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European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012 Herzberg‘s two-factor theory posits that job satisfaction comes from one set of job variables (called motivator needs or satisfiers) and job dissatisfaction from another set of variables (hygeine factors or dissatisfiers) (De Nobile and McCormick, 2005). Herzberg‘s two-factor theory, also known as the dual-structure theory illustrated that there is one dimension ranging from satisfaction to no satisfaction and another ranging from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction (Moorhead & Griffin, 2004:127). Satisfiers include, variables such as recognition, responsibility for ones work, personal growth, achievement and advancement, while dissatisfiers include many aspects of work external to the self such as pay, relationships with colleagues and supervisors, work conditions and security (Herzberg, 1968). The motivators or satisfiers are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, opportunity for independent thought and actions, and the work itself; while the hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself and include supervision, relationships with superiors, relationships with peers, work conditions, personal life, relationships with subordinates, status, and security (Swanepoel, Erasmus, van Wyk & Schenk, 2005; Cole, 2004; Moorhead & Griffin, 2004; and Marczely & Marczely, 2002). Herzberg in his study suggested that it should not be construed that the opposite of satisfaction is dissatisfaction as removing the hygiene factors does not necessarily results in job satisfaction, but the presence of hygiene factors will not lead to a state of job satisfaction but simply to a state of no dissatisfaction (Moorhead & Griffin, 2004). Conversely, it has been established that for motivators to operate as motivators the hygiene factors ought to be present. Marczely and Marczely (2002) contend that although hygiene factors such as salary, fringe benefits, supervision style, working conditions, workplace climate, and policies are not in themselves motivators leading to job satisfaction, they are a prerequisite to motivational factors that lead to job satisfaction and good performance. In other words, hygiene factors can be regarded as the ingredients of job satisfaction which need to be taken care of in order to avoid employee dissatisfaction. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The study was guided by the following research questions: 1. What is the general satisfaction level among all categories of teachers in Botswana schools 2. What are the general saisfaction levels of all categories of teachers according to the six dimensions of the JDI 3. What are the general satisfaction levels of all categories of teachers according to the demographic variables level of operation, gender, age, position, highest qualifications, experience. 4. What is the satisfaction level of all categories of teachers for each of the six demographic dimensions of the JDI METHODOLOGY Research Approach and Instrument Literature search shows that there are many instruments that have been developed over the years to measure the levels of the job satisfaction of employees in organizations. Some of the instruments include the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) which was developed by Weiss, Dawis, English and Lofquist in 1959 to measure the individual‘s satisfaction with twenty different aspects of the work environment. The Herzberg two-factor theory was also identified as one of the most reliable instruments that can be used to measure the level of school heads as it was applied in the United States of America and proved reliable (Newby, 1999). 222
European Journal of Educational Studies 4(2), 2012 The data for this study was collected using the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) with an abridged Job in General Scale (Bowling Green State University, 2009). The JDI and the JIG scale were chosen for this study because they are widely used to measure job satisfaction and they have been shown to be valid predictors (Balzer et al. 1997; Kinicki et al. 2002). The JDI is the most widely used measure of the job satisfaction extant because of several reasons. Firstly, the Job Descriptive Index is a reliable facet measure over time (Kinicki, McKee-Ryan, Schriesheim & Carson, 2002), and applicable across a variety of demographic groups (Golembiewski & Yeager, 1978). Secondly, it is the care with which it was developed which is described in Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969). The JDI is said to possess good content validity, impressive construct validity, and adequate reliability, and very few instruments in industrial-organizational psychology have received the attention of researchers that the JDI has. It is short and simple to fill out, seemed ideal from the point of view of maximization of response and practicality of scoring. "The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) measures five important aspects or facets of job satisfaction. The Job in General (JIG) scale evaluates overall job satisfaction" (Bowling Green State University 2002). The five aspects or facets of job satisfaction are: Work on Present Job, Pay, Opportunities for Promotion, Supervision, and People on Your Present Job (Bowling Green State University, 2009). Normally, the JDI contains either nine or 18 items, with an overall total of 72 items (http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/psch/JDI/). The abridged version of the Job Descriptive Index has 30 items while the Job in General has 8, making a total of thirty eight. Copies of the JDI scales and the JIG scale were obtained from the publisher, Bowling Green State University. The surveys were mailed to the administrator at the facility address with the introductory letter addressed to "Colleague." Surveys were not addressed to individuals because of the anticipated movement of administrators among organizations. Anonymity of respondents was emphasized, thus eliminating respondent tracking. The response rate to the single mailing was 149, or 36 percent. This is an acceptable level for a single mailing (Vehovar and Lozar 1997). A followup mailing was not sent to prevent recording duplicated data. Permission to use the Job Descriptive Index including the Job in General Scale was sought from and given by the Bowling Green State University. Population and Sample of the study The questionnaires were administered to primary school teachers, junior secondary school teachers and senior secondary school teachers. A primary school level of education in Botswana is the equivalent of elementary education and it takes seven years; a junior secondary is the equivalent of intermediate school and takes three years while a senior secondary is the equivalent of high school and takes two years. The first ten years are regarded as Basic Education in Botswana. For the teachers, there were five categories (positions occupied) namely, teacher, senior teacher, head of department, deputy headteacher and headteacher. All in all, five hundred and twenty questionnaires were mailed to 60 schools that were randomly selected. There were: 150 for teachers (50, primary, 50 junior secondary, and 50 senior secondary); 150 for senior teachers (25, primary, 100 junior secondary, and 25 senior secondary), 80 for heads of departments (20 primary, 40 junior secondary and 20 senior secondary), 75 for deputy headteachers (25 primary, 25 junior secondary and 25 senior secondary); and 55 for headteachers (20 primary, 20 junior secondary and 15 senior secondary). The overall response rate was 67%. The response rate according to positions occupied is illustrated in Table 1 below. Table 1: Response rates according to Level and Position held Position Total Teacher Senior Head of Deputy Headteacher Teacher Department Head Level Primary (82) 41 (80) 20 (15) 3 (100) 25 (45) 9 98 Junior Secondary (68) 34 (85) 85 (85) 34 (20) 5 (80) 16 174 Senior Secondary (64) 32 (52) 13 (90) 18 (60) 15 (0) 0 78 Total (71) 107 (78.6) 118 (68.7) 55 (60) 45 (45) 25 350 Note: % in bold and in brackets ( ). 223
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