FISH FOR THOUGHT - National Universities Commission

TILAPIA: FISH FOR THOUGHT 

“The man who sits by the river will understand the language of the fish” 

The Vice Chancellor 

Deputy Vice Chancellor 

Principal Officers of the University 

Distinguished Academic and Professional Colleagues, 

Guests and Friends of the University 

Ladies and Gentlemen 

My career in Fisheries and Aquaculture started at the Federal Department of Fisheries HQ, 

Victoria Island, Lagos. In September 1978 as a Youth Corps member. I have since worked on 

some aspects of the biology and culture of tropical freshwater fishes: tilapias, clariid catfishes, 

carps, barbs, stone-tongue fish, snakehead fish, electric catfish: the results of which have 

appeared as over 100 articles published in national and international peer-reviewed journals, 

proveedings, and presented orally or as posters at natikonal and interional conferences / 

symposia/workshops on various continents of the world. I started off in academices in fish 

biology, following the footsteps of my mentors – Prof. K. Kusemiju, Prof. S. O. Fagade, 

Prof. (Mrs) E. A. Adesulu, Prof. A. A. Olatunde and laer chaged to aquaculture having read 

the needs of African aquaculture research by Huisman (1986) and Kutty (1986). 

I have researched into the feeding, breeding and growth of some cultivable fishes in Nigeria. My 

major contributions to aquaculture research from 1985 focus on three major areas of tilapia 

aquaculture which are reported in this lecture, namely the use of: 

(a) Predatory fish to control overpopulations of tilapias in ponds; 

(b) Fermented tilapia silage as an alternative to fish meal; and 

(c) Tilapia pituitary hormone in catfish breeding. 

In preparing this lecture, a number of suggestions of tilapia-related titles were suggested by my 

best friend and co-author: such as Tilapia – the aquatic chicken: past experience, present 

1

situation and future outlook. Tilapias were touted as the “aquatic chicken” more than 20 years 

ago. The phrase may be even more appropriate today than it was then. Like terrestrial chicken, 

tilapias are grown around the world in every manner from extensive to super-intensive farms. 

“Free range” fish are allowed to eat whatever they find in the farm pond while “factory raised 

fish” are grown in high-tech, environmentally-controlled reticulating aquaculture units that are 

computer –operated and can be placed virtually anywhere. Tilapias have even been grown in 

space aboard the space shuttle. Like chicken, they have been accepted into many cuisines and 

hundreds of recipes. 

Today, the Town has come to meet the Gown. An old friends of mine (Fela Anikulapo-Kuti) 

who I admire so much for his talents in music once said, “If people clap when you talk or sing, it 

means you are boring, constituting a nuisance and they want you to leave or that they enjoy 

what you are saying or singing”. Since I will not know which you’ll mean when you clap, I 

encourage you to please reserve your clapping to the end of this lecture. 

1.0 INTRODUCTION 

“Where there is water, there is fish” 

“The most serious doubt that has been thrown on the authenticity of the biblical 

miracles is the fact that the witnesses to most of them were fishermen” (origin unknown)” 

Michael King 1997. 

Fish is among the fist natural resources to be exploited by man. Fish supplies over 50% of the 

total animal protein consumed in developing countries, and less so in developed countries (FAO 

1998). The over-exploitation of fish resources and the ever-increasing protein demand by human 

population have posed problems to fish supply from natural waters. Faced with a supply 

constraint, attention has been drawn to aquaculture as a means to combat protein malnutrition in 

developing countries. 

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1.1 Definition of Aquaculture 

There is an ongoing debate about the extend to which aquaculture should be seen as a branch of 

fisheries or as another form of farming. Although basically a non-question, the author prefers to 

consider aquaculture as a from of animal husbandry, it must be acknowledge that aquaculture is 

often viewed in isolation from other farming practices. Food and Agriculture Organization of 

the United Nations (FAO 1998) defines aquaculture as: 

“The farming of aquatic organisms including fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic plants. 

Framing implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, 

such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators etc. farming also implies 

individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated. 

According to Huet (1972) and Bardach et al. (1972) aquaculture is a form of animal husbandry 

comparable to poultry or livestock keeping. Fishes are confined in specially, but simply 

designed independent enclosures (ponds or cages or tanks) over which the farmer has total 

control and in which proper and regular feeding is done. Usually a known number and size of 

fish seeds are introduced into the enclosure and reared for short periods, depending on the types 

of fish, after which adult fishes are harvested. Fish farming is practiced in ponds, within lakes 

and reservoirs, in cages positioned along the course of running water and concrete-block tanks. 

In all these cases, excepting in cages, water is impounded and retained against seepage within the 

enclosure made from earth of clayey texture or concrete. 

Raising fish in ponds is about the oldest and most common form of fish culture practice. Their 

establishment, mode of construction, size and classification depend on: 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

(f) 

the location, size, topography, geochemistry and accessibility of site, 

quality and quantity of water available, 

type and ultimate size of the fish to be culture, 

the ultimate use of the pond 

the investment capital available and degree of acceptable risk, and 

the scale of the operation. 

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Ponds can be used for the production of fingerlings table-size fish, bait fish or ornamental fish. 

They can also be designed for recreational fishing. Ponds can be built on land unsuitable for 

agriculture and integrated with other agricultural enterprises such as poultry, piggery, rabbitry, 

smailery and livestock. This is referred to as integrated fish farming and it has numerous 

advantages. For example, droppings from poultry and livestock serve as supplementary feed for 

fish and organic fertilizer for the pond bottom, as fertilization provides the best means of 

increasing fish production in ponds. 

Aquaculture practices are traditionally ranged on a continuum from extensive or subsistence 

aquaculture, to semi-intensive aquaculture and intensive aquaculture. In extensive aquaculture, 

cultured organisms are sometimes collected from the wild, kept at low densities and are not 

actually fed, but the culture media may be fertilized in order to enhance the production of natural 

food (“natural production”). In semi-intensive aquaculture, cultured organisms are kept at 

higher densities than in extensive culture. Agricultural by-products are regularly fed as 

supplementary feed, and the culture media are usually fertilized in order to enhance natural 

production. In intensive aquaculture, culture organisms are nearly always reproduced in 

specially-designed hatcheries, kept at high densities and fed several times per day. The 

compound feeds are palletized and nutritionally complete, so that fish production is independent 

of natural production. 

1.2 History of Aquaculture 

Fish culture has been reported in all the ancient civilizations of Rome, Egypt and particularly 

China. No wonder, Chinese sayings attest to this: 

“Give a man fish, you have given him food for the day, teach him to grow fish, you have given 

him food for the rest of his life”. 

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A bas relief of 2500BC depicts fish (tilapias) being reared in ponds and there is a biblical 

reference indicating that fish ponds were extant in Egypt in the early part of the first millennium 

BC or even earlier: 

“Take your rod and stretch out your hand over the waters of Egypt, over their streams, over 

their rivers, over their ponds, and over all their pools of water, that they may become blood” 

(Exodus 7: 19, NKJV) 

“and they shall be broken thereof, those who make sluices for fish” 

(Isaiah 19:10, KJV) 

The Bible also records Peter, Andrew, James, John and Philip, the first five disciples of Jesus, as 

“Fishermen”, and Jesus fed 5000 followers with a diet including two pieces of fish (possibly 

tilapias) being the only miracle recorded in all the four synoptic gospels (Matt. 14: 13; Mark 6: 

30; Luke 9: 10; John 6: 1). Jesus, even after resurrection, ate “boiled fish” (Luke 24:42), 

possibly tilapias. The Romans developed a primitive technology for the culture of oysters. The 

origin of fish culture in China is generally attributed to 

Wang Fang who founded the Chou dynasty. Between 1135 and 1122 BC, Wang Fang built 

ponds and filled them with water and fish, and also recorded the behaviours and growth of 

stocked fish. This is long before the famous Chinese manuscript on carp farming by Fan Lee 

(477 BC), which reads: 

“Here are five ways of making a living, the foremost of which is in aquatic husbandry, by 

which I mean fish culture. You construct a pond of six mou (1 mou = 667m2). In the pond 

you build nine islands. Place into the pond plenty of aquatic plants that are folded over 

several times. Then collect twenty gravid carp that are three chih (1 chih = 35.8cm) in length 

and four male carp that are also three chih in length. Introduce these carp into the pond 

during the early part of the second moon of the year (around March), leave the water 

undisturbed, and the fish will spawn. During the fourth moon (around May), introduce into 

the pond one turtle during the sixth moon, two turtles, and during the eighth moon, two 

turtles. The turtles are heavenly guards, guarding against invasions of flying predators. 

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When the fish swim round and round without finding the end, they would feel as if they are in 

natural rivers and lakes. By the second moon of the following year, you can harvest 15,000 

carp of one chih in length, 45,000 carp of two chih and 10,000 carp of three chih. The total 

harvet can render a total value of 1,250,000 coins. The following year, you can get 100,000 

carp of three chih, 50,000 carp of two chih, 50,000 carp of three chih and 40,000 carp of four 

chih. Sace 2,000 carp that are two chih in length as parent stock and market the remainder. 

The take will amount to 5,150,000 coins. In one year, the increase in income is countless.” 

By 460 BC, Fan Lee had written the fist book on fish culture, which detailed the results of 

numerous experiments made by Fan Li and others. Keeping carp for pleasure was gradually 

transformed into the rearing of carp for food. This practice spread to India, Indonesia, Vietnam 

and Cambodia. Fish farming development from these early times has given the peoples of the 

region a head start in fish farming which they have maintained to the present day. 

1.3 Aquaculture Production in Africa 

Bas-relief on the walls of tombs of Pharaohs traced the history of aquaculture in Africa to 2500 

BC in ancient Egypt (Maar et al. 1966), showing fish kept in well-built, drainable ponds, fished 

for food (figure 1). The practice appeared to have emerged around the same time, if not earlier 

than, the initiation of carp culture in China. Reference is also made in the Bible to the “fish 

sluices” of the River Nile (Isaiah 19: 10). This may have been a reference to the extensive area 

of drain-in-ponds or howash systems of the Nile delta, covering an estimated 30,000 – 50,000 

ha. However, very few Africa countries have a background in fish culture. Traditional African 

forms of what would now be called culture- based fisheries are the acadjas or brushparks and the 

whedos or fish holes in West Africa and Madagascar. Intricate systems of fish channels, 

although presently much in decline, exist in the floodplains (yeares) of northern Cameroon and 

southern Chad. 

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“Modern” fish culture was introduced into African countries in the early years of the last century, 

primarily for stocking waters for angling by expartiates. For example, in Malawi, rainbow trout 

(Salmo gairdnerii) was first introduced in 1906. as early as the 1930s, experiments in tilapia 

aquaculture were carried out in Kenya. In 1924 and was later introduced to other countries after 

World War II (Huisman 1986, Jackson 1988). Dam stocking began in the 1940s, mainly with 

black bass (Micropterus salmoides), and tilapias (Tilapia sparrmanii) in the 1950s. even since, 

tilapias, catfishes and carp have been the main fish produced. 

The introduction of fish farming for food first arose in Africa in the 1940s, notably in Zaire, 

because of the difficult food supply as a result of World War II. The fist trials with tilapia 

species at Kipopo Fishereis Research Station were considered successful and fish farming was 

actively propagated in the 1950s (Table 1). In French-speaking Africa, the Forest and Wildlife 

services (“Eaux et Forets”) were encouraged to promote the concept of family fist pond, by 

constructing demonstration ponds and fingerling stations and by organizing training courses. 

However, results were disappointing, firstly because foresters without any knowledge of or 

qualification in fish culture were simply ordered to start raising fish. Secondly, because nobody 

was able to distinguish between the different tilapia species, T. macrochi, T. rendalii and T. 

Zilli were stocked in polyculture, which resulted in poor yields (Lazard 19990). 

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Table 1: Early aquaculture history in West and Central Africa. 

Year Activity Country 

1948 Kipopo Fisheries Research Station was set up Zaire 

1949 First Anglo-Belgian Fish Culture Conference Zaire 

1952 First Symposium on Hydrobiology and African Inland Uganda 

Fisheries. 

1956 Bouake Fisheries Station was set up Cote 

d’Ivoire 

The economics of aquaculture never seemed to be considered in those days, and until the 

independence of the African countries could inland aquaculture continue and even expand as a 

result of financial aid and technical assistance. By 1960, the number of fish ponds in Africa was 

estimated at 320,000 with a total surface area of 7324 ha (average pond surface: 280m2). Total 

estimated production was 3714 mt. Yr-1 (507 kg.ha-1.yr-1), which corresponds to only 15kg per 

average pond so that obviously farmers’ interest in fish ponds declined rapidly as they were 

rightly doubtful about the benefits. Many ponds were abandoned except where government 

support was provided. Major problems appeared to have been: 

(a) the stunting of tilapia in mixed sex culture; 

(b) poor pond construction – too shallow, too small and drying out too soon; 

(c) a lack of understanding of suitable pond inputs; and 

(d) bioctechnical problems with the reproduction of alternative species, such as the 

indigenous catfishes and carps (e. g. Labeo spp.) 

By the 1970s knowledge had so much advanced as to put tropical inland aquaculture on a more 

solid base. By then, it was well known that Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, which yields 5 – 

15 mt. Ha-1 yr-1 in (semi-) intensive pond aquaculture, and some closely-related species (O. 

aureus, O. mossambicus, O. hornonrum), performed much better than any other tilapia species. 

However, extensive fish culture, in the concept of family fish ponds, was still seen as a method 

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of food security by which the poorest members of society would have daily access to highquality 

protein, and again much support was invested in the development of extensive 

aquaculture. Because of the increasing number of farmers abandoning extensive tilapia farming 

over the years, aquaculture development projects were re-orientated towards more profitable and 

intensive methods of fish raising. 

Since the 1980s, attempts have been made to introduce more lucrative fish species. Interest is in 

the group of clariid catfiehs such as Clarias species, first mentioned for culture by De Kimpe & 

Micha (1974) and Hogendoorn & Wieme (1976), and more recently Heterobranchus species 

(Legendre 1988, Fagbenro et al. 1993). As a result, emphasis shifted from the poorest farmers, 

who were in need of animal protein, to (small) farmers who could sufficiently invest in 

aquaculture operation. Aquaculture has been practiced for many centuries in various parts of the 

world and it has still not reached the limits of its development. Africa’s contribution 97%, 1%, 

and 2%, respectively (Satia 1989), of the total aquaculture prodction in Africa; of which 97.5% 

are finfish, 0.6% crustaceans and 1.9% mollusks. Marine and brackishwater culture as well as 

mollusk culture and crustacean culture are recent (Huisman 1986). 

Aquaculture production in sub-Saharan Africa is predominantly rural, oriented towards meeting 

the nutritional needs of the farmer and the extended family and diversity their activities and 

incomes. Africa’s history of tradiontal aquaculture includes brushparks, drain-in ponds, lagoon, 

floodplain and riverbed farming, all dating over 200 years. Poorely researched, even legislated 

against, nevertheless these systems currently contribute the bulk (over 60%) of all recorded 

farmed fish production in Africa (Balarin et al. 1998). Environmentally, they stood the test of 

time, often contribtuint to biodiversity. Socio-economically close to fishing, fish ranching 

systems bridge the technology gap and transform fishers into farmers. They offer a possible way 

forward for fishing communities to diversify livelihood and food security opportunities. The 

universal dearth of knowledge of these system calls for focused research into hitherto 

underdeveloped traditional systems endemic to Africa. 

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1.4 Aquaculture in Nigeria 

Artisanal fishermen and fishing communities in Nigeria had for generations practiced traditional 

methods of fish culture in tidal pools and floodplans (Dada 1975, Sagua 1976). These were 

extensive polyculture systems, which do not fall strictly under the modern definition of fish 

culture, that is, “production under controlled conditions”, and presently do not play any 

significant role in the national economy. Modern fish culture or fish farming in Nigeria is of 

recent practice and is a more reliable source of increasing fish protein production for its teaming 

populeation. The first attempt at fish farming was in 1951 at a small experimental station in 

Onikan (Lagos State) and various Tilapia species were used (Longhurst 1961). Modern pond 

culture started with a pilot fish farm (20 ha) in Panyam (Pleateau State) ofr rearing the 

common/mirror carp, Cyprinus carpio (Olaniyan 1961, Ajayi 1971), following the disappointing 

results with tilapias. Although the fist years of Panyam fish farm’s existence were hardly 

satififactory, the trials nevertheless generated sufficient interest that regional governments 

established more fish farms. 

Small-scale farms comprise a large proportion of aquaculture ventures ranging from homestead 

concrete ponds (25 – 40m2) operated by individual farmer or family to small earthen ponds 

(0.02-0.2 ha) operated as part-time or off-season occupation by communities, institutions, 

associations or cooperative societies (Anyanwu et al. 1989). Both indigenous and introduced 

species are cultivated in ponds, reservoirs and cages. Tilapias, clariid catfishes and the 

common/mirror carp are the most widely cultured fish in Nigeria (Satia 1990; Vanden Bossche 

& Bernacsek 1990) and are suited to low-technology farming systems in many other developing 

countries. This is because of their fast growth rate, efficient use of natural aquatic foods, 

propensity to consume a variety of supplementary feeds, omnivorous food habits, resistance to 

disease and handling, ease of reproduction in captivity, and tolerance to wide ranges of 

environmental conditions (Fagbenro 1987a). 

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1.5 Development of tilapia aquaculture 

Tilapia culture, once largely a subsistence level activity, began to expand rapidly during the latter 

half of the last century. That expansion occurred both geographically and in total production, 

originally found in the Middle East and Africa, tilapia has been introduced into tropical Asia in 

the 1930s, but found their way into North America, Latin America and Europe by the 1950s. it 

was not until the latter half of the 20 th century that interest in tilapia culture caught the 

imagination of researchers and food fish culturist outside Africa and parts of Asia. Expansion of 

interest in tilapia was dramatic in the 1970s and by the 1980s to date, research turned from 

studies of a highly applied nature to those that are increasingly more basic. 

In order to successfully produce tilapia in temperate climates, culturists had to provide suitable 

year round growing temperatures or at a minimum, have the ability to overwinter bloodstock in 

climates where the growing season is sufficiently long to produce at least one crop annually. 

Meeting the temperature need of tilapia required the use of relatively sophisticated culture 

technology for species that were previously reared exclusively in static ponds. Techniques for 

producing tilapia in ponds, raceways, tanks and cages developed rapidly. Aside from intolerance 

to low temperatures and a reputation for stunting, tilapia were found to be almost ideal fishes for 

aquaculture (Arrignon 1998). 

Various species of tilapia are highly tolerant of poor water quality, would accept and efficiently 

utilize diets high in plant proteins, exhibited few diseases, and were readily marketable. Some 

species are tolerant of salinity, even to the point of being adaptable to hypersaline waters, which 

adds to the list of locations where their production is possible. Applied research continues to be 

conducted, particularly in developing nations, but much of the work being undertaken at 

behaviour, and most recently, diseases since epizootic problems have increased as culturists 

began pushing production limits (Stickney 2000). 

There are over 75 species of tilapias in the world, out of which about 22 speices are used for 

aquaculture. Considerable confusion exists on the taxonomic status of many of them. Most 

cultured tilapias are grouped into three genera namely, Tilapia, Sarotherodon and Oreochromis. 

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The major verifying distinctions of developing eggs and fry, and are macro-phytophagous 

(generally herbivorous); (b) Sarotherodon spp, are bi-parental mouth-brooders of fertilized eggs 

and fry, and are micro-phytophagous (planktophagous); and (c) Orechromis spp. Are maternal 

mouth-brooders of fertilized eggs and fry, and are omnivorous. The natural feeding habits of a 

range of tilapias used in fish culture as summarized in Janucey (1998) (Table 2). 

One thing that is apparent from recent studies on tilapia that have relevance to aquaculture is that 

the most commonly studies species at present is O. niloticus (Linnaeus). It accounts for 64% of 

worlds production by weight, followed by O. andersonii (0.4%); while production by 

unspecified species, which also include all these species, is 2.7%. According to Adesulu (1997), 

the species and hybrids cultured in Nigeria are (Plats 1 and 2): O. niloticus; O. aureus; S. 

galilaeus (Artedi); S. melanotheron (Ruppell); T. zillii (Gervais); T. guineensis (Dumeril); O. 

niloticus x O. aureus. However, they are yet to reach their full aquaculture potential because of 

the problems of precocious maturity and uncontrolled reproduction, which often results in the 

overpopulation of production ponds with young (stunted) fish. 

Table 2: Natural feeding economy of tilapias used in fish culture. 

Species 

Food habits 

O. andersoni Adults omnivorous. Fry feed initially on zooplankton but progressively 

take an increasing proportion of phytoplankton. 

O. aureu Adults omnivorous. Fry feed initially on zooplankton. 

Exclusive phyto-planktivorous. 

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O. macrochi Adults omnivorous but feed mainly on plankton, vegetation and bottom 

algae. Juveniles initially feed entirely on zooplankton. 

O. mossambicus Adults omnivorous but feed predominantly on phytoplankton, and can 

utilize blue-green algae. Juveniles can consume a wider range of food 

items. 

O. niloticus Omnivorous grazer. Feeds on algae but not higher plants. 

O. spirulus strictly herbivorous with preference for higher plants. Used in weed 

control. 

S. galilaeus Adults feed almost exclusively on phytoplankton. 

S. melanotheron Juveniles feed on both zooplankton and phytoplankton. 

T. guineensis Adults feed exclusively on high plants. Juveniles can 

T. zillii take both zooplankton and phytoplankton. 

T. rendalli Adults mainly herbivorous. Juveniles mainly take 

T. spermanii zooplankton but gradually become phytophagous. 

2.0 TILAPIA – THE AQUATIC CHICKEN 

“Since World War II, a new fish, tilapia, has appeared among the tools of trade of fish culturists 

and has provoked keen interest everywhere; it has made prodigious progress in fish cultures in 

warm waters and there are great expectations for it as a new source of protein food” 

Chimits, 1955 

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Tilapias are of African origin and are presently farmed in the tropics and subtropics of all 

continents and occasionally elsewhere where warmwaters are available, such as thermal effluents 

or geo-thermal springs. Tilapias have been an important source of food at least since recorded 

history. The fist which St. Peter caught in the Sea of Galilee (Matthew 17: 24-27) and those 

which Christ fed the multitudes were tilapias. An Egyptian tomb freeze, dated prior to 2500 BC, 

pictures the harvest of tilapias and suggests that they may have been cultured (Figure 1). 

2.1 Tilapia as cultured/farmed food fish 

The increasingly high prices of traditional species of marine fish, overfishing and seasonal 

fluctuation in fish abundance have led to intensified search for alternative sources of muchneeded 

fish protein. A promising but greatly underutilized area of production is fish farming. 

Many tropical fish species (tilapias) previously classified as being of little commercial value are 

not being recognized as potential human food. Tilapias are abundant and although the smallsized 

ones are generally low-priced, those over 400/piece live weight command a high market 

price. Before now, tilapia was considered as a poor man’s fish or a low class fish due to some 

factors such as: price, appearance and attitudes of consumers. 

Tilapia is cheap compared to other freshwater fishes hence does not get into the daily diet of the 

higher income group. In developing countries, anything that is cheap is frequently considered as 

belonging to a low-class, a social attitude that is difficult to change. Interestingly enough, food 

scientists and general consumers are now recognizing processed tilapias as high-protein food. 

They are now served in most reputable restaurants and consumers belonging to higher social 

strata have included such items in their menu. 

For the last three decades, two “new” fish have dominated fish culture development worldwide: 

salmon and tilapia. Both fishes have nothing in common, whether regarding their biological 

characteristics or considering their culture systems. Salmon is mainly grown in cages in sea 

water fed with high protein content feed (if not trash fish) with industrial large-scale farms with 

high investment level, but tilapia is cultivated in a tremendous diversity of production systems, 

from extensive to super-intensive practices at small-scale and large-scale level, for selfconsumption 

or marketing and even processing purposes. 

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Tilapias are native to Africa and the Middle East where over a hundred species can be found in 

the wild. One of the common names for the fish is St. Peter’s Fish (Anon 2002), which comes 

from the fact that tilapias are native to lakes in Israel and would have been the fish that were 

caught by the apostles and that Jesus used to feed the multitude as recounted in the Bible. 

Tilapias have been introduced in many countries around the world. T hey are species of major 

economic importance in tropical and sub-tropical countries throughout the world, particularly in 

Africa, where farms stock mixed-sex tilapias in production ponds. They are disease resistant, 

reproduce easily, eat a wide variety of foods and tolerate poor water quality with low dissolved 

oxygen levels. Most will grow in brackish water and some will adapt to full strength seawater. 

These qualities make tilapias suitable for culture in most developing countries where they are 

most grown in ponds, cages and rice fields. Tilapia now ranks with carp and trout as one of the 

most important farmed food fish. 

The first tilapia used for fish culture and introduced in many countries is O. mossambicus, 

which unfortunately has a poor aquaculture potential (except when used for hybridization). 

Israel has played the major pioneer part in working on tilapia biology, culture and growing 

practices followed by USA, Netherlands, UK, Frances, Canada, Germany, Japan, China, Taiwan, 

Thailand, Philippines, Brazil, Mexico and Costa Rica. Today, only two countries account for 

about half the world tilapia aquaculture production: China and Philippianes. The development 

of the ubiquitous tilapia within world fish supply has been notable. According to Muir & Young 

(1998), the recorded growth in aquaculture supply has been notably assisted by technical 

progress in reproduction, nutrition and disease management. 

2.2 Tilapia Farming production systems 

Tilapia was hailed as “potentially an international food commodity” (Pullin 1984) and dubbed as 

“everyman’s fish” (Pullin 1985) because of its desirable attributes including simplicity of 

rearing, hardiness, versatility, undemanding feed requirements – with minimal dependence on 

fish meal and oil resources, firm flesh texture and neutral flavour (Haylor et al. 1994). Maclean 

(1984) also proposed the “aquatic chicken” label because they can be farmed profitably in a wide 

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ange of systems from simple backyard systems to highly intensive “factory farms” – as can 

poultry. Balarin (1984) drew a parallel between aquaculture and agriculture thus: Low intensity 

fish farming requires minimum input. As cattle would grace on pasture grass, so fish feed on 

natural foods produced in the water, enhanced by fertilizer or manure application. This fish farm 

practice approaches “pasture” agriculture. High intensity production, dependent on feeding, is 

analogous to “feedlot” agriculture. 

Pasture agriculture, therefore is generally characteristic of small-scale, rural, subsistence farms 

operated by individuals or community groups. The success of such practices depends on support 

services in the form of technical and financial assistance followed up by adequate extension 

services, generally provided by the government or foreign aid agencies. Feedlot practices on the 

other hand, are more suitable for large-scale, commercial ventures and require a major financial 

investment, often restricting development to large private enterprises. The success of such 

project depends on a sound feasibility study, selection of suitable site, careful design, availability 

of necessary inputs, plus management and marketing know-how. 

Tilapia farming has, over the years, benefited from various technological, advances and 

innovations such as monosex (all – male) culture, interspecific hybridization to produce faster 

growing fish, hormonal sex reversal and, more recently, the use of YY male technology to 

produce genetically male tilapia. All these have helped contribute to the phenomenal increase in 

tilapia production (Guerrero 1997). Tilapias are currently cultured in a wide range of culture 

systems such as ponds, cages, hapas, raceways, concrete tanks, etc. The technology for tilapia 

farming is well established and tested, ranging in production from 200kg.ha-1.yr-1 in stocked 

rice paddies to over 2000 mt.ha.yr-1 in the more intensive Baobab tank culture system. Details 

of the various systems of tilapia forming have been summarized in Table 3. Further discussion 

of a technical nature is considered beyond the scope of this lecture. Worthy of mention, 

however, is the classification of the intensive approach to production. The progressive increase 

in production with intensification can be attributed to the level of feeding. Increased feeding 

permits higher stock density of fish, which requires greater energy input for aeration and 

cleaning. Specific attention is also required for systems design, raising the capital requirement, 

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increasing running costs and technical input. However, more intensive approach permits better 

management, resulting in an efficient production cost and high quality crop. 

Table 3: Tilapia farming systems 

System Major problems Farmer’s needs 

1. Cages Ad hoc design, guessed at Systems specifically 

or copied from elsewhere; designed for tilapias in 

poor feed conversion; fresh-brackish-and 

fouling; short operational saltwater. 

Life. 

2. Pen, acadja- Still experimental Reliable, sustainable 

enclos, etc. 

systems that match their 

resources. 

3. Ponds Nutrient starvation; ad Sustainable systems, 

hoc stock management; well-integrated with other 

water availability / quality. Enterprises. 

4. Tanks, raceways Largely experimental or Reliable guidelines – as 

and other intensive guesswork at site-specific exist for trout culture. 

Systems, including designs. 

Recycling 

5. Hatchery/ nursery Low and / or seasional Reliable seed supply 

systems output of fry/fingerlings; systems that maintain 

no consideration of genetic quality and 100% 

genetic consequences of male seed production, 

broodstock management; where such is 

low adoption of monosex appropriate. 

seed technology. 

17

2.3 World tilapia production and trade 

World production of farmed tilapia rose almost three-fold from 363,326 mt to 971,811mt in the 

ten-year period from 1989 to 1998. Landings from capture fisheries were also impressive, the 

global tilapia landings for 1998 amounted to a formidable 554,620 mt, bringing the world tilapia 

production (from capture and culture) to a grand total of 1.5 million mt in 1998. Total farmed 

tilapia production in 1998 alone was estimated to be worth some US$1.2 billion. The bulk of the 

production from aquaculture composed the Nile tilapia O. niloticus (over 80% of total tilapia 

production in 1998), while the Mozambique tilapia (O. mossembicus) was another major culture 

species (5% of total production). China was the largest producer, accounting for over half of the 

world production in 1998, followed by Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, Egypt, Taiwan, 

Brazil, Colombia, and Malaysia. Other countries with notable production were the USA, Israel, 

Cuba, Mexico, Costa Rica and Nigeria. International trade in tilapia is growing steadily. 

There is significant trade between Central America and the USA; between Asian producers and 

the USA and Japan; and some modest trade between Jamiaca and the UK. Taiwan is the biggest 

exporter of high-quality fresh/chilled fillets for the sashimi market in Japan and ships frozen 

whole tilapia to the US market. In 1999, Taiwan exported 40,039 mt of frozen tilapia. Of that, 

25,800 mt went to the USA, 1,876mt to the Australian market. Other Asian countries, namely 

Thailand and Indonesia, also export tilapia whole and in fillets to these markets. The UK is by 

far the major EU market for tilapia although small volumes are also marketed in the large cities 

of Germany. France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Austria and Switzerland, where sizeable 

communities of Chinese, non-Chinese Asians and Africans live. 

3.0 TILAPIA – BIG FISH, SMALL FRY 

“Omo bere, osi bere” 

“At birth, the risk of death commences. As age increases, so the risk” 

D. S. Render (1993) 

18

Natural reproduction of cultured tilapia species occurs in one of two ways: mouth brooders e.g. 

O. niloticus, O. mossambicus, O. aureus, S. galilaeus, s. melanotheron or substrate brooders 

e.g. T. zillii, T. guineensis. The ease with which tilapias spawn and produce offspring makes 

them a good fish to culture. For example, the first selection criterion of species for culture is 

those sepcices for which puberty begins after an acceptable and profitable marketable weight is 

three months when it only weights 30g, even late-maturing species like O. niloticus and O. 

aureus being spawning as early as 5-6 months after birth. However, this trait creates problems. 

Survival of young is high and grow-out ponds can become crowded. Fish become stunted as the 

supply of natural food organisms in the pond is depleted. Nearly 75% or more of the stock may 

be over 100g in such cases. In order to produce large tilapia (over 150g market price), special 

culture techniques may be required. 

3.1 Tilapia population control 

Population control in farmed tilapias has been reviewed by Mair & Little (1991). They 

mentioned that several effective methods have been used to control such undersirable tilapia 

population; including monosex culture (hybridization, manual sexing or grading), sex reversal by 

androgenic hormones, cage culture, tank culture, the use of predators, high density stocking 

(stock manipulation), sterilization (through the use of irradiation, chemosterilants and other 

reproduction inhibitors), intermittent/selective harvesting, the use of slow maturing tilapia 

species. The advantages and disadvantages of these control methods are presented in Table 4a 

and 4b, respectively, of which very few have progressed from use in experimental studies or 

development trials to widespread adoption by farmers. Where a thorough assessment of user 

(farmer and consumer) perspectives and considered, the use of local predatory fish species to 

control such unwanted/ undesirable tilapia recruitment in ponds is one of the most effective and 

practical methods, which Guerrero (1982) recommended for Africa. 

Density control of tilapia populations by predators is not thoroughly researched in Africa as only 

few indigenous predators have been tested (Plates 3,4,5, and 6). These predators have some 

drawbacks (Table 5), for example there is a difficulty in obtaining fingerlings of N. affer due to 

non-availability in natural waters or inability to propagate in captivity; L. niloticus requires 

large ponds and is sensitive to low oxygen regime; H. fasciatus is also a prolicif breeder and has 

19

a poor market value (due to small adult size). African clariid catfishes (Clarias gariepinus, C. 

anguillaris, C. isheriensis, Heterobranchus bidorshalis, H. longifilis, H. isoptersu) do not 

have these limitations; hence the combined production of tilapia and clariid catfishes has 

attracted considerable attention, particularly in west Africa (Balarin & Hatton 1979) (Table 6). 

The hybrid clariid catfishes, H. longifils x C. gariepinus and H. bidorsalis x C. gariepinus, and 

their reciprocal crosses grow faster than their parental species hence they are preferred for pond 

culture. Both hybrid catfishes are carnivorous with high propensity for piscivory, which 

suggests that they could be used to control tilapia recruitment in ponds, thereby producing 

market-size (“predator-proof”) tilapias in ponds. 

Table 4a: Advantages of different tilapia population control methods 

Tilapia population control method Advantages 

1. Cage / Tank culture Reproductive behaviour is altered by preventing 

nest building, fertilication or the psawned eggs 

pass through the cage. 

2. Monosex culture Males grow faster than females 

a. Manual sexing 

b. Monosex hybrids Wastage of females is eliminated 

Males grow faster than females. 

3. Use of predators Controls excessive reproduction 

Additional fish production / yield 

(predator + prey) 

4. Periodic harvesting of fry and Effective in small ponds 

fingerlings 

Requires little skill 

5. Use of reproductive inhibitors 

a. Irradiation Tilapia becomes sterile as a result of destruction 

20

of gonads and reduction of gonadosomatic index 

b. Chemosterliants Tilapia becomes sterile as a result of destruction of 

gonads and reduction of gonadosomatic index 

6. High stocking densities social behaviour is altered as hierarchy and 

territoriality is broken, hence unable to build nests. 

Crowding reduces the urge to reproduce. 

Table 4b: Disadvantages of different tilapia population control methods. 

Tilapia population control method 

Disadvantages 

1. Cage/Tank culture Culture materials / enclosures are relatively 

more expensive to construct; Fish stock 

requires intensive feeding with high quality 

ratio (balanced diet); Wastage of feed except 

floating pellets are used. 

2. Monosex culture Requires trained / skilled labour; Prone to 

a. Manual sexing human error and sexing is 80 – 90% accurate; 

Wastage of females; Difficult for large ponds 

As large numbers are needed and process is slow 

Difficulty in maintaining pure parental 

(broodstocks) stains. 

b. Monosex hybrid Poor spawning success; Incompatibility of breeders 

resulting in low fertility; 

Requires special hatchery facilities and skilled 

Labour; Hybrid fingerlings are expensive to 

Produce; Low percentage of spawn. 

The need for holding facilities for treatment 

Of large numbers of fry 

c. Sex reversal Sophisticated skill is required for the 

application. 

3. Use of predators Difficulty in obtaining stocks of the desirable 

21

predator; Large tilapia must be stocked initially or 

they will be eaten 

4. Periodic harvesting of fry and Labour intensive 

fingerlings 

5. Use of reproductive inhibitors 

a. Irradiation Expensive technology, sometimes unsafe; 

Hatchery facilities and skilled labour are 

Required. 

b. Chemosterilants Hormones are expensive and difficult to 

obtain; Teratogenic effect of methallibure in 

swine. 

c. Light, salnity, temperature Applicable only under laboratory conditions. 

6. High stocking densities Mortalities occur from either physical damage 

or deoxygenation; Intensive feeding with a 

high quality ratio is required; Good water 

supply must be available; Aeration devices 

necessary; Requires skilled management. 

Table 5: List of African predatory fishes used to control tilapia reproduction. 

Predatory species and their qualities 

References 

Nile/Niger perch - Lates niloticus 

Pregininn & Kayinke 

- voracious predator (1965) 

- difficulty in obtaining its seeds in natural Planquette (1974) 

habitats Bedawi (1985) 

- unable to reproduce naturally in small ponds Ofori (1988) 

- poor survival of juveniles due to sensitivity to El-Gamal (1992) 

handling and low oxygen regime 

- attains large adult size 

Clarias isheriensis (syn. C. agboinensis) Fagbenro & Sydenham 

- prefers tilapia eggs to juvenile tilapia (1990) 

22

- poor market value due to small adult size 

- easily propagated in captivity using natural or 

hormone induced techniques 

African (sharptooth) mud catfish – Clarias Fagbenro (1987b) 

Gariepinus (syn. C. lazera) and C. anguillaris Midedendorp (1995) 

- omnivorous with high propensity for carnivory De Graaf et al. (1996) 

- becomes inefficient, competing for food with Rurangwa (1997) 

prey 

Sumonu – Ogunmodede 

- fast growth (1998) 

- attains large adult size 



Heterobranchus bidorsalis, H. longifilis, H. Lazard (1990) 

Isopterus, and H. boulengeri 

Fagbenro & Salami 

- carnivorous with high propensity for piscivory (1995) 

- fast growth, attains large adult size Lazard & Oswald (1995) 

- easily propagated in captivity using natural or Ajayi (1998) 


Heteroclarias Fagbenro (2000) 

(H. bidorsalis / H. longifilis x Clarias gariepinus) 

- carnivorous with high propensity for piscivory 

- fast growth, attains large adult size 



Table 5 continued 

Snakehead – Parachanna obscura Fagbenro (1989) 

(syn. Channa obscura, Ophiocephalus De Graaf et al (1996) 

obscurus 

23

- voracious predator 

- difficulty in obtaining its seeds in natural waters 

- inability to reproduce in captivity 

- attains large size. 

African knife fish - Notoperus affer Iscandari (1986) 

(syn. Papryrocranus affer) 

- carnivorous 




The jewel cichlid – Hamichromis fasciaturs Fagbenro & Sydenham 


- a prolific breeder with short generation time 

(5 – 6 months) 


Bagrus docmac Kanyike (1969) 

- more effective than Lates niloticus 

- breeds in ponds 

Tiger fish – Hydrocynus brevis and H. forskali Denyoh (1967) 




Puffer fish – Tetraodon fahaka Meschkat (1967) 

- poor results and yield 

Gymnarchus niloticus Bardach et al (1972) 

- failed to reproduce in ponds 

Protoptersu dolloi Bardach et al. (1972) 

- failed to reproduce in ponds 

Serranochromis robustus Meecham (1975) 

- a prolific breeder with short generation time Huet (1972) 


24

Table 6: Tilapia yields and tilapia At values from studies on mixed culture of tilapias with 

various 

clarified catfishes in west and central Africa. 

Tilapia 

stocking Adult tilapia Tilapia 

Rate Ratio 

yield AT – value 

(t/ha/yr) (5) 

T. guineensis & C. isheriensis1 10,000 2:1-10:1 4.3 – 4.6 86.2-96.2 

T. guineensis & C. gariepinus2 6,000 6:1-12:1 3.1-4.0 71.5-93.5 

O. niloticus & C. gariepinus 3 25,000 10:1 5.5 - 

O. niloticus & C. gariepinus4 12,000 5:1 4.1 - 

O. niloticus & C. gariepinus5 14,000 10:1 

3.9-4.1 90.7-98.2 

19,000 

O. niloticus & C. gariepinus6 20,000- 2.7:1 5.6 99.8 

23,000 

O. niloticus & c. gariepinus7 10,000 3:1 2.9-3.6 71.9-76.8 

O. niloticus & C. gariepinus8 10,000 10:1-20:1 1.7-2.5 - 

O. niloticus & H. longifilis9 20,000 22:1 5.2 - 

O. niloticus & H. isopterus9 18,000- 22:1-23:1 5.0-5.3 - 

20,000 

O. niloticus & H. bidrosalis10 20,000 10:1-50:1 5.1-5.4 88.9-96.2 

O. niloticus & H. bidrosalis11 10,000 12.5:1- 2.4-4.0 54.5-72.2 

50:1 

O. niloticus & H. longifilis x C 20,000 5:1-20:1 5.4-5.7 88.7-98.6 

Gariepinus12 

25

O. niloticus & H. bidorsalis x C 20,000 5:1-20:1 5.2-5.6 87.3-98.1 

Gariepinus12 

*Tilapia AT value = the percentage of market-size tilapia in the total tilapia population 

(Swingle 1950). 1Fagbenro & Sydenham (1990) in Nigeria; 2Fagbenro (1987b) in Nigeria; 

3Bard et al. (1976) in cote d’Ivoire; 4 Lazard (1990) in Cote d’Ivoire; 5Middendorp (1995) in 

Cameroon; 6 de Graaf et al. (1996) in congo; 7Rurangwa (1997) in Rwanda; 8Sumonu- 

Ogunmodede (1998) in Nigeria; 9Lazard & Oswald (1995) in Cote d’Ivoire; 10Fagbenro & 

Salami (1996) in Nigeria; 11Ajayi (1998) in Nigeria; 12 Fagbenro (2000) in Nigeria. 

Choosing an efficient predator of a specific size with a recommended optimum predator-tilapia 

ratio represents a constraint to the success of this technique. Apart from the proper stocking 

densities and ratios, the effectiveness of combined culture of tilapias with predators is 

determined by many interrelated factors viz: 

a. Availability of adequate good-quality supplementary feed for tilapias 

This improves the growth rate of tilapias, which then attain marketable size within short 

period being desired as an economic benefit. 

b. Availability of predator fingerlings for stocking 

Because of the short rearing period and for other bio-technical reasons,. The predators do 

not/are not allowed to reproduce in the ponds; therefore scarcity of initial stock of 

predators usually exists. This problem could be overcome wither by using predators with 

high predation efficiency which will hence require fewer numbers that can be collected 

form the wild. It therefore means that tilapia rearing has to be synchronized with season 

when predator fingerlings/juveniles can be obtained. 

c. Dietrary habits of predator 

Since tilapia recruits will serve as main food for the predators, it is expected that a 

pisciovre is preferred to an omnivore, as the piscivore will exhibit higher predation 

efficiency. 

26

d. Appropriate time of introduction of predator 

Predators could be introduced as fingerlings or juveniles depending on which is available, 

but most importantly, the consideration should be the time of introduction. Predators 

should be introduced when their mouths are not wide enough to encompass the body 

circumference of original stock tilapias. In this case, time should be given such that 

original stock tilapia would have grown large enough to escape predation. 

4.0 TILAPIA: TRASH OR TREASURE 

“To what purpose is this waste” 

St. Matthew, 26:8 (KJV) 

Whereas Asian communities accept small sizes of fish, Africans have strong preference for 

large table fish (Balarin 1984). Under semi-intensive and extensive pond culture systems, 

tilapias show early maturation and prolific breeding, resulting in stunted growth; and because 

of their small sizes and bony feature, they have very low consumer appeal (Moses 1983). 

Because of the low consumer appeal of the smaller sizes, innovation could be directed towards 

presenting it in a more acceptable form designed to satisfy the growing demand for 

convenience foods and aquafeeds. 

4.1 Use of stundted tilapia in fish silage production. 

According to Akande (1990) and Eyo (1993), low-value freshwater fishes such as tilapias could 

be economically utilized to produce acceptable high-protein fishery products for human 

consumption, and fish meal and silage for animal feeds from the processing wastes. Large 

quantities of cichlids are landed from freshwaters of Africa in short periods and often glut the 

market, consequently much remain unsold and spoil as a result of poor handling and processing 

(Shimang 1992). These surplus unmarketable tilapias could be economically recycled for 

animal feeding, through dry meal rendering or ensilation. 

The two most important techniques (other than the direct production of rendered dry meals) 

used to preserve / upgrade the nutritional value are: (a) ensiling through chemical 

27

acidification (acid-preserved silage) or microbial fermentation (fermented fish silage), and (b) 

protein hydrolysis using selected exogenous enzymes (protein hydrolsate). Both procedures 

rely on producing unfavoured conditions for putregactive microorganisms, but conducive 

conditions for proteases (low pH required in the silage; high temperature required in the 

hydrolysate). 

The preparation of acid or fermented silage tilapias as substrates include trials made by Akande 

(1989), Dickson (1991), Fagbenro & Janucey (1993, 1994a). Fermented silage was prepared 

from a mixture of minced tilapias (Oreochromis spp), different carbohydrate sources 

(molasses, corn flour, tapioca flour) and Lactobacillus plantarum as inoculum, incubated 

anaerobically for 30 days at 5 – 35oC. The pH and protein solubilization were temperature – 

dependent (Fagbenro & Jauncey 1993). The source of carbohydrate did not affect non-protein 

nitrogen (NPN) content or proximate composition of tilapia silage (Fagbenro & Janucy 

1994a). During storage at 300C for 180 days, NPN content increased and there was 8 – 11% 

loss of tryptophan (Fagbenro & Janucey 1994b). 

4.2 Use of tilapia silage in fish diets 

Fish silage has been used as a feed supplement for various livestock and poultry animals and 

results have generally shown that is has good nutritional quality. The biological value of its 

protein was also comparable with that of fish meal protein. However, only recently has its 

potential in aquaculture diets been recognized, hence few studies have assessed their 

suitability. Generally, fish silage has been compared with fish meal and its suitability (or 

otherwise) assessed by fish growth responses, protein utilization and digestibility. Conflicting 

results have been reported on fish silage as fish meal replacer (either partially or totally) in fish 

diets. 

4.2.1 Moist diets 

Moist acid silage had been fed to carps, salmonids, eels, catfish, sea bass and tilapias with 

satisfactory results but few comparable results are available for fish fed fermented silage. 

Preliminary studies however indicated that fermented silage is nutritionally equivalent to fish 

meal in diets for common carp, Cyprinus carpio ( Djajasewaka & Djadjadiredja 1980). 

28

Fagbenro & Janucey (1994c, 1998) showed that O. niloticus and Clarias gariepinus fed diets 

containing autolysed protein from fermented tilapia silage stored for 15 to 60 days showed 

good growth performance and protein utilization, similarly reported by Wee et al. (1986) for 

C. batrachus fed moist diets containing 8 – week old fermented tilapia silage. However 

decreased growth, poor feed conversion and high mortality were reported when fed to C. 

macrocephalus, and snakehead, Channa striata (Edwards et al. 1987). 

There were no differences in body (carcass) composition and hepatosomatic index in C. 

gariepinus fed increasing dietary levels of autolysed protein from fermented fish silage and no 

morphological deformities were observed (Fegbenro & Janucey 1994c). Wee et al. (1986) 

reported some mortality as well as occurrence of scoliosis and lordosis (vertebral column 

curvature) in C. batrachus, fed moist acid or fermented tilapia silage-based diets but 

surprisingly did not consider these deformities as diet related. Tacon (1985) noted that 

vertebral column curvature in fishes is due to dietary tryptophan deficiency, which is 

characteristic of fish silage. 

4.2.2 Dry diets 

Liquid fish silage is viscous, bulky and difficult to transport, stir or store, and can only be fed to 

pigs directly. There are no solids present to make into presscake; hence water removal by 

evaporation is necessary. Because of the low solids concentration, it is difficult to dry alone. 

Several methods of removing or reducing the water content of silages include spray drying, 

vacuum evaporation or drum drying. Alternatively, filler can be added and then dried together, 

after which the co-dried product can be used as protein supplement for poulty or fish. The 

nutrient content of the dried product is easily altered by the type and amount of filler materials 

used, such as wheat offal, palm kernel cake, cassava flour, rice bran, maize flour, whey, potato 

flour, soybean-feather meal mixture, soybean meal, poultry by-product meal, meat and bone 

meal, feather meal (Akande 1990, Fagbenro & Janucey 1995, Fagbenro et al. 1997), the choice 

of which is determined by cost and local availability. 

Ayinla & Akande (1988) reported that dietary inclusion of acidulated tilapia silage at 410 g/kg 

for C. gariepinue resulted in a better weight gain than diets containing 40 g/kg fish meal. 

29

Fermented tilapia silage co-dried with soybean meal replaced up to 75% of fish meal 

component in dry diets for O. niloticus and C. gariepinus (Fagbenro et al. 1994) while total 

replacement gave inferior growth responses, feed conversion and protein utilization, caused by 

reduced palatability of diets or reduced appetite. No differences occurred in the hepatosomatic 

indices of O. niloticus and C. gariepinus fed increasing dietary levels of co-dried fermented 

fish silage: soybean blend and no morphological deformities were observed (Fagbenro et al. 

1994). 

4.3 Use of stunted tilapia in fish meal production 

Feeds account for over 50% of operational cost in intensive aquaculture and protein is the most 

expensive 

Component of feeds. Fish meal (the conventional protein source) supports good fish growth 

because of its protein quality and palatability. Fish meal is often scarce and expensive 

especially good quality brands; hence cost of fish production and nutrition is often very high. 

As in most aquaculture ventures, reducing feed cost is a persistent concern as feed cost 

significantly impacts production cost. Fish meal, valued for its amino acid balance and 

unidentified growth factors, is widely used and plays a role in improving productivity and 

product quality of feeds. 

Fish meal provides the major protein source in most dry commercial aquaculture feeds and the 

periodic scarcity and high prices of herring and menhaden meals encourage the evaluation of 

alternative animal feed ingredients. Fish from stunted populations may be ideally suited for 

use in commercial fish diets. Waste materials remaining after larger fish are filleted might 

also have potential as a feed ingredient. Large quantities of stunted tilapias abound in Nigeria 

and they create disposal problems. Current disposal practices include burial, municipal 

garbage disposal and dumping in fields or streams. Recycling stunted tilapia into dry meals 

using low-level (artisanal) technologies will encourage and enhance aquaculture production. 

4.4 Use of tilapia meal in fish diets 

At present, the contribution of stunted tilapias to animal feeds is based on crushing sun-dried 

small tilapia, which are reduced to powder before being blended with various carbohydrates 

30

foods to form animal feeds. The processing is currently being undertaken more or less on 

cottage level as there are no licensed firms and the methods used inevitably vary from one 

producer to another. Under an artisanal fish meal production program, 50 kg. Of tilapias are 

simmered in 20 litres of water in a half 200 litre drum for 20 minutes at 800C. This 

temperature had to be controlled to avoid overcooking. Excess water was discarded when the 

cooked fish was pressed manually in a gunny bag. The fish was then allowed to dry for three 

days in the open and ultimately reduced to power in a hammer mill. 

Foltz et al. (1982) evaluated tilapia meals (produced from O. mossambicus) as a substitute fish 

meal for salmonid diets. Tilapia meal was substituted for herring meal in a standard/reference 

diet and it was reported that the growth and chemical composition of the carcass of rainbow 

trout (Salmo gairdneri) fed the two diets did not differ. The production of tilapia meal 

appears an attractive way of utilizing excess tilapia catches and stunted farmed tilapias for 

animal feed, and it would also reduce the foreign currency drain presently involved in 

importing fish meal. However, fish meal production should not overshadow the benefit of 

direct human consumption of fish in the fight against malnutrition. 

4.5 Use of tilapia in salted dried minced fish cake production 

Stunted tilapias could also be introduced into the human food chain. One of such ways is the 

conversion to mince and cakes. Fish mince is flesh separated in a comminuted form from skin, 

bones scales and fins of fish. Production of mince from underutilized and unused species is not 

only an efficient way of recovering flesh for direct human food, but also a wide range of byproducts 

such as pet foods and livestock meal can be made from bones as well as scales, liver, 

swim bladder, etc. The production of mince from tilapia could be a valuable source of utilizing 

it for the production of a versatile protein-rich product acceptable to the local consumers. 

Spiced minced fish or dried fish flakes is prepared by subjecting heavily spiced or curried fish 

to prolonged heating until the moisture content is greatly reduced and the fish fibre 

disintegrates. Preparation of this spice-minced fish is carried out in the home hence the amount 

and the types of ingredients used are left to the discretion of the individual household. It is 

prepared from a variety of marine fish and represents a traditional method of preservation. 

31

However, with the increasing price of marine fish, coupled with the problem of overfishing, 

pollution and seasonal fluctuation; freshwater fish is the next best alternative. 

In Malaysia, Zain (1980) produced spiced minced fish from Mozambique tilapia (O. 

mossambicus) with the purpose of utilizing it as a low-cost freshwater fish through the 

development of acceptable high-protein food. Zain (1980) introduced tilapia in the preparation 

of spice minced fish using the formulation in Table 7. The steps involved are given in Figure 2 

of which the main features of this improved method are: the fish is not subjected to prolonged 

cooking; addition of oil is omitted; fewer ingredients are used; the process is simple, 

inexpensive and appropriate to the need of the developing countries; desalting and rehydration 

of the final product is not necessary. The finished product had a good spice flavour (which is 

not alien to African taste), had no strong fishy odour and can be kept for a few months before 

any noticeable rancidity flavour develops. Obileye & Spinelli (1978) produced a stable and 

palatable smoked tilapia from minced tilapia flesh. 

Table 7: Formula for spiced minced tilapia. 

Ingredients 

g/kg 

Minced tilapia 850 

Red chilli pepper 30 

White pepper 10 

Tamarind 10 

Sugar 30 

Coriander 10 

Salt 50 

Curry powder 10 

Tilapia 

Salting 

Nobbing 

Cleaning 

Deboning 

32

Addition of salt and spices (Table 7) 

Mixing 

Pressing 

Drying 

Grinding 

Packaging 

Storage 

Figure 2: Spiced minced tilapia production (Zain 1980) 

In the production of spiced minced fish cakes from stunted tilapias (Table 8). Akande (1990) 

concentrated efforts on producing an inexpensive cake that would be particularly appropriate 

for the growing fast-food trade as “raw and ready to fry” product. No loss is quality was 

reported when spiced minced tilapia cake was fried immediately after preparation and 

assessment of the product varied from good to excellent. An advantage of this product is the 

convenient preparation and lack of bones, which makes it readily consumed by children. It 

would be particularly appropriate for the institutional trade as raw, ready to fry product and for 

the housewife as a ready “heat-in-the-oven” product. 

Similar works in Nigeria using stunted tilapias as substrates for salted minced fish cakes were 

conducted by Eyo (1996) and Aluko et al. (2000) as described in Figure 3. the cakes produced 

were stored at ambient temperature (25-32OC) fro up to two months during which the 

microbial count (total viable count. TVC) reduced from 4.4 x 103 to 1.5 x 102. 

Table 8: Formula for spiced minced tilapia cake. 

33

Ingredients 

g/kg 

Minced tilapia 878 

Onion (fresh/chopped) 40 

Concentrated tomato puree 40 

Deodorised vegetable oil 20 

Melon (ground) 10 

Salt 7 

Chilli pepper 4 

Magi cubes 0.6 

Thyme (dried leaves) 0.2 

Curry powder 0.2 

The drop in TVC was attributed to a lowering of water activity with increasing water loss. 

Although no attempts were made to identify the organisms in the total plate count, halotolerant 

organisms were responsible. The results of a taste panel confirmed the flavour as good, 

without a strong “fishy” taste. Odour, texture, saltiness and colour were satisfactory and no 

rancid taste was detected. 

Tilapia 

Heading and gutting 

Washing 

Flesh-bone separation 

Mincing and addition of salt and spices (Table 8) 

Mixing 

34

Moulding into cakes 

Pre-heat treatment (70oC for 2 hours) 

Oven-drying (40oC for 50 hours) 

Figure 3: Spice minced tilapia production (Akande 1990). 

5.0 TILAPIA: HUSBANDRY vs. MIDWIFERY 

“Quod ali cebus est aliis fiat acre venenum” 

Meaning: What is food to one is poison to others. 

Lucretius, 95-55 B.C. 

Among the works in fish breeding research, the success of the works of Houssay (1930, 1931) 

in breeding a catfish (Cnesterodon decemmaculatus) by inducing ovulation with intraperitioneal 

injection of pituitary glands extracted from the hypoghyses of Prochilodus 

platensis led fish breeding researchers worldwide along the avenues of hopeful contemplation 

and experimentation in fish breeding techniques. Today, scientists have succeeded in 

identifying and isolating the extrinsic and intrinsic factors that play vital roles in the 

development of sexual products and completion of reproductive cycle of fish (teleosts). 

5.1 Use of tilapia pituitary in catfish breeding 

The African catfishes, Clarias garepinus, C. anguillaris, Heterobranchus bidorsalis, H. 

longifilis are cultured for reasons of their high growth rate, disease resistance and amenability 

to high density culture, related to their air-breathing habits (Viveen et al. 1985, Huisman & 

Richter 1987, Haylor 1989, Haylor 1992, Fagbenro et al. 1993). C. garienpinus is 

circumtropical, constituting a major warmwater -aquaculture species in Africa and has been 

introduced for cultivation in Europe and southern Asia while Heterobrachus spp. are endemic 

35

to Africa. Clariid catfishes do not breed in ponds, hence artifical propagation using exogenous 

hormones to induce oocyte maturation, ovulation and spawning is necessary. Various 

synthetic or purified hormones and steroids have induced ovulations in fishes (Huat 1980), but 

their use in many African countries (including Nigeria) is limited because they are expensive 

and are not locally available. To avoid these problems, and to encourage fish breeding 

programs, the use of crude piscine hypophyses was advocated by Britz (1991). 

The reluctance of fish farmers to sacrifice precious catfish brooders as donors for hypohyses 

couped with seasonality of maturation in clariid catfishes (Ayinla & Nwadukwe 1988, Haylor 

1993, Haylor & Muir 1998), pose hindrances to homoplastic hypophysation in Nigeria. 

Although pituitary extracts from non-piscine sources such as African bullfrog (Rana 

adspersa), common induced spawning in clariid catfishes in Nigeria, (Fagbenro et al. 1992, 

Nwadukwe 1993, Inyand & Hettiarachchi 1994, Salami et al. 1994), the standardization of 

methods dosages and concentration of hormones are often inadequate. It is generally more 

efficient to induce ovulation in fishes with a pituitary gland extract or a gonadotropin from a 

teleostean source because of the phylogenetic closeness between the donor and the recipient 

(Lam 1982). 

Unlike catfishes, sexually-mature tilapias are available all-rear round and could be used as 

alternative sources of piscine hyposphyses for catfish breeding, Salami et al. (1997) 

investigated the effectiveness and dosage of acetone-dried pituitary extracts from tilapias 

(ADTPE) to induce oocyte maturation, ovulation and spawning in C. gariepinue and H. 

bidorsalis. Results showed that oocyte maturation and ovulation were induced in female C. 

gariepinus and H. bidorsalis by single intramuscular injection of 6 – 10 mg.kg-1 ADTPE with 

optimum results obtained with 8 mg.kg-1 acetone-dried tilapia Pituitary extracts in both 

catfishes. At ambient temperature (270C), ovulation occurred within 14 – 18 hours postinjection 

resulting in 16-20% increase in egg diameter. Fertilization and hatching percentages 

increased with increasing hormone dosage. Survival of fry fed with mixed zooplankton diet 

was high (79-85%) after 30 days rearing. 

36

This study conducted in Nigeria by Salami et al. (1997) demonstrated for the first time that 

optimal egg and larval quality in C. gariepinus and H. bidorsalis could also be achieved by 

using the tilapine pituitary hormone extracts to induce ovulation. The efficacy of ADTPE 

precludes the depletion of mature catfish (potential brooders) traditionally sacrificed for 

collection of hypophyses in fish hatcheries. 

6.0 TILAPIA: FISH OF THE AGES, FISH FOR THE FUTURE 

As long as 5,000 years ago, tilapia was depicted in many Egyptian paintings, and considered 

sacred, symbolizing the hope of reincarnation. 

A bas relief from 2500 BC depicts tilapia being reared in ponds, and there are several biblical 

references to ponds and sluices, indicating fish farming was carried out then. 

The most famous historical reference to tilapia comes in the parable of the “loaves and fishes” 

in the Bible. Although tilapia is known for its fecundity, feeding the multitude of 5,000 with 

just two fishes remains a miracle to this day. 

Tilapia originated from Africa and parts of the Middle East. Fossil remains dating 18 million 

years ago were found near Lake Victoria. 

Tilapia is a very diverse group of fishes with more than 100 species split into four 

genera:Oreochromis, Tilapia, Sarotherodon and Danakila. 

Tilapia is a highly evolved group, exhibiting very advanced progeny care, especially in the 

early stages when the fry are most vulnerable to predators. 

Well-documented farming of tilapia began in the 1920s with the fish spreading rapidly 

throughout Africa as its culture potential began to be realized. 

37

The success of tilapia is reflected in its current distribution, having been transplanted all, over 

the tropical world. The most widespread and popularly cultured species is the Nile tilapia, O. 

niloticus. 

Over 10,000 references, five international symposia (ISTA I to ISTA V) and 12 major books 

have devoted attention to this fish. 

Tilapia in the Space and Cyberspace 

Having successfully established itself on Planet Earth, tilapia has also made an intial foray into 

outer space in the Discovery shuttle. Tilapia made history by being the first fish species to 

enter outer space. Four fertilized eggs of the fish accompanied astronaut and former US 

Senator, John Glenn on his return trip to space in 1998 in an experiment to study the 

development of the eggs in a low gravity environment. All the fertilized eggs developed into 

fry, demonstrating that normal development of fish eggs is possible in the near-zero gravity 

environment of outer space (Hudson & Falls 1999). Apparently, three fry died in orbit while 

one returned to the Earth alive to be named Amigos and was pampered with a daily diet of 

decapsulated brine shrimp, powdered krill, cichlid pellets and colour-enhancing tropical fish 

flake food. Tilapia, in particular was chosen for the foregoing experiment because of its 

favourable space culture potential. Aquaculture is believed to be an attractive food source for 

space stations and other space exploration in future. 

According to Suresh (2000), The Aquaculture Network Information Centre (Aqual NIC) hosted 

by an alliance of US government agencies provides a gateway service on-line publications and 

other information sources on the Internet through http://aquanic.org. This site provides an 

access to a number of extension publications on tilapia that beginners in tilapia farming would 

find helpful. It also hosts a discussion forum on tilapia culture. In 1999, a discussion forum 

specifically devoted to tilapia was formed on the popular onelist.com (now 

http://ww.egroups.com/group/tilapia). This forum has a better level of participation and 

exchange of information. The American Tilapia Association 

(http://ag.arizona.edu/azaqua/ata.html) and its website hosts, the University of Arizona 

(http://ag.arizona.edu/azaqua/aquacultr.html) contain a wealth of information on tilapia culture. 

38

The Pond Dynamics / Aquaculture Collaborative Research Support Program has a website 

(http://www.orst.edu/dept/crsp/homepage.htm) that provides a number of useful resources on 

tilapia culture. 

Salmon and shrimp, two aquaculture crops, which are still growing but are relative luxury items 

compared with tilapia. Their culture technologies, higher feed cost and greater disease 

susceptibilities require more capital investment than many small farmers can afford and put the 

final product in a higher price category. The carps, the current leading aquaculture crop, have 

probably already met most of their market potential. A staple in the Orient, South Asia and 

Eastern Europe, carps have a market image problem in many countries, due to complaints of 

bones in the fillets and off-flavours. As predicated by Fitzsimmons (2000), tilapia is poised to 

become the single biggest aquaculture crop in the world, surpassing the carps, shrimp and 

salmonids in the coming decades. 

7.0. CONCLUSIONS 

“Summa epistae, gaudes gaudete” 

Bengel, 1850 A. D. 

Meaning: “This is the end of the gospel, rejoice, rejoice” 

Since O. niloticus is one of the most widely reared species around the world, it therefore 

receives the lion’s share of research attention. It is also apparent that the nutritionists and 

geneticists are, if not more active in research, at least more prolific in terms of publishing their 

work. While there remains a great deal of highly extensive culture in the developing world, the 

technology required to rear tilapia routinely under high densities, in all male populations, with 

rapid growth and excellent food efficiencies is being widely applied. As has been true with 

other species under culture, new problems can be expected to arise as producers push the 

production envelope. 

39

Tilapias are very tolerant of poor water quality, for example, but there is a limit to what they 

can withstand. W hen water quality deteriorates sufficiently due to increased fish density and 

the concomitant demand for deed, growth, and ultimately survival, will be affected. Diseases 

may begin to appear that wee not previously a problem, antagonistic behaviour could occur, 

and the list goes on. Yet we can be fairly certain that producers will continue to push the 

envelopes in their attempts to produce ever more biomass per unit of available water. The 

result will be new challenges to the research community. Looking on the bright side, new 

challenges mean that researchers will not be likely to work themselves out of their jobs. 

Africa, mainly south of the Sahara, remains the great challenge of fish culture development for 

the future. The role of fish culture in the agricultural production systems dynamics and more 

widely in the agricultural development has yet to be assessed. The lack of aquaculture 

traditions and the deep evolution that African rural societies are facing make Africa an 

experimental “laboratory” for aquaculture development. It is not surprising, in these 

conditions, that this continent is still looking for its way in this field, and that in the process of 

trials/errors, the latter remain significantly at a high level. In this evolution, tilapia plays and 

will play a central part. Tilapia appears today as the most suitable fish to fit all these culture 

development trends and philosophies for the future. 

Africa, the “home of tilapias”, has yet to benefit as much from tilapia farming as have other 

regions. However, African aquaculture research and development are producing promising 

results, despite the economic difficulties under which much of these are undertaken. I hope that 

support for the development of aquaculture in Africa, particularly using species like the tilapias 

that feed low in the food chain and that can be farmed efficiently and without undue 

environmental impacts will be increased and that Africa will become a more significant 

producer of farmed tilapias both for its own people and for export. 

The future of tilapia farming remains bright, despite the somewhat disappointing recent 

statistics. In Africa, wherever inland aquaculture flourishes, tilapias are likely to be a major, if 

not the major farmed fish commodity. This can be true if research is better directed towards 

farmers’ need; if better breeds and farming systems are developed together; if anti-tilapia 

40

attitudes are changed where they are ill-founded; and if tilapia farming becomes a more 

sustainable and environmentally compatible enterprise, well-integrated with other development 

initiatives. 

“Give a man a fish, 

He will eat for one day. 

Teach him how to do aquaculture, 

He will need subsidies for the rest of his life. 

Advise him to use tilapia as the main culture fish, 

He will have a tool for facing the fish culture future development trends”. 

Lazard (1997) 

8.0 STRATEGIES FOR TILAPIA CULTURE DEVELOPMENT 

a. Integration of tilapia culture with agriculture: using family level technologies applied 

in schemes which contemplate water storage practice, including micro-irrigation and 

small ponds; encouraging tilapia aquaculture in irrigation networks and integrated 

rice-cum-tilapia culture. 

b. Promotion of an economic environment conducive to greater insertion of the smallscale 

sector within the formal economy. Necessary steps in this direction include the 

availability of affordably institutional credit; adjustments of taxes, levies and 

unnecessary regulations; and added emphasis on providing adequate infrastructure 

and services. 

c. The strengthening of aquaculture production and management systems and their 

effective implementation, through enhanced applied research, institutional 

involvement of research and industry in decision making. 

d. Support pilot-scale or model projects to test the technical feasibility and economic 

viability of tilapia aquaculture systems. 

e. Recognize tilapia aquaculture as a priority sector for investment. 

f. Use international financing and assistance to ensure proper role of tilapia aquaculture 

in rural development programmes. 

g. Provide computerized aquaculture information systems. 

41

h. Support regionally coordinated systems-oriented adaptive research on species whose 

culture methods are already known. 

i. Establish regional networks of multidisciplinary training and research programmes 

for producing core aquaculture personnel. 

j. Set up a global advisory panel on aquaculture. 

Culture Tilapia as Food. 

Farm tilapia the modern way 

It is real food in every way 

When culture the right way 

Culture tilapia for food 

Not exclusive in pens and cages, 

But in tanks we also see, 

In ponds ass well we see 


For tilapia framing to be sustained 

Its seeds may be obtained 

With cheaper feeds to maintain, 


In villages, it is feasible 

In towns, it is viable 

In cities it is sellable 


Tilapia farming is practicable 

With few tools available 

42

It is food that is valuable 


Finally, I also plead that you please listen to the tilapia song by the renowned Fuji 

exponent, Sikiru Ayinde Barrister in the cassette / album entitled, Extravaganza. 

Apart from my works on tilapias, my other contributions to fisheries science and 

aquaculture research and development at national and international levels are presented in 

the appendix. This can be summarized as follows: 

a. Fish biology 

- heamatology of Heterobranchus bidorsalis, Heterotis niloticus, Malapterurus 

electricus and M. minjiriya. 

- toxicity of trona, detergent, grammoxone, textile effluent, petrol-engine oil 

mixture, ichthyotoxic plant to O. niloticus, Clarias gariepinus and Heterobranchus 

bidorsalis x C. gariepinus 

- digestive enzymes in the gut of H. bidorsalis, Parachanna obscura, Clarias 

isheriensis, H. niloticus and M. electricus. 

b. Aquaculture production 

- use of indigenous African predatory fishes to control tilapia recruitment / 

population in ponds 

- use of piscine (tilapia) and non-piscine (amphibian, avian) pituitary 

extracts to induce spawning in clariid catfishes. 

- Aquaculture potential of H. bidorsalis and C. isheriensis 

c. Aquaculture nutrition 

- use of fibrous plant feedstuffs (cocoa by-products, coffee pulp, household 

wastes) crop residues, agro-industrial by-products, animal by-products, 

oilseed cakes/meals, amphibian meals as energy and/or protein sources in 

fish diets and nutrition. 

- 

43

- Determination of dietary requirements for four essential amino acids (out 

of ten) by C. gariepinus and determination of protein requirements of H. 

niloticus, H. bidorsalis and C. isheriensis. 

- Digestibility of protein and energy components of some plant and animalbased 

feedstuffs by C. gariepinus, C. isheriensis, O. niloticus, H. 

niloticus and C. carpio. 

The Vice Chancellor 

Deputy Vice Chancellor 

Principal Officers of the University 

Distinguished Academic and Professional Colleagues 

Guests and Friends of the University 

Ladies and Gentlemen 

“The heights which great men reached and kept, 

were not attained by sudden flight, 

but they while their classmates slept, 

toiled up through the night.” 

Trouble in FromSix 

by Chinua Achebe 

I am leaving this podium, a happy and fulfilled man. You may now clap, and thank 

you for listening. 

44

9.0 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS 

“..I can no answer make but thanks, and thanks, and ever thanks…” 

“The Winters Tale” 

by William Shakespeare 

Research Grants were provided by: 

- International Foundation for Science (IFS), Stockholm, Sweden 

- Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA), Nigeria 

- African Academy of Science (AAS), Nairobi, Kenya. 

- IFS / DANIDA (Danish International Development Agency) 

- Embassy of France in Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria 

- Tilapia International Foundation, The Netherlands 

- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome, Italy 

Travel Grants were provided by: 

- International Foundation for Science (IFS), Stockholm, Sweden 

- Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA), Nigeria 

- Embassy of France in Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria 

– World Fisheries Congress, Athens, Greece 

- World Fisheries Congress, Brisbane, Australia 

- Centre Technique de Cooperation Agricole et Rurale (CTA), Wageningen, The 

Netherlands 

- Centre de Cooperation International en Recherche Agronomique pour le Development 

(CIRAD), Montpellier, France. 

- The British Council in Lagos, London, Manchester and Edinburgh 

- Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU), London, UK 

- International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade (IIFET), Oregon, USA. 

- American Tilapia Association (ATA), Arizona, USA 

- AFRIBANK Nigeria PLC., Akure Shopping Complex Branch, Akure 

45

MBHS Old Boys Association, PIVOT 67, Lagos. 

My schools and universities: St. John’s Anglican Primary School, Aroloya, Lagos; 

Methodist Boys’ High School, Lagos; Federal School of Science, Onikan & Victoria Island, 

Lagos; University of Ibadan, Ibadan; University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, French 

Language Centre, Alagbaka, Akure. 

My supervisors: Prof. R. A. Borrofice; Dr. D. H. J. Sydenham, Dr. K. Janucey. 

My academic mentors: Prof. K. Kusemiju (University of Lagos), Prof. S. O. Fagade 

(University of Ibadan). Prof. (Mrs) E. A. Adesulu (Obafemi Awolowo University). Prof. A. 

A. Olatunde (University of Abuja). 

My research colleagues and collaborators: Prof. T. A. Afolayan, Prof. A. M. Balogun, Prof. 

S. A. Fasuyi, Prof. P. B. Imoudu, Dr. C. O. Adedire, Dr. E. A. Agbelusi, Dr. A. O. Olufayo, 

Dr. A. A. Salami, Dr. E. A. Fasakin, Dr. A. O. Bello-Olusoji, Dr. L. C. Nwanna, Dr. O. T. 

Adebayo, Dr. A. O. Borode, Dr.(Mrs.) B. N. Ejidike, Miss M. O. Akinbulumo, Dr. A. I. Amoo, 

Dr. M. A. K. Smith, Dr. O. Okunlola, Dr. S. O. Ojo, Dr. J. A. Afolabi, Dr. I. Osho, Dr. I. A. 

Arowosoge, Dr. E. A. Imevbore (South Africa)m Mr. O. Owolabi, Mrs. B. B. Omozusi 

(Canada), Mr. M A. Sumonu-Ogunmoded, Dr. Y. Akegbejo-Samsons (UNAAB), Prof. A. E. 

Falaye (UI), Dr. T. I. Olaniran (UI), Dr. Olubamiwa, nee Sobamiwa (CRIN, Ibadan), Dr. A. A. 

Eyo (NIFFR), Dr. A. A. Dada (NIFFR), Dr. F. Omotoso, nee Agbebi (UNAD), Dr. P. Araoye 

(LNRBDA) Dr. Simon John Davies (England)m Dr. Graham Haylor (Scotland), Dr. Ralph 

Krueger (German), Dr. (Mrs.) Mamaa Entsua-Mensah (Ghana), Dr. Olivier Mikolasek 

(France), Dr. Jerome Lazard (France), Dr. Claude Jannot (France), Dr. Toguyeni (Burkina 

Faso), Mr. Romaine Taurines (Frances), Miss. Capille Pariselle (France), Dr. Abdel-Waritho 

(Egypt), Dr. Ibrahim Diller (Turkey), Prof. Tom Hecht (South Africa), Prof. John Verreth (The 

Netherlands), Dr. Kevin Fitzsimmons (USA), Dr. R. D. Guerrero (Phillipines), Prof. E. C. 

Urbinatie (Brazil), Mr. J. Y. Badu (Ghana). 

46

My students: B. Agric. Tech., PGD, M. Tech., Ph.D. Mr. Jimoh Wasiu (aka Jawab) for the gift 

of “Extravaganza”. 

FUTA Vice-Chancellors: Prof. T. I. Francis (late), Prof. A. A. Ilemobade, Prof. L. B. 

Kolawole, Prof. E. A. Adeyemi, Prof. R. A. Ogunsusi, Prof. P. O. Adeniyi. 

FUTA Registrars: Dr. J. A. Osanyinbi, Mr. B. A. Adebayo. Mr. A. W. O. Attoye, Dr. 

(Mrs.) E. F. Oyebade. 

FUTA Librarians: Mr. F. A. Akinyotu and Prince E. K. Adegbule – Adesida. 

SAAT Deans: Prof. L. K. Opeke, Prof. A. A. Ilemobade, Prof. T. A. Afolayan, Prof. R. A. 

Ogunsusi, Prof. S. O. Ojeniyi, Prof. A. M. Balogun, Prof. J. A. Fuwape and all SAAT Staff. 

FUTA Staff: Academic, Senior Administrative, Senior Technical and Junior Staff. 

My fellow townsmen and women (“shons of the shoil”): Prof. S. O. Ojeniyi, Dr. P. A. 

Aborisade (Olori ebi), Mrs. O. Adegbemile, Dr. Lamide Adesina (NUC), Dr. D. B. Ogbonlowo 

(USA), Dr. A. I. Amoo, Dr. & Dr. (Mrs) Adebowale, Dr. Tomori, Mr. J. K. Ilori, Mrs. E. T. 

Akinrodoye, Mrs. Alejolowo, Mr. Akinjero, Mr. Akinpelu, Mrs. Famose, Mr. Adekunle, 

Mrs. Opawumi and Oyo-Osun Staff Association of FUTA. 

My fellowships and my church: Gideons International, FUTA Christian Family Fellowship, 

Chapel of Faith, FUTA. 

My Pastors: Rev. Canon Prof. E. A. O. Laseinde, Pastor Kayode Adefehinti, Edler Tunder 

Adesida and Elder Taye Abe. I cherish your prayers and spiritual support. 

My parents: Oyebode & Oyebade. I appreciate their love and toils over my siblings and I. We 

are grateful for the parental and godly care you lavished on us by sacrificially investing in our 

education. God will reward you all. 

47

In preparing this lecture, a number of suggestions of titles were suggested by my best friends 

and co-author. My co-author is no other than my wife, Omotunde Foluke (nee WILHELM). 

I have enjoyed your love, comfort, support, understanding, cooperation and warm and romatic 

embrace. I thank God I married my best friend and for blessing me with you. We also coauthored 

our children named, 

MoyosoreOluwalorinmilopolopoatinnigbagbogbo aka Oyefunmilola 

MofopefOluwanitoritioseuntianuredurolailai aka Oyeyimka. 

I thank God for both children being loving, caring, obedient and for loving and knowing the 

Lord. 

10. TRIBUTES 

GOD - Almighty, Omnipotent, Omniscient, Jehovah jireh – the provider Jehovaj tsidkenu – 

our righteousness, Jehovah el-shaddai – our sufficiency, Jehovah rohi- our shepherd, Jehovah 

elyon – the most high, Jehovah – shalom – our peace, Jehovah eleheenu – our God, Jehovah 

rapha – our healer, Jehovah sabaoth – Lord of host, Hehovah shammah – is present, Jehovahnissi 

– our banner, Jehovah elohim – our eternal God, Jehovah eloheka, thy God, Jehovah 

hoseenu – our maker, Jehovah adonai – our sovereign, Jehovah mekaddishkenu – the Lord our 

sanctifier, the one who was, who is and forever shall be. Amen. 

JESUS CHRIST – My Lord and Master; who leaders call the great counselor; professors call 

wisdom of God; meteorogists call the bright morning star; wildlifers call the lion of the tribe of 

Judah; foresters call the tree of life; fishermen call the river of living waters; geologist call the 

rock of ages; horticulturists call the rose of Sharon; publishers and librarians call the author of 

life; sailors call the captain of salvation, prisoners call the great deliverer; carpenters call the 

door; journalists call the truth; sinners call the friend; surveyors call the plan of God; doctors 

call the great healer; drivers call the way; teachers call the master; theologians call the baptizer; 

lawyers call the great mediator and international advocate; caterers and bakers call the bread of 

life; native healers call the power of God; soldiers call the prince of peace; photographers call 

48

image of God; civil engineers call the chief cornerstone; electrical engineers call the light of the 

world; even Death calls him the resurrection and life. 

HOLY SPIRIT- The Comforter, Teacher and Intercessor. 

11. REFERENCES 

Finally, as it is reflected in literary traditional and wisdom. 

“I keep six honest serving men (they taught me all I know); Their names are What and Why 

and When and How and Where and Who” 

Adesulu, E. A. (1997) Current status of tilapia in Nigerian aquaculture. Proceedings of the 

Fourth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture (ISTA IV), pp. 577-583. (K. 

Fitzsimmons, ed.). American Tilapia Association, Orlando, Florida, USA. 

Ajayi, S. S. (1971) Panyam fish farm and introduction of the European carp (Cyprinus carpio). 

Nigeria Field 36:23-31. 

Ajayi, F. A. (1998) Population control and yield of Oreochromis niloticus (L.) using 

Heterrobranchus bidorsalis as predator. M. Tech. Thesis, Federal University of Technology, 

Akure. 

Akande, G. R. (1989) Improved utilization of stunted Tilapia spp. Journal of Food Science and 

Technology, 24:567-571. 

Akande, G. R. (1990) Stunted tilapias: new ideas on an old problem. Infofish International 

6:14 – 16 

Aluko, J. F., Oniludu, A. A. & Sanni, O. A. (2000) Microbiological evaluation of 

spontaneously fermented tilapia fish, Journal of Fisheries Technology 2: 73-81. 

Anon (2002) St. Peter’s fish. Awake! Vol. 83, No. 4, pp. 18 – 19. 

49

Anyanwu, P., Ezenwa, B. & Uzukwu, P. (1989) Fish culture in homestead tanks in Nigeria: 

practices, problems and prospects. Aquabyte 2(3): 8-10. 

Arrignon, J. C. V. (1998) Tilapia. The Tropical Agriculturalist published by Macmillan 

Educational Ltd. London & CTA, Wageningen. 78pp. 

Ayinla, O. A. & Akande, G. R. (1988) Growth response of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822) 

on silage-based diets. NIOMR Technical Paper No. 37. Nigerian Institute for Oceangraphy 

and Marine Research, Lagos. 19pp. 

Ayinla, O. A. & Nwadukwe, F. O. (1988) Effect of season on controlled propagation of the 

African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1922). Pp. 198210, in: G. M. Bernacsek & H. 

Powles (eds.), Aquaculture Systems Research in Africa. IDRC, Canada. 

Balarin, J. D. (1984) Towards an integrated approach to tilapia farming in Africa. The Courier 

85: 82-84. 

Balarin, J. D. & Hatton, J. P. (1979) Tilapia: a guide to their biology and culture in Africa. 

University of Stirling, Scotland, UK. 

Balarin, J. D., Lomo, a. & Asafo, C. A. (1998) Aquaculture defined in animal husbandry terms: 

a case study from Ghana. International Conference for the PARADI Association and Fisheries 

Society of Afica, pp. 191 (L. Coetze, J. Gon & C. Kulongwoski, eds.) . Grahamstown, South 

Africa. 

Bard, J., de Kimpe, P., Lazard, J., Lemmasson, J. and Lessent, P. (1976) Handbook of tropical 

fish culture. C.T.F.T., France, 165pp. 

Bardach, J. E. Ryther, J. H. & Mc Larney, w. D. (1972) Aquaculture: the farming and 

husbandry of freshwater and marine organism. Wiley-Interscience, New York. 868pp. 

50

Bedawi, r. M. (1985) Recruitment control and production of market-size Oreochromis niloticus 

with the predator, Lates niloticus, L. in the Sudan. Journal of Fish Biology, 26: 459-464. 

Britz, P. J. (1991) The utility of homoplastic pituitary glands for spawning induction of the 

African catfish Clarias gariepinus in commercial aquaculture in Africa. Water SA 17: 237-241 

Chimits, P. (1955) Tilapia and its culture: a preliminary bibliography. FAO Fisheries Report 8 

(1): 1- 33. 

Chimits, P. (1957) Tilapia in ancient Egypt. FAO Fisheries Report 10 (4): 211 – 215. 

Dada, B. F. (1975) Present status and prospects for aquaculture in Nigeria. Pp. 79-85, in; 

FAO/CIFA Symposium on Aquaculture in Africa. CIFA/T4, FAO Rome. 

De Graaf, G., Galemoni, F. & Banzoussi, B. (1996) Recruitment control of Nile tilapia, 

Oreochromis niloticus, by the African catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1922), and the 

African snakehead, Ophiocephalus obscures. I. Biological analysis. Aquaculture, 146: 85-100. 

De Kimpe, P. & Micha, J. C. (1974) First guidelines for the culture of Clarias lazera in Central 

Africa. Aquaculture 4: 227-248. 

Denyoh, f. M. K. (1967) Pond fish culture development in Ghana. FAO Fisheries Report 44 

(2): 156-160. 

Dickson, M. W. (1991) The development of tilapia feeds based on locally available materials in 

Zambia. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Stirling, Scotland. 200pp. 

Djajasewaka, H. & Djajadiredja, R. (1980) Fish silage as a feed for freshwater fish. Pp. 74-76 

In: Fish silage production and it use (J. G. Disney & D. James (eds.). FAO Fisheries Report 

No. 230. FAO, Rome. 

Edwards, P., Polprasert, C. & Wee, K. L. (1980) Use of ensiled septage-raised tilapia as feed 

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51

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61

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Research Station, Aberdeen, Scotland. Fishing News Books Ltd. Surrey. 

12. APPENDIX 

“If you can’t join them, beat them” 

Prime Minister of Denmark (1994) 

RESEARCH GRANT AWARDS 

1987 – Cottonseed cake as fish feed and pond fertilizer in the production of non-cichlid fishes. 

School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, Federnal University of Technology, Akure. 

1988 – The food and feeding habits of Heterobranchus spp. (Pisces: Clariidae) from Owena 

Reservior (Ondo State) Nigeria. School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, Federal 

University of Technology, Akure. 

1988 – Utilization and economics of cocoa cake (wastes) as supplementary feeds for rearing 

fish in Nigeria. Federal University of Technology, Akure. 

1989 – Utilization of cocoa-pod husks in low-cost diets and nutrition of the dwarf African 

catfish, Clarias isheriensis (Sydenham) (Clariidae). International Foundation for Science, 

Stockholm, Sweden. 

1990 – Some aspects of the biology of Heterrobranchus spp. Pisces: Clariidae) from River 

Ogbese, Ondo State, Nigeria. Federal University of Technology, Akure. 

1991- Utilization of processed dietary cocoa pod husk meal (CPHM) by Clarias isheriensis 

(Sydenham) Family Clariidae) in flow-through concrete ponds. International Foundation for 

Science, Stockholm, Sweden. 

62

1996 – Studies on the fisheries potential of floodplains in Ondo and Ekiti States (Nigeria). 

Nationally Coordinated Research Projects funded by the World Bank. 

1997 – Nutritional evaluation of chicken offal silages as protein sources in dry diets for catfish 

(Clarias gariepinus) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). Federal University of Technology, Akure. 

1997 – Utilization of winged bean seed meal as a protein source in production diets by clariid 

catfish (Clarias gariepinus) International Foundation for Science. Stockholm, Sweden. 

2000 – Evaluation of under-exploited forest seeds as supplement in low-cost production diets 

for tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). African Academy of Science, Nairobi, Kenya, AAS 

Research Grant A3/FORESTRY/15/5/00. 

2001 – Feasibility of aquaculture in Kampe (Omi) Dam Irrigation Projects (KODIP) of the 

Lower Niger River Basin and Rural Development Authroity (LNRBRDA). Scientific and 

Technical Department, Embassy of France in Nigeria, Abuja. 

2002- An overview of the animal feed industry in Nigeria, FAO, Rome, Italy. 

PROFESSIONAL DISTINCTIONS AND AWARDS 

University of Ibadan, Nigeria – Post-Graduate Scholar 

Association of Commonwealth Universities, UK. – Scholar 

International Foundation for Science (IFS), Stockholm, Sweden – Grantee 

World Bank/Agricultural Development Project, Ondo and Ekiti States Resource Personnel 

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) Addis Ababa Consultant 

The Royal Society , London, UK. – Senior Research Fellow IFS/DANIDA – Awardee 

PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIPS AND AFFILATIONS 

Nigerian Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NSPCA) 

Fisheries Society of Nigeria (FISON) Nigeria Association for Aquatic Science (NAAS) 

Network of Tropical Aquaculture Scientists (NTAS) World Aquaculture Society (WAS) 

63

Fisheries Society of Africa (FISA) International Institute for Fisheries Economics and Trade 

(IIFET) 

West African Fisheries Association (WAFA) Scientific Adviser, International Foundation for 

Science (IFS) 

REVIEWER AND EVALUATION EXPERIENCE 

Reviewer – Aquafield 

Aquaculture 

Bioresource Technology 

Aquaculture International 

African Journal of Science 

Applied Tropical Agriculture 

Journal of Arid Zone Fisheries 

Journal of Fisheries Technology 

Journal of Tropical Forest Resources 

Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry 

Nigeria Journal of Technological Research 

Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 

Journal of Urban and Environmental Research 

Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology 

Editor- Nigeria Journal of Fisheries 

Equatorial Journal of Aquaculture 

Journal of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology 

Proceedings of Fisheries Society of Nigeria (FISON) Conference 

Proceedings of UNESCO – Man and Biosphere (MAB) Regional 

Training Workshop 

64

PUBLICATIONS 

THESIS/DISSERTATION 

Fagbenro, O. A. (1978) A study of three traits (left handedness, clef chin, hand clasping) in a 

sample of the Nigerian population. B. Sc. Dissertation, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, 52pp. 

Fagbenro, O. A. (1980) Feeding and fertilization in the polyculture of commercial freshwater 

fishes: biological and economic aspects applicable to Nigeria. M. Sc. Thesis, University of 

Ibadan, Nigeria. 68pp. 

Fagbenro, O. A. (1994) Studies on the use of fermented fish silage in diets for juvenile tilapia 

(Oreochromis niloticus) and catfish (Clarias gariepinus) Ph.D. Thesis, University of Stirling, 

Scotland, 200pp. 

JOURNAL ARTICLES 

1. Fagbenro, O. A. (1986) The food habits of two small Barbus species (Pisces: 

Cyprinidae) from forest streams in Akure, Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Forest 

Resrouces, 2:50-55. 

2. Fagbenro, O. A. (1986) Food and feeding habits of Tilapia guineensis (Dumeril) from 

Oba dam. Journal of Tropical Forest Resources, 2: 56 – 60. 

3. Fagbenro, O. A. (1987) A review of biological and economical principles underlysing 

commercial fish culture production in Nigeria. Journal of West African Fisheries, 3: 

171-177. 

4. Fagbenro, O. A. (1987) Recruitment control and production of Tilapia guineensis 

(Dumeril) with the predator, Clarias lazera (Valenciennes). Nigeria Journal of Basic 

and Applied Sciences, 2: 135-140. 

65

5. Fagbenro, O. A. (1987) Yield from monosex culture trials of Orechromis niloticus 

(Linnaeus) in small farm ponds. Nigeria Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 2: 

161-164. 

6. Fagbenro, O. A. (1988) Evaluation of cottonseed cake as fish feed and pond fertilizer in 

the production of non-cichlid fishes. Nigeria Journal of Applied Fisheries and 

Hydrobiology, 3: 9-14. 

7. Fagbenro, O. A. (1988) results of preliminary studies on the utilization of cocoa-pod 

husks in fish production in south-west Nigeria. Biological Wastes, 25: 233-237. 

8. Fagbenro, O. A. (1988) Evaluation of defatted cocoa cake as direct feed in the monisex 

culture of Tilapia guineensis (Pisces: Cichlidae). Aquaculture, 73:201-206. 

9. Fagbenro, O. A. & Akibode, G. A. (1988) The use of Tilapia zillii (Gervais) as 

biological control of aquatic microphytes in ponds. Nigerian Journal of Weed Science, 

1: 71 – 75. 

10. Fagbenro, O. A. & Sydenham, D. H. J. (1988) evaluation of Clarias isheriensis 

(Sydenham) under semi-intensive management in ponds. Aquaculture, 74: 287 –291. 

11. Fagbenro, O. A. (1989) Recruitment contol and production of Tilapia guineensis 

(Dumeril) with the predator, Channa obscura (Gunther). Journal of Aquatic Sciences, 

4: 7- 10. 

12. Fagbenro, O. A. 91990) Food composition and digestive enzymes in the gut of pondcultured 

Clarias isheriensis (Sydenham 1980), (Siluriformes: Clariidae). Journal of 

Applied Ichthyology, 6: 91 – 98. 

13. Fagbenro, O. A. & Sydenham , D. H. J, (1990) Studies on the use of Clarias isheriensis 

Sydenham Clariidae) as a predtor in Tilapia guineensis Dumeril (Cichlidae) ponds. 

Journal of applied Ichthyology, 6: 99-106. 

66

14. Fagbenro, O. A. & Arowosoge, A. I. (1991) Replacement value of some household 

wastes as energy substitutes in low-cost diets for rearing catfish southweatern Nigeria, 

Bioresouce Technology, 37: 197-204. 

15. Fagbenro, O. A. & Arowoge, A. I. (1991) Growth response and nutrient digestibility by 

Clarias isheriensis (Sydenham 1980) fed varying levels of dietary coffee pulp as 

replacement for maize in low-cost diets Bioresource Technology, 37: 253-258. 

16. Fagbenro, O. A., Olaniran, T. S. & Esan, A. O. (1991) Some aspects of the biology of 

Heterobranchus bidorsalis Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire 1809 (Pisces: Clariidae) in river 

Ogbese, Nigeria. Journal of African Zoology, 105: 363-372. 

17. Fagbenro, O. A. (1992) Quantitative dietary protein requirements of Clarias isheriensis 

(Sydenham 1980) (Clariidae) fingerlings. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 8: 164-169. 

18. Fagbenro, O. A. (1992) Dietary habits of the clariid catfish, Heterobranchus bidorsalis 

in Owena Reservoir, southwestern Nigeria. Tropical Zoology, 5: 11- 17. 

19. Fagbenro, O. A. (1992) Utilization of cocoa pod husk in low-cost diets by the clariid 

catfish, Clarias isheriensis (Sydenham). Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 23: 

175 – 181. 

20. Fagbenro, O. A., Balogun, A. M. & Anyanwu, C. N. (1992) Optimal dietary protein 

levels for Heterobranchus bidorsalis fingerlings fed compounded diets. Israeli Journal 

of Aquaculture, 44: 87-92. 

21. Fagbenro, O. A. Salami, A. A. & Sydenham, D. H. J. (1992) Induced ovulation and 

spawning in the catfish, Clarias isheriensis (Clariidae) using pituitary extracts from nonpiscine 

sources. Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 1(4): 15-20. 

67

22. Fagbenro, O. A. (1993) Observations on macadamia presscake as a supplemental feed 

for monosex Tilapia guineensis (Pisces: Cichlidae). Journal of Aquaculture in the 

Tropics, 8: 91-94. 

23. Fagbenro, O. A. & Janucey, K. (1993) Chemical and nutriontal quality of raw, cooked 

and salted fish silages. Food Chemistry, 48: 331 – 335. 

24. Salami, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A. & Sydenham, D. H. J. (1993) The production and 

growth of clariid catfish hybrids in concrete tanks. Israeli Journal of Aquaculture, 45: 

18-25. 

25. Fagbenro, O. A. Adedire, C. O. Owoseeni, E. a. & Ayotunde, E. O. (1993) Studies on 

the biology and aquacultural potential of feral catfish, Heterobranchus bidrosalis 

(Geoffory Saint Hilaire 1809) (Clariidae). Tropical Zoology, 6: 67 – 79. 

26. Fagbenro, O. A., Balogun, A. M. Ibironke, A. A. & Fasina, F. A. (1993) Nutritional 

value of some amphibian meals in diets for Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822) 

(Silfuriformes: Clariidae). Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics, 8: 96 – 101. 

27. Fagbenro, O. A., (1994) Dried fermented fish silage in diets for Oreochromis niloticus. 

Israeli Journal of Aquaculture, 46: 140-147. 

28. Fagbenro, O. A. & Jauncey, K. (1994) Chemical and nutritional quality of dried 

fermented fish silage and their nutritive value for tilapia (Orechromis niloticus) Animal 

feed Science and Technology, 45: 167 – 176. 

29. Fagbenro, O. A. & Janucey, K. (1994) Chemical and nutritional quality of stored 

fermented fish (tilapia) silage. Bioresource Technology, 46: 207 – 211. 

68

30. Fagbenro, O. A. & Janucey, K. (1994) Chemical and nutritional quality of fermented 

fish silage containing potato extracts, formalin or ginger extracts. Food Chemistry, 50: 

383-388. 

31. Fagbenro, O. A. & Janucey, K. (1994) Growth and protein utilization by juvenile 

catfish (Clarias gariepinus) fed moist diets containing autolysed protein from stored 

lactic acid fermented fish silage. Bioresource Technology, 48: 43-48. 

32. Fagbenro, O. A., Janucey, K. & Haylor. G. S. (1994) Nutritive value of diets 

containing dried lactic acid fermented fish silage and soybean meal for juvenile 

Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias gariepinus. Aquatic Living Resources, 7: 79 – 85. 

33. Salami, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A., Edibite, L. & Fagbenro, s. (1994) Induced spawning 

of Clarias gariepinus using non-piscine pituitary extracts. Journal of the World 

Aquaculture Society, 25: 166-168. 

34. Fagbenro, O. A. (1995) Evaluation of heat-processed cocoa pod husk meal as energy 

feedstuff in production diets for the clariid catfish, clarias isheriensis (Sydenham). 

Aquaculture Nutrition, 1(4): 221-225. 

35. Balogun, a. M. & Fagbenro, O. A. (1995) The use of macadamia presscake as a protein 

feedstuff in practical diets for tilapia, Orechromis niloticus (Trewavas). Aquaculture 

Research, 26: 371-377. 

36. Fagbenro, O. A. & Jauncey, K. (1995) Water stability, nutrient leaching and nutritional 

properties of moist fermented fish silage diets. Aquacultural Engineering, 14: 143-153. 

37. Fagbenro, O. A. & Jauncey, K. (1995) Growth and protein utilization by juvenile catfish 

(Clarias gariepinus) fed dry diets containing co-dried lactic-acid fermented fish-silages 

and protein feedstuffs. Bioresource Technology, 51:29-35. 

69

38. Fagbenro, O. A. (1996) The dietary habits of Channa obscura Gunther) from Owena 

Reservoir, Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Forest Technology, 12: 54-61. 

39. Fagbenro, O. A. (1996) Apparent digestibility of crude protein and gross energy in 

some plant and animal-based feedstuffs by Clarias isheriensis (Siluriformes: Clariidae) 

(Sydenham 1980). Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 12: 67-68. 

40. Fagbenro, O.A. (1996) Preparation, properties and preservation of lactic acid fermented 

shrimp head waste. Food Research International, 29: 595-599. 

41. Fagbenro, O. A. & Fasakin, E. A. (1996) Citric acid ensiled poultry viscera as protein 

supplement for catfish (Clarias gariepiuns). Bioresource Technology, 58: 13-17. 

42. Salami, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A., Balogun, A. M., Atoyebi, O. & Olowoyeye, M. F. 

(1996 Effective dose of amphibian pituitary extracts for the induced spawning of the 

clariid catfish. Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822). Journal of Aquaculture in the 

Tropics, 11: 9 – 12. 

43. Fagbenro, O. A. & Bello – Olusoji, O. A. (1997) Preparation, nutrient composition and 

digestibility of lactic acid-fermented shrimp head silage. Food Chemistry, 60: 489-493. 

44. Fagbenro, O. A., Jauncey, K. & Krueger, r. (1997) Nutritive value of dried lactic acid 

fermented fish silage and soybean meal in dry diets for juvenile catfish, Clarias 

gariepinus (Burchell, 1822). Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 13: 27 – 30. 

45. Salami, A. A., Ballo-Olusoji, O. A., Fagbenro, O. A. & Akegbejo-Samsons, Y. (1997) 

Induced breeding of two clariid catfishes, Clarias gariepinus and Heterbranchus 

bidorsalis using tilapia pituitary extracts. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 

28: 113-117. 

70

46. Fagbenro, O. A. (1998) Apparent digestibility of various legume seed meals in Nile 

tilapia diets. Aquaculture International, 6: 83 – 87. 

47. Fagbenro, O. A. (1998) Apparent digestibility of various oilseed cakes / meals in 

African catfish diets. Aquaculture International, 6: 317-322. 

48. Fagbenro, O. A. & Jauncey, K. (1998) Physical and nutritional properties of moist 

fermented fish silage pellets as protein supplement for tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). 

Animal Feed Science and Technology, 71: 11-18. 

49. Fagbenro, O. A., Balogun, A. M. & Fasakin, E. A. (1998) Dietary methionine 

requirement of the African catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Journal of Applied 

Aquaculture, 8: 47-54. 

50. Nwanna, L. C., Fagbenro, O. A. & Balogun. A. M. (1998) Yield of two Indian carps 

under low-input monoculture management in Nigeria. Applied Tropical Agriculture, 3: 

69-74. 

51. Fagbenro, O. A., Balogun, A. M., Fasakin, E. A. & Bello-Olusoji, O. A. (1998) Dietary 

lysine requirement of the African clariid catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Journal of Applied 

Aquaculture, 8: 71 – 77. 

52. Fagbenro, O. A. (1999) Comparative evaluation of heat-processed winged bean, 

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, meals as partial substitute for fish meal in diets for the 

African catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Aquaculture, 170: 297-305. 

53. Fagbenro, O. A. (1999) Formulation and evaluation of production diets for Clarias 

gariepinus Burchell made by partial replacement of fish meal with winged bean seed 

meal. Aquaculture Research, 30: 1-9. 

71

54. Fagbenro, O. a. 91999) Equi-protein replacement of soybean meal with winged bean 

meals in diets for the African clariid catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell). Journal of 

Aquaculture in the Troppics, 14: 93-99. 

55. Fagbenro, O. A. (1999) Use of fullfat winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) 

seed meal as a protein feedstuff in fish meal-free diets for African catfish (Clarias 

gariepinus). Aquaculture Nutriton, 5 (3): 199-204. 

56. Fagbenro, O. A. (1999) Apparent digestibility of various cereal grains by-products in 

common carp diets. Aquaculture International, 7: 277- 281. 

57. Fagbenro, O. A. & Nwanna, L. c. (1999) Dietary tryptophan requirement of the African 

catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 9: 65-72. 

58. Fagbenro, O. A. , Nwanna, L. C. & Adebayo, O. T. (1999) Dietary arginine requirement 

of the African catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 9: 59 – 

64. 

59. Dada, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A., Ita, E. O. & Eyo, A. A. (1999) Dietary crude protein 

requirement of Heterobranchus bidorsalis fry. Nigerian Journal of Agriculture 

Education, 2: 8 – 13. 

60. Davies, S. J. Fagbenro, O. A., Abdel-Waritho, A. A. & Diller, I. (1999) Use of soybean 

products as fish meal substitute in African catfish, Clarias gariepinus, diets. Applied 

Tropical Agriculture, 4: 10-19. 

61. Adebayo, O. T., Balogun, A. M. & Fagbenro O. A. (2000) Effects of feeding rates on 

growth, body composition and economic performance of juvenile clariid catfish hybrid 

(Clarias gariepinus x Heterobranchus bidorsalis). Journal of Aquaculture in the 

Tropics, 15: 109-117. 

72

62. Fagbenro, O. A., Balogun, A. M. & Eyo, A. A. (2000) Whole body amino acid 

composition and dietary lysine requirements of Clarias gariepinus and Clarias 

anguillaris (Clariidae). Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1: 35 – 40. 

63. Fagbenro, O. A., Adedire, C. O., Ayotunde, E. O. & Faminue, E. O. (2000) 

Haematological profile, food composition and digestive enzyme assey in the gut of 

African bony-tongue fish, Heterotis (clupisudis) niloticus (Cuvier 1829) 

(Osteoglossidae). Tropical Zoology 13: 1-9. 

64. Davies, S. J., Fagbenro, O. A., Abdel-Waritho, A. A. & Diller, I. (2000) Use of oilseed 

residues as fish meal replacer in diets fed to Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.) 

Applied Tropical Agriculture 5: 1- 10. 

65. Fagbenro, O. A. & Akegbejo-Samsons, Y. (2000) Optimum protein requirements of 

diets formulated for economical growth of Heterotis niloticus (Cuvier 1829). Journal of 

Fisheries Technology, 2: 20-29. 

66. Dada, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A. & Fasakin, E. A. (2000) Effect of varying stocking density 

on growth and survival of an African catfish, Heterobranchus bidorsalis, fry in outdoor 

concrete tanks. Journal of Fisheries Technology, 2: 107 – 116. 

67. Fagbenro, O. A., Smith, M. A. K. & Amoo, A. I. (2000) Acha (Digitaria exilis Stapf) 

meal compared with maize and sorghum meals as a dietary carbohydrate source for Nile 

tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.). Israeli Journal of Aquaculture, 52: 3-10. 

68. Fagbenro, O. A. (2000) Apparent digestibility of crude protein and gross energy in 

some plant and animal-based feedstuffs by heterotis niloticus (Osteoglossidae) (Cuvier 

1829). Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics, 16: 277-282. 

69. Fagbenro, O. A. & Davies, S. J. (2001) Use of soybean flour (dehulled solventextracted 

soybean) as fish meal substitute in practical diets for African catfish, Clarias 

73

gariepinus (Burchell 1822): growth, feed utilization and digestibility. Journal of 

Applied Ichthyology: 17: 64- 69. 

70. Dada, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A. & Ita, E. O. (2001) Effect of different feeding levels on 

the production of Heterobranchus bidorsalis in outdoor nursery concrete tanks. Journal 

of Aquaculture in the Tropics, 16: 23 – 28. 

71. Fagbenro, O. A., Adedire, C. O. & Aiyegbeni, M. L. (2001) Food composition and 

digestive enzymes in the gut of the African electric catfish, Malapterurus electricus 

(Gmelin 1789) ( Malapterurirdae). Tropical Zoology, 14: 1-6. 

72. Fasakin, E. A. Balogun, A. M. & Fagbenro, O. A. (2001) Evaluation of sun-dried watef 

ern, Azolla africana and duckweed, Spirodela polyrhiza, in practical diets for Nile 

tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.) fingerlings. Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 11: 

83 – 92. 

MANUSCRIPS ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION 

73. Fagbenro, O. A. (2002) Evaluations of rice bran, brewers grain waste and poultry waste 

for rearing Tilapia guineensis (Dumeril) (Cichlidae). Scientia Africana, 1/1. 

74. Fagbenro, O. A. (2002) Food habits of Tilapia zillii 9Gervais) (Cichlidae) in the 

absence of aquatic vegetation. Scientia African, 1/1. 

75. Fagbenro, O.A. & Davies, S. J. (2002) Use of high percentages of soy protein 

concentrate as a fish meal substitute in practical diets for African catfish, Clarias 

gariepinus (Burchell 1822): growth, feed utilization and digestibility. Journal of 

Applied Ichthyology, 18. 

76. Dada, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A. & Fasakin, E. A. (2002) Effects of aeration on the 

production of Heterobranchus bidorsalis, fingerlings at varying stocking density in 

outdoor concrete tanks. Bioscience research Communications, 14 (2). 

74

77. Fagbenro, O. A., Sobamiwa, O. & Falaye, A. E. (2002) Reproductive performance of 

catfish (clarias isheriensis) broodstock fed diets containing cocoa pod meal. Journal of 

Agriculture, Science and Technology, 5. 

78. Fagbenro, O. A., Amoo, A. I. & Smith, M.A.K. (2002 Nutrient quality of winged bean 

seeds (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus L. DC). Soaked or autoclaved in trona solution and 

evaluation of the meal as soybean meal replacer in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis nilocticus 

L.) diets. Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics. 

79. Dada, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A. & Fasakin, E. A. (2002) Determination of optimum 

feeding frequency for Heterobranchus bidorsalis fry in outdoor concrete tanks. Journal 

of Aquaculture in the Tropics. 

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS/ABSTRACTS 

1. Fagbenro, O. A. (1989) Observations on the dietary habits of the clariid catfish, 

Heterbranchus bidorsalis (Geoffory St. Hilaire 1809) Proceedings of the 4 th Annual 

Conference of the Nigerian Assoication for Aquatic Sciences, pp. 17 – 24. (E. O. 

Faturoti, E. A.Falayre, F. O. Amubode, A. Ayodele, O. Oyelese, eds.), Nigerian 

Association for Aquatic Sciences, Nigeria. 

2. Fagbenro, O. A. & Salami, A. A. (1995) Studies on the use of catfish, Heterobranchus 

bidorsalis (Geoffory St. Hilaire), as a predator to control Tilapia guneensis (Dumeril) 

recruitment in ponds. Pan. African Fisheries Congress on Susutainable Development 

of Fisheries in Africa, pp. 84 – 85. Fisheries Society of Africa. Nairobi, Kenya. 

3. Fagbenro, O. A., Jauncey, K. & Krueger, R. (1994) Nutritive value of dried lactic acid 

fermented fish silage and soybean meal in dry diets for juvenile catfish, Clarias gariepinus 

(Burchell, 1822). International Workshop on the Biology and Aquaculture of 

Siluriformes (BASIL), pp. 73. ORSTOM / CEMAGREF / CIRAD, Montpellier, France. 

75

4. Bello-Olusoji, O., Balogun, A. M., Fagbenro, O. A. & Ugbaja, N. 91995) Food and 

feeding studies on the African river prawn, Macrobrachium vollenhovenii (Herklots 1857). 

Proceedings of Larvi ;95 – Fish and Shellfish Larviculture Symposium, pp. 425-427. 

(P. Lavens, E. Jaspers & L. Roelants, eds.) European Aquaculture Society, Special 

Publication No. 24. Gent, Belgium. 

5. Fagbenro, O. A. (1996) Present status and potentials of cocoa pod husk use in low-cost 

fish diets in Nigeria. In: The role of aquaculture in world fisheries. Proceedings of the 

World Fisheries Congress, Theme, 6, pp. 104 – 110. (T. heggberget, ed.). Oxford & 

IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 

6. Fagbenro, O. A. (1996) Biopreservation of fish by-products for aquaculture feed in 

tropical Africa. Proceedings of the Second Wrold Fisheries Congress, pp. 93 – 94. (D. 

A. Hanock & J. P. Beumer, eds.). World Fisheries Congress, Brisbane, Australia. 

7. Fagbenro, O. A. & Salami, A. A. (1996) Studies on the control of tilapia recruitment using 

tilapia-predator polyculture systems in southwest Nigeria. Third International 

Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture (ISTA III), p. 542. (R. S. V. Pullin, J. Lazard, M. 

Legenre, J. B. Amon Kothias & D. Pauly, eds.) ICLARM Conference Proceedings 41. 

8. Fagbenro, O. A. & Sydenham, D. H. J. (1997) Population control and yield of pondcultured 

Oreochromis niloticus using monosex (17 & - methytestosterone-treated) 

Hemichromis fasciatus as predator. Proceedings of the Fourth International 

Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture (ISTA IV), pp. 778-782. (K. Fitzsimmons, ed.). 

American Tilapia Association, Orlando, Florida, USA. 

9. Nwanna, L. C., Fagbenro, O. A. & Balogun, A. M. (1997) Introduction of exotic fish 

species for aquaculture in Nigeria: problems and prospects. Proceedings of 1997 Biennial 

Conference of the Ecological Society of Nigeria, 39-46. (S. Ogunyemi & L. O. Ojo, 

eds.). Ecological Society of Nigeria, Abeokuta. 

76

10. Fagbenro, O. A. (1998) Coastal aquaculture development in Nigeria. Proceedings of the 

Ninth Conference of the International Institute of Fisheries, Economic and Trade, 43 – 

44. (A. Eide & T. Vassdal, eds.). International Institute of Fisheries, Economics and 

Trade, Tromso, Norway. 

11. Fagbenro, O. A. (1998) Quantitative essential amino acid requirements of catfish, Clarias 

gariepinus (Clariidae) and Clarias anguillaris (Clariidae), assessed by the ideal protein 

concept. International Conference for the PARADI Association and Fisheries Society 

of Africa, pp. 205. (L. Coetze, J. Gon & C. Kulongwoski, eds.). Grahamstown, South 

Africa. 

12. Fagbenro, O. A. (1998) Comparative assessment of soybean and winged bean meals as 

protein feedstuffs for Clarias gariepinus (Clariidae). International Conference for the 

PARADI Association and Fisheries Society of Africa, pp. 204. (L. Coetze, J. Gon & C. 

K. Kulongwoski, eds.). Grahamstown, South Africa. 

13. Afolabi, J. A. & Fagbenro, O. A. (1998) Credit financing of coastal artisanal aquaculture 

in Nigeria. Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of the International Institute of 

Fisheries, Economics and Trade, 12 – 14. (A. Eide & T. Vassdal, eds.). International 

Institute of Fisheries, Economics and Trade, Tromso, Norway. 

14. Adebayo, O. T., Balogun, A. M. & Fagbenro O. A. (1998) Optimum feeding rates for 

clariid catfish hybrid (Clarias gariepinus x Heterobranchus bidorsalis) fingerlings. 

International Conference for the PARADI Association and Fisheries Society of Africa, 

pp. 187. (L. Coetze, J. Gon & C. Kulongwoski, eds.). Grahamstown, South Africa. 

15. Adebayo, O. T., Balogun, A. M. & Fagbenro O. A. (1998) Influence of starvation on 

growth response and carcass composition of clariid catfish hybrid (Clarias gariepinus x 

Heterobranchus bidorsalis) fingerlings. Aquaculture and Water: Fish Culture, 

Shellfish Culture and Water Usage. Abstracts of the International Conference – 

Aquaculture Europe ’98, pp. 6 – 7. (H. Grizel & P. Kestemont, eds.). European 

Aquaculture Society, Special Publication No. 26 Oostende, Belgium. 

77

16. Bello-Olusoji, A. O., Fagbenro O. A. & Balogun, A. M. (1998) Laboratory rearing of the 

Africa river prawn Macrobrachium vollehovenii. Aquaculture and Water: Fish Culture, 

Shellfish Culture and water Usage. Abstracts of the International Conference – 

Aquaculture Europe ‘ 98, pp. 37-38. (H. Grizel & P. Kestemont, eds.). European 

Aquaculture Society, Special Publication No. 26, Oostende, Belgium. 

17. Afolayan, T. A., Agbelusi, E. A., Fagbenro, O. A., Akindele, S. O., Adeyefa, Z. D. & 

Olufayo, A. A. (editors) (1998) Proceedings of the UNESCO-MAB Regional Training 

Workshop. National Man and Biosphere Committee, Akure, Nigeria. 485pp. 

18. Dada, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A., Fasakin, E. A. & Olarewaju, O. (1999) Influence of feeding 

rate on growth and survival of Heterobranchus bidorsalis in outdoor concrete tanks. 

Proceedings of the 12 th Annual Conference of the Biotechnology Society of Nigeria, pp. 

103 – 106. (A. A. Eyo, P. A. Aluko, S. A. Garba, U. D. Alli, S. L. Lamai & S. O. 

Olufeagba, eds.) New –Bussa, Nigeria, April 13-17. 

19. Fagbenro, O. A. (2000) Fixed vs. demand feeding regime for tank culture of the African 

catfish, Iclarias gariepinus. Responsible Aquaculture in the New Millennium. Abstract 

of International Conference – Aqua 2000, pp. 208. (R. Flos & L. Cesswell, eds.). 

European Aquaculture Society, Special Publication No. 28. Oostende, Belgium. 

20. Fagbenro, O. A. (2000) Validation for the dietary essential amino acid requirements of 

Oreochromis niloticus assessed by the ideal protein concept. Responsible Aquaculture in 

the New Millennium. Abstracts of International Conference – Aqua 2000, pp. 209. (R. 

Flos & L. Cesswell, eds.). European Aquaculture Society, Special Publication No. 28. 

Ootende, Belgium. 

21. Nwanna, L. C., Fagbenro, O. A. & Ihinmekpen, F. A. (2000) Use of shrimp head (waste) 

silage meal as fish meal substitute in African catfish (Clarias gariepinus x Heterobranchus 

78

idorsalis) production. Responsible Aquaculture in the New Millennium. Abstracts of 

International Conference – Aqua 2000, pp. 510. (R. Flos & L. Cesswell, eds.). European 

Aquaculture Society, Special Publication No. 28. Oostende, Beligum. 

22. Nwanna, L. C., Fagbenro, O. A. & Ogunlowo, E. T. (2000) Toxicity of textile effluent to 

Clarias gariepinus and Heterobranchus bidorsalis x Clarias gariepinus, fingerlings. 

Responsible Aquaculture in the New Millennium. Abstracts of International 

Conference – Aqua 2000, pp. 511. (R. Flos & L. Cesswell, eds.). European Aquaculture 

Society, Special Publication No. 28. Oostende, Belgium. 

23. Omozusi, B. B., Fagbenro, O. A. & Adebayo, O. T. (2000) Toxicity of alkaline salt 

(trona) to hybrid catfish (Clarias gariepinus x Heterobrachus bidorsalis) fingerlings. 

Responsible Aquaculture in the New Millennium. Abstracts of International 

Conference – Aqua 2000, pp. 525. (R. Flos & L. Cesswell, eds.). European 

Aquaculture Society, Special Publication No. 28. Oostende, Belgium. 

24. Fagbenro, O. A. (2000) Validation of the essential amino acid requirements of Nile tilapia, 

Oreochromis niloticus (Linne 1958), assessed by the ideal protein concept. Proceedings 

of Fifth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture (ISTA V), pp. 154-156. 

(K. Fitzsimmons & J. C. Filho. Eds.). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

25. Fagbenro, O. A. (2000) Assessment of African clariid catfishes for tilapia population 

control in ponds. Proceedings of Fifth International Symposium on Tilapia in 

Aquaculture (ISTA V), pp. 241-246. (K. Fitzsimmons & J. C. Filho. Eds.). Rio de 

Janeiro, Brazil. 

26. Fagbenro, O. A. & Davies, S. J. (2000) Use of oilseed meals as fish meal replacer in 

tilapia diets. Proceedings of Fifth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture 

(ISTA V), pp. 145-153. (K. Fitzsimmons & J. C. Filho. Eds.). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

79

27. Afolabi, J. A., Imoudu, P. B. & Fagbenro, O. A. (2000) Peri-urban tilapia culture in 

homestead concrete tanks: economic and technical viability in Nigeria. Proceedings of 

Fifth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture (ISTA V), pp. 575-581. (K. 

Fitzsimmons & J. C. Filho. Eds.). Rio de Janeiro, brazil. 

28. Fagbenro, O. A. (2001) Feedstuff digestibility in freshwater fish species in Nigeria. 

Proceedings of the First National Sympoisum on Fish Nutrition and Fish Feed 

Technology in Nigeria, pp. 26 – 37 (A. A. Eyo, ed.) Lagos, Nigeria. 

29. Dada, A. A. Fagbenro, O. A. & Ita, E. O. (2001) Effect of different feeding levels on the 

production of Heterobranchus bidorsails in outdoor concrete tanks. Proceedings of the 

14 th Annual Conference of the Fisheries Society of Nigeria, pp.186 – 190. (A. A. Eyo & 

A. Ajao, eds.). Ibadan, Nigeria. 

30. Fagbenro, O. A., Adedire, C. O. & Aiyegbeni, M. L. (2001) Food composition and 

digestive enzymes in the gut of the African electric catfish, Malapterurus electricus 

(Gmelin 1789) (Malapteruridae). Proceedings of the 14 th Annual Conference of the 

Fisheries Society of Nigeria. (A. A. Eyo & A. Ajao, eds.). Ibadan, Nigeria. 

31. Nwanna, L. C., Fagbenro, O. A. & Balogun, A. M. (2001) Yield of two Indian carps under 

lo-input monoculture management in Nigeria. Proceedings of the 14 th Annual 

Conference of the Fisheries Society of Nigeria. (A. A. Eyo & A. Ajao, eds.). Ibadan, 

Nigeria. 

32. Dada, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A., Fasakin, E. A. & Eyo, A. A. (2001) Nutrient utilization and 

growth performance of Heterobranchus bidorsalis fry fed graded dietary protein levels. Pp. 

81 – 88. Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Fish Nutrition and Fish 

Feed Technology in Nigeria, pp. 81 – 88. (A. A. Eyo, ed.). Lagos, Nigeria. 

33. Kayode, A. B., Salami, A. A., Fagbenro, O. A. & Nwanna, L. C. (2001) Toxicity of 

grammoxone and detergent to Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) Proceedings of the 

80

14 th Annual Conference of the Fisheries Society of Nigeria. (A. A. Eyo & A. Ajao, 

eds.). Ibadan, Nigeria. 

TECHNICAL PAPAERS 

1. Fasuyi, S. A., Badu, J. Y. & Fagbenro, O. A. (1986) Invasion of waterways in riverine 

areas of Ondo State by the water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes: Preliminary investigation 

of extend and resource. Envronmental Polllution Technology and Sanitation Research 

Unit, Technical Report No. 1, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. 19pp. 

2. Afoloayan, T. A., Agbelusi, E. A., Balogun, A. M., Imevbore, E. A., Fagbenro, O. A. & 

Sumonu-Ogunmodede, M. A. (1990) Wildlife inventory of the proposed Ifon Game 

Reserve, Ondo State. Technical Report presented to Department of Forestry and Wildlife 

Resources, Ondo State Ministry of Agricultural Resources, Akure, Nigeria. 63pp. 

3. Fagbenro, O. A. & Mikolasek, O. (2001) feasibility of aquaculture in Kampe (Omi) Dam 

and Irrigation Projects (KODIP) in Lower Niger River Basin and Rural Development 

Authority (LNRBRDA). Study Commissioned by embassy of France in Nigeria. 15pp. 

81

FISH FOR THOUGHT - National Universities Commission

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