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25 Weather Information Presentation Tenny A. Lindholm The National Center for Atmospheric Research 25.1 Aviation Weather Dissemination—Case Studies ........ 25-2 25.2 Human-Factors Challenges ............................................ 25-3 25.3 Transformation of Aviation Weather ............................ 25-4 Gridded Data • Observations—Density, Timeliness • Temporal and Spatial Resolutions • Forecasting Capabilities • New Advanced Weather Products 25.4 Advanced Aviation Weather and the NAS ................... 25-6 NAS Evolution • Users of Aviation Weather 25.5 Classes of Users ................................................................. 25-9 25.6 Human-Factors Systems Design Issues ........................ 25-9 Paradigm Fixation • Validation, Verification, Evaluation 25.7 The “Criterion Problem” ................................................ 25-10 25.8 Task Structure ..................................................................25-11 25.9 Display and Information Transfer Issues ................... 25-12 25.10 Workload and Time Sharing ........................................ 25-13 25.11 The Process—Addressing the Issues ............................25-14 Model of System Development • Systems Engineering Model • Rapid Prototyping • User Needs • Situation Awareness • Needs by Class of User 25.12 Perspectives on the Process .......................................... 25-19 References .......................................................................................25-20 Before we can fully relate the aviation user’s weather information needs to the function or task at hand, both now and in the future, we must comprehend and contrast the differences between the current aviation environment and whatever is envisioned for weather information available to the users, and then provide a vision of the future air-traffic control (ATC) system and associated weather information. The human factors and display allow user needs to evolve in the proper context. Thus, each element and user within the National Airspace System (NAS) will be considered, as well as the implications of their interactions within the system. The goal is to develop a true system-level understanding of weather to support decisions, which are very much varied. The approach taken here ensures that the functional interactions of the ATC system and its allocation of weather display capabilities is well understood as the system is modernized. 25-1
25-2 Handbook of Aviation Human Factors 25.1 Aviation Weather Dissemination—Case Studies On the afternoon of August 2, 1985, a wide-bodied jetliner crashed short of Runway 17L at Dallas- Fort Worth Airport, with considerable loss of human life. The only indication of a hazard to the flight crew was a moderate-to-severe rain shower just to the right of the approach course. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) listed the occurrence of a small, short-lived but severe downburst now widely known as a microburst, as a probable cause (Fugita, 1986). A number of years ago, a South American jetliner crashed while on approach to New York’s John F. Kennedy Airport during marginal ceiling and visibility conditions. The aircraft arrived in the terminal area with just enough fuel and reserves to complete a normal sequence to landing. After unplanned and lengthy holding delays, the aircraft crashed about 10 miles short of the runway from fuel starvation. The NTSB identified the flight crew’s lack of awareness of the evolving weather impact on normal sequencing as a contributing factor. In 1988, a jetliner crashed on departure from Detroit with, again, considerable loss of life. The NTSB identified the flight crew’s failure to properly configure the aircraft flaps and leading edge devices as the probable cause of this accident. However, the cockpit voice transcripts clearly indicate confusion by both the pilots as they tried to convert the encoded alphanumeric weather data to a graphic portrayal on a map to make the information more usable on departure. These actions could have contributed to flightcrew distraction while completing checklist actions. In fact, the cockpit voice recorder revealed that the captain of this flight remarked, “Not now, I’m weathered out,” in response to updated alphanumerics just prior to departure (Sumwalt, 1992). Finally, a medium-sized jetliner crashed in 1991 just south of the Colorado Springs Airport after encountering a severe roll to the right and immediate dive to the ground. The NTSB was initially unable to agree on a probable cause for this accident. However, severe horizontal vortices near the mountains coupled with aircraft rudder responses appear to be the primary causes of the accident. Among the major air carriers, the NTSB reported that 35.6% of all the accidents between 1991 and 2000 were weather-related (NTSB, 2004a). With regard to general aviation, 26.1% of all the accidents, and 38.1% of all the fatal accidents, were weather-related (NTSB, 2004b). Apart from the obvious economic and societal costs associated with these numbers, improved weather information can potentially save NAS operators literally hundreds of millions of dollars annually through the elimination of needless ground holds for weather, unnecessary diversion of aircraft and associated system-wide disruption, more efficient routing, and better planning for ground operations and terminal sequencing. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) stated that 80% of all the delays of more than 15 min are caused by weather, resulting in an “economic loss” of $1 billion per year (FAA, 1992b). Airspace planning can and should become more strategic. However, to realize these benefits, airspace system designers must address the following top-level user needs relative to aviation weather: The pilot (the ultimate end user) needs accurate, timely, and appropriate information. The flight crew in our first case study required precise information regarding the occurrence, position, and intensity of a weather phenomenon that is very localized and short-lived. A weather detection and dissemination system for this type of hazard should meet these needs and nothing else, for this phenomenon requires immediate evasive action by the pilot, and there is no time for interpreting a complex display. The system or structure that supports the ultimate end user—operations, meteorology, air-traffic control—needs accurate, timely, and appropriate information. In our second case study, the NTSB verified the existence of an information void confronted by this crew. The crew was unaware of the developing weather situation to the point that proper fuel management was related to a very low priority. The information needs for those supporting airspace operations are quite different, as discussed later, from those of the end user. The weather information must be presented in an optimal form that makes it quickly and unambiguously used as a decision aid. This requires the system developer to understand the extrinsic as well
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Handbook of Aviation Human Factors
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Handbook of Aviation Human Factors
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Dedication To my family To Betty To
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viii Contents 9 Team Process ......
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Preface Nearly a decade ago, the au
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I Introduction 1 A Historical Overv
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1-2 Handbook of Aviation Human Fact
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1-10 Handbook of Aviation Human Fac
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2 Aviation Research and Development
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Aviation Research and Development 2
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3 Measurement in Aviation Systems D
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Measurement in Aviation Systems 3-3
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II Human Capabilities and Performan
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6 Engineering Safe Aviation Systems
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Engineering Safe Aviation Systems:
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7 Processes Underlying Human Perfor
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Processes Underlying Human Performa
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8 Automation in Aviation Systems: I
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Automation in Aviation Systems: Iss
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12 Situation Awareness in Aviation
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Situation Awareness in Aviation Sys
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III Aircraft 13 Personnel Selection
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15 Controls, Displays, and Crew Sta
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Controls, Displays, and Crew Statio
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16 Flight Deck Aesthetics and Pilot
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Flight Deck Aesthetics and Pilot Pe
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19 Flight Simulation William F. Mor
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Flight Simulation 19-3 In addition,
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Flight Simulation 19-5 that may nev
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Flight Simulation 19-7 in a meta-an
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Flight Simulation 19-9 control acti
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Flight Simulation 19-11 TABLE 19.1
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Flight Simulation 19-13 Many simply
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Flight Simulation 19-15 FIGURE 19.3
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Flight Simulation 19-17 3. From a s
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Flight Simulation 19-19 rotary wing
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Flight Simulation 19-21 minimal sym
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Flight Simulation 19-25 and functio
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Flight Simulation 19-29 4. Presentl
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Flight Simulation 19-31 Federal Avi
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Flight Simulation 19-33 McDaniel, W
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Flight Simulation 19-35 Taylor, H.
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22 Air-Traffic Control Automation V
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Air-Traffic Control Automation 22-3
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Page 632 and 633: 27 Civil Aviation Security* Gerald
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Civil Aviation Security 27-13 condi
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Civil Aviation Security 27-15 compr
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Civil Aviation Security 27-17 devel
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Civil Aviation Security 27-19 27.8
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Civil Aviation Security 27-21 requi
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Civil Aviation Security 27-23 resea
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Civil Aviation Security 27-25 by hi
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Civil Aviation Security 27-27 While
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Civil Aviation Security 27-29 Fobes
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28 Incident and Accident Investigat
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Incident and Accident Investigation
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29 Forensic Aviation Human Factors:
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Index A AA cycle time (AACT), 15-30
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Index Index-3 Attitude director ind
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Index Index-5 Global Hawk operator
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Index Index-7 learning stage, 19-8-
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Index Index-9 safety culture, 5-17
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Index Index-11 CRM impact attention
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