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European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012 Education Policy in 1994 with the resultant adoption of levels of operation, the Secondary Schools Management Development Project of 1993, Parallel Progression Policy of 1994 with its legal entanglements, the decentralization of the Ministry of Education, Performance Management System, and most recently the introduction of double shift in the schools in 2006. All these should have had some effects and impact on the way teachers in the schools feel about their jobs. It is also pertinent to gain understanding of the level of satisfaction of the teachers as employees as an indication of the health of the education system as a whole in meeting its mandate of providing educated and informed future citizens in line with the national vision, which one of its pillars says: A prosperous, productive and innovative nation (Republic of Botswana, 1997a:6). Literature abounds of studies conducted on the job satisfaction of teachers as employees in schools (Bishay, 1996; US Department of Education, 1997). UNDERSTANDING JOB SATISFACTION Employee satisfaction has taken centre stage especially in the corporate world in recent years as it has been realized that organizations cannot reach competitive levels of quality; either at a product level or a customer service level if their human resources do not feel satisfied or do not identify with the company (Garcia-Bernal, Gargallo-Castel, Marzo-Navarro & Rivera-Torres, 2005). The crucial role played by employee job satisfaction in the efficiency and productivity of organizations was also identified by Fitzgerald, Johnston, Brignall, Silverstro & Voss, (1994) and Crossman & Abou-Zaki, (2003) who are of the view that job satisfaction is one of the criteria for establishing the health of the organization as rendering effective services. Although there is no universal definition of the concept job satisfaction, some researchers have come to the conclusion that it should be conceived as a multi-dimensional concept that includes a set of favourable or unfavourable feelings by which employees perceive their jobs (Mumford, 1991; & Garcia-Bernal, et al., 2005). Job satisfaction has been defined by Locke (1976) and Spector (1997) as a positive emotional state resulting from the pleasure a worker derives from the job. According to Spector (1997), job satisfaction is simply how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. It is the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs. This is echoed by Moorhead and Griffin (2004:99) who say that: Job satisfaction is the extent to which a person is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. As a result, a satisfied employee tends to be absent less often, to make positive contributions, and to stay with the organization longer; whereas a dissatisfied employee may be absent more often, may experience stress that disrupts other co-workers, and maybe continually looking for a job. Furthermore, Abu-Saad and Hendrix (1995:141) define job satisfaction as: the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job as achieving or facilitating the achievement of one’s values. It should be noted however that according to some job satisfaction theorists, it is a function of a combination of situational characteristics and situational occurrences (Quarstein, McAfee & Glassman, 1992). Churchill, Ford and Walker (1974) define job satisfaction in the context of all the characteristics of the job itself and of the work environment in which the workers may find rewards, fulfillment and satisfaction; or conversely sentiments of frustration and/or dissatisfaction. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Various authors have dealt with the subject of job satisfaction in different organizations using various variables such as demographic characteristics, work, pay, relations with co-workers, promotion and others (Mok and Finlev, 1998; Murray & Atkinson, 1981; Sloane & Williams, 1996; Clark, 1997; and Ward & Sloane, 1998). Some research has also shown that gender played a part in determining job satisfaction and some studies have shown that males were more satisfied than females (Weaver 1974; Forgionne & Peeters 1982; Smith & Plant 1982). Other factors such as education, experience, supervision, work and relations with co-workers may be responsible for the observed differences in job satisfaction (Swanepoel, Erasmus, van Wyk & Schenk, 2005; Cole, 2004; Moorhead & Griffin, 220
European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012 2004; and Marczely & Marczely, 2002). Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework for this study based on the Model of Herzberg‘s Two-Factor Theory showing Motivators (Satisfiers) (Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility and advancement); and Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfiers) (Organisation policy, supervision, salary, working conditions and interpersonal relationship). Many theories of job satisfaction have been proposed, but one of the most widely utilised in educational settings has been that of Herzberg and his associates (Abu Saad & Isralowitz, 1992; Derlin & Schneider, 1994; Dinham & Scott, 1996; 1998; 2000; Scott, Cox & Dinham, 1999). The main concept of the theory is the distinction between two groups of factors called motivation factors and hygiene factors. According to the theory, the motivation factors operate only to increase job satisfaction while the hygiene factors operate to decrease job dissatisfaction. Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959:113-114) stated thus: Among the factors of hygiene, when the factors deteriorate to a level below that which the employee considers acceptable, then job dissatisfaction ensues. However, the reverse does not hold true. When job context can be characterized as optimal, we will not get dissatisfaction but neither we will get much in the way of positive attitudes. It should be understood that both kinds of factors meet the needs of the employees; but it is primarily the ―motivators‖ that serve to bring about the kind of job satisfaction, …, the kind of improvement in performance that industry is seeking from its work force. Satified Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Not Satisfied Not Satisfied ____________________________________________________________ Organisation policy supervision salary Working conditions Interpersonal relationship Dissatisfied Figure 1: Model of Herzberg‘s two-factor theory (source: Smit & Cronje, 2002:351). 221
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