
name of the distributor
nearest you.
SlopeGard ® 3
WEIGHTED FIBER ROLL
Call us at
1-800-579-8819
Visit our Web site at:
www.kristar.com
PATENTED
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1 8/17/07 7:51:32 AM
You shouldn’t run over your silt fencing...
ROLLOVERS HAPPEN
SILTSHIELD CAN HANDLE IT
Can your silt fencing handle accidental rollovers
Can you go four seasons without replacing your silt fencing
Does your jobsite look clean and command respect from your contractors
Can you reuse your silt fencing on your next job
Tired of saying no Time to say yes to...
SiltShield
The Revolution in Silt Fencing
www.
.com
586.731.5577 info@siltshield.com
333949_Deltalok.indd 1 7/18/07 11:05:52 340566_Sittshield.indd AM
1
OCTOBER 2007 • 33
7/30/07 5:51:52 PM

Blooper
“A perfect fit” or
“How to widen a roadside ditch.”
Submitted by Ed Ruben, Lower Platte South Natural Resources District. Location: Seward County, Nebraska, USA.
Date: November 2006.
34 • ENVIRONMENTAL CONNECTION

For more information
338496_Contractors.indd 1 7/23/07 1:00:23 PM
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