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The accuracy of any method to estimate the volume of FS generated will depend on the quality of the available data, and the reasonableness of assumptions that are made. Methods to estimate volumes of FS will hopefully improve rapidly as more FSTPs are built, and as Faecal Sludge Management (FSM) gains acceptance and legitimacy. 2.3 Characterisation of Faecal Sludge Parameters that should be considered for the characterisation of FS include solids concentration, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nutrients, pathogens, and metals. These parameters are the same as those considered for domestic wastewater analysis, however, it needs to be emphasised that the characteristics of domestic wastewater and FS are very different. Table 2.3 presents examples from the literature illustrating the high variability of FS characteristics and provides a comparison with sludge from a wastewater treatment plant. A more detailed comparison of wastewater sludge and FS COD fractionation is presented in Chapter 9. The organic matter, total solids, ammonium, and helminth egg concentrations in FS are typically higher by a factor of ten or a hundred compared to wastewater sludge (Montangero and Strauss, 2002). Technology There is currently a lack of detailed information on the characteristics of FS. However, research is actively being conducted in this field. Research results, together with empirical observations, will continue to increase the knowledge of FS characteristics, and allow more accurate predictions of FS characteristics using less labour intensive methods. Section 2.4 discusses the operational factors that affect the variability of FS. In addition to these factors, the high variability of the observed results is also due to the lack of standardised methods for the characterisation of FS. Case Study 2.1: Variability of feacal sludge characteristics in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso The variability of FS characteristics is illustrated by Bassan et al. (2013a). A sampling campaign was set up to sample in the dry and the rainy season in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (see Figure 2.4). The TS concentration in the dry season was found to be 10,658 mg/L with a standard deviation of 8,264. Due to the high variability between the samples, a significant difference in strength of FS collected in the wet or dry season could not be detected. Yet, the campaign revealed that during the rainy season a much higher number of trucks arrived at the dumping locations, up to three times as many – indicating that pit latrines and septic tanks were filling up much faster due to leakages and run-off. Given the significant variability of FS characteristics, it is important to collect data for specific locations when designing a FS treatment system. For example, in 2010, due to a lack of locally available data the design of a FSTP in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso was based on general characteristics from the literature. The FSTP was designed to treat 125 m 3 /day with a TS load of 21,000 mg/L, resulting in 96 drying beds with a surface area of 128 m 2 . Follow-up studies on the characterisation of FS in Ouagadougou revealed that the plant was over-designed by a factor of two, and was hence actually able to treat 250 m 3 /day (Bassan et al., 2013b). Understanding the local FS characteristics prior to design would have significantly lowered the investment costs of the FSTP. This illustrates how important it is to understand local FS characteristics prior to designing treatment facilities. 23
Table 2.3 Reported characteristics of faecal sludge from onsite sanitation facilities and wastewater sludge Parameter FS source Public toilet Septic tank WWTP sludge Reference Technology pH 1.5-12.6 USEPA (1994) Total Solids, TS (mg/L) 52,500 12,000- 35,000 Total Volatile Solids, TVS (as % of TS) COD (mg/L) 49,000 1,200- 7,800 6.55-9.34 Kengne et al. (2011) – Koné and Strauss (2004) 30,000 22,000 – NWSC (2008) 34,106 USEPA (1994) ≥3.5%
Page 1 and 2: Faecal Sludge Management Editors Li
Page 4 and 5: Faecal Sludge Management Systems Ap
Page 6 and 7: About the editors Linda Strande Dr.
Page 8: Authors in alphabetical order Magal
Page 11 and 12: From its inception, the Bill & Meli
Page 14 and 15: Contents About the editors Authors
Page 16 and 17: 4.5 Manually operated mechanical co
Page 18 and 19: 7.5 Quality of dried sludge and lea
Page 20 and 21: 11.2.4 Degree of mechanisation of t
Page 22 and 23: 15.4.4 Amalgamation of faecal sludg
Page 24 and 25: Chapter 1 The Global Situation Lind
Page 26 and 27: or funding to maintain their functi
Page 28 and 29: The target audience of this book in
Page 30 and 31: life of a project. As presented in
Page 32 and 33: Figure 1.6 Transport of faecal slud
Page 34 and 35: Chapter 13 Financial Transfers and
Page 36 and 37: How to Design Wastewater Systems fo
Page 40 and 41: Technology
Page 42 and 43: Chapter 2 Faecal Sludge Quantificat
Page 44 and 45: 2.2.1 Sludge production method The
Page 48 and 49: 2.4 Operational factors that impact
Page 50 and 51: 2.4.5 Climate Climate has a direct
Page 52 and 53: 2.7 Treatment Concerns The source o
Page 54 and 55: Several managerial challenges were
Page 56 and 57: (Mitchell, 1989; Jönsson et al., 2
Page 58 and 59: 2.9.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand and
Page 60 and 61: Case Study 2.4: Sand and solid wast
Page 62 and 63: 2.10.1 The use of indicators When m
Page 64 and 65: Viruses Quantification of total vir
Page 66 and 67: Malicki, J., Montusiewicz, A., Bieg
Page 68 and 69: Chapter 3 Treatment Mechanisms Maga
Page 70 and 71: There are three main forces influen
Page 72 and 73: The main physical mechanisms that a
Page 74 and 75: The Penman formula shown in Equatio
Page 76 and 77: Equation 3.9: F c = Wr(r s - r)V Wh
Page 78 and 79: that consumed readily degradable or
Page 80 and 81: facultative or maturation ponds. Ae
Page 82 and 83: Technology Figure 3.9 Biogas reacto
Page 84 and 85: form of orthophosphoric acid (H 3 P
Page 86 and 87: 3.4.1 Alkaline stabilisation Alkali
Page 88 and 89: Feachem, R. G., Bradley, D. J. (198
Page 90 and 91: Chapter 4 Methods and Means for Col
Page 92 and 93: When emptying the FS from onsite sy
Page 94 and 95: Methods to locate sanitation system
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4.3 Properties of faecal sludge in
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60 cm Technology 10 cm 58 cm 35 cm
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While they are light enough to be t
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The performance of the petrol or di
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Vacuum system Constant air drag sys
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Vacutug In 1995, lessons learned fr
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4.6.7 Summary of fully mechanised s
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Technology Figure 4.15 Sludge colle
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4.8 Transfer Stations 4.8.1 Introdu
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Acceptance It is not uncommon for c
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4.9 Occupational Health and Safety
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Brikké, F., Bredero, M. (2003). Li
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Chapter 5 Overview of Treatment Tec
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Chapter 3. One of the key elements
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Optimal composting conditions with
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1 anaerobic 2 facultative 3 aerobic
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Case Study 5.2: Deep row entrenchme
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eport in their review that reductio
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5.4.4 Mechanical sludge treatment M
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impermeable to reduce lining costs.
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Most of the work so far has been at
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Potential advantages and constraint
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in these systems are the solar vari
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Table 5.2 Comparison of FSM and sew
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Hill, P.E., Bux, M. (2011). Harness
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Chapter 6 Settling-Thickening Tanks
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Technology Figure 6.2 Left: the twi
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The scum layer is important to cons
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6.3.2 Tank surface and length The l
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The FS loading period needs to be d
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Technology Figure 6.6 Settling-thic
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Experiences from Accra reveiled the
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• two parallel tanks are designed
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6.8 Bibliography Badji K., Dodane P
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Chapter 7 Unplanted Drying Beds Pie
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Technology Figure 7.2 Freshly loade
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7.3.3 Sludge loading rate The sludg
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7.4 Construction of an unplanted sl
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Case Study 7.2: Cambérène faecal
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7.6 Design example This section pro
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7.7.4 Additives to the sludge to en
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Chapter 8 Planted Drying Beds Ives
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8.2 Macrophytes Macrophytes are pla
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8.3 Treatment mechanisms The treatm
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As the top layer of sludge dries, i
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Case Study 8.1: Loading frequency e
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Table 8.2 Summary of performance in
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Case Study 8.3: Design and construc
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Case Study 8.4: Commissioning plant
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8.6.4 Plant harvesting and regrowth
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A study in Italy, attempted to quan
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Clarke, E., Baldwin, A. H. (2002).
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Chapter 9 Co-treatment of Faecal Sl
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Table 9.1 Characterisation ratios f
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Organic nitrogen can be divided int
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Table 9.3 Faecal sludge COD fractio
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It was also confirmed that the high
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3,000 2,500 2,000 Q WAS (%) 1,500 1
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Table 9.5 Maximum faecal sludge vol
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Case Study 9.2: Co-treatment of sep
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The characteristics of FS need to b
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For anaerobic co-treatment in diges
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and also operating and maintenance
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Dangol, B. (2013). Faecal sludge ch
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USEPA (1994). Guide to septage trea
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Chapter 10 Enduse of Treatment Prod
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Technology Figure 10.1 Faecal-oral
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Table 10. 3 Nutrient content of uri
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Land application The direct use of
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10.5 Use of Liquid Streams Liquid s
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Technology Figure 10.5 Crop irrigat
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Case Study 10.1: Market value of fo
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Technology Figure 10.9 Energy recov
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Technology Figure 10.10 Different o
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field of HTC and its applications t
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10.7 Grit Screenings Screening at t
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Koottatep, T., Surinkul, N., Polpra
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Management
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Chapter 11 Operation, Maintenance a
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The level of organisation required
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to empty settling-thickening tanks
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Operators of FSTPs should be traine
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Asset management is crucial for lar
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Figure 11.4 Settleability tests per
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The type of records and the length
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Figure 11.6 Safety posters and sign
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11.8.6 Confined spaces A confined s
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Smaller FSTPs may combine various j
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employees on the difficulties exper
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11.12 Bibliography Bassan, M. (2009
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Chapter 12 Institutional Frameworks
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populated areas such as informal se
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Financial management ability: Sound
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Permits and licenses: Documents are
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Option 1: Each step of the service
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Table 12.2 Possible stakeholders, t
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Figure 12.6 Privately owned collect
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Direct management by national or mu
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Blunier, P. (2004). La collecte et
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Chapter 13 Financial Transfers and
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improved FSM and influence the desi
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The most equitable and financially
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Faecal sludge flow Household sanita
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One concern with this model is the
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level users, businesses, and the pu
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Table 13.4 Table for summarising ye
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Jeuland, M. (2004). Private Sector
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Planning 294
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Planning 296
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Planning 1 For more information on
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Planning 300
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Planning 302
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Planning 304
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Planning 306
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Planning 308
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Planning 310
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Planning 312
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Criteria Sine qua non conditions Pl
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inlet < > FSTP inlet Planning outle
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Planning 318
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Planning 320
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Planning 1 Reed et al. (2009) amalg
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Planning 324
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INFLUENCE FACTORS Planning 326
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Influence Interest C3: Potential su
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Planning 330
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Planning 332
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Planning 334
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Stakeholders Roles and responsibili
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Low interest High interest Cattle b
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Planning 340
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Planning 342
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Planning 344
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Information Consultation Collaborat
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Planning 348
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Planning 350
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Planning 1 See CLUES guidelines p.
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Components of the supply chain Resp
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Planning 356
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Planning 358
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Planning Planning steps Participati
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Planning 362
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Planning 364
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City Sanitation Plan Local Authorit
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Planning 368
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Planning 1 To learn more about the
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Planning 372
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Phase description Main Outcomes - A
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Planning 376
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Planning 378
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Treatment performance Local context
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Planning 382
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Planning Selecting a context-approp
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Planning Figure 17.11 Example diagr
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Planning 388
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Management Planning Management Tech
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Planning Management Technology 18.1
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Planning Management Technology to p
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Planning Management Technology Figu
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Planning Management Technology The
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18.3 COLLECTION AND TRANSPORT Plann
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Planning Management Technology info
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Over a billion people in urban and
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