SOCIO - ECONOMIC DISPARITIES AMONG MUNICIPALITIES IN MACEDONIA

SOCIO - ECONOMIC DISPARITIES
AMONG MUNICIPALITIES IN MACEDONIA
November 2004

Socio-economic disparities among municipalities in Macedonia
Project team
Project Manager
Katerina Kostadinova-Daskalovska
Authors of the Analysis:
Prof. Dr Verica Janeska
Dr Anica Dragovic
Prof. Dr Ilo Trajkovski
Dimitar Bogov
Aleksandar Ivanovski
Methodology expert:
Ljubinka Popovska Toseva
Data base expert:
Kliment Simoncev
Editor
Zoran Andonovski
Proofreader
Suzana Mitrevska
UNDP Support team:
Vesna Dzuteska-Biseva, UNDP Macedonia
Jordanka Cerepnalkova-Trajkoska, UNDP Macedonia
This Report would not be able to be realized without the valuable contribution and participation of
the following institutions:
The State Statistical Office, the State Public Health Institute, the Employment Agency, the State
Pension and Disability Insurance Fund, the State Health Insurance Fund, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry
of Interior, as well as from the Civil Servants Agency, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Environment and Physical
Planning, the Privatization Agency, the Agency for Youth and Sports and the Macedonian Centre for
International Cooperation.
Disclaimer
The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position
of the United Nations Development Programme.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any
opinion on the part of the United Nations Development Programme or the Secretariat of the United Nations
concerning the legal status or name of any country, territory, city or area or of its authors, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Mention of firm names and commercial products does not imply
endorsement by the United Nations.
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FOREWORD
Over the past decade and half, Macedonia has passed through dynamic period of transformation
of its political, economic and social system. The Macedonian transition, which per se is a very complex
process, was additionally complicated by several external and internal negative shocks that had serious
consequences over the country’s development. Especially the domestic product, the economic
growth, the unemployment and the poverty were the mostly affected, and for that reason the policy makers
were dominantly focused on these issues. Unfortunately, the appropriate development of the statistical
information system on a sub national and regional level was put aside, which recently has shown as
a very serious shortcoming.
Having the decentralization of the government as one of the priority processes and policies in the
country, the comprehensive set of indicators that could help the policy makers to precisely identify the
most vulnerable groups and underdeveloped areas and to direct the effort towards them, is more than
valuable.
The Ministry of Local Self Government and the Government have already established certain
data bases and done analysis in the course of relevant decision making processes. Some of them were
supported by the international community, and United Nations Development Programme in many occasions
supported the Ministry with technical assistance and expertise, as well as with pilot projects with
regard of the decentralization issues.
The present analysis and the availability of and access to the data bases of indicators are complementary
to the Ministry’s Decentralization Campaign and to the actions towards better transfer of competences
to the local governments. Even more, regarding the latest, this analysis would help to focus our
attention on the most relevant issues concerning the local needs while making important decisions.
The report gives an insight of the development trends in various social and economic areas on a
sub national level that, again I stress, can draw the attention of the policy makers on the most urgent
decisions.
For the first time we will have profile of each of the existing municipalities which points out their
different levels of development, and which pictures the social, institutional and communal infrastructure.
Here I would also like to mention the studies about the municipalities’ capacities with regard of
the forthcoming transfer of competences that UNDP has implemented in collaboration with Ministry,
which along with this report gives a comprehensive basis for the Ministry to make appropriate political
decisions.
Using this occasion, I would like to express gratitude on behalf of the Ministry and on behalf of the
Government to United Nations Development Programme as a reliable partner in these challenging time
for this country.
Aleksandar Gestakovski
Minister of Local Self Government
Development is a priority issue for governments of all countries. The widely shared vision of
joining the European Union further underlines this priority. Long-term development, and in particular
human development, requires indicators and measures that will track progress and provide feedback on
the effectiveness of policies.
Having indicators and measures though is not enough. They also have to be understandable,
accessible and built into the normal capacities of national institutions. Only when accessed and used will
indicators and measures be valuable.
Macedonia of today is a centralised state. This means that disaggregated data has not been in
demand, because data on national level has been more applicable. Statistics on local level have not been
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produced because the apex of the nation has been on a purely central level. However, there is a consensus
among all political parties and in all communities that decentralisation is necessary. This means that
socio-economic data needs to reflect realities and differences on local level and policy-makers are likely
to demand localised statistics much more in the future. In spite of recent controversies regarding the new
boundaries of municipalities, decentralisation has to be implemented. Not only is it a key pillar of the
Ohrid Framework Agreement, but it is also a prerequisite for compliance with the European Union principle
of subsidiarity, that is that decisions shall be on the lowest applicable level possible.
However, the importance of disaggregated statistics is more than a formalistic requirement for
EU accession. It becomes even more evident in the context of human development and in the context of
the ongoing process of nationalising the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Even though there is a
lot of potential for progress on these agendas on national level, discrepancies and challenges becomes
more evident once indicators and measures become available on municipal level. Differences between
municipalities are now identifiable and in particularly obvious is the divide between urban and rural
municipalities.
If the decentralisation agenda is not to lead to an increase in current disparities, the Law of
Financing of Municipalities has to ensure that a transfer mechanism is in place to ensure the ability and
capacity to uphold an agreed set of minimum standards across the country. It is impossible to envisage
accountability and transparency in ensuring this without statistical feedback in the form of reliable socioeconomic
data on local level. Also when it comes to measures to achieve the MDGs by 2015, it is necessary
to have access to information on where problems are the biggest.
This report is a result of the project “Mapping of the Socio-Economic Disparities among
Macedonian Municipalities”. It is part of a systematic and substantial collaboration between the Ministry
of Local Self-Government and the United Nations Development Programme on a number of issues in support
of implementing the decentralisation process. This is the first assessment report and contains the
most complete and definite set of core indicators important to track human development on municipal
level. The report also identifies remaining gaps and lack of indicators crucial for human development
and suggests new methodologies or improvement of existing ones. Nevertheless, now for the first time
we have information such as GDP per capita on local level, and the additional data than constitutes
human development indicators. Part of the initial information available was used by UNDP in its
National Human Development Report 2004.
The information this mapping exercise provides we believe will be an invaluable source for policy
makers, but also civil society. Citizens have a right to information, but it has to exist to become available.
Those who have an interest in development of their communities now have information and this report
responds to part of their needs. This report seeks to focus attention on specific development issues and
raise awareness about the responsibility towards development that rests with government but is also followed,
criticised or supported by civil society, private sector and the international community.
For UNDP ‘sustainability’ is a key criterion for the work we do. This mapping should not be a one
time exercise. The data requires constant updating and trends identified. That is why the report was produced
in a close cooperation between our team of national experts and the State Statistical Office, the
institution that holds the responsibility for producing statistical data in the country. It has been an
unusual privilege that the leader of the expert’s team, Ms. Katerina Kostadinova-Daskalovska, recently
became the Director of this institution. I congratulate her and the whole team for the precious efforts
they have made in producing what is likely to be a benchmark report for tracking local human development
in Macedonia.
Frode Mauring
Resident Representative
UNDP Macedonia
4

INTRODUCTION
The local development planning and decentralization created a need of high quality indicators
required for monitoring and analysis of the socio-economic aspects of the human development
at a local level. Attempting to meet this need, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and
the Ministry of Local Self-government initiated in 2003 the project “Mapping the Socio-economic
Disparities between the Macedonian Municipalities”. The results of the project are the four
Publications: Publication I, “Socio-economic Disparities between the Municipalities in Macedonia”;
Publication II, “Data and Indicators of Municipalities in Macedonia”; Publication III, “Profiles of
Municipalities in Macedonia”; and Publication IV, “Municipal Indicators – Definitions and Sources”.
The four Publications complement each other. They are all aimed at the same and only goal:
enabling an insight into and providing relevant indicators on the municipalities.
The municipalities are expected to be the primary users of the gathered and published data.
The data will, however, be also available to government agencies, primarily to the Ministry of Local
Self-government and the Agency for Development of Economically Underdeveloped Municipalities,
and to the international community.
In this way, assistance is given in the efforts to change the course of the existing negative
tendency in the geographic-wise unbalanced development, which enlarges not only the gap
between the urban and rural areas, but also the social gap between the citizens in the country.
The indicators included and presented in a conceptual and methodological manner were
prepared by consulting several lists of internationally accepted indicators: the indicators required for
monitoring the human development and attaining the millennium development goals (developed
by the UN), indicators for monitoring the European Regional Statistics (gathered by the Regional
Development Monitoring EUROSTAT), urban indicators (gathered by EUROSTAT as part of the Urban
Audit Project, for the purpose of monitoring 258 cities in 27 - 25 EU member countries and Romania
and Bulgaria), the List of Indicators of Sustainable Development of the UN Committee for
Sustainable Development, as well as individual lists of indicators created as part of projects underway
in Macedonia.
The data and indicators, as well as the consultations on the methodology issues were provided
from the institutions authorized to implement the statistical research program: the State
Statistical Office (which provided the largest number of data), the State Public Health Institute, the
Employment Agency, the State Pension and Disability Insurance Fund, the State Health Insurance
Fund, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Interior, as well as from the Civil Servants Agency,
Ministry of Culture, Privatization Agency, the Agency for Youth and Sports and the Macedonian
Centre for International Cooperation.
The four Publications, along with the database – available on the Internet - providing a huge
number of data relevant at local levels, may serve as a tool for analysis and creation of a policy of
support for the overall local development. At the same time, the transparency and availability of
data and the analysis allow for a more active participation of the local authorities, which will be able
to refer to the data to strengthen their position in communications with the policy creators and the
central government.
The analytical study also produces recommendations for introducing new indicators and
improving the existing methodologies in the regular statistical programs of the State Statistical
Office and the other institutions authorized to conduct statistical research. This particularly refers to
data and indicators required for monitoring the local human development and calculating the
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human development index at a regional and local level, as well as setting up a statistical database
that will facilitate the process of Government monitoring the indicators of the millennium development
goals. To this goal, UNDP has already made the first steps in this year’s Report on Human
Development, which for the first time includes an attempt to identify the Human Development
Index at a municipality level.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The main goal of this Publication is to make an assessment of the available statistical indicators
for municipalities in Macedonia and to provide the directions of the future development of a
statistical information system at a municipality level.
The study includes analyses of the demographic indicators (Chapter 1), living and working
conditions indicators (Chapter 2), education, culture, and civil life indicators (Chapter 3), economic
indicators (Chapter 4), and environmental indicators (Chapter 5).
The data about the indicators have been systematized in accordance with the NUTS 1 classification.
There are eight regions (NUTS3) in Macedonia: the Pelagonia, Vardar, Northeast, Southwest, Skopje,
Southeast, Polog, and East regions, 30 groups of municipalities (NUTS 4), which correspond to the municipalities
as under the territorial division before 1996 and 123 municipalities (NUTS 5). (See Annex 1)
The analyses, whenever the data allowed, were conducted at a regional (NUTS3) and at a
municipal level (NUTS 5). The smallest number of data were available regarding the sector of social
services in the municipalities, the public services sector, as well as the indicators of environmental
protection and quality of life.
Depending on the availability of data required to conduct the mapping by various indicators,
the analyses are more in-depth and more analytical in areas on which there are more data available.
An attempt was also made to come up with proposals for all areas with the aim of developing
a comprehensive statistical data base, which will enable monitoring of the local economic and
human development and the level of attainment of the millenium goals at a local level, with the use
of measurable indicators.
* * *
The changes in the total population numbers and its territorial dispersal are to be observed
in terms of their absolute and relative growth and the population density. In relation to the spatialdemographic
polarization, the urban population and the level of urbanization are observed separately.
In the period between 1994 and 2002, the population dynamics in Macedonia was characterized
by sizeable regional differences. At a regional level (NUTS 3), there is a growth of the population
in all regions except in the Pelagonia one, where the number of inhabitants decreased by 4,478
(more than 1.8 percent), and the average annual growth rate is a negative 0.23 percent. The Polog
region stands out for its highest population increase (in this region, the indicators are 23,948 individuals,
8.5 percent, and 1.02 percent, respectively), whereas the East one has the lowest population
growth (1,688 individuals, 0.8 percent, and 0.10 percent, respectively).
These demographic differences are in essence a result of the considerably differentiated
directions of the natural and migration component of the total population. The impact of the natural
movement was identified on the basis of several indicators of the birth rates, mortality, natural
population increase, and fertility of the female population. These indicators point to the different
stages of transition of the demographic development of the regions and municipalities. In 2002, the
natural population growth rates varied between –39.0 percent (Staravina) and 24.2 percent (Centar
Zupa); these rates are with a negative sign in almost one third (44) of the municipalities. In spite of
the missing relevant data on the migration movements, particularly regarding the migrations out of
1
NUTS - Nomenclature of Units of Territory for Statistics
7

the country, it may be concluded that they have a considerable impact on the growth of the population
in individual municipalities.
Regarding the population development, the analysis pays special attention to the changes
in the population structure by gender and age. With the importance of the population age structure
in mind, the study includes an in-depth analysis of the defined stages of demographic age, the more
significant functional age-gender contingents and ratios of the population age dependency. The
data from the 2002 population census indicate that there is a huge number of municipalities (76)
that are undergoing a rather intensive process of demographic aging.
The basic features and regional disparities related to households are observed through the
indicators of the total number, size and family structure of the households, i.e. by types of families.
Indicators of the inclusion of households of singles and single parent families are shown separately.
In terms of the living conditions, the indicators related to the housing and facilities provide
rather interesting findings. In the period between 1994 and 2002, the total number of apartments in
Macedonia rose by 20.2 percent. At the regional level, the increase of the number of apartments was
highest in the Polog region (33.8 percent), and lowest in the Pelagonia one (10.8 percent). The majority
(95.6 percent) of the households in the country live in apartments equipped with water supply,
sewer systems and electricity.
The changes in the levels of social protection of the population and transfers on various
grounds are observed on the basis of the data available on the number of users of social financial
aid and other types of social protection, pension insurance users, and users of social transfers on the
basis of unemployment. Although of a varying intensity, all regions are facing an evident increase of
the number of households and individuals receiving social financial aid, as well as the number of
pensioners and unemployed individuals using health insurance.
In relation to the selected indicators for identifying the socio-economic disparities between
the Macedonian municipalities in terms of population and households and living and working conditions
(regarding the housing conditions), the conclusion is that there is a sufficient base of official
data at a municipality level in most of them. Nevertheless, there are also a considerable number of
indicators in the case of which the data available are only at a national level (household income) or
include groups of municipalities (social protection).
The analysis shows that the municipalities in Macedonia differ by the number of health institutions,
staffing, health condition of the population and death rates.
The analysis attempts to underline certain differences in the domain of health and health
care of citizens in the municipalities, with the “health for all” message in mind, or the minimum level
of health citizens should have in order to work in a more profitable manner and take active part in
the social life of the community they live in.
In 2002, a total of 145 public health institutions operated on the territory of Macedonia, of
which 59 as part of the primary health protection, 38 within the secondary protection and 48 at the
level of tertiary protection. Under such a network of health institutions, 226.10 physicians, 58.49
dentists, 16.41 pharmacists, and 331.96 nurses provide healthcare services for the citizens
(expressed in relation to 100,000 citizens).
Municipalities in Macedonia differ drastically in terms of transport, mobility and infrastructure
network. At a national level, the development varies by areas. The analysis showed that, in order
to reduce the disparities between municipalities, measures need to be introduced to ensure further
development of the transport and communication system, such as reconstruction and construction
of transport and communication networks and a series of other measures aimed at improving the
communication at a national level, as well as at adapting the traffic network of the main generators
of future movements of passengers and transportation of goods.
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Education is of an extraordinary importance for the socio-economic development of any
country, for the simple reason that it is the major path towards a qualified labor and higher productivity.
At the same time, this is one of the main components of achieving sustainable development.
In this context, the analysis also monitors the capacities of the municipalities to ensure a
high-quality education within the competencies of the municipality, i.e. the local self-government.
The analysis of the education indicators also points out the large differences in the infrastructure
facilities existing in the school buildings, disparities in terms of staffing of schools, percentage
of inclusion in the secondary education, as well as the rate of continuous education.
There is an explicit difference between the municipalities in Macedonia in terms of the culture
and cultural activity which, cinemas and cultural centers excluded, is currently realized in an
institutional framework only in the urban areas, as may be concluded from the data and the analysis
of the situation in the culture. The city of Skopje – more precisely, the municipality of Centar –
stands out for its number of cultural institutions. This also points out the “cultural” domination of this
municipality over the remaining ones.
The cultural institutions, such as cultural centers, workers’ universities, centers for pioneers,
culture centers and people’s universities, are almost always located in the municipal centers. The
only cultural institutions in the rural municipalities are the cultural centers, and even those are located
in only two of the municipalities – Pehcevo and Cucer Sandevo – while the others are all in the
urban settlements.
On the basis of data about the national accounts of the State Statistical Office, the gross
domestic product per capita was assessed by the parity of the purchasing power at a municipal and
regional level for the years 1998 and 2002. These data are the basis for an analysis of the level of economic
activity on the territory of each municipality and the disparities between them. The features
and potential of the local economy are analyzed by using the indicators of contribution of institutional
sectors (non-financial, financial, state and household) in the creation of GDP. The calculated
average annual rates of real GDP growth per capita in the period 1998-2002 indicate the pace of the
economic activity, which is not always in correlation with the inherited level of economic development.
Thus, this indicator reveals that certain municipalities – in spite of the low level of GDP per
capita – have an exceptionally dynamic economic activity, which is a result of the growth of small
businesses.
The second aspect examined in the economic analysis of the Macedonian municipalities is
the economic activity of the population. In addition to the general unemployment rate of all municipalities,
the analysis also focuses on the unemployment rate by gender, rate of activity of the female
population and the unemployment rate among young people. It also examines three groups of
activities (agriculture, industry and services), which employ the largest portion of the population.
The exceptional abundance of data for the first time allowed for an analysis of the rate of activity and
the unemployment rate individually for the seven most represented ethnic communities in
Macedonia.
The data from the Civil Servants Agency show that there were a total of 8,587 employed civil
servants in Macedonia in the year 2000. The disparities between municipalities are incomparable
here as well. The variations move from municipalities with only one civil servant (13 municipalities
or 9.23 percent of the total number) to municipalities in which there are over 600, with one municipality
having as many as 1,134 civil servants. For these reasons, the average number of about seventy
civil servants by municipality, for instance, does not tell much.
The situation in the environmental protection is presented by the analysis of the data on air
pollution, depletion of the ozone layer, climate changes, waste, biodiversity, noise and quality of the
9

water. The major sources of air pollution in Macedonia are industrial capacities, traffic, power and
heating plants, and the central heating of households. Municipalities with the highest level of air
pollution are Skopje, Veles, Bitola, Tetovo, Jegunovce, Gostivar, Radovis, Demir Hisar, Debar,
Makedonski Brod, Kocani i Kicevo.
One of the key polluters in the Macedonian municipalities is waste, as the waste management
techniques (mechanical sorting, composting, incineration and recycling) are still at the lowest
levels. Almost all hard communal waste disposal sites near the cities are of insatisfactory sanitary
and technical standards, with the exception of the site Drisla in Skopje. Surface waters in Macedonia
are seriously jeopardized by various sources of physical, chemical and biological pollution, mainly
from the heavy industry and the increase of population in urban areas, as well as from the communal
and industrial waste waters.
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CHAPTER ONE
DEMOGRAPHY
1. POPULATION
1.1. Total population in Macedonia – changes, territorial
distribution and urbanization
1.1.1. Total population scope and dynamics
In demographic terms, Macedonia is an extremely heterogeneous area. The large demographic
differences, especially if observed from higher down to lower regional levels in the country,
are in essence a consequence of largely differentiated directions of the natural and migration component
of the total population.
According to the data of the population census in 2002, Macedonia has 2,022,547 citizens.
The number of citizens increased by 76,615 or by 3.9 percent as compared to the previous census of
1994. The average annual population growth rate in the period amounted to 0.48 percent.
With regard to the population dynamics in Macedonia, there were sizeable regional differences
in the observed period. At a regional level (NUTS 3), there is an increase of the population in
all regions except in Pelagonia, where the number of inhabitants decreased by 4,478 (1.8 growth),
and the average annual population growth rate is negative 0.23 percent (Table 1). Of the 19 municipalities
in the region, only three have witnessed an increase of the population: Bitola, Zitose and
Prilep (See Table 1, Publication II).
Table 1.Some indicators of the scope and components of the total population increase,
population density and urban population in Macedonia, 1994 and 2002
Region
Total population
Change
(increase) of
population
Popula
tion
growth
rates
Natural
Population
increase
Migratory
balance
Population
density
Population
concentration
(Macedonia
=100.0)
Urban population
(1994)
No. percent
1994 2002 1994- 1994- 1994- 1994-2002 1994- 1994 2002 2002 No. Percent*
2002 2002 2002
2002
Macedonia 1945932 2022547 76615 3.94 0.48 107607 -30992 76.0 79.0 100.00 1163598 59.8
Pelagonia 242614 238136 -4478 -1.85 -0.23 819 -5297 49.7 48.8 11.77 159803 65.9
Vardar 131035 133180 2145 1.64 0.20 3815 -1670 40.7 41.4 6.58 92087 70.3
Northeast 163841 172787 8946 5.46 0.66 10503 -1557 70.6 74.4 8.54 89500 54.6
Southwest 211226 219741 8515 4.03 0.49 14706 -6191 64.2 66.8 10.86 96195 45.2
Skopje 545228 578144 32916 6.04 0.73 32673 243 314.6 333.6 28.58 444299 81.5
Southeast 168481 171416 2935 1.74 0.22 7678 -4743 64.8 66.0 8.48 68466 40.6
Polog 281982 305930 23948 8.49 1.02 32420 -8472 116.8 126.7 15.13 91352 32.6
East 201525 203213 1688 0.84 0.10 4993 -3305 48.3 48.7 10.05 121896 60.5
* Percentage of the total population
Source: Census of population, households and dwellings in Macedonia, 1994 and 2002, State Statistical Office
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Regarding the other regions, the population increase is marked with large deviations.
Namely, in accordance with the population growth rate, it is lowest in the East, Vardar and Southeast
region, equal with the average in the country in the Southwest region, somewhat higher in the
Northeast and Skopje region, and highest in the Polog.
Smaller or larger differences are also present between the municipalities within the regions.
In the three mentioned regions (the East, Skopje and Southeast ones), with small absolute and relative
increases, the population increase is in essence a result of the population increase in the former
municipal centers. Thence, there are a considerably large number of municipalities in which the population
growth is negative. Of the total number of 17 municipalities in the East region, there is a
decrease of the population in 12; 6 of the 10 municipalities in the Vardar region are also facing
decrease of their population, just as are 8 of the 14 municipalities in the Southeast region. These
regions account for one third (41) of the total number of municipalities and the population
increased by 6,788 persons in all of them together. This represents only 8.8 percent of the total population
increase in the country in the period between 1994 and 2002.
Large disparities in the population increase are typical for the municipalities in the
Southwest and Northeast region, whose joint percentage of the total number of municipalities (22.9
percent) corresponds to their individual participation in the total population increase in the analyzed
period (22.8 percent). Of the 20 municipalities in the Southwest region, there is a population
increase in 11, where the growth rates move from 0.16 percent (Makedonski Brod) to 2.30 percent
(Delogozdi). The growth rate is also rather high in the municipality of Velesta (2.06 percent).
Deviations are also large in municipalities in which the population decreased, since the growth rates
are within an interval of -0.08 percent (Vevcani) to -3.51 percent (Samokov). There was also a sizeable
decrease in Kosel, Lukovo and Vranesnica.
In the Northeast region, the population increased in only three of the total of eight municipalities,
being minimal in Kriva Palanka (growth rate of 0.02 percent), and quite large in Kumanovo
and Lipkovo (1.09 percent and 1.32 percent, respectively). During this period, the population grew
by 9.1 percent in Kumanovo and by 11.1 percent in Lipkovo. Klecovce, Orasac and Staro Nagoricane
are municipalities with the most intensive decrease.
The Skopje region stands out for its huge absolute population increase, as it accounts for as
much as 43.0 percent of the total population increase in the country during the last inter-census
period. Of the 16 municipalities in the region, there has been an increase in three, in which the
growth rate moved from 0.20 percent (Petrovec) to 2.42 percent (Suto Orizari). There is also a considerably
high increase of the population in: Aracinovo, Studenicani, Saraj, Kondovo, Ilinden and
Gjorce Petrov. The population decreased in the municipalities of Zelenikovo, Centar and Sopiste.
Unlike the Skopje region, Polog has the highest relative – as well as a large absolute – population
growth, as it participates in the total population increase in the country by 31.3 percent. There
has been an increase in the population in the largest number of the municipalities (16 out of of the
total of 19). The increase is highest in Dolna Banjica (growth rate of 2.44 percent) and Kamenjane
(2.17 percent). The following municipalities also have a population growth rate higher than 1.0 percent:
Vrutok, Negotino Polosko, Bogovinje, Vratnica, Zelino, Tetovo, Dzepciste and Sipkovica. This
means that a large population increase is typical not only for former municipal centers, but also for
the majority of rural municipalities. During the period, the population decreased only in Mavrovi
Anovi (growth rate of -3.94 percent), Rostusa (-1.16 percent) and Srbinovo (-0.79 percent).
The analysis of the data from the population censuses in 1994 and 2002 and the chosen indicators
lead to the conclusion that there have been significant changes in the population dynamics
over the past decade. These are expressed through the further enlargement of the regional dispari-
12

ties in relation to the population increase. The manifested processes in the regional development of
the population in Macedonia are a result of the differences in the natural and migratory movement
of the population.
The data from the inter-census period – 1994-2002 – show that total natural population
increase in Macedonia is 107,607 persons. 2 The largest portion of such increase is in the Skopje and
Polog regions, which together account for three fifths (60.5 percent) of the total natural population
increase in the country. The Southwest and Northeast regions are also ones with a large increase,
and their common share reach 23.4 percent of the total increase. These four regions account for
about 84 percent of the total natural population increase.
Due to such regional disparities, natural population increase has a considerably large impact
on the population increase in certain areas of the country. In the analyzed period, the natural population
increase is negative in 35 (28.5 percent) of the total number of municipalities. The majority
of them are in the Pelagonia, Southwest and Northeast regions (26 municipalities), and relatively
smaller is the number (9) of such municipalities in the Vardar, Southeast and East region. The still
high natural population increase in certain municipalities of the Skopje, Polog, Southwest and
Northeast regions lies behind the relatively high population increase in these areas, although a part
of them are emigratory areas.
As for the migratory balance calculated on the basis of the vital-statistical method, it had a
negative sign during the inter-census period and amounted to 30,992 persons at a national level.
This implies a continuation of the emigratory movements from the country from the previous
decades. Still, as regards the migratory balance, it should be born in mind that it would be even
higher if the total natural population increase did not include the children born outside the country.
This conclusion is a result of our knowledge for the number of children born abroad, which has
a trend of a continuous increase.
Regardless of that, the regions with high immigration rates may be identified on the basis of
these migratory balance data as well as on the basis of the previous knowledge about emigratory
movements from the country. Although it is very difficult to determine with higher precision the
number of persons who have left the country temporarily or permanently, the doubtless fact
remains that Macedonia was facing sizeable migration during the period, which had a significant
impact on the population increase – both total and regional.
The changes in the population increase over the last few years may be observed on the basis
of the data from the population estimates. However it is important to have in mind that those estimates
were primarily done on the basis of the natural population increase. Thence, it may be concluded
that, under conditions of still considerable emigratory movements from the country- these
data fail to provide a real picture of the population scope and dynamics.
1.1.2. Changes in the Population Density and Distribution
The population density is one of the most significant indicators of the quantitative and qualitative
features of the established spatial-demographic relations. Also, it is a rather important indicator
in terms of mapping the disparities in the socio-economic development. The increase of the total
population and its distribution across the territory of Macedonia also affected the changes in the
population density and the concentration of the population.
The general population density in Macedonia increased from 76 to 79 inhabitants per
square kilometer in the 1994 – 2002 period. These large regional differences in the population
growth pace brought about a large spread between the points of growth of the value of the general
density coefficient. At a national level, it was 3.9 percent, whereas in the seven regions in which
2
As regards these data, it should be born in mind that they also include children born abroad.
13

there is an increase in the population density, this indicator ranges between 0.8 percent (East region)
to 8.5 percent (the Polog region). According to this indicator, there has been an increase in less than
half (60) of the total number of 123 municipalities.
The Pelagonia region is the only one in which the density is on the downward line. Of the 19
municipalities in this region, the density increased in only three – Bitola, Zitose and Prilep. In 2002,
all municipalities had a density lower than the national average, with the exception of Bitola (377.3/
km 2 ) and Prilep (137.1/ km 2 ).
The population density increase is lowest in the East, the Vardar and the Southeast region,
where it is 0.8 percent, 1.7 percent and 1.9 percent respectively. In the three regions with a total of
41 municipalities, the population density grew in only 14. In the majority of the municipalities, it is
of very low values. The values are higher than the country average in only seven municipalities:
Kocani, Stip, Veles, Kavadarci, Bosilovo, Murtino and Strumica, where the numbers move from 80.8
to 429.4 inhabitants per km 2 .
In the Northeast region, only two municipalities – Kumanovo and Lipkovo - stand out for
both their population increase and density; there, the density in 2002 was 344 and 100.2 inhabitants
per km 2 , respectively. The region is characterized with large regional disparities, as the value of the
indicator moves within an interval of 9.3 to 344.0 km 2 . The situation is similar in the Southwest
region, where the indicator is of a lowest value in Kosel and Lukovo (76.0) and highest in Kicevo
(615.1). Still, an increase in the population density is recorded in more than half (11) of the municipalities
in the region. In addition to Kicevo, density is also high in Debar, Ohrid, Velesta, Delogozdi,
Labunista and Struga.
The Skopje region was and remains the area with the highest density in Macedonia, with an
increase in all municipalities except in Zelenikovo, Sopiste and Centar. Regardless of that, Centar
continues to be the municipality with the highest density in the country, with 4,589.1 inhabitants
per km 2 , followed by: Kisela Voda (2,915.8); Suto Orizari (2,892.8); Karpos (2,848.1); Cair (1,290.5) and
Gazi Baba (1,046.7).
The population density also increased in all municipalities in the Polog region, except in the
three municipalities of Mavrovi Anovi, Rostusa and Srbinovo. Municipalities with the highest density
are Gostivar (990.9) and Tetovo (814.3). It is also considerable in Vrapciste, Negotino-Polosko,
Cegrane, Bogovinje, Zelino, Kamenjane, Tearce and Dzepciste, where it moves between 122.6 and
247.5 inhabitants per km 2 .
As far as the population concentration – expressed as the participation of the population
from individual areas in the total country population - is concerned, the conclusion is that the
changes differ from those identified in terms of the population dynamics. At a regional level, these
indicators show a decrease in the concentration in the Pelagonia, Vardar, Southeast and East regions,
with the concentration being stagnant in the Northwest one. The joint participation of the population
in the Northeast, Skopje and Polog regions in the total population of the country increased from
50.9 percent (in 1994) to 52.3 percent (2002). This implies a huge concentration of the population on
a relatively small space.
On the basis of the population concentration on the territory of Macedonia, one could distinguish
between six zones: a weak concentration zone (up to 50 inhabitants per km 2 ), medium concentration
zone (51-100 inhabitants per km 2 ), overpopulated zone (101-150 inhabitants per km 2 ),
significantly overpopulated zone (151-500 inhabitants per km 2 ), very significantly overpopulated
zone (501 – 1,000 inhabitants per km 2 ), and massively overpopulated zone (more than 1,000 inhabitants
per km 2 ). In 2002, almost half (61) of the municipalities belonged in the weak concentration
zone, 26 municipalities had medium concentration, 7 were overpopulated, 19 were significantly
14

overpopulated, 4 very significantly overpopulated, and 6 municipalities had more than 1,000 inhabitants
per km 2 .
The current situation regarding the population density and concentration may be defined
as rather unfavorable due to the numerous consequences and implications in many domains of the
complex economic and overall social development of the country. As a result of the established
trends in the demographic development, it may be expected that the differences related to population
density will further deepen. They will be manifested through higher density levels in municipalities
presently characterized with a high density, on one hand, and through a decrease in the population
density in an increasingly larger area and creation of completely uninhabited areas, on the
other.
1.1.3. Urban Population and Level of Urbanization
The considerable changes in the distribution and re-distribution of the population contributed
to high degrees of heterogeneity in its internal distribution and an increasing regional and
demographic polarization. The unequal and polarized distribution of the population – expressed as
high levels of concentration in urban areas and abandoned rural regions – is of undoubted adverse
impact on the demographic and socio-economic development of the country.
In the second half of the 20 th century, as a result of the intensive village-city migration
movements, Macedonia faced a rather large increase of the urban population as a percentage of the
total. In 1994, it accounted for 59.8 percent (Table 1) of the total population. At regional levels, the
urban population made up from 32.6 percent (the Polog region) to 81.5 percent (the Skopje region)
of the total population. 3 This indicator is also higher in the Vardar and Pelagonia regions and is at
national level in the East. The Northeast and Southwest regions have a lower percentage of the
urban population.
The distribution of population in urban areas by size is such that, in 1994, there were 15 small
towns (up to 20,000 inhabitants) in Macedonia, 8 middle-size ones (20,000 – 50,000), 4 large cities
(50,001 – 100,000 inhabitants), and the city of Skopje was the only urban settlement with more than
100,000 inhabitants. In terms of the distribution population in urban areas, it is interesting to
observe its concentration in the cities by their size. Thus, the population in small towns accounted
for 14 percent of the total urban population, the one in middle-size cities for 24.8 percent, and the
one in large cities for 23 percent. In 1994, almost two fifths (38.2 percent) of the urban population
lived in the city of Skopje.
The changes introduced in the territorial organization (definition of municipal boundaries) in
1996 did not specify which settlements had features of urban settlements. As a result, data in the
2002 census of the population were not analyzed by type of settlement (city and village).
1.2. Natural Migrations of the Population
1.2.1. Birth Rate, Mortality and Natural Increase
The differences in the intensity of the population increase, both as a total and by individual
municipalities, were largely influenced by the different dynamics of the components of natural
migrations and their participation in the replenishment of the population. Particularly in the case of
small areas, these could be of key influence not only on the changes in the scope of the population,
but also on its reproductive basis.
The natural movement of the population in Macedonia, observed in terms of the number of
newly born and deceased and of the natural increase of the population, as well as in terms of vitality
2
These indicators are presented in Table 2 - Publication II, at a level of groups of municipalities.
15

ates, is characterized by extremely high levels of heterogeneity and huge regional deviations. In identifying
these, not only relative indicators, but absolute values should be taken into account, as well.
In the period 1998-2002, the number of newly born and birth rates in Macedonia went down
from 29,244 (1998) to 27,761 (2002), i.e. from 14.6 down to 13.7 newly born per 1,000 citizens, in
spite of the manifested oscillations in 1999, 2000 and 2001 4 (See Table 3 – Publication II).
Observed regionally, the birth rate has the same trend in the larger part of the country. At
the level of regions (NUTS 3), the decrease in the number of newly born and birth rates were typical
of all regions, with the exception of the Skopje region, where the number of newly born increased
and the birth rate remained at almost the same level. The Pelagonia, Vardar, Southeast and East
regions are with a relatively small number of newly born and lower birth rates. In 2002, the number
of newly born in the 60 municipalities of these four regions amounted to 8,418 (or 30.3 percent of
the total number of newly born in the country), with the birth rate moving from 10.5 to 12.8 per
mills. The Northeast, Southwest and Skopje regions have higher birth rates (14.7; 14.5; and 14.2 per
mills, respectively), where the number of newly born totaled 13,896, i.e. half (50.1 percent) of the
total number of newly born in the country. It is interesting to point out here that the number of
newly born in the Skopje region is somewhat lower (8,181) than the number in the mentioned four
regions, which have lower birth rates. In spite of the decreasing trend (from 20.1 in 1998 to 17.8 per
mills in 2002), the birth rate remains the highest in the Polog region, which accounts for 19.6 percent
of the total number of newly born in the country.
There are huge regional disparities in the birth rates, which move from 1.8 (Vitoliste) to 30.0
per mills (Centar Zupa). In 2002, 38 municipalities had birth rates lower than 10.0 per mills, more
than half (71) of the total of 123 municipalities had between 10.0 and 20.0 per mills, and as many as
14 municipalities had rates higher than 20.0 per mills.
Unlike the birth rate, mortality in Macedonia is on the rise. The number of deceased went up from
16,870 (1998) to 17,962 (2002), while the death rates increased from 8.4 to 8.9 per mills. This trend is the
same in all the regions, except in the Northeast, where mortality decreased both in absolute and in relative
terms. As for deviations at a national level, mortality is higher in the Pelagonia, Vardar, East and Northeast
regions, where the death rates move from 12.5 (in the Pelagonia region) to 9.0 per mills (Northeast). The 54
municipalities in these four regions account for 42.4 percent of the total number of deaths in the country.
The Southeast, Southwest and Skopje regions have below average death rates, with the one in the Polog
region being the lowest (7.6 per mills).
The differences in mortality rates between municipalities are rather large and move from 4.1
(Aracinovo and Lipkovo) to 41.8 per mills (Staravina). More than half (68) of the total of 123 municipalities
had death rates lower than 10.0 per mills, more than one third (44) had rates between 10.0
and 20.0 per mills, and as many as 11 municipalities had rates higher than 20.0 per mills. In the
majority of municipalities, the increase in the death rate is a result of the age structure of the population.
The vitality index is a synthetic indicator of the movements and regional disparities in terms
of birth and death rates. While its values vary over the period observed, it still decreased at a national
level from 173.3 (1998) to 154.6 (2002) newly born per 100 deaths. It had a downward trend in all
eight regions and in the majority (88) of the municipalities. Still, as a reflection of the mentioned differentiations
in the number of newly born and deceased, the regional disparities in terms of the
vitality index values are enormous. They move from 4.8 newly born per 100 deaths in the municipality
of Vitoliste to 602.1 newly born per 100 deaths in Aracinovo. This indicator has considerably high
values in the high-birth rate municipalities in the Northeast, Southwest, Skopje, and Polog regions.
4
2000 should be observed as a special year, as this was an year when the number of new births (29,308) was highest. This was an exceptional
year in all regions and almost all municipalities - with larger or smaller deviations - not only in terms of newly born, but also as
regards the number of deaths and natural increase.
16

The manifested changes in the birth and death rates added to the rise in differences in levels
of natural increase, as well, which is still under a significant influence of the first component. In
the period between 1998 and 2002, the natural increase of the population in Macedonia dropped
from 12,374 down to 9,799 persons, and the natural increase rate went down from 6.2 to 4.9 per
mills.
The same trend of changes is typical for all regions, except for the Pelagonia one, where both
the absolute and relative values of the natural increase are negative in all municipalities, with the
exception of Zitose, Krusevo, Dolneni and Prilep. The following regions had a relatively small scope
and low rates of natural increase in 2002: the East (1.8 per mills), the Vardar (2.1 per mills) and the
Southeast region (4.0 per mills). These indicators are higher in the Northeast (5.7 per mills),
Southwest and Skopje (6.1 per mills) regions, and highest in the Polog one (10.2 per mills).
Figure 1. Rates of birth, mortality and natural increase in
Macedonia (regions), 2002
There are sharp inter-regional differences in the values of natural increase rates. In 2002,
these values moved from -39 per mills (Staravina) to 24.2 per mills (Centar Zupa). The unfavorable
situation regarding the natural increase is also confirmed by the fact that it has a negative value in
almost one third (44) of the total number of municipalities, and very low values (from 0.0 to 0.9 per
mills) in 6 municipalities. The number of municipalities (51) in which the natural increase rates move
between 1.0 and 10.0 per mills are dominant, with the number of municipalities (21) in which these
rates are within 10.0 and 20.0 per mills being relatively large. Centar Zupa is the only municipality
with a rate higher than 20.0 per mills. These indicators point to the different stage of transition of the
demographic development of individual municipalities and regions, as well as to the intensity of
transformations in the natural migrations of the population (per mills).
1.2.2. Fertility among the Female Population
Regarding the changes in the natural migration of the population, in addition to the birth
rate, it is also important to take into account the differences in the fertility of the female population.
These may be identified on the basis of several different indicators. Having in mind the goal of this
project and the data available at municipality levels, the indicators that are relevant are the general
fertility rate, total fertility rate and average age of birth giving women.
The general fertility rate, as an indicator of the number of newly born children per 1,000
women of fertile age, is a more precise indicator of the changes in the level of fertility in a population
than is the general birth rate. The general fertility rate in Macedonia, while with certain oscilla-
17

tions, has a trend of continuous decrease (See Table 3 – Publication II). In the period analyzed, it went
down from 56.1 (1998) to 53.2 per mills (2002). This trend is typical for all regions except for the
Skopje region, where the fertility rate slightly rose (from 53.4 to 54.0 per mills). The Polog, Northeast
and Southwest regions have the largest decrease in the value of this indicator. Regardless of this,
however, these areas continue to differ in terms of above average fertility of the population, as the
2002 rates in the regions moved from 55.7 to 66.2 per mills. There was also a decrease in the fertility
rates in the Pelagonia, Vardar and East regions (2002: 43.2; 44.1; and 43.3 per mills, respectively),
while the rates in the Southeast region remained at the same level (49.9 per mills).
In 2002, this indicator rose at municipal level in almost one third (42) of the municipalities, as
compared to 1998. It is interesting to note that only 9 of those municipalities are in the mentioned
three regions with higher fertility rates.
The total fertility rate is deemed by the demographic statistics as the best indicator of the
level of fertility and a very good approximation of the average number of children in a family. At the
same time, it is a more favorable indicator for a comparative analysis of the fertility levels in different
countries. The critical numerical value of the total fertility rate is 2.1 (number of children per a
woman of a fertile age), which ensures the simple reproduction of the population in terms of generation
renewal.
In 2002, the total fertility rate in Macedonia was 1.6, meaning that simple reproduction was
not achieved in the country as a whole. As the majority of municipalities – according to the existing
territorial division – are very small areas, this indicator was computed for only half (63) of the municipalities,
because it is difficult to obtain relevant indicators for small areas. The ones taken into
account are former municipalities or larger municipal centers, and the data refers to 2002. According
to these data, the total fertility rate has a value higher than 2.1 in only eight municipalities:
Aracinovo, Kondovo, Saraj, Zelenikovo, Studenicani, Suto Orizari, Zelino and Staro Nagoricane. The
municipality of Lipkovo is another municipality in which this indicator is of a value higher than 2.0,
i.e. it is 2.04.
In relation to the population fertility, other important changes are the ones in the average
age of women giving birth. The value of this indicator at a national level is in a continuous upward
trend and it increased from 26.2 to 26.6 years during the period 1998-2002. In spite of the oscillations,
this age is on an increase in the majority of municipalities. It was in only 19 municipalities that
the average age of women giving birth decreased in the period observed. Regarding the regional
disparities related to this indicator, it is worth mentioning that 29 municipalities stand out for their
average age of women giving birth that is above the national average; of them, less than half (13)
are in the Skopje region (per mills).
1.2.3. Life expectancy at birth
Due to the fact that the general death rate is not the most precise indicator of the mortality
level or of the health conditions and living standards in a country, international Publication IIs nowadays
regularly make use of the life expectancy at birth in the analysis of the level of mortality. If the
total fertility rate represents the fertility level, the life expectancy at birth represents the mortality
level. The term refers to the average number of years of life, i.e. the average duration of the life of a
population, which in the course of its life will be under the influence of specific mortality rates, in
accordance with the age as from the year of birth.
Data related to this indicator are only available at a national level. They show that life
expectancy, expressed in years, was as follows in the period observed: 72.49 years (1997-1999), 72.68
years (1998 – 2000), and 73.05 years (1999-2001), 73.12 (2000-2002). In the case of men, these indi-
18

cators for the respective period are: 70.37 years; 70.48 years; and 70.68 years, 70.77 years, while in
the case of women, they are: 74.68 years; 74.77 years; 75.21 years; and 75.56 years.
1.3. Marital Status of the Population
1.3.1. Changes in Marriage and Divorce rates
The east-European sub-type of marriages is dominant in Macedonia; this type of marriage is
considered as transitory between the traditional and modern types of marital structure. It includes
an abundance of variations in the number of marriages entered into and divorces, which correspond
to the major changes in the social relations. The available data on the number of marriages and marriage
rates in the 1998-2002 period are of smaller or larger oscillations (See Table 4 – Publication II).
At the national level, there is an obvious and continuous increase in the number of new marriages,
which rose from 13,933 in 1998 to 14,552 in 2002 5 .
The regional differences are to a larger or lesser extent also evident in relation to the marriage
rate among the population. Observed at a regional level, the trend of new marriages and marriage
rates during the period observed is decreasing in the Pelagonia and the Northeast regions,
whereas it is on the rise in the Vardar, Southwest, Skopje, Southeast and Polog regions, and stagnant
in the East. In 2002, the values of the indicators of new marriages per 1,000 inhabitants are at an
almost equal level in the Pelagonia, Vardar, Northeast and East regions (about 6.0). They are somewhat
higher in the Southeast and Skopje regions (6.5 and 7.0 respectively) and highest in the
Southwest and Polog regions – 8.6 and 9.7 marriages per 1,000 inhabitants. This indicator has values
higher than 10.0 in 19 municipalities: Bistrica, Centar Zupa, Oslomej, Plasnica, Vevcani, Labunista,
Lukovo, Aracinovo, Kondovo, Saraj, Zelenikovo, Suto Orizari, Vrapciste, Vrutok, Mavrovi Anovi,
Negotino-Polosko, Srbinovo, Bogovinje and Zelino.
In parallel with the number of new marriages, there is also an increase in the number of
divorces, which at a national level increased from 1,027 (1998) to 1,310 (2002). During the period, the
intensity of change in the case of divorces is higher (an index of 127.6) than that of new marriages
(index: 103.8).
At a regional level, the number of divorces grew in the Pelagonia, Northeast, Skopje, Polog
and East regions 6 . According to the values of indicators of the number of divorces per 1,000 citizens,
it rose significantly in the East (from 0.24 up to 0.61), Pelagonia (from 0.33 to 0.61) and the Polog
(from 1.06 to 1.37) regions. In 2002, this indicator had a value higher than 1.0 in almost all the municipalities
of the Polog region, except in four (Dolna Banjica, Jegunovce, Dzepciste and Sipkovica), with
the ones in Cegrane (2.84) and Zelino (2.09) being extremely high. In the other municipalities, it is
higher than 1.0 in Resen, Suto Orizari, Kuklis, Zrnovci and Kocani.
The indicator of the number of divorces per 1,000 inhabitants very clearly illustrates the trend
of a considerable increase of the divorce rate. In the country as a whole, this indicator grew from 73.4
(1998) to 90.2 (2002) divorces per 1,000 citizens, reaching its peak in 2001 (109.1). At a regional level,
it went significantly up in the Pelagonia (from 53.6 to 104.7), the Northeast (from 29.0 to 42.6) and
the Skopje (from 73.3 to 90.9) regions. The indicator’s values are highest in the Polog region, where
it went from 115.4 (1998) up to 141.9 (2002). The number of divorced marriages per 1,000 inhabitants
decreased in the mentioned three regions, characterized by a downward trend of divorce rate.
5
2001 is an exceptional year, when this number was considerably lower - 13,267. This may be explained by the fact that this was the
year of the armed conflict, as this trend is particularly typical of the regions involved in the conflict.
6
The number of divorces per 1,000 inhabitants had a downward trend in the Vardar (from 0.44 down to 0.26) and Southeast (from 0.57
to 0.36) regions.
19

1.3.2. Co-habitation
Co-habitation, as a phenomenon, is still relatively less present in Macedonia in comparison
with the developed countries. This is a result of the tradition and established norms related to unregistered
married couples. In 2002, the number of such couples totaled 8,539, which is only 1.5 percent
of the total number of families. The number of unwed per 1,000 wedded couples is 1.7 (See Table 4
– Publication II).
According to these indicators, there are relatively large disparities at regional and particularly
at municipal levels. In 2002, unwed couples constituted the lowest percentage of the total number
of families in the Southeast, Vardar, East, Pelagonia and Southeast regions (where it moved
between 0.8 and 1.3 percent), while it was relatively higher in the Skopje and Northeast ones (1.6
and 1.8, respectively). It is highest in the Polog region (2.5 percent), which accounts for slightly less
than one fourth (24.3 percent) of the total number of unregistered couples in the country.
At a municipal level, the deviations in the values of this indicator go between 0.0 (Bac) to 9.5
(Suto Orizari). In the majority of municipalities (88), the percentage of unwed couples is lower, and
in 7 municipalities it is at the same level as the national percentage. Thus, there are 28 municipalities
with higher numerical values of this indicator. Of them, the following ones have significantly high
percentages of unwed couples: Cegrane (3.2 percent), Rankovce (3.5 percent), Kamenjane (3.6 percent),
Vratnica (3.8 percent), Kondovo (5.5 percent), Tearce (6.7 percent), Zelino (8.7 percent) and
the already mentioned Suto Orizari (9.5 percent).
1.4. Mechanical Movement of the Population
On the basis of the known data on the migration movements of the population – with no
intention to disagree with the importance of the large number of analysis in this field – the conclusion
is that there is still a lack of a comprehensive in-depth research, such that would enable complete
examination of this spatial-time phenomenon. This is to a large extent a result of the lack of relevant
data on such movements, with the data related to outward-bound migrations being particularly
poor.
The basic sources of information for the analysis of the migrations are the population censuses
and the joint research of the Ministry of Interior and the State Statistical Office on emigrants
and immigrants. In studying the migrations on the basis of the mentioned sources, it has to be born
in mind that these sources are insufficient for complete identification of the scope and directions of
the mobility of the population, both as total numbers and at regional levels.
1.4.1. Total Population Mobility
With regard to the total mobility of the population, the percentage of the autochthonous of
the total population may be taken as a relevant indicator, based on the available census documentation.
This shows the portion of the population living in one area since birth. According to the 2002
census data, approximately two thirds (65.8 percent) of the population in Macedonia lived in the
same place since birth and with no interruptions, while 34.2 percent migrated to their place of usual
residence (See Table 5 – Publication II).
There are significant regional deviations as to the percentage of the autochthonous in the
total population. At the level of regions, this indicator is of a lower numerical value than the average
in the East region and higher in the Polog (73.4 percent), Southeast (69.8 percent) and Southwest
(69.2 percent) regions. As regards the municipalities, the percentage of the autochthonous in the
total population is higher than 70.0 percent in 49 municipalities, with 18 of them having an indica-
20

tor higher than 80.0 percent. This percentage is lower than 60.0 percent in 29 municipalities, with
four of them of a percentage lower than 50.0 percent (Lozovo, Probistip, Demir Hisar and
Makedonski Brod). This implies high mobility of the population in the majority of municipalities.
The most relevant indicators of the total population mobility are certainly the general rates
of gross- and net-migration, as well as the general rates of emigration and immigration. At a municipal
level, these indicators may be calculated only on the basis of the mentioned regular statistical
research on emigrants and immigrants. Due to the very low scope of emigration, particularly of persons
who left the country and thus the number of persons who emigrated and immigrated, these
indicators calculated for 1998 and 2002 fail to reflect the real situation in terms of the total mobility
of the population. In support of this, it is worth mentioning that, according to these data, 3,073 persons
settled in the country between 1994 and 2002, while only 926 persons emigrated. These data
do not correspond at all to the negative migratory balance in the 1994-2002 period between two
censuses and to the real situation as regards the outward-bound migration movements.
1.4.2. Internal Migrations
The data available on internal migrations since the population census in 2002 and those
contained in the regular statistical research may be regarded relevant. Those data indicate that the
inter-municipal migrations are dominant in the internal population movements in the country over
the last decade, while migrations between settlements within a municipality are relatively less frequent.
According to the structure of internal immigrants identified in the 2002 census, those who
moved to another municipality accounted for 66.5 percent of the total number, while those who
moved within the borders of the same municipality constitute 22.0 percent of the overall number of
internal immigrants 7 . These regional indicators show that the inter-municipal migrations were most
numerous in the Skopje (73.4 percent) and Pelagonia (70.4 percent) regions; they were of relatively
smaller numbers in the Vardar, Southwest, Southeast and Polog regions (between 64.9 percent and
67.7 percent), and least frequent in the Northeast (51.1 percent) and the East (56.3 percent) region.
The number of persons who migrated within municipal borders is lowest in the Skopje region (6.9
percent), highest in the East (39.1 percent) and Northeast (36.2 percent) ones, and moving between
21 percent (Pelagonia) and 28.4 percent (Southwest) in the remaining regions.
Indicators at municipal levels reveal that the absolute scope and relative percentage participation
of inter-municipal migrations are highest in large municipalities, which coincide with the
municipal centers according to the territorial organization before 1996. Immigrants from other
municipalities, as a percentage of the total number of immigrants, appear in smallest numbers in
Centar Zupa (14.9 percent) and Kriva Palanka (15.3 percent) and in highest in Blatec (89.6 percent)
and Vevcani (90.0 percent). When it comes to the number of immigrants within municipality borders,
there have been no such movements in the municipalities of Vevcani, Centar and Suto Orizari. In the
other municipalities, the percentage of such movements is between 0.1 percent (Karpos) and 82.9
percent (Centar Zupa).
Similar concluding remarks regarding the internal migrations are drawn from the absolute
values and relative indicators, calculated on the basis of data in the regular statistical research on
internally migrated persons.
1.4.3. External Migrations
As mentioned earlier, the available data on external migrations from administrative
and statistical sources, i.e. the number emigrants and immigrants, are rather poor and unreliable.
7
The difference up to 100.0 percent includes persons moved into the country from abroad.
21

There are no relevant official data related to the emigration, in spite of the fact that such migrations
were huge in scope and intensity over the past decade.
With regard to the scope, demographic and socio-economic characteristics of persons who
left the country until 1994 – as a total number and per region – findings could be arrived at only on
the basis of the data from the population censuses. Pursuant to the amendments in the Law on
Census in 2002, the census included only citizens staying abroad up to one year.
Data from the 1994 census indicate that, according to the number of persons who left the
country as a percentage of the total population in Macedonia, two groups of emigration areas could
be distinguished. The first group consists of the municipalities 8 of Resen (26.3 percent) and Bitola
(25.4 percent), and the second of Demir Hisar, Ohrid, Struga, Tetovo, Gostivar and Kicevo, where this
percentage was between 10.6 percent and 19.6 percent.
The conclusion that may be drawn on the basis of migration figures - calculated in accordance
with the vital statistical method - regarding the Polog (8,472 emigrants) and Southwest (6,191
emigrants) regions is that the emigrations from the country following 1994 in the majority of the
municipalities in these regions continued with a relatively large intensity. This conclusion also
applies to a part of the municipalities in the Skopje and Northeast regions.
Regarding the immigrants who moved into the country from other countries, it is important
to take into account the data from the last population census. These show that the number of such
immigrants in Macedonia is 79,167, which is 3.9 percent of the total population in 2002. At a regional
level, this indicator is the highest in the Skopje (7.2 percent) and the Northeast (4.7 percent)
regions. In the other regions, the indicator is within the interval of 1.8 percent (in the Southeast and
East ones) and 3.9 percent (in the Vardar region). The majority of immigrants who moved into the
country are concentrated in the Northwest part of the country. Namely, more than half of those
immigrants moved into the Skopje region (41,391 immigrants or 52.3 percent), whereas somewhat
less than a fifth (10.1 percent) moved into the Northeast and the Polog (7.8 percent) regions.
1.5. Population by Gender and Age
1.5.1. Population Structure by Gender
The impact of the population structure in terms of gender on the economic and social development
of a country is reflected in several segments. This is manifested through the impact on the
size of the labor, on the burden imposed by the supported population on the economically active
part of the population, as well as on the location of certain industrial branches, companies and their
plants. The gender structure also has a large impact on the social organization of the life in an area.
The changes in the population structure in terms of gender may be observed through the
percentage of men and women in the total population and in the general and specific coefficients
of masculinity and femininity. As these are attributive statistical features with alternative forms, the
analysis focused on the percentage of men and coefficients of masculinity.
In the period between the censuses in 1994 and 2002, there was an insignificant increase of
the percentage of men in the total population in Macedonia (from 50.1 percent to 50.2 percent). At
a regional level, there was an increase in the Vardar, Northeast, Southwest, Southeast and Polog
regions, a decrease in the Pelagonia and Skopje regions, and a status quo in the East region (See
Table 6 – Publication II). In 2002, the percentage of men was higher than that of women in all
regions, with the exception of the Skopje region (49.6 percent).
In 2002, the percentage of men in the total population was higher in 103 or 83.7 percent of
the total number of municipalities in the country. By regions, these indicators are as follows:
8
These are municipalities as per the territorial division before 1996.
22

Pelagonia (18 or 94.7 percent), Vardar (9 or 90.0 percent), Northeast (8 or 100.0 percent), Southwest
(15 or 75.0 percent), Skopje (10 or 76.9 percent), Southeast (12 or 85.7 percent), Polog (14 or 73.7 percent)
and East region (17 or 100.0 percent). The relatively smaller number of municipalities with a
dominant percentage of men in the total population in the Polog, Southwest and Skopje regions is
a result of the intensive emigration movements from these regions, where women account for a
smaller percentage of the total population.
The values of the general and specific coefficients of masculinity, both at national and
regional levels, correspond with the population structure according to gender. The municipality of
Labunista has the lowest percentage of men in the total population (47.4 percent) and, therefore,
lowest coefficient of masculinity (901); the municipality of Konopiste, on the other hand, is the one
with the highest percentage of men (53.7 percent) and masculinity ratio (1,160). Regarding the specific
masculinity indicators, in addition to the masculinity ratio of the population at the age of 65 and
above, the percentage participation of men at the age of 65 and above in the total population also
merits attention. The value of this indicator nationwide was 4.8 percent in 2002, moving within the
interval of 2.1 percent (Suto Orizari) and 30.4 percent (Staravina) at municipal levels.
1.5.2. Population Age Structure
Population Distribution by Five-year Age Groups
The age structure of the population is not only one of the indicators of the achieved level of
development of any population, but also an instrument for learning about the demographic past
and predicting the demographic future of an area. The first level of analysis of the age structure of a
population is the usual distribution of the population by five-year age groups and by large age
groups (0-19, 20-39, 40-59, and 60 and above). As the number of municipalities is rather large, there
is no need to go into a more detailed observation of the data (the absolute values and relative percentages)
on the five-year age groups, both as a total and by gender.
The first and most illustrative picture of the regional disparities in terms of the age structure
of the population in Macedonia may be obtained from the shape of the age pyramids of the
population at regional level (Figure 2). The shape of the age pyramids, and particularly the width of
their bases, is a very illustrative indicator of the percentage of the young and older population in the
eight regions, as well as their similarity/difference with the total population in the country.
Figure 2. Age Pyramids of the Total Population in Macedonia and by Regions, 2002
Macedonia
23

Pelagonia region
Vardar region
Northeast region
Southwest region
Skopje region
Southeast region
24

Polog region
East region
Source: Census of population, households, and dwellings in Macedonia, 2002, State Statistical Office
Stages of Demographic Age
The identification of the changes in the age structure, as well as of the achieved level of
demographic age – both as a total and at regional levels – usually includes a classification of the
population into various types of age structure. There are several methods of classifying by type
when identifying the various stages of demographic age 9 .
In our opinion, it is necessary to take into account the values of several indicators, for the purpose
of more precise determination of the demographic aging stage. In this sense, when identifying
the regional disparities in the process of demographic aging in Macedonia, the most adequate
method of classification would be the one on the stages of demographic age and the criteria for
their identification, applied by the Center for Demographic Research with the Institute of Social
Science in Belgrade, FR Yugoslavia. It is based on a combination of the values of five different indicators
of the demographic age of the population: average age, percentage of the population below
20 years of age, percentage of the population below 40 years of age, percentage of the population
over 60 years of age, and the aging index, as the relation between the old people (60 and over) and
the percentage of young people below the age of 20. In accordance with the identified threshold
values of the stated indicators, this classification distinguishes between seven stages of the demographic
age (Table 2). This eliminates the danger of arriving at wrong Concluding remarks about the
demographic age of a population, particularly in cases of very significant regional disparities and
severely distorted age structures.
9
One of those methods, used by the UN experts, starts with the percentage of the population at the age of 65 and over and distinguishes
between three types of population: young - where the old population accounts for less than 4 percent, mature - with old population
between 4 percent and 7 percent of the total, and old population, where the old account for more than 7 percent of the total population
(UN: "The Aging of Populations and its Economic and Social Implications", United Nations Population Study, No. 26., 1956, p. 7, cited by
Prof. Dr. Alica Wertheimer - Baletic, Demographics - Population and Demographic Development, "Informator", Zagreb, 1982, p. 248).
The renowned Polish demographer Edward Rosset takes into account the percentage of people at the age of 60 and over. In this, he distinguishes
between four stages of the aging process: demographic youth - with old people accounting for less than 8 percent; at the edge
of aging - old people constituting between 8 and 10 percent; in the process of aging- between 10 and 12 percent and demographic oldage
- where old people account for more than 12 percent of the total population ( E.Rosset, The Population Aging Process - Demographic
Research, Statistika, Moscow, 1968).
25

Table 2. Stages of Demographic Age and Criteria for their Identification
Source: "Population and Households in FR Yugoslavia, According to the 1991 Census", Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia. Federal Statistical Office and Center for Demographic Research with the Institute of Social Science, Population
47, p. 131.
As far as the situation in Macedonia in the last two census years is concerned, the values of
the stated indicators and the results of rating in accordance with the accepted threshold values
reveal that the population in the country crossed the demographic old-age threshold and passed
into the stage of a demographic old-age. This passing from a lower to a higher stage of a demographic
aging in a relatively short period of only eight years in the case of Macedonia is yet another
confirmation of the theoretical knowledge and experiences of other countries embodied in the fact
that, once the demographic old-age threshold is arrived at, the process of aging of the population
progresses with a considerably faster pace.
On the basis of the indicators for 1994 and 2002, rather substantial changes may be identified
at a regional level, which also implies deepening of the regional disparities (See Table 7 –
Publication II). Observed at a NUTS 3 level, these changes indicate that, according to the situation in
the two observed years, the population in the Northeast, Southwest and the Skopje region are in
stage four – demographic old-age threshold. The rank of the Skopje region in 2002 may not be precisely
defined, as it is in its fourth stage as classified by two indicators, but in its fifth stage as classified
by another two indicators. The Vardar, Southeast and East regions are faced with a more intensive
aging process; in these regions, the population has passed from the demographic old-age threshold
into the stage of demographic old-age. The Pelagonia region remained in the same stage as
before, i.e. in the demographic old-age. While the Polog region is a high-birth rate area with a relatively
young population, it is also undergoing a process of demographic aging and has passed from
stage three – demographic maturity – into stage four, i.e. into demographic old-age threshold.
At a NUTS 4 level (municipalities as per the old territorial division), the population in 1994 was
in its third stage – demographic maturity – in four municipalities (Gostivar, Debar, Struga and Tetovo),
in the stage of a demographic old-age threshold in 20 municipalities, in a demographic old-age in five
municipalities (Berovo, Bitola, Kratovo, Prilep, Resen), with Demir Hisar being the only municipality
in the stage of a deep demographic old-age. The territory of the city of Skopje is treated as one municipality
and its population was at the demographic old-age threshold.
The analysis of the changes in the age structure of the population, of the individual indicators
and of the rating of municipalities shows that the demographic aging process began in the
majority of municipalities in the period between 1994 and 2002. In 2002, the municipality of Debar
26

was the only one in the stage of a demographic old-age, while Gostivar is between stages three and
four. Seven municipalities (Kicevo, Kumanovo, Radovis, Struga and Tetovo) are at the demographic
old-age threshold, whereas the population in Makedonski Brod and Strumica is between stages four
and five.
18 municipalities are in the stage of a demographic old-age, one (Bitola) is between demographic
old-age and deep demographic old-age, and two in the stages of deep demographic old-age
(Resen) and deepest demographic old-age (Demir Hisar). Thence, it may be concluded that, while two
thirds of these municipalities were at the demographic old-age threshold eight years ago, today the
population in more than twenty municipalities is at the stage of demographic old-age.
The rating of the municipalities indicates that there were significant changes at the level of
all 123 municipalities (NUTS 5) during the period observed, due to which today’s regional disparities
are even more acute. Thus, the population in two municipalities (Aracinovo and Centar Zupa) was in
the stage of a demographic youth, while 24 municipalities were in the demographic maturity stage. In
2002, no municipality is in the second stage, while 20 municipalities were at the demographic oldage
threshold. The number of municipalities that were at the demographic old-age threshold
decreased from 51 to 27, while the number of those in demographic old-age went up from 30 to 47.
What is particularly indicative is the increase of the municipalities in higher stages of demographic
old-age (stages six and seven) – the number of those in deep demographic old-age rose from 4 to 14,
whereas the number of those in the deepest demographic old-age increased from 12 to 15. This
means that, according to the situation in 200, there are a huge number of municipalities (76) that are
in a very intensive process of demographic aging.
Changes in the More Significant Functional Age-Gender Contingents
In the context of the process of aging of the population, its distribution by individual functional
contingents is rather important. The distribution is done in accordance with the age and gender
and determined by the function that the population has – carrying out activities, exercising certain
rights, fulfilling obligations, etc. What should be taken into account in terms of the current and
future socio-economic development are the changes in the pre-school and mandatory school contingent,
working population, female fertile population, women at an optimal reproductive age, the
elderly (above 60 and 65 years of age) and the aging contingent. The differentiations in terms of
these contingents are observed at regional and municipality levels (See Tables 8 – Publication II).
In the period between 1994 and 2002, the pre-school contingent (0 – 6 years) in the country
as a whole decreased in both absolute and relative terms. The number of children at pre-school age
declined from 11.2 to 8.8 percent (Table 3). In 2002, this contingent constituted a lower percentage
of the total population in the Pelagonia, East, Vardar and Southeast regions. Together, they accounted
for 32 percent of the total number of pre-school children. The Skopje, Northeast and Polog
regions had a higher percentage of pre-school children. According to the absolute scope and individual
percentages, the Skopje and Polog regions stand out, as they constitute 28.9 percent and 18.1
percent respectively, which is somewhat less than half of the total number of pre-school children in
the country.
27

Region
Total
popula
tion
Macedonia
Number 202254
7
Table 3. Number and percentage of basic functional
age-gender contingents – Macedonia, 2002
Children at
pre-school
age (0-6)
School
age
children
(7-14)
Percentage of total population ( percent)
Working-age
population
(15-64 for men
and 15-59 for
women)
Fertile
populat
ion (15-
49)
Women
at the
optimal
reprodu
ctive
age
(20-34)
60
and
over
At the
age of
65
and
over
At the
age of
80
and
over
177050 249230 1334738 522355 226597 29559 21371 26916
3 2
percent 100.0 8.8 12.3 66.0 25.8 11.2 14.6 10.6 1.3
Pelagonia region
Number 238136 17289 25159 153353 57761 23716 46777 35828 4750
percent 100.0 7.3 10.6 64.4 24.3 10.0 19.6 15.0 2.0
Vardar region
Number 133180 10420 14699 89495 33891 14142 21210 15006 1702
percent 100.0 7.8 11.0 67.2 25.4 10.6 15.9 11.3 1.3
Northeast region
Number 172787 16595 22482 112206 43863 19192 24221 17588 2291
percent 100.0 9.6 13.0 64.9 25.4 11.1 14.0 10.2 1.3
Southwest
Number 219741 20405 30772 141537 57108 24863 30153 22330 2954
percent 100.0 9.3 14.0 64.4 26.0 11.3 13.7 10.2 1.3
Skopje region
Number 578144 51251 66154 388664 151885 68101 82838 58023 7095
percent 100.0 8.9 11.4 67.2 26.3 11.8 14.3 10.0 1.2
Southeast region
Number 171416 14001 19982 115041 43751 18316 25427 18281 2286
percent 100.0 8.2 11.7 67.1 25.5 10.7 14.8 10.7 1.3
Polog region
Number 305930 32078 47741 196505 82505 37051 33443 23735 2787
percent 100.0 10.5 15.6 64.2 27.0 12.1 10.9 7.8 0.9
East region
Number 203213 15011 22241 137937 51591 21216 31524 22921 3051
percent 100.0 7.4 10.9 67.9 25.4 10.4 15.5 11.3 1.5
Office
Source: Census of the population, households and dwellings in Macedonia, 1994 and 2002, State Statistical
The mandatory school contingent (7 – 14) also shows considerable changes of the absolute
and relative values. At a national level, these changes are manifested in the decline of the number
(from 266,390 down to 249,230) and the percentage of the total population (from 13.7 to 12.3 percent).
At regional levels, the movement directions and percentage of this contingent of the total
population correspond with those of the pre-school one. Namely, these percentages are lower in the
regions with smaller numbers of pre-school children, particularly in the Pelagonia, East, and Vardar
regions and higher in the Skopje, Southeast, Northeast and Southwest regions. The Polog region
also stands out for the value of this indicator, as it accounts for as much as 19.2 percent of the total
number of children at the age at which school is mandatory.
The working population contingent - which includes men at the age between 15 and 64 and
women at the age of 15-59 – is a demographic frame for identifying the total supply of labor. In the
period 1994-2002, this segment of the population increased both in absolute terms (from 1,247,481
to 1,334,733 persons) and as a percentage of the total population (from 64.1 percent to 66.0 per-
28

cent). At the level of regions, its values are between 64.2 percent (in the Polog region) and 67.9 percent
(in the East one). In addition to the Polog region, the other regions with lower percentage participation
in the total population are the Pelagonia, Southwest, and Northeast regions. The relatively
smaller percentage of working population in the municipalities of the Pelagonia region is a consequence
of the intensive process of demographic aging, while in the Polog, Southwest and
Northeast region it is a result of the higher percentage of children. Thence, these are two qualitatively
different situations, as the working population in the Pelagonia region municipalities may be
expected to decline further in both absolute and relative terms, while it may be expected to rise in
the three mentioned regions.
The regional differences at municipal level are considerably large. Thus, the case of the Pelagonia
region is an indicative one, as there the working population is smallest in the municipality of Staravina (27.8
percent) and largest in Prilep (66.6 percent). Municipalities with the highest values of this indicator are
Kisela Voda (70.9 percent), Makedonska Kamenica (70.1 percent), and Probistip (70.0 percent). In addition
to Staravina, the following municipalities also have a working population constituting less than 50 percent:
Vitoliste, Konopiste, Bogomila, Orasac and Klecovce. The indicator is between 50 and 60 percent in 20
municipalities and between 60 and 70 percent in 94.
As regards the female fertile population (15-49 years of age), it should be pointed out that this
contingent rose over the observed period by 24,138 persons, and its percentage of the total population
increased from 25.6 to 25.8 percent. In the two census years, the values of the indicator were
higher than the national average in the Southwest, Skopje and Polog regions. According to the 2002
data, the indicator was lowest in the Pelagonia region, and highest in the Polog one. Unlike in the
regions, the disparities between municipalities are huge and move from 4.7 percent (Vitoliste) to
28.6 percent (Labunista). In addition to Vitoliste, other municipalities with a low index are Staravina
(5.4 percent) and Konopiste (6.9 percent), while Cegrane and Negotino-Polosko have high indicators.
The female population at a fertile age accounts for 10.0-20.0 percent of the total population in
only 15 municipalities, while it is higher than 20.0 percent in 105 ones.
The absolute increase of the female population at an optimal reproductive age (20-34 years of
age) is significantly lower. In the time interval between 1994 and 2002, their number rose by 3,632.
Unlike its absolute increase, this contingent’s percentage of the total population decreased from
11.5 percent to 11.2 percent.
The regional differences are similar to the ones of the female fertile population. The indicator
in the mentioned three regions has higher values, with the disparities between the municipalities
again being large. The percentage of females at an optimal reproductive age is lowest in the
same municipalities – Konopiste, Staravina and Vitoliste (1.7 percent, 2.2 percent, and 2.6 percent,
respectively). In the majority of municipalities (89), this index is higher than the national level, with
its values being particularly high in the following eight: Studenicani, Dolna Banjica, Saraj, Zelino,
Negotino Polosko, Sipkovica, Labunista, and Centar Zupa.
As a result of the intensified process of demographic aging at a national level, the number of
persons older than 60 increased by 41,967, and its percentage of the total population went up from
13.0 percent to 14.6 percent. In 2002, this percentage was highest in the Pelagonia and lowest in the
Polog region. The regional differences indicate that the value of this indicator is lowest in Aracinovo
(6.5 percent) and highest in Staravina (68.5 percent). The percentage of persons older than 60 is
lower than the national level in 49 municipalities and higher than 20.0 percent in 35, of which it is
higher than 30.0 percent in as many as 15 municipalities. (See Table 7, Publication II)
The situation with the population older than 65 is similar: during the period observed, this
number increased by 49,034 and its percentage of the total population grew from 8.5 percent to
29

10.6 percent. At a regional level, the Pelagonia region is again the one with the highest and the
Polog one with the lowest percentage of such population. The situation is again identical in terms of
the municipalities – Aracinovo is with the lowest (4.3 percent) and Staravina with the highest (61.4
percent) value of this indicator. The latter is lower than the national average in 52 municipalities and
higher than 20.0 percent in 20 municipalities.
The contingent of elderly, including persons at the age of 80 and above, indicates that the
population is in a process of aging. Thus, in 1994 this contingent included 25,369 persons, while in
2002 this number was 26,916. As a percentage of the total population, this group remained at the
same level (1.3 percent) 10 . In 2002, this contingent’s percentage of the total population is at the highest
level in the Pelagonia region and at the lowest in the Polog one. At a municipal level, it is lower
than 1 percent in 24 municipalities, with the one in Suto Orizari (0.4 percent) being the lowest. In the
majority of municipalities (59), the percentage is between 1 and 2 percent; it is higher than 2 percent
in 40 – almost one third of the municipalities – among which Staravina (8.2 percent) and
Vitoliste (8.3 percent) stand out.
The changes in absolute values and percentage of the total population in the analyzed
age-gender functional contingents, among other things, also point to the size of the required total
and social transfer of funds for the various needs of the separate segments of the population.
Population Age Dependency Ratio
In relation to the burden imposed on the working contingent of the population, the size of
the pre-working and post-working contingents have to be taken into account. It is indicated by the
total age dependency ratio, age dependency of young population and age dependency of the old
population (See table 9 – Publication II). The first indicator – total age dependency – shows the burden
on the population at a working age imposed by the contingents of young and old population.
During the observed period, the numerical values of this indicator in Macedonia decreased from
52.0 (1994) to 47.9 (2002). This trend is typical for all of the regions, but most intensive in the Polog
(from 62.2 down to 52.7) and the Southwest (from 60.1 down to 51.9) ones.
Figure 3. Age dependency ratio of the total population, the young and old people
in Macedonia, and on level of regions, 2002
10
The projections envisage a more intensive increase after 2000 and the expectations are that their number will mount to 65,592 persons
in 2020, which is an increase of more than 2.5 times (and index of 258.6). In other words, their percentage of the total population is
expected to rise from 1.3 percent to 3.2 percent.
30

The total age dependency ratio at a municipal level shows considerable disparities. These are
a result of the changes occurred during the movements of the total population and its distribution
by age groups. In 2002, they were lowest in Kisela Voda (37.3), Gevgelija (39.4) and Makedonska
Kamenica (39.9). The following municipalities stand out for their higher coefficients: Konopiste
(101.9); Orasac (105.1); Bogomila (108.9); Vitoliste (174.9) and Staravina (240.9). The situation is a consequence
of the different intensity in the age dependency ratio decrease among young population,
on one hand, and the increase of the ratio among the old population, on the other.
The age dependency ratio of young population at national level underwent a significant change,
as it went down from 38.8 to 31.9. The value of the indicator also decreased in all regions, the trend being
particularly intensive in the Southwest (from 45.7 to 36.2) and the Polog (from 51.2 to 40.6) ones. The
highest age dependency ratio of young population in 2002 is most typical for the regions and municipalities
with younger population. Thence, it has the highest numerical value (between 50.1 and 54.6) in
the municipalities of Zitose, Sipkovica, Studenicani, Zelino, Labunista, Delogozdi, Centar Zupa,
Aracinovo, Velesta and Lipkovo, where the population is in the stage of demographic maturity. In the
municipalities of Konopiste and Vitoliste, on the other hand, it is of lowest values (6.9 and 8.8, respectively),
as there the population is at the stage of deepest demographic old-age. In more than a half of the
municipalities, the age dependency ratio of young population is within the interval of 20.5 and 29.8.
Unlike the previously analyzed ratios, there are movements in the opposite direction of the
old people age dependency ratio– 60 and above, in relation to the working contingent. At a national
level, it increased from 13.2 (1994) to 16.0 (2002). This change coincides with the intensification of
the process of demographic aging. The trend is present in the majority of regions and municipalities.
The Pelagonia, Vardar, Skopje, East and Southeast regions had a larger increase of the coefficient. It
is relatively smaller in the Northeast region and the smallest in the Southwest and the Polog ones.
In 2002, the values of the age dependency ratio of old population are rather high in the
regions and municipalities with a negative or small population increase. They are the highest in the
municipalities of Vitoliste (166.1) and Staravina (220.5) and higher than 50 percent in: Staro
Nagoricane, Capari, Sopotnica, Bac, Samokov, Belcista, Klecovce, Bogomila, Orasac and Konopiste. At
a municipal level, this indicator is the lowest in Aracinovo and Suto Orizari (6.9). In addition to these
two municipalities, the ones with a relatively young population have an indicator lower than 10.0:
Centar Zupa, Studenicani, Saraj, Kondovo, Lipkovo, Cegrane, Zelino and Negotino Polosko.
The manifested huge regional differences at a municipal level suggest various consequences
and implications resulting from the burden imposed on the working contingent. These are very
important both in terms of the formation of the active contingent – the labor force, and in terms of
the need to ensure funds for the various types of transfers for the young and old people.
1.6. Population Structure by Declared Ethnicity
Due to the multi-national structure of the population in the country, the population structure in
terms of declared nationality is one of its significant structural features. The regional disparities in the
scope, dynamics and population structure by nationality are analyzed on the basis of the ethno-statistical
documentation of the population censuses (See Tables 10, 11 and 12 – Publication II).
The 1994-2002 period is characterized by very large differences in the increase of the population
by nationality. Namely, the number of Macedonians increased only by 2,017 persons (0.2 percent)
and the average annual increase rate is 0.02 percent. The highest increase is that of the
Albanians (67,979 persons or 15.4 percent), who have an annual increase rate of 1.79 percent.
Thence, as much as 88.7 percent of the total population increase in Macedonia comes from persons
who declared themselves as of Albanian nationality.
31

The Romas (10,172 persons or 23.3 percent) and the Bosniaks (10,189 persons or 149.2 percent)
stand out for their high absolute and relative population increase, while the increase is significantly
lower among the Vlachs (1,094 persons or 12.7 percent). In the case of Turks and Serbs, the
increase is a negative value, decreasing annually in average by 0.01 percent and 1.41 percent,
respectively.
This dynamics brought about large changes in the population structure by ethnicity in a relatively
short time interval. At a national level, the Macedonians continue to dominate, although
their percentage of the total population decreased from 66.6 percent (1994) down to 64.2 percent
(2002). Of the other nationalities, the Albanians continue to account for the highest percentage
(22.7 percent and 25.2 percent for the respective years). The percentage of the other nationalities is
relatively lower. It is on the decrease in the case of Turks (4.0 percent to 3.9 percent) and Serbs (2.1
percent to 1.8 percent), while on the increase among Romas (2.2 percent to 2.7 percent), Bosniaks
(0.4 percent to 0.9 percent) and Vlachs (0.4 percent to 0.5 percent). The displayed changes in the
increase and the ethnic structure of the population are in essence determined by the natural and
mechanical movement of the population, but also by the changes in the declared ethnicity.
The territorial distribution of the population by ethnicity at a regional and municipal level
indicates that certain areas in the country are ethnically very heterogeneous, while others are more
or less homogeneous. In this sense, the regions are rather favorable geo-demographic entities for
observing the changes and the current situation in terms of the regional disparities in the national
structure of the population in Macedonia.
As regards the dynamics of the population by ethnicity, the following may be concluded: in
the period between the two censuses in 1994 and 2002, the number of Macedonians grew in 37 and
went down in 85 municipalities, with Velesta being the only municipality with no Macedonian population.
The increase rates move between –16.69 percent (Bogovinje) and 25.99 percent (Negotino-
Polosko). The situation among the Albanians is opposite, as their number increased in 57 and
decreased in 22 municipalities. The average annual rates of increase are within the interval of –22.4
percent (Strumica) to 19.1 percent (Demir Kapija), with Bogomila, Labunista, Dobrusevo and Novaci
having rates of increase higher than 10.0 percent. In 2002, there was no Albanian population in 44
municipalities. The number of municipalities in which the Turkish population is reduced is large (49);
this ethnicity is on the rise in 35 municipalities, and there are 39 municipalities in which there are no
Turks. The last census identified no Romas in 63 municipalities, increase of their number in 46 and
decrease in 14 municipalities (the increase rates move between –12.26 percent in Rosoman to 32.06
in Gevgelija). Vlachs live in one third (41) of the municipalities, while their number grew in 24 and
went down in 17 municipalities. There are also large changes regarding the Serbs, who are present
in 105 municipalities. In the majority (66) of those municipalities, their number decreased.
In accordance with the ethnic structure of the population, the Pelagonia region was and still
is a relatively homogeneous area, dominated by Macedonians, who constitute 85.9 percent of the
population. In 2002, the percentage of other ethnic groups– Albanians, Romas, Vlachs, Turks and
Serbs are: 4.9 percent; 3.1 percent; 0.5 percent; 3.2 percent and 1.8 percent, respectively. In all 19
municipalities in the region, except in Zitose and Dolneni, the Macedonians are the dominant population.
In addition to these two municipalities, a significant increase of the Albanian population is
also typical for Krusevo and Capari.
The Vardar region is also an ethnically homogeneous area, as the structure of the total population
is predominantly consisted of Macedonians (87.9 percent), with 3.9 percent Albanians, 2.2
percent Turks, 1.6 percent Romas, 1.5 percent Serbs and 0.3 percent Vlachs. The percentage of
Macedonians is dominant in all municipalities of the region, being the highest in Izvor (99.2 percent)
32

and the lowest in Caska (73.9 percent), where Turks (13.4 percent) and Albanians (7.5 percent)
account for a higher percentage.
Larger differences in the national structure of the population are typical for the Northeast
region, where the Macedonians accounted for 59.1 percent of the population in 2002, the Albanians
were 31.1 percent and where the percentage of Serbs (6.1 percent) is relatively high. Of the eight
municipalities in the region, the Macedonians dominate in seven, who constitute from 59.6 percent
(in Kumanovo) to 99.3 percent (in Orasac). Lipkovo is the only municipality where the Albanian population
dominates (97.4 percent).
The Southwestern region is of a rather heterogeneous ethnic structure of the population, in
which the Macedonians account for 48.2 percent, Albanians for 37.3 percent, Turks for 9.6 percent,
Romas for 1.3 percent, Vlachs for 0.5 percent, and Serbs for 0.3 percent. The Macedonian population
dominates in Vranestica, Drugovo, Kicevo, Makedonski Brod, Samokov, Belcista, Kosel, Meseista,
Ohrid, Vevcani, and in Lukovo, which is in 11 of the 20 municipalities in the region. Albanians dominate
in Debar, Zajas, Oslomej, Velesta, Delogozdi and Labunista, while Turks constitute the highest
percentage in Plasnica and Centar Zupa. The ethnic structure of the municipality of Struga is interesting:
there, Macedonians account for 47.9 percent and the Albanians 41.5 percent of the population.
Heterogeneous ethnic structure of the population is typical for municipalities in the Skopje
region. Namely, Macedonians are dominant in 9 of the 16 municipalities, Albanians in four
(Aracinovo, Kondovo, Saraj, and Studenicani) and Romas in one (Suto Orizari). The ethnic structure
of the population is heterogeneous in Cair (48.6 percent Macedonians and 38.4 percent Albanians)
and in Cucer-Sandevo (47.3 percent Macedonians, 22.9 percent Albanians and 28.6 percent Serbs).
The municipalities in the Southeast and East regions are of a homogeneous ethnic structure,
with the Macedonian population being dominant. Macedonians constitutes from 77.1 percent (Star
Dojran) to 99.5 percent (Novo Selo and Podares) in the Southeast region, and from 79.8 percent
(Karbinci) to 99.8 percent (Orizari) in the East one. Of the other ethnic groups, the Turks are the ones
with higher representation. Their percentage is relatively high in the municipalities of Valandovo,
Star Dojran, Konce, Radovis, Vasilevo, Murtino and Karbinci.
The population is of a homogeneous ethnic structure in the Polog region, as well, but here
with the Albanian population as dominant. The percentage of Albanians is higher than 50 percent
in 16 (84.2 percent) of the total number of municipalities in the region. At the regional level, the
Albanians constitute from 50.1 percent (Dona Banjica) to 99.4 percent (Negotino-Polosko). In 2002,
the Macedonian population dominates in only three municipalities – Mavrovi Anovi, Rostusa and
Jegunovce, where they account for 58.0 percent, 55.1 percent and 64.0 percent, respectively. Of the
other municipalities, Turks are of a relatively high percentage, living in larger numbers in Vrapciste
(36.5 percent), Rostusa (32.2 percent) and Dolna Banjica (29.2 percent).
This ethnic structure of the population in certain regions in the country is also the reason
behind the concentration of the two nationalities standing out for their dominant percentage of the
total population. Namely, 70.5 percent of the Macedonians live in the Skopje, Pelagonia, East and
Southwest regions. Almost all Albanians (96.6 percent) are concentrated in four regions: the Polog,
Skopje, Southwest and Northeast ones.
33

2. HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES
2.1. Basic Household Features
2.1.1. Changes in the Total Number and Size of Households
In 2002, there were 564,237 households in Macedonia, or 12.4 percent more than in 1994. As
for the changes in the total number of households at regional levels, it may be concluded that this
number had its largest increase (32.1 percent) in the Polog region. Above average increase is also
typical for the Southwest (15.1 percent), Northeast and Skopje (12.7 percent) regions (See Table 13
– Publication II). In the other regions, the number is lower in the Southeast, East and Vardar regions
(10.6 percent, 7.8 percent, and 6.3 percent, respectively) and the lowest in the Pelagonia one (3.5
percent).
The household concentration, with certain small deviations, coincides with the population
concentration. Namely, the percentage of households is lower than the percentage of population in
the Northeast, Southwest and Polog region; it is almost at an equal level in the East rand higher in
all other regions. In 2002, 29.0 percent of the total number of households was in the Skopje region,
12.9 percent in the Pelagonia one, 12.3 percent in the Polog region, 11.4 percent in the East and 10.2
percent in the Southwest region. The percentage of households in the other three regions –
Southeast, Northeast and Vardar – is somewhat lower: 8.8 percent, 8.2 percent and 7.2 percent,
respectively.
The increase of the number of households is followed by a process of reduction of the average
number of households, expressed in terms of average number of household members. In the
period under observation, the average household members at a national level dropped from 3.9
down to 3.6 members. In 2002, this indicator was of a bellow-average value in regions characterized
by a decrease (the Pelagonia region) or a very small increase of the population (the Vardar, Southeast
and East regions), where it is between 3.2 and 3.4 members. The average number of household
members is also somewhat below the average in the Skopje region (3.5), while it is higher than the
average in the Northeast(3.7) and Southwest (3.8) ones, being higher than 4 members only in the
Polog region (4.4).
At a municipal level, the average household size moves within a significant spread – from
two (Konopiste) to six members (Dzepciste). In addition to Konopiste, other municipalities with an
average number of household members are: Staravina, Vitoliste, Bogomila, Belcista, Orasac,
Klecevce, Samokov, Sopotnica, Pehcevo, Vranestica, Izvor, Kosel, Drugovo, Bac and Staro Nagoricane.
All of these municipalities are undergoing an intensive process of demographic aging. Unlike in
those municipalities, the average number of household members is five and above in municipalities
standing out for their higher natural population growth and younger population (Debar, Negotino-
Polosko, Aracinovo, Lipkovo, Srbinovo, Velesta).
The distribution of households by size indicates that the average number of members per
household is up to 3.0 members in 23 (18.7 percent) of the municipalities, with an identical situation
in municipalities where the number is between 4.1 and 5.0 members. In the majority of municipalities
(73 or 59.3 percent), this indicator is between 3.1 and 4.0 members, while it is 5.1 and higher in
only 4 (3.3 percent) of the municipalities.
The displayed changes in the number of households and the current situation regarding
their size – as a total and particularly at a regional level – are a result of the trend of households
being brought down to the closest family members, decreasing number of children in a family (i.e.
changes in the levels of births), as well as the intensive process of demographic aging. The values of
34

the indicator are also under the influence of changes in matrimony, primarily the increase in number
of divorced marriages. On the basis of several indications, it is our conclusion that the model of
leaving the parent household is of a relatively lower significance.
2.1.2. Household Family Structure Specifics
In addition to size, another important feature of households is their family structure,
expressed through the percentage of family and non-family households. The trend of a decrease of
the percentage of family households in the total number of households is a result of the increase in
the number of households of singles and cohabitation communities. Under Macedonian conditions,
the changes manifested are of a lower intensity and primarily determined by the increase of the
number of households of old-age singles.
According to the data from the 2002 census, the percentage of family households (89.5 percent)
remains dominant in the household structure in the country. This situation is typical for all
regions, and the value of the indicator is between 86.8 percent (in the Pelagonia region) to 95.4 percent
(in the Polog one) (See Table 14 – Publication II). At a municipal level, the regional disparities are
considerably larger. Thus, the percentage of family households of the total number of households in
the lowest in Konopiste (64.0 percent) and the highest in Dzepciste (98.7 percent). Due to the identified
large regional differences, the family- and non-family households are observed in more details.
2.1.3. Family Households
Single-family households were and still are the dominant structure of households. In 2002,
their percentage of the total number of households was 87.5 percent, somewhat higher than in 1994
(83.8 percent). Although the percentage of single-family households prevails in all regions and
municipalities, there are still evident regional differences.
At a regional level, the percentage of single-family households in 2002 was lowest in the
Polog, Southwest and Northeast regions (78.3 percent, 84.4 percent and 85.9 percent, respectively),
while considerably higher in all other regions, where it is between 88.9 percent and 93.0 percent.
Municipal disparities are considerably larger and the percentages of single-family households of the
total number of households move within the interval of 57.2 percent (Dzepciste) and 98.3 percent
(Vitoliste) and 98.2 percent (Konopiste).
As the number of multi-family households in certain parts of the country is still large, it is
interesting to look at the distribution of municipalities by their percentage of the total number of
family households. In 2002, the percentage of multi-family households was lower than 10.0 percent
in the majority of municipalities (51 or 41.5 percent), while moving between 10.0 percent and 20.0
percent in 45 (36.6 percent) of the municipalities. Still, the number of municipalities (27 or 17.1 percent)
in which the indicator is within the interval of 20.0 percent and 30.0 percent remains relatively
large, while it is higher than 30.0 percent in as many as 6 municipalities.
2.1.4. Non-family Households
In terms of the family structure of households, the structure of non-family households is particularly
interesting, both because of their scope and because of the regional differences related to
this type of households. The number of households of singles dominates in the structure of nonfamily
households without exception. At a national level, this type of households accounted for 91.1
percent of the non-family households and is somewhat lower than in 1994 (92.1 percent).
Observed by regions, the percentage of households of singles is higher than 90.0 percent
in the Pelagonia, Vardar, Northeast, Southwest, Southeast and East regions, while it is lower in the
35

Skopje (88.7 percent) and Polog (83.9 percent) ones. Regarding the municipalities, the percentage
of households of singles of the total number of non-family households is between 67.9 percent
(Negotino-Polosko) and 99.1 percent (Mogila). The distribution of municipalities by the numerical
value of this indicator shows that it is higher than 90.0 percent in 83 (two thirds) of the municipalities,
between 80.0 and 90.0 percent in 32 municipalities and lower than 80.0 percent in 9 ones. The
percentage of households of singles is considerably high in municipalities characterized by intensive
processes of demographic aging, i.e. municipalities whose population is in the higher stages of
demographic age.
Because of these situations, it is interesting to see the indicator of the percentage of households
of singles of the total number of households. In 2002, it was 9.5 percent at a national level,
whereas at regional levels it was: highest in the Pelagonia (12.3 percent), East (12.0 percent), Vardar
(11.1 percent), Northeast (10.0 percent) and the Skopje (9.9 percent) regions, relatively lower and
equal in the Southwest and Southeast ones (8.6 percent), and lowest in the Polog region (3.8 percent).
According to the data in the last census, 5.0 – 10.0 percent of the population in 13 municipalities
lives in households of singles. More than one tenth of the population lives in households of singles
in the municipalities of Samokov (10.2 percent), Orasac (10.5 percent), Klecovce and Vitoliste
(11.5 percent), Belcista (12.2 percent), Staravina (12.7 percent), Bogomila (13.3 percent) and
Konopiste (18.0 percent). The population in all of these eight municipalities is in the stage of deepest
demographic age.
Regarding the non-family households with more than one member, it would be interesting
to point to their relatively high percentage in certain areas of the country. Thus, according to the situation
in 2002, their percentage of the total number of non-family households is relatively high
(more than 20 percent) in Negotino-Polosko, Kondovo, Bogovinje, Delogozdi, Sipkovica, Vrapciste,
Suto Orizari, Saraj and Lipkovo.
2.2. Basic Family Features
In relation to the changes in the total number of families in Macedonia, it may be concluded
that this number rose from 539,555 to 574,159 in the period between 1994 and 2002, which is an
increase of 6.4 percent. In 2002, the average number of family members was 3.3, while at a regional
level it was lowest in the Pelagonia and East regions (3.1) and highest in the Polog one (3.5) (See
Table 15 – Publication II). Unlike in the case of households, the differences between municipalities in
terms of this indicator are not as significant. Its values are between 2.3 (Vitoliste) and 4.3 (Aracinovo).
In terms of the family structure, the analysis focuses on the registered marriages, as the
changes in the scope and dynamics of unregistered marriages were analyzed in the section on
cohabitation. By type, families may in essence be divided into three categories: childless married
couples, married couples with children and single parent families (mother or father with children).
In 2002, one fourth (25.3 percent) of the total number of families in the country were childless
married couples 11 . At a regional level, there are extremely large differences in the values of this
indicator: from 23.1 percent and 23.3 percent (in the Skopje and Polog regions) to 29.3 percent (in
the Pelagonia one). The percentage of childless married couples is particularly high in regions and
municipalities undergoing a more intensive process of demographic aging and with a relatively high
percentage of households of singles. Their percentage of the total number of families is higher than
30 in 46 municipalities, being the highest in Vitoliste and Staravina, reaching about three quarters of
the families. In all of these municipalities, the population is in the stage of deep or deepest demo-
11
According to the data, this indicator had a lower numerical value in 1994 (24.5 percent).
36

graphic age. The percentage of such families is considerably lower in areas with younger population,
especially in those in the stage of a demographic maturity.
The structure of families was and still is dominated by the percentage of married couples
with children: in 2002, this percentage totaled 64.5 percent and was insignificantly lower than that
in 1994 (65.9 percent). At regional levels, the differences are smaller than the ones related to the percentage
of childless married couples, as the values of this indicator moves within the interval of 61.7
percent (in the Pelagonia region) to 65.3 percent (the Skopje region). The regional differences at
municipal levels are rather large and correspond to the identified disparities with regard to the childless
married couples. In the majority of municipalities (75 or 61.0 percent), the percentage of married
couples with children is either lower than or equal to the one at the national level. In almost one
third of the municipalities (40), their percentage is between 64.5 percent and 70.0 percent. This percentage
is higher than 70.0 percent in eight municipalities: Lipkovo, Debar, Sipkovica, Kondovo,
Zitose, Saraj, Studenicani and Aracinovo.
Regarding the family structure, the indicator of the percentage of single parent families is of
great significance. 8.7 percent of the families in Macedonia belong to this category, of which 6.9 percent
are single mothers. In 1994, these indicators were 9.6 percent and 7.7 percent, respectively. The
dominance of single mothers is typical for all regions and municipalities.
According to the data on regional differences, the percentage of single-parent families is
lower in the Vardar, Southeast and East regions, where it is 7.0 percent; it is higher in the Pelagonia
region (7.8 percent) and the highest in the Polog, Southwest, Northeast and Skopje regions, where
its values are 9.0 percent, 9.1 percent, 9.2 percent, and 10.1 percent, respectively.
The percentages of single-parent families in the majority of municipalities are either equal to
or lower than the national average. Still, it is worth pointing to the relatively large number of municipalities
(19) in which this percentage is higher than 10.0 percent, i.e. between 10.2 percent and 18.9
percent. These municipalities are: Staro Nagoricane, Plasnica, Cegrane, Kisela Voda, Cair, Srbinovo,
Vranesnica, Rostusa, Lipkovo, Mavrovi Anovi, Lukovo, Samokov, Karpos, Vratnica, Vrapciste, Centar,
Zajas (18.6 percent) and Labunista (18.9 percent).
Concluding remarks and Recommendations
The indicators related to the changes in the total population, the influence that the natural
and migration movement have on its increase, then structural specifics of the population, as well as
the size, dynamics, and percentages of individual types of households and families, in a very realistic
way are illustrating the regional disparities in terms of the demographic development in
Macedonia. The only serious lack of data is the one regarding emigration, particularly in the part
related to migration movements from the country to foreign ones. Regarding the significance of the
indicators related to life expectancy needed for Human Development Index estimation, as well for
the following of the millennium development goals on a local level, the State Statistical Office
should make effort to calculate these indicators on a lower level, i.e. on a level of regions.
Certain findings about the trends of such movements at a municipal level may be found in
the calculated migration figures in accordance with the vital-statistical method. For the purpose of
identifying such trends more realistically, the recommendation is not to include the children born
abroad in the number of newly born, because of the continuous increase in their size and number
as a percentage of the total birth rate in the country.
37

As there are a large number of indications of the rather high intensity of migrations out of
the country over the last decade, there is an increasing need to provide relevant data about such
migration movements. To this goal, a working group was set up in the State Statistical Office, which
is developing a proposal on the possible ways of alleviating the problem related to the availability
of such data on a longer-term basis. As this will require a longer period of time, the existing data
base could be enhanced in the short-term by using foreign sources of data from countries of destination
of Macedonian immigrants or from international organizations. Yet, those data would still not
include information at municipal levels.
38

CHAPTER TWO
LIVING AND WORKING CONDITIONS
1. HOUSING AND HOUSING FACILITIES
1.1. Changes in the Total Number of Residences and Dwellings
A rather significant indicator in the analysis of housing conditions is the percentage of residences
that may not be treated as living premises according to the definition of an apartment, as defined under
the methodology for census of the population. In this context, a ratio that is indicative is the one of the relation
between the total number of residences, excluding the dwellings according to the mentioned definition
and the number of dwellings.
The data from the census of the population indicate that, regardless of the manifested changes,
the percentage of residences in Macedonia that fail to meet the requirements for being treated as
dwellings was and still is very low. Namely, their number in 1994 was 28 and in 2002 is 614. Thence, the
indicators for the relation between the number of residences (excluding the dwellings) and the total number
of dwellings are of very low values (0.0 percent and 0.09 percent). While there are certain small differences,
this conclusion also applies to the indicators at the level of regions, groups of municipalities and
municipalities.
What should also be taken into account are the regional specifics in terms of the increase of the
total number of residences in certain areas. In the period between the two censuses in 1994 and 2002, the
total number of dwellings in Macedonia increased by 20.2 percent (Table 4). Typical for this indicator are
the large regional differences. At a regional level, the increase of the number of dwellings is highest in the
Polog region (33.8 percent) and lowest in the Pelagonia region(10.8 percent). The increase in the Skopje
and East regions is smaller than the one at a national level, it is at the same level with the national in the
Vardar region, and higher in the other three regions (Northeast, Southwest and Southeast).
Table 4. Certain Indicators of Dwellings in Macedonia, 1994 and 2002
Region
Total number of
dwellings
Change
(increase)
in percent
Percentage
of
dwellings
built after
1990
Percentage of households with
installations for:
Water
supply,
sewage
system,
electricity
and
central
heating
Water
supply,
sewage
system,
and
electricity
Electricity
only
Percentage of households with
installations for:
Kitchen,
bathroom
and toilet
Bathroom
and toilet
Kitchen
only
1994 2002 2002/1994 2002 2002 2002 2002 2002 2002 2002
Macedonia 580342 697529 20.2 17.0 14.6 81.0 4.2 73.5 0.5 15.2
Pelagonia region 84712 93857 10.8 12.8 11.1 84.6 3.9 68.5 0.3 19.3
Vardar region 44247 53101 20.0 14.5 5.9 90.7 3.3 70.1 0.5 21.7
Northeast region 47504 59430 25.1 17.2 3.6 84.0 12.1 52.6 0.3 25.6
Southwest region 67253 84044 25.0 19.8 6.4 90.5 3.0 86.9 0.3 8.8
Skopje region 161010 188196 16.9 15.2 35.4 61.8 2.6 85.1 0.7 6.8
Southeast region 48128 59436 23.5 16.8 3.4 90.7 5.7 55.8 0.3 27.5
Polog region 59099 79075 33.8 27.3 6.4 90.9 2.6 78.0 0.4 7.3
East region 68389 80390 17.5 14.9 3.7 90.7 5.3 63.2 0.5 25.2
Source: Census of the population, households and dwellings in Macedonia, 1994 and 2002, State Statistical Office
39

During the period under analysis, the number of dwellings decreased in 11 municipalities,
remained at the same level in one (Karbinci), and increased relatively slightly (less than 10 percent) in 19
municipalities (See Table 16, Publication II). The total number of dwellings grew by more than one third
in 29 municipalities, where the increase is within the interval of 33.9 percent (Oslomej) and 124.2 percent
(Debar). The majority of these municipalities is in the Northwest part of the country. It should be
born in mind, however, that a significant portion of these municipalities are typical emigration areas.
1.2. Structures of Dwellings by Year of Construction
The age of the available dwellings is an important indicator in the identification of regional
differences regarding the living conditions. According to the data from the last census of the population,
there are 697,529 dwellings in Macedonia, 35 percent of which built before 1971. This means
that almost two thirds of the dwellings were built after this year, with 17 percent of the dwellings
built after 1990.
At a regional level, there are smaller or larger deviations (See Table 17 – Publication II). The
percentage of dwellings constructed prior to 1971 indicates that the number of dwellings is older in
the Pelagonia (44.4 percent), Vardar (42.9 percent), East (39.2 percent) and the Southeast (36.5 percent)
regions; this percentage is at the level of a national average in the Northeast and Skopje
regions. Due to the lower numerical values of the indicator in the Southwest and Polog regions (29.3
percent and 21.2 percent, respectively), the conclusion is that the percentage of newer dwellings in
these regions is rather high.
The differences in the age of dwellings at a municipal level are considerable and correspond
to a large extent to the increase of the population and the changes in its age structure. In this sense,
the case of the Pelagonia region is rather indicative: there, the dwellings are oldest in the municipalities
of Vitoliste and Staravina (the percentage of dwellings built before 1971 is 89.9 percent and 87.7
percent, respectively), while they are relatively newer in the municipality of Zitose (25.3 percent). In
the municipalities of the other three regions standing out for their older dwellings, these disparities
are relatively smaller 12 . In the mentioned four regions, the percentage of old dwellings is relatively
lower than in the majority of the municipal centers according to the old territorial division.
Deviations in terms of this indicator are between 67.7 percent (Orasac) and 17.3 percent
(Lipkovo). In the Skopje region, they vary between 50.2 percent (Suto Orizari) and 13.4 percent
(Kondovo). In addition to Kondovo, the following municipalities also have a lower percentage of
dwellings built before 1971: Aracinovo, Studenicani, Saraj, Ilinden, Zelenikovo, Petrovec, and Sopiste.
Of the municipalities in the Skopje region, besides Suto Orizari, the municipalities of Centar (48.8
percent) and Karpos (46.9 percent) also have relatively older dwellings.
The inter-municipal disparities in the Southwest region are extremely large, in spite of the fact that
this region, as a whole, has a lower percentage of dwellings built before 1971. Namely, of the twenty
municipalities in the region, nine have a percentage of old dwellings higher than the national average:
Vranesnica, Drugovo, Makedonski Brod, Samokov, Belcista, Kosel, Meseista, Vevcani and Lukovo. Velesta
has the lowest percentage of old dwellings (9.6 percent), while this percentage is lower than 20.0 percent
in the municipalities of Centar Zupa, Zajas, Plasnica, Delogozdi and Labunista.
In the case of the Polog region, there is a large degree of homogeneity of the percentage of
old dwellings. This percentage is rather low in 17 of the total of 19 municipalities in the region, with
its value being between 8.5 percent (Cegrane) and 25.6 percent (Vrutok). Older dwellings are relatively
more numerous only in Vratnica (38.7 percent) and Jegunovce (45.0 percent).
12
In the Vardar region, the percentage of old dwellings is between 68.5 percent (Bogomila) and 36.7 percent (Caska); in the Southeast
region, it is between 58.5 percent (Miravci) and 24.4 percent (Star Dojran), and in the East one between 55.8 percent (Karbinci) and 28.3
percent (Makedonska Kamenica).
40

The number of dwellings built in the period following 1990 is 118,740, of which more than a
half (56.2 percent) in the Southwest, Polog and Skopje regions. In terms of the number of these
dwellings as a percentage of the total number of dwellings, it is highest in the Polog region (27.3
percent).
1.3. Specifics of Dwellings According to Use
In terms of the use of the available dwellings, the most significant indicators are the percentage
of occupied and unoccupied (vacant) dwellings, as well as the indicator of the percentage of
dwellings occupied by their owners.
In the period between the two censuses, the percentage of occupied in the total number of
dwellings in Macedonia went down from 89.3 percent to 83.7 percent (See Table 16 – Publication II).
The same trend is also typical for all regions, with the decrease being of varying intensity. It is the
largest in the Vardar, Northeast, East and Pelagonia regions, relatively smaller in the Southeast and
Southwest ones, and the smallest in the Skopje and Polog regions. At a municipal level, the percentage
of occupied dwellings in 2002 was lowest in Mavrovi Anovi (20.1 percent), Konopiste (25.0 percent)
and Vitoliste (29.7 percent), and lower than 50 percent in 9 other municipalities. The indicator
is of the highest numerical value in Kamenjane (99.0 percent) and Bogovinje (99.4 percent).
The percentage of unoccupied dwellings is increasing considerably. At a national level, their
percentage in the total number of dwellings grew from 5.2 percent in 1994 to 9.3 percent in 2002.
In 2002, this percentage was highest in the Pelagonia (13.6 percent) and Southwest (13.4 percent)
regions, relatively high in the Vardar (11.6 percent), Northeast (11.2 percent) and East (9.0 percent)
regions, lower in the Southeast (7.8 percent) and Skopje (6.8 percent) ones, and lowest in the Polog
region (4.5 percent). Municipal disparities vary between 0.6 percent (Bogovinje) and 65.8 percent
(Vitoliste). In 10 municipalities, the percentage of unoccupied dwellings is higher than 20 percent.
In terms of the use of available dwellings, international comparative analyses usually make
use of the indicator of percentage of dwellings occupied by their owners. In Macedonia, this indicator
was 82.9 percent in 2002. At a regional level, this percentage varies between 76.3 percent (in the
Southeast region) and 92.2 percent (in the Polog one). Observed at a municipal level, the disparities
vary from 60.5 percent (Meseista) to 98.3 percent (Sipkovica). The percentage of dwellings occupied
by their owners is lower than 70 percent in the municipalities of Zletovo and Konopiste, as well. In
35 municipalities, it is between 70 percent and 80 percent, in 53 between 80 and 90 percent, and in
32 higher than 90 percent.
1.4. Household Structure According to Available Installations
Another essential indicator of the living standard of a population in an area are also the available
installations in the dwellings. On the basis of the data from the 2002 census, an analysis may be
conducted of the regional disparities in terms of the number of households living in dwellings with
central heating; water supply, sewer system and electricity; electricity only; and those living in
dwellings with no installations at all.
In 2002, 82,133 Macedonian households (14.6 percent of the total number) lived in dwellings
with central heating (See Table 18 – Publication II). The percentage of this category of households is
highest in the Skopje region (35.4 percent), and relatively high in the Pelagonia one (11.1 percent),
as well. In the other regions, it is between 3.4 percent (in the Southeast region) and 6.4 percent (in
the Southwest and Polog regions). Approximately 70.0 percent of the total number of households
41

with central heating in the country is in the Skopje region, 9.8 percent in the Pelagonia one, and 9.7
percent in the Southwest and Polog regions.
In the majority of municipalities, households have no central heating in their homes. There
are several municipalities with higher values of this indicator: Kondovo, Zajas, Makedonska
Kamenica, Gostivar and Vrutok; in these municipalities, the number of households with central heating
as a percentage of the total number of households is between 9.5 percent and 12.9 percent. In
Gjorce Petrov, Gazi Baba, Cair and Bitola, this indicator is between 20.1 percent and 22.9 percent,
whereas in Centar, Kisela Voda and Karpos, it is between 50.0 percent and 65.7 percent.
The largest portion (95.6 percent) of the households in Macedonia live in dwellings with
water supply, sewer system and electricity. At a regional level, this indicator is within the interval of
87.6 percent (the Northeast region) and 97.3 percent (the Polog one). Unlike in the case of households
with central heating, municipal differences in terms of this indicator are smaller. Namely, the
percentage of households with such installation is lower than 50 percent in only three of the municipalities:
Klecovce (35.2 percent), Orasac (41.7 percent) and Staro Nagoricane (44.3 percent).
In Macedonia there are 23,833 households which have only electricity in their homes. Their percentage
of the total number of households is highest in the Northeast region (12.1 percent). In the other
regions, this percentage is lowest in the Southwest and Polog ones (2.6 percent) and highest in the
Southeast (5.7 percent). Municipalities with a highest percentage of households with electricity only are
Vitoliste and Rankovce (40.8 percent), Samokov (47.2 percent) and the three mentioned ones – Orasac,
Staro Nagoricane and Klecovce, where the percentage is higher than 50.0 percent.
The total number of households (510) with no installations at all in the dwellings is relatively
small. The majority of such households are in the East (105 or 38.4 percent) and the Pelagonia (90)
regions.
1.5. Indicators of Existence of Auxiliary Facilities in Household Dwellings
The data from the last census of the population show that almost three quarters of the
households in Macedonia live in relatively well-equipped dwellings. Namely, 74 percent of the total
number of households have a bathroom and a toilet in their dwellings, while 73.5 percent have a
kitchen, bathroom and a toilet 13 . A small portion of the households (15.2 percent) have only kitchens
in their dwellings, while 1.1 percent have no auxiliary rooms.
The regional differences in terms of the existence of auxiliary facilities in dwellings are rather
large (See Table 19 – Publication II). The percentage of households living in dwellings with bathrooms
and toilets (78.4 percent - 87.2 percent), or kitchens, bathrooms and toilets (78.0 percent -
86.9 percent), is the highest in municipalities in the Southwest, Skopje and Polog regions. These indicators
are of a relatively lower numerical value in the Vardar, Pelagonia and East regions (63.7 percent-70.6
percent and 63.2 percent-70.1 percent) and lowest in the Southeast and Northeast ones
(55.8 percent-52.9 percent and 56.1 percent-52.6 percent).
In 2002, Vitoliste was the only municipality in which no household had a bathroom and a toilet
in the apartment. In the other municipalities, the percentage of households with bathrooms and
toilets was from 1.3 percent (Staravina) to 98 percent (Karpos, Labunista and Velesta). In 48 municipalities,
less than half of the households lived in dwellings with a bathroom and a toilet; this indicator
has a value higher than the national average in 35 municipalities. The largest portion of those is
in the Northwest part of the country, where the percentage of dwellings built after 1990 is also the
highest.
13
Thence, the proportion of households that live in dwellings with bathrooms and toilets almost coincide with those with kitchen, bathroom
and toilet. This regards all regions and all municipalities.
42

The 2002 census registered 106,709 households (18.9 percent of the total number) with auxiliary
rooms outside the apartment. The majority of them (80,890) had only their toilets outside the
apartment, while 24,073 households had both their bathrooms and toilets detached from the apartment.
The existence of such facilities in the dwellings is highest in the municipalities that were identified
as areas with a relatively small percentage of auxiliary rooms in the dwellings.
43

2. HOUSEHOLDS INCOME
The data on the available income and expenditure of households are very important in the
identification of the regional differences in the levels of living standard and poverty of the population.
On the basis of these data, a large number of indicators could be computed to identify the
mentioned differences.
For the needs of mapping the socio-economic development of the municipalities, the following
indicators are particularly relevant for the income: medium income per household; disparity
of income among households (percentages of income or expenditures of the poorest 10 and 20 percent
and the richest 10 and 20 percent of the households); the subjective opinion of the households
on their financial situation; inequality of income expressed by the Gini index, as well as the inequality
intensity (relation between the richest 20 percent and the poorest 20 percent of the households).
As regards poverty, the key indicators would be the standard ones: the main aggregated index,
poverty depth index and poverty severity index. As of recently, the human poverty index (HPI-2) is
a poverty indicator of growing importance. Due to the problem of identifying one of the required
components (adults at the age of 16-65 with no functional education), we believe that it will be difficult
to arrive at HPI-2-relevant indicators at lower levels (regions, groups of municipalities, municipalities)
in the near future.
Currently, there are official data in Macedonia that are necessary for the calculation of the
mentioned indicators of inequality and poverty only at a national level. Those are the data from the
Household Budget Survey. The subjective opinion of households on whether their monthly income
is sufficient to meet their needs indicates unfavorable changes. Namely, there is a decrease in the
percentage of those who believe that their income meets their needs in full (from 3.7 percent in
1998 to 2.1 percent in 2000), meets their needs for the most part (from 26.8 percent to 25.8 percent),
and does not meet their needs for the most part (from 42.6 percent to 39.7 percent), whereas there
is an increase in the percentage of those according to whom their income completely fails to meet
their needs (from 27.0 percent to 32.3 percent). The Gini index values (for households) are: 0.258
(1998); 0.286 (1999); 0,301 (2000), showing an increase of the inequality. The main aggregated index
(calculated as a 70 percent of the medium equivalent costs) in the period 1998 – 2002 is: 20.7 percent,
20.1 percent, 22.3 percent, 22.7 percent, and 30.2 percent for the respective years. It indicates
that the poverty in Macedonia is in a trend of a continuous increase. The values of the poverty depth
index by years are: 5.1 percent, 5.7 percent, 6.0 percent, 5.4 percent, and 9.3 percent, while the
poverty severity index was 1.9 percent in 1998, 2.4 percent in 1999 and 2.4 percent in 2000.
44

3. SOCIAL WELFARE
When it comes to social welfare in the identification of regional disparities, the contemporary
literature points to the so-called composite indices as relevant ones. They usually refer to the
social benefit expenditures for various categories of population as a percentage of the total amount
of social protection funds. Such are, for instance, the indicators for social benefit (in money and
goods) for old-age, inability or survivor’s situations; illness – health care; family and children; unemployment;
housing; social exclusion, etc. As there are no complete data on the amount of the various
types of social compensation at municipal level, such or similar indicators may not be calculated.
The data available usually refer to only one of the several categories of social compensations
required for the calculation of some of the mentioned indicators, primarily at a national level or at
the level of groups of municipalities (NUTS-4). Thence, the analysis applies only on the number of
users of the various types of social welfare and only for the country as a whole, the regions and the
groups of municipalities.
3.1. Social financial aid and other forms of social welfare
3.1.1. Social Financial Aid
In Macedonia, citizens with no or with extremely low income are entitled to a social financial
aid. It may be granted to households with a monthly income lower than the amount of the defined
social financial aid, calculated as the difference between the total average income of all household
members on all basis and the amount of the social financial aid.
The data on the social financial aid refer to the number of households and number of
household members. These data show that the number of households and citizens using this
financial aid in Macedonia continually grew in the period 1998 – 2002 (Table 5). Over the period
observed, the number of individual users of financial aid as a percentage of the total population in
the country rose from 12.2 percent to 14.3 percent. In 2002, 14.7 percent of the total number of
households used social financial aid.
Table 5. Scope and Dynamics of Users of Social Financial Aid in Macedonia,
1998 and 2002
Regions
Number of
household
heads (number
of households)
Number of
household
members (along
with the head of
the household)
Increase
(percent)
of the
number of
household
heads
Increase
(percent)
of the
number of
household
members
Percentage of the
number of
household heads
(Macedonia=100.0)
Percentage of the
number of
household
members
(Macedonia=100.0)
Individual
financial aid
users as a
percentage
of the total
population
Households
users of
financial
aid as a
percentage
of the total
number of
households
1998 2002 1998 2002 2002/1998 2002/1998 1998 2002 1998 2002 1998 2002 2002
Macedonia 64160 82670 244356 288994 28.8 18.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 12.2 14.3 14.7
Pelagonia region 9497 12639 33278 43281 33.1 30.1 14.8 15.3 13.6 15.0 13.6 18.2 17.4
Vardar region 4781 5499 18491 19782 15.0 7.0 7.5 6.7 7.6 6.8 13.9 14.9 13.5
Northeast region 6212 9461 22365 33736 52.3 50.8 9.7 11.4 9.2 11.7 13.2 19.5 20.4
Southwest region 7363 8455 28349 29948 14.8 5.6 11.5 10.2 11.6 10.4 12.9 13.6 14.8
Skopje region 15198 19222 63466 67659 26.5 6.6 23.7 23.3 26.0 23.4 11.2 11.7 11.7
Skopje 15198 19222 63466 67659 26.5 6.6 23.7 23.3 26.0 23.4 11.2 11.7 11.7
Southeast region 4178 5747 17465 21397 37.6 22.5 6.5 7.0 7.1 7.4 10.1 12.5 11.6
Polog region 10023 14477 37372 49735 44.4 33.1 15.6 17.5 15.3 17.2 12.5 16.3 20.9
East region 6908 7170 23570 23456 3.8 -0.5 10.8 8.7 9.6 8.1 11.5 11.5 11.1
Source: State Statistical Office
45

There was an increase in the number of households and individual users of social financial
aid in all regions, with evident disparities in their intensity. In terms of the number of households,
the increase is highest in the Northeast, Polog, Southeast, Pelagonia and Skopje regions, while it is
relatively lower in the Vardar, Southwest and East ones. According to the indicators of the increase
of number of household members, on the other hand, there is an insignificant decrease only in the
East region (0.5 percent).
The changes in the concentration of the mentioned two categories correspond to the intensity
of their increase. In 2002, more than two thirds of the households (67.5 percent) and individual
users of social financial aid (67.3 percent) were in the Skopje, Polog, Pelagonia and Northeast region.
The most relevant indicators for the regional discrepancies in terms of the users of this type
of aid, however, are their percentages of the total population and total number of households. In
2002, the values of the indicators of the number of users as a percentage of the total population
were highest in the Northeast, Pelagonia, Polog and Vardar regions. A relatively smaller portion of
the population received financial aid in the Southwest, Southeast, Skopje and East regions. The second
indicator shows that one fifth of the households in the Northeast and Polog regions were users
of social financial aid. This percentage is lower in the Pelagonia, Southwest and Vardar regions, and
lowest in the Skopje, Southeast and East ones.
At the level of groups of municipalities, the disparities are even more severe (See Table 20–
Publication II). Namely, in the period 998 – 2002, the number of households receiving social financial
aid declined only in Sveti Nikole and Gevgelija; of those in which this number grew, Debar had
the lowest increase (2.7 percent), whereas Strumica had the highest one (61.9 percent). The number
is decreasing in seven municipalities: Sveti Nikole, Gevgelija, Berovo, Valandovo, Struga, Veles and
Debar.
The number of individual users of financial aid as a percentage of the total population is rather
high in Probistip, Valandovo and Kumanovo, where it is about one fifth (19.9 percent, 20.1 percent
and 20.6 percent, respectively), followed by Prilep (24.8 percent) and Debar (26.8 percent), while it is
highest in Krusevo (30.3 percent). According to the numerical values of the indicators of the number
of household users as a percentage of the total number of households, the following municipalities
stand out: Debar (31.4 percent), Krusevo (29.9 percent), Prilep (25.1 percent), Kumanovo (22.0 percent),
Tetovo (21.1 percent), Gostivar (20.4 percent), and Valandovo (20.2 percent).
3.1.2. Recipients of Child Care Supplements
Social benefits for children are special types of child protection. Currently, there are three
types of benefits: children benefit, special children benefit and newly born aid.
The children benefit is a one-month financial aid to low-income families. It is granted depending
on the number of children in the family, the child’s age and the financial standing of the family.
The data available in the State Statistical Office show that, in the period 1998 – 2002, the number of
children and number of families who received this type of aid continually decreased. In 2002, the
number of children users was lower by 17,380 than the number in 1998, and the number of families
using the benefit went down by 7,628. This implies a somewhat greater reduction of the number of
children users (24/2 percent) as compared to the number of families as users (20.6 percent).
This trend is typical for all regions (See Table 21 – Publication II). The decrease is particularly
high in the Skopje, Pelagonia, Vardar and Southwest regions (where the number of children and
families using children benefits decreased by 25 percent and more), and lowest in the Polog region.
Thence, the number of beneficiaries in the Polog region as a percentage of the total number of beneficiaries
grew from 11.2 percent (1998) to 14.4 percent (2002) in the case of children and from 10.6
percent to 12.8 percent in the case of families.
46

At the level of groups of municipalities, there is an increase in the number of children beneficiaries
only in Resen, Kratovo, Valandovo and Stip, while the number of families using benefits grew
in Resen, Kratovo, Gostivar and Stip. In 2002, more than a third (34.0 percent) of the children and 29.2
percent of the families using children benefits were in the municipality of Tetovo and the city of
Skopje.
The ones entitled to the right to a special children benefit are children with heavy, heavier and
heaviest impediments in their psychological and physical development. In the period 1998-2002,
the number of users continually grew and was 24.5 percent in the case of children and 29.7 percent
in the case of families (See Table 22 – Publication II). At regional levels, the increase of the number of
children using special children benefit is exceptionally high in the Southeast (44.8 percent), Vardar
(33.1 percent), East (31.1 percent) and Skopje (28.0 percent) regions. The numerical value of this indicator
of the number of families using benefits in these regions is 45.8 percent, 33.6 percent, 33.0 percent,
and 35.0 percent, respectively.
The number of users of special children benefit increased in all municipalities, except in
Resen, Demir Hisar and Negotino. The regional differences in terms of the increase of the number of
beneficiaries are rather large. In the case of children, they are between 6.1 percent (Struga) and 92.7
percent and 100 percent (Kocani and Krusevo). In the case of families, they are between 4.7 percent
(Delcevo) and 92.3 percent and 97.5 percent (Krusevo and Kocani).
The newly born aid is granted to all first newly born and is mainly in the form of clothes. The
data for this type of benefit show that the number of users was 20.7 percent higher in 2002 than in
1998. Greater or smaller oscillations are typical for all regions and there was an increase of this category
of users in all of them, except in the Southwest (See Table 23 – Publication II). It is relatively
lower in the Vardar (3.3 percent), Northeast (5.0 percent) and East (6.2 percent) regions, while rather
high in the Southeast (59.6 percent) and Skopje (49.1 percent) ones. At a municipal level, there was
a reduction in the number of users in one third of them (11 municipalities). Of those in which this
number increased, Probistip, Resen, Gostivar and Strumica are the ones with a higher increase.
3.1.3. Underaged recipients of social welfare
The total number of underaged recipients of social welfare in Macedonia grew throughout
the period observed, except in 2000. In 2002, this number was 19,382 – 5.9 percent higher than in
1998 (See Table 24 – Publication II).
The regional disparities in terms of this category of social welfare recipients are rather large.
The number of users declined in three of the regions (the Vardar, Skopje and Polog ones), being
highest in the Pelagonia region (31.7 percent) and lowest in the Southwest one (8.5 percent). The
number of underaged recipients of social welfare decreased in almost half of the municipalities (14).
The Pelagonia region was and remained the one with the highest number of recipients as a percentage
of the total number of recipients in the country (24.2 percent in 1998 and 30.1 percent in 2002).
It is interesting to note that, according to the 2002 data, this percentage in the municipality of Bitola
(17.2 percent) almost reached the percentage in the city of Skopje (17.7 percent).
There are several categories of underaged recipients of social welfare, with the following
being the most frequent ones: minors living in disturbed family conditions, minors with distorted
behavior and personality, minors with impediments in their psychological and physical development,
etc. At a national level, the largest increase in the number of recipients during the period
observed was that of minors with impediments in their physical development (34.2 percent); the
increase in the number of those living in disturbed families (10.5 percent) and those with impediments
in the psychological development (6.3 percent) was relatively lower, whereas the number of
47

ecipients with distorted behavior and personality is decreasing. Regardless of this dynamics in the
structure of the total number of underaged recipients social welfare, the percentage of recipients
coming from disturbed families (48.0 percent) was the highest in 2002, that of the ones with obstacles
in their psychological development (20.5 percent) and of those with distorted behavior and personality
(18.8 percent) was relatively lower, and the percentage of minors with impediments in their
physical development (10.0 percent) was the lowest.
During the period under observation, the number of recipients from disturbed families
increased in all regions, except in the Vardar one, the increase being the lowest in the Northeast
region (18.8 percent) and highest in the Pelagonia one (63.3 percent). The number of this category
of recipients as a percentage of the total number of underaged recipients social welfare in 2002 was
exceptionally high in the Southeast (61.1 percent), Pelagonia (59.9 percent), Polog (49.0 percent)
and Skopje (47.5 percent) regions.
Unlike them, the number of underaged recipients social welfare and with distorted behavior
and personality is decreasing in all regions, except in the Skopje one, where it grew by 10.0 percent.
In the structure of the total number of underaged recipients, this category constitutes the highest
percentage in the Northeast region (2002: 44.5 percent) and between 1.6 percent in the Polog
region and 23.7 percent in the Vardar one.
In the Pelagonia, Northeast, Southwest, Polog and East regions, the number of underaged
recipients social welfare increased. In the total number of under age recipients, this category constitutes
a relatively high percentage in the Vardar (36.1 percent) and the Polog (35.7 percent) regions.
The number of persons with impediments in the physical development, on the other hand,
increased in all the regions, with the exception of the Northeast one. It is highest in the East, Polog,
Southeast and Pelagonia region (where it is between 64.5 percent and 36.7 percent). In all regions,
this category accounts for a small percentage of the total number of under age recipients of social
protection.
3.1.4. Adult Recipients of Social Welfare
Unlike the underaged recipients social welfare, the number of adult recipients of social welfare
had a continuous and a rather high absolute and relative increase over the period observed
(18,431 persons or 64.1 percent). Half of the increase was in the Skopje region (9,079 persons), where
the number of adult social welfare recipients increased more than three times (See Table 25 –
Publication II). The increase in the other regions is characterized by large deviations – from 3.7 percent
in the Southwest region to 91.3 percent in the Southeast one. Two thirds (65.9 percent) of the
total number of adult beneficiaries in the country are from the Skopje, Pelagonia and East regions.
In the case of adult recipients of social welfare, there are also four main categories: adults
with behavior and personality disorders, adults with psychological and physical disabilities, materially
unsecured persons, and materially and socially vulnerable old persons. In the period between
1998 and 2002, the increase was highest among materially unsecured recipients (148.2 percent) and
persons with psychological and physical disabilities (77.9 percent), while it was relatively lower
among the materially and socially vulnerable old persons (38.3 percent). There was a decrease only
in the number of persons with behavior and personality disorders. In 2002, the materially unsecured
recipients (36.8 percent) and persons with psychological and physical disabilities (30.6 percent)
accounted for the highest percentage of the total number of adult recipients of social welfare; the
materially and socially vulnerable old persons constituted a relatively lower percentage (17.4 percent)
and the ones with behavior and personality disorders the lowest (3.2 percent).
48

On the basis of data available on the individual categories of adult recipients of social welfare
at a regional level, it may be concluded that the changes and their percentage of the total number
of recipients in essence correspond to those in the country as a whole. Namely, the number of
recipients with behavior disorders and personality disorders is on the decrease in all regions, except
in the East and Pelagonia ones (where the increase is 25.3 percent and 6.6 percent, respectively). In
the structure of the total number of adult recipients, the percentage of this category is very low and
varies between 0.3 percent in the Northeast and 8.5 percent in the Pelagonia regions.
As for changes in the number of psychologically and physically disabled, the regional disparities
are quite large. In the period 1998 – 2002, the Skopje region stood out for its huge increase of
the number of this category of recipients – here, their number increased by more than ten times. In
the Pelagonia, Vardar, Southeast and East regions, it is between 3.8 percent and 46.8 percent; it
remained at the same level in the Polog region, and decreased only in the Southwest one. This category
accounts for a relatively high percentage of the total number of adult recipients in the
Southwest, Vardar, Skopje and Northeast regions, where it varied between 32.7 percent and 41.2
percent.
The materially unsecured adult recipients of social welfare increased in the Skopje region
both in absolute and relative terms: their number in this region grew by approximately thirteen
times. Thence, this region accounts for somewhat less then half (4,849 persons) of the total increase
(10,359 persons) in this category. In the other regions, the increase was higher in the Pelagonia (82.5
percent), Polog (65.6 percent) and East (65.0 percent) ones, relatively lower in the Vardar region (33.8
percent) and lowest in the Northeast and Southwest ones (9.7 percent and 5.6 percent, respectively).
The category of materially unsecured recipients dominates in the overall structure of the adult
recipients in the Pelagonia, East, Skopje and Southeast regions.
At regional levels, there are significant disparities in the changes in the number of materially
and socially vulnerable old persons. This category had a lowest increase in the Southwest (3.0 percent)
and Skopje (9.8 percent) regions, relatively higher one in the Polog, Vardar, Pelagonia, East and
Southeast regions (varying between 36.1 percent to 79.8 percent), and the highest in the Northeast
one (95.0 percent). This category of recipients is prevailing in the total number of adult recipients of
social welfare only in the Vardar region.
3.1.5. Recipients of Supplementary for Assistance Care
The benefit granted on the basis of caring for others is one of the forms of social protection
in Macedonia. The number of recipients of this type of supplementary is in a continuous and exceptionally
large increase. Its number grew from 10,120 persons in 1998 to 21,423 persons in 2002, i.e.
it more than doubled. It is worth noting here that the increase was considerably large between 2002
and 2001 (from 13,895 to 19,197 persons).
The regional differences regarding the changes in the number of social welfare recipients
from this category are considerable. There is an increase in all regions and it was highest in the
Northeast, Pelagonia and Skopje regions (See Table 26 – Publication II). Due to such dynamics, there
were smaller or larger changes in the percentages that the regions constitute of the total number of
recipients of benefits on the grounds of caring for others. In 2002, more than half (54.1 percent) of
the total number of recipients were in the Skopje, Pelagonia and East regions.
The number of recipients of supplementary for assistance care increased in all municipalities,
mounting twice or several times in 12 of the 30 municipalities. Of those, Berovo, Kratovo,
Kavadarci, Krusevo, Prilep and Kumanovo are the ones with the highest absolute and relative
increase.
49

3.2. Pension Insurance
3.2.1. Total Number and Types of Pension Insurance Recipients
The number of pension recipients in Macedonia continually increased over the past years. In
2003, the total number of pensioners was by 22,051 persons or by 9.5 percent higher than that in
1998. This increase was a result of the intensification of the process of aging of the active portion of
the labor force. This conclusion is confirmed by the scope and dynamics of the recipients of various
types of pensions. Categories with a relatively higher increase are recipients of old-age pension (11.6
percent) and family pensions (11.7 percent), while those using pensions on the grounds of disability
increased by a significantly lower percentage (2.0 percent). Irrespectively of these indicators, the
absolute increase of the mentioned types of pensions was 13,814, 7,208 and 1,029 persons, respectively.
Thence, the recipients of old-age pensions accounted and still account (2003) for the highest
percentage (52.4 percent) of the total number of pensioners, the family pension recipients constitute
a relatively lower percentage (27.1 percent), and the recipients of pensions on grounds of disability
the lowest – 20.5 percent.
In terms of regional differences in the increase of the number of pensioners, the analysis
included only the total number of recipients of pension insurance (See Table 27 – Publication II), as
those were the only data available. The data show that, at a regional level, this number was the highest
in the Skopje (13.6 percent), Southeast (10.6 percent) and East (10.4 percent) regions and relatively
lower in the other regions, where it varies between 8.8 percent in the Vardar region and 6.1
percent in the Pelagonia one. The situation regarding the number of pensioners in individual
regions as a percentage of the total number of pensioners is rather interesting. Namely, in the period
under observation, it remained at the same level in the Vardar region; it was insignificantly
reduced in the Northeast, Southwest and Polog regions, and slightly more so in the Pelagonia one
(from 15.3 percent down to 14.8 percent). The number of pension recipients in the Southeast and
East regions increased by 0.1 percentage points, and the increase was highest in the Skopje region,
where it grew from 30.6 percent to 31.7 percent.
The groups of municipalities are characterized by larger deviations in the increase of the
number of pension recipients. Makedonski Brod was the only municipality in which this number
decreased (-0.2 percent), whereas it varied between 0.5 percent (Kratovo) and 16.2 percent
(Negotino). In three fifths (18) of the municipalities, the intensity of the increase in the number of
pensioners is smaller than the one at a national level. The city of Skopje, Valandovo, Gevgelija,
Delcevo, Vinica and the already mentioned municipality of Negotino are among the ones with a
higher increase.
3.2.2. Changes in the Average Pension
In Macedonia, there is a continuous increase of not only the recipients of pension insurance,
but of the amount of the average pension, as well. It went up from MKD 5,413 in 1998 to MKD 7,372
in 2003, an increase of 28.2 percent. Regardless of this increase, it may be concluded that the average
pension in Macedonia is rather low.
In relation to the changes in the amount of pension at a regional and municipal level, it is
worth noting certain differences (See Table 28 – Publication II). The increase of the average pension
is lowest in the Polog (24.3 percent) and highest in the Skopje region (29.1 percent). In 2003, the
average pension was highest in the Skopje region (MKD 8,893), while in the other regions it is relatively
equal and between MKD 6,234 in the Polog region and MKD 6,978 in the Vardar one.
50

At a municipal level, there are larger regional differences both in the number of pensioners
and the amount of pensions. The increase of the average pensions is lower than that in the country
as a whole in two thirds (20) of the municipalities, being at the lowest level in Krusevo (22.5 percent).
Among those with a higher increase, it is considerably high in Delcevo (31.0 percent) and Kratovo
(32.2 percent). The situation regarding the amount of average pensions is interesting. In 2003, it was
lower than the national average in all municipalities, with the exception of Probistip (MKD 8,905) and
the city of Skopje (MKD 8,893). Thence, it may be concluded that, due to the concentration of pensioners
and higher pension amounts, the Skopje region, i.e. the territory of the city of Skopje to a
large extent determines the amount of the average pension in Macedonia.
3.2.3. Relation between the Number of Holders of Pension
Insurance and the Number of Pensioners
One of the most important indicators in terms of the mapping of the socio-economic development
of the municipalities is the relation between the number of holders of pension insurance
and that of pensioners 14 . Unfortunately, the only data available regarding this indicator are those at
a national level. And those indicate rather unfavorable changes and situation: the number of
employees per pension user is continuously decreasing. Namely, the values of this indicator went
down from 1.6 in 1998 and 1999 to 1.5 in 2000, 1.4 in 2001 and 1.3 in 2002. These changes are
brought about by the considerable decrease of the number of employees and the mentioned
increase of the number of recipients of pensions during the period of observation.
3.2.4. Pension Insurance Expenditure as Percentage of GDP
Under the current condition of unfavorable economic situation in Macedonia, on one hand,
and the trend of increase of the number of recipients of pensions and decrease of the number of
employees, on the other, the percentage that the pension insurance expenditure constitutes in the
gross domestic product is an important indicator. Again, the data available regarding this indicator
refer only to the country as a whole. Its values show certain oscillations. Thus, in 1998 and 1999 the
value was 10.6 percent, in 2000 and 2001 it went down to 10.4 percent, reaching its peak in 2002
(10.8 percent) and the lowest point in 2003 (10.2 percent).
3.3. Social Transfers for Unemployment
3.3.1. Scope and Dynamics of Users of Financial Compensation
A portion of the job seekers are also users of financial compensation. Under the Macedonian
legislation, this right may be exercised on various grounds and thence the various categories of
unemployed receiving financial compensation; these categories underwent certain changes 14 in the
period 1998 – 2003. They remained the same in the last three observed years (2001, 2002, and 2003),
when the right to financial compensation applied to unemployed on the basis of: bankruptcy, seasonal
work, technological surplus in active companies, technological surplus in 25 loss-making
enterprises, technological surplus in 12 loss-making enterprises, and reforms in the public administration.
In the other years, there were certain deviations 15 . Due to the changes in the grounds on
which the unemployed received this compensation in the period under observation, the analysis
focuses on the scope and dynamics of the total number of such users.
14
It is calculated as a relation between the number of employees (holders of pension insurance) and the number of pension recipients.
The indicators commented include data on the number of employees obtained from the State Statistical Office and those on the number
of natural persons and individual farmers are obtained from the Pension and Disability Insurance Fund.
15
In the case of recipients of financial compensation, it should be taken into account that both the grounds on which it is received and
the period during which it is received are different. This is primarily determined by the number of years of service.
51

The data in the Employment Agency of Macedonia indicate that the number of users of
financial compensation in 1998 totaled 40,173, decreased to 32,362 persons in 1999, and started
increasing continually in the subsequent years, reaching 47,324 users in 2003. In the last year of
observation, there was an increase of 16.2 percent as compared to the first one.
There was a decrease in this category of unemployed only in the Pelagonia and Southeast
regions (12.9 percent and 29.8 percent, respectively) (See Table 29 – Publication II). The decrease was
lowest in the Skopje region (8.8 percent) and highest in the Polog one (59.9 percent). The East and
Northeast regions also had a decrease higher than 50 percent. As a result of the different dynamics
of the changes in the number of unemployed receiving financial compensation, there were also
changes in the percentages that the eight regions constituted in the total number of users in the
country. Thus, the percentage of the Pelagonia, Skopje and the Southeast regions declined, the one
in the Vardar and Southwest regions increased insignificantly, the one in the Northeast (2.7 percentage
points) and Polog (1.1 percentage points) regions was somewhat higher, while the percentage
of the East region (6.0 percentage points) was the highest. Thence, according to the data available
for 2003, the percentage that the East region (22.5 percent) constituted in the total number of users
of financial compensation is coming close to the one in the Skopje region (23.8 percent).
Disparities on the level of groups of municipalities are even more severe. In 11 municipalities,
there was a decrease of the number of unemployed from this category and their percentage
was between 2.3 percent (Kicevo) and 57.4 percent (Strumica). Of the municipalities in which the
number increased, this increase was the lowest in Skopje (8.8 percent) and the highest in Kratovo
(183.6 percent). In addition to Kratovo, there was also a rather significant increase in the municipalities
of Vinica, Probistip, Veles, and Kocani.
3.3.2. Changes in the Number of Users of Health Insurance
Among the social transfers on the grounds of unemployment, the health insurance is the
one with the largest number of users. As the previously analyzed category, the users of financial
compensation, are also health insurance beneficiaries, we believe that the analysis should include
the total number, instead of only persons using only health insurance.
The number of unemployed using health insurance continually increases in significantly
large absolute and relative terms. In the period between 1998 and 2003, their number grew by
46,653 persons or 24.4 percent, reaching 238,123 persons in December 2003. Today, it is widely
accepted that there is a great number of those registering as unemployed only for the purpose of
obtaining the right to health insurance.
At a regional level, there is an increase in all regions, but this increase is of various intensities.
The increase is lower than the national average in the Southwest, Skopje, Pelagonia and Vardar
region (11.8 percent, 14.0 percent, 15.2 percent and 20.7 percent, respectively); it is almost the same
as the national average in the Southeast one (24.3 percent) and higher in the East (28.5 percent) and
the Northeast (32.4 percent) regions. The increase is rather large in the Polog region – 62.1 percent
(See Table 30 – Publication II). Due to this dynamics, the number of users from this category as a percentage
of the total number of users in the country decreased in the Pelagonia, Vardar, Southwest
and Skopje regions, remaining at the same level in the Southeast one. The increase was highest in
the municipalities in the Polog region and relatively lower in the Northeast and East ones.
As regards municipalities, there was an increase in all of them, except in Debar, where the number
of unemployed users of health insurance declined by 25.6 percent. The increase is exceptionally high in
Resen (55.9 percent), Kratovo (73.4 percent), Gostivar (88.5 percent) and Probistip (91.3 percent). There was
a very small increase in Gevgelija (0.1 percent), Sveti Nikole (3.2 percent) and Radovis (6.7 percent).
52

3.3.3. Other transfers on the basis of unemployment
One of the rights to insurance in case of unemployment is also the right to undergo programs
aimed at preparing unemployed persons for employment, which is secured and defined in
the Law on Employment and Insurance in Unemployment as well as in the Rulebook on Training, Re-
Qualification and Further Qualification. Due to the changes in the manner of exercising this right
and the manner of presenting data, it would be difficult to conduct and in-depth analysis of this category
of unemployed at a regional level in the period observed. Namely, the data refer to the number
of approved programs for preparing the unemployed for employment by activity of the employer
and by employment agencies. The data available for the past few years show that 295 such programs
were approved in 2000, 266 programs were implemented in 2001 and additional 91 programs
in 2002. The number of persons included in the programs is 6,542 (2000), 4,098 (2001), and 1,806
(2002).
There were two occasions in Macedonia (in 1998 and 2003) when the Law on Stimulating
Employment by means of exempting employers from the obligation to pay social and pension contributions
was enacted and implemented; this exemption applied only on certain categories of
unemployed. In this way, 35,128 persons were employed in 1998 and14,480 in 2003.
Concluding remarks and Recommendations
The available information data base for identification of regional disparities in the living and
working conditions in the area of housing and housing facilities may also be regarded as solid. The
significant missing data would be those related to households’ possession of: telephones, mobile
telephones, one or more TV sets, personal computers and Internet. These data could be used to
compute several significant indicators (number of Internet connections per 1,000 citizens, main telephone
lines per 1,000 citizens, etc.), which are increasingly used in international analysis.
In terms of identifying the regional differences in the living and working conditions, the
availability of official data on the income and expenditures of households is rather unfavorable, as
those data are available only at a national level. The situation will soon be improved by redesigning
the sample questionnaire on household expenditures, which is underway. Under the existing conditions
of considerable inequality and poverty increase, this will provide relevant and quite useful
indicators at a regional level (NUTS 3).
The redesign of the questionnaire will also ensure data for all eight regions regarding the
previously mentioned indicators of facilities available in households. Namely, the data available at a
national level related to households in possession of telephones, cellular telephones, TV sets, personal
computers and so on, will be obtained from the part of the Questionnaire on expenditures of
households dealing with households’ possession of lasting consumer goods.
Regarding the data on social protection of the population, as a result of the heterogeneity of
the issue, it is our recommendation to design a data base and to introduce regular statistical
research (similar to the one on migrants to and from the country). This would enable collection and
processing of all data in this area in a single place, instead of maintaining them in various institutions,
as is the case currently. At the same time, this would contribute to eliminating the existing
practice of having different data about the same category of users. The data should refer to both the
number of users and the financial means spent for specific purposes. The Ministry of Labor and
Social Policy and the State Statistical Office should be the institutions in charge of such a project.
53

4. HEALTH CARE
4.1. Basic Healthcare Features of the Community
The healthcare system in the country is organized in the form of health institutions, both in
public and private ownership. There are three levels of health care: primary, secondary and tertiary.
The primary level of health care is carried out in primary health centers, both in rural and urban
areas, by services for: children of up to 6 years of age; school children and adolescents; women; and
industrial medicine. The secondary level of health care is realized in hospitals and polyclinics, whereas
the tertiary level is fully carried out in the university institutions in Skopje.
In 2002, there were a total of 145 16 publicly owned health institutions at the disposal of all
citizens in the Macedonia. Of those, 59 percent are primary healthcare institutions or outpatient
units, 38 provide secondary health care, and 48 institutions are engaged in tertiary healthcare.
Comparatively, this number was higher in 1999 and 2000 by one health institution (at the primary
level) and by two institutions (one at each of the primary and secondary level), whereas in 1998 and
2001, the number was lower by one health institution in total. The number of pharmacies in the
mentioned period was almost constant – 40 – except in the year 1999, when there were a total of 41
publicly owned pharmacies.
In 2002, there were a total of 335 dentists practices, remarkably less than in 1999 (359
practices) and in 1998 (344), but 7 more than in 2000. In spite of the small fluctuations in the number
of health institutions at the primary level, according to the criteria defined by the healthcare
organizations 17 , all citizens have access to health institutions for primary care.
Table 6. Separate Health Indicators
Number per 100,000
citizens
Health centers
Primary level 59
Secondary level 38
Tertiary Level 48
Total 145
Pharmacies (autonomous) 40
Dentist practices 335
Doctors of medicine 4.573 226,10
Dentists 1.183 58,49
Holders of B.A. in pharmaceutics 322 16,41
Specialists 2.954 146,05
Nurses 6.714 331,96
The data related to the number of staff indicate that there are 226.10 doctors, 58.49 dentists,
16.41 pharmacists, 331.96 nurses, and 483.05 beds per 100,000 citizens. (See Table 6)
4.2. Primary Level Health care
This is the first level of health care provided in outpatient units, while hospitals are in charge
of secondary and tertiary protection. In the Macedonia, the primary level health care is carried out
in: 6 health stations (5 in Skopje and one in Tetovo); 18 health centers (2 in Skopje and Berovo
16
Due to data availability, our analysis will only refer to publicly owned health organizations, despite the fact that there is also healthcare
in private ownership in the country.
17
The population with access to healthcare institutions is the population that may arrive at a healthcare organization or receive services
of a doctor in their home within a timeframe shorter than 30 minutes.
54

each, and 1 in each of the municipalities of Makedonski Brod, Valandovo, Vinica, Gostivar, Delcevo,
Demir Hisar, Kratovo, Krusevo, Negotino, Probistip, Radovis, Resen, Sveti Nikole and Struga); 16 medical
centers (one in each of: Bitola, Gevgelija, Gostivar, Debar, Kavadarci, Kicevo, Kocani, Kriva
Palanka, Kumanovo, Ohrid, Prilep, Struga, Strumica, Tetovo, Veles and Stip); and 11 outpatient units
(one in each of Makedonski Brod, Valandovo, Vinica, Delcevo, Kratovo, Negotino, Probistip, Radovis,
Sveti Nikole, Struga, and Strumica).
As it may be noticed, all activities of the primary health care are included in each healthcare
center, which correspond to the distribution at a level of 30 municipalities. Primary health care is
provided in 293 villages.
Of the total number of general practice units (462), the largest portion – 94 – are in Skopje,
33 are in Bitola, Kumanovo and Tetovo have 24 each, 22 are in Strumica, and Prilep, Gostivar and
Veles have 20 such units each. The remaining units are allocated in such a way that they vary
between 17 in Struga and 2 in Probistip and Krusevo. Within the mentioned healthcare centers,
there are special medical units in the villages, with a total of 152 permanent and 121 with temporary
physicians available. The majority of medical units in the villages have a permanent physician on site,
with the exception of the municipalities of Valandovo, Kratovo and Krusevo, which have medical
units with temporary physicians. At a municipal level, all medical units in the villages are with a permanent
physician: there are a total of 23 such units in Skopje, 15 in Strumica, 6 in Debar, 4 in Kocani,
5 in Ohrid, 2 in Makedonski Brod, and 1 in Demir Hisar and Probistip each. In the other municipalities,
the structure is mixed. Of the total of 77 labor medicine units, 22 are in Skopje, 7 in Bitola, and
6 in Ohrid. The remaining municipalities have between 1 and 3 units, with the exception of Kratovo
and Demir Hisar, which have no such units. There are health care units for children of up to 6 years
of age in all municipalities: of the total of 84 such units, 20 are in Skopje, 9 in Struga, 5 in Bitola and
between 1 and 5 in the other municipalities. Out of the total 63 units for health care of school children
and adolescents, 16 are in Skopje, 13 in Bitola, and between 1 and 2 in the other municipalities.
Health care for women is provided at a total of 50 units, of which 16 are in Skopje and 1 – 2 in the
other municipalities. (Table 31, Publication II)
Citizens also have at their disposal 555 privately owned medical practices, with the largest
number of them being in Skopje (134), Tetovo (34), Kumanovo (26), Strumica (20), Veles (15), Gostivar
and Struga (14), Bitola and Ohrid (13), and Stip (10). As opposed to this, there is only one such practice
in each of the municipalities of Delcevo, Demir Hisar, Kratovo, Kriva Palanka and Resen.
Out of the total number of 335 dental practices, 100 (30 percent) are in Skopje, 43 in Bitola,
28 in Prilep, 21 in Tetovo, 19 in Veles, 14 in Kumanovo, 12 in Gostivar and 11 in Ohrid. In the other
cities, there are less than 10 dental practices. In parallel, there are a total of 449 dentists’ offices, of
which the majority (236) is in Skopje, 27 are in Strumica, 25 in Bitola, and 24 in Tetovo. (Table 31,
Publication II)
Out of the total of 40 pharmacies in public ownership in the country, 3 are in Skopje, and
2 in Kocani, Kicevo, Kavadarci, Gevgelija, Gostivar, Veles, Bitola, and Berovo. The remaining health
centers have one pharmacy each. There are a total of 392 privately held pharmacies, of which 169
in Skopje, and one in Valandovo, Kratovo and Probistip each. In the other municipalities, the number
of privately owned pharmacies varies: there are 29 in Kumanovo, 21 in Gostivar, 20 in Bitola, and
as little as up to two in Berovo, Kriva Palanka and Sveti Nikole. (Table 31, Publication II)
The allocation of general practitioners at the primary level health care is illustrated in Table
32, Publication II.
At the national level, 47 general practitioners per 100,000 citizens provided primary health
care. This number is the lowest (19) in Tetovo (the Polog region), Kumanovo (Northeast region – 23),
55

Struga (Southwest region – 27), Kriva Palanka (Northeast region – 28), Makedonski Brod (Southwest
region – 77), and Bitola (72) and Resen (71), both in the Pelagonia region.
At the level of primary health care, there were a total of 3.8 registered specialists per
100,000 citizens. Of those, the lowest number of specialists per 100,000 citizens is located in the following
municipalities, i.e. health regions: 16 in Gostivar (the Polog region), 17 in Kumanovo
(Northeast region), 19 in Kocani (East region), 19 in Strumica (Southeast region), 19 in Tetovo (the
Polog region), 26 in Makedonski Brod (Southwestern region) and 28 in Prilep (Pelagonia region).
Contrary to this, the highest number of specialists is located in: Resen – 83 (Pelagonia region), Bitola
(Pelagonia region) and Berovo (east region) - 82, Ohrid – 72 (the Southwest region), Valandovo – 59
(Southeast region) Sveti Nikole – 56 (East region), Gevgelija – 54 (Southeast region), Demir Hisar – 53
(Pelagonia region), and in Probistip – 49 (East region). (Table 32, Publication II)
There were 1.6 holders of B.A. in pharmaceutics per 100,000 citizens. The discrepancy
varies between no pharmacists in Debar (Southwest region) to 42 ones in Resen (Pelagonia region).
The following health regions have less than 10 pharmacists: Gostivar and Tetovo – Polog region (3 in
each), Radovis – Southeast region (3), Kicevo – Southwest region (4), Probistip – East region (6), Kriva
Palanka – Northeast region (8), Makedonski Brod - Southwest region (9), and Sveti Nikole - East
region (9). The largest number of pharmacists is registered in Resen (42), Bitola – Pelagonia region
(38), Veles – Vardar region (29), Berovo – East region (26), Ohrid – Southwest region (26), and Krusevo
– Pelagonia region (25). (Table 32, Publication II)
At a national level, there are 5.0 registered dentists per 100,000 citizens. The majority of
them (136) are registered in Bitola (Pelagonia region), and the smallest number (12) is in Debar
(Southwest region). The following municipalities have a number of dentists significantly below the
national average: Gostivar (western region) – 28, Kriva Palanka (Northeast region) – 28, Radovis
(Southeast region) – 28, Struga (Southwest region) – 29, Tetovo (Polog region) – 29, and Kumanovo
(Northeast region) – 30. Their number is considerably above the national average in Demir Hisar (95),
Resen (95), and Prilep (82), all in the Pelagonia region. (Table 32, Publication II)
At a national level, there are 23.6 nurses per 100,000 citizens in the primary healthcare.
They are lowest in numbers in Tetovo (Polog region) and Debar (Southwest region) – 161 nurses, and
Kumanovo (Northeast region) and Kocani (East region) – 178. The largest number of nurses is located
in Berovo (East region)- 473, Valandovo (Southeast region) and Resen (Pelagonia region) – 416,
Demir Hisar (Pelagonia region) – 411, Negotino (Vardar region) – 379, Gevgelija (Southeast region) –
367, and Sveti Nikole (East region) – 347. (Table 32, Publication II)
According to the analysis conducted by the State Public Health Institute, such a structure of
the general practice staff is insufficient 18 . In addition to the discrepancies registered at municipal
levels in the previous analysis, the mentioned report also states a notable disparity in terms of the
staff available in urban and rural areas, as well as a situation in the villages characterized by insufficient
staff according to the adopted norms regarding staff in the general practice services 19 .
In 2002, there were 31,658 registered consultations per 100,000 citizens, less than in
2000 (32,493) and 1999 (32,558), and more than in 2001 (30,224) and 1998 (30,302). The smallest
number of visits was recorded in Kumanovo (Northeast region) – 175,260 and Tetovo (Polog region)
– 180,121 visits, while their number was highest in Resen (Pelagonia region) – 439,834, Valandovo
(Southeast region) – 437,721, Bitola (Pelagonia region) – 427,055, Prilep (Pelagonia region) –
415,566, and Delcevo (East region) – 410,876. (Table 32, Publication II).
18
See for more details: Report on the Health Condition and Health care of the Population in Macedonia in 2002 (2004), Public Health
Institute, pp. 55-56.
19
Ibid.
56

The number of visits by dentists per 100,000 citizens in 2002 was 52,464. In terms of their
distribution by health regions, they are smallest in number in Debar (Southwest region) – 12,482,
Delcevo (East region) – 18,755, Stip (East region) – 22,587, Tetovo (Polog region) – 25,543, and
Gostivar (Polog region) – 39,996. Contrary to this, the number of such visits was above the average
in Berovo (East region) – 117,592, Valandovo (Southeast region) – 95,660, Radovis (Southeast region)
– 75,623, and Bitola (Pelagonia region) – 74,176. (Table 32, Publication II)
The health of children at the age of up to 6 years is protected and taken care of at health centers,
particularly at health centers for pre-school (at the age of 0 – 6) and school children (between
7 and 14 years of age). The data regarding this part of the health care are presented in Table 34,
Publication II.
In 2002, there were 84 counseling centers for pre-school children, which is two more than in
2000 and one less than in 1998. By health regions, the allocation is as follows: out of the total of 84
counseling centers, 20 are registered in Skopje, 9 in Struga, 8 in Bitola, 5 in Kumanovo and Prilep
each, 4 in Veles and Gostivar, and 1 – 2 in all other health centers. While the number of offices and
counseling centers for pre-school children in Skopje is reduced from 26 in 1998 and 1999 to 20 in
2000, 2001, and 2002, it tripled in Struga (there were 3 in 1998 and 1999, and 9 in 2000, 2001, and
2002). (Table 34, Publication II)
In 2002, there were 165 pediatricians in Macedonia; their number was constantly rising over
the past four years (135 in 1998, 158 in 2000). There is an increase of the number of pediatricians in
all regions individually. Out of the total of 165 pediatricians, 47 are in Skopje, 22 in Bitola, 13 in Ohrid,
and 10 in Tetovo. Makedonski Brod, Demir Hisar, Kocani, Kratovo, Kriva Palanka, and Probistip are
municipalities in which there is only one registered pediatrician. (Table 33, Publication II)
In 2002, out of the total of 435 nurses in the health care of pre-school children, 24 percent (106
nurses) were in Skopje, 10 percent (45) in Tetovo, and 6 percent in Bitola. Kratovo and Demir Hisar
are regions with the smallest number of nurses. While Gostivar may be an example of fluctuations in
the number of nurses over the past four-year period (39 in 1998, 54 in 2000, and 28 in 2002), Skopje
is an example of a region with a small, but constant decrease of this number (125 in 1998 and 106 in
2002). (Table 33, Publication II)
There is also a constant decline in the number of general practitioners in the health care of children.
And again, it is happening in the capital: the number of general practitioners in Skopje
decreased from 95 in 1998 to 63 in 2002, which at the same time accounts for 60 percent of the total
number of registered general practitioners in the health care of children in 2002 in the country. In
the 14 regions in the country, there are no general practitioners for health care of pre-school children.
(Table 33, Publication II)
The number of visits for the purpose of systematic checks of children was 11,313, while the
number of visits per 100,000 sick pre-school children was 61,197. According to the information in
the reports of the Office for Health care of Mothers and Children, the staff structure is sufficient to
fully cover for the needs of the population in terms of carrying out preventive measures for health
care of both the newly born and small children. Of the total number of visits in counseling centers for
children at the age of up to 6 years (200,291 visits), 43 percent took place in Skopje, 145 in Bitola, 4 percent
in Veles, and 3 percent in Prilep, Strumica and Tetovo each. No such visits were registered in
Debar. As regards the number of visits at the GP’s office, 33 percent (of the total of 1,083,487) of such
visits took place in Skopje, almost 8 percent in Prilep, and 6 percent in Bitola. The number of such visits
is smallest in Kratovo – 329, or 0.03 percent of the total number. (Table 34, Publication II)
In 2002, there were 63 health centers for school children (at the age of 7 – 19) in the country.
Compared to all three previous years, this number was lower: there were 80 such centers in 1998,
57

76 in 1999, 78 in 2000, and 71 in 2001. Skopje and Bitola are cities with 46 percent (25 percent and
21 percent, respectively) of the total of 63 health centers for school children and adolescents. All
other regions have one or two such centers. (See Table 8)
As regards the number of general practitioners, school children physicians and nurses in the
primary protection of school children and adolescents, the fact is that the highest percentage of the
total number of registered physicians is in Skopje, followed by Bitola and Prilep. In 22 regions there
are no general practitioners in the health care of school children and adolescents. Makedonski Brod,
Valandovo, Demir Hisar, Kratovo, Kriva Palanka and Probistip are examples of regions with particularly
small numbers of staff – with no general practitioners, one school children physician and one
or two nurses. (Table 35, Publication II)
Planned programs for systematic examinations of school children and adolescents are realized
in percentages of 96.0 percent in 2001, 97.9 percent in 1999, 97.5 percent in 1998, and 97.3 percent
in 2000. The plan for 2002 was to conduct a total of 92,906 systematic checks, and 96.6 percent
(89,706) of the plan was realized. The same range of percentages is also kept in terms of the planned
and realized systematic checks in the elementary schools by regions, with the exception of 7 regions:
Veles, Vinica, Gevgelija, Demir Hisar, Negotino, Sveti Nikole and Struga, where the planned health
checks were realized in full (100 percent realization). (Table 36, Publication II)
The situation is similar with the planned and carried out systematic health checks in the secondary
schools: in 2002, 94 percent of the planned health examinations were carried out, with a 100
percent realization in 9 of the regions. Tetovo might be regarded an exception, as this is the region
where the percentage of realized health checks was the lowest – 87 percent. (Table 36, Publication II)
The ratio between the physicians and the number of children at the age between 7 and 14
indicates that the number of specialist physicians and nurses is unchanged, while the number of
general practitioners decreased. Namely, this ratio in 2002 was one physician, three school medicine
specialists and five nurses, while in 1998 there were two physicians and the same number of specialists
and nurses as in 2002. The total number of visits of sick children was 669,564, or 16.148 visits per
10,000 children at the age between 7 and 19. Of the total number of 669,564 visits of a school physician,
almost 36 percent took place in Skopje, 6 percent in Gostivar, 6 percent in Bitola and 5 percent
in Tetovo. Kratovo is an example of a region with the lowest number of visits to the physician: 2,294
visits or 0.3 percent of the total number. (Table 37, Publication II)
There are a total of 25 family planning counseling centers in the country. A year-to-year comparison
shows that this number is higher by three than in 1998, lower by one than in 1999 and lower
by two than in 2000. Of the 25 counseling centers, 2 are located in Berovo and Gostivar each, none
in Vinica, Gevgelija, Debar, Demir Hisar, Kocani, Kratovo and Ohrid, and one in all other regions,
including Skopje. (Table 38, Publication II)
In 2002, the total number of visits per 1,000 women in the reproductive period was 480,
which is comparatively less than in 1998 (730 visits). In the period between 1998 and 2002, there
were no registered visits of the family planning counseling centers in Kratovo, Demir Hisar, Vinica,
Gevgelija, and Ohrid, whereas of the total 22,385 visits in 2002, 42 percent were in Skopje, almost 24
percent in Tetovo and 1 percent in Struga.
According to the data, more than half of the total number of visits was first-ever ones: it varied
between 58 percent in 1999 and 68 percent in 2000 – 2002. With regard to the age, the majority
of users of these services were women between 20 and 29, who accounted for 49 percent in 2000
and 48 percent in 2002. Women at the age between 30 and 39 constituted 34 percent in 2002 and
37 percent in 1998. The group of women at the age between 20 and 29 are the largest group of users
of such services in all health regions, except in Kicevo and Prilep, where the majority of users were
at the age between 30 and 39. (Table 39, Publication II)
58

The highest percentage (60 percent) of the registered visits aimed at health care of women in
2002 was in Skopje, Kumanovo, Tetovo, and Prilep (44 percent, 8 percent, 4 percent, and 4 percent,
respectively). The percentage is the lowest in Demir Hisar and Krusevo, while there are no data available
for Kratovo. (Table 38, Publication II).
Out of the 50 centers for health care of women in 2002 (this number remained unchanged in
the period between 1998 and 2002), 16 (32 percent) were in Skopje, with one or two such centers in
all other health regions. (Table 38, Publication II)
According to the data obtained, the number of pregnant women who visited the counseling
centers for pregnant women was barely one-third throughout the entire period. This percentage
was the lowest in 2000 (28 percent) and the highest in 2002 (34 percent). In terms of the first-ever
visits to counseling centers for pregnant women by age groups in 2002, the women at the age
between 20 and 29 were again the most frequent group of users of such services, with the exception
of the regions of Kumanovo and Radovis, where the age group of up to 19 was the one using
the services most frequently. (Table 40, Publication II)
4.3. Secondary Level of Health care
The secondary health care is a more specialized form of health care than the primary one. It
requires trained personnel. The secondary protection in the state is organized in the medical centers
– polyclinics and general hospitals – mainly located in the urban centers.
In 2002, there were a total of 16 general hospitals in the country, 7 rehabilitation centers and
spas, and 10 health care centers. The distribution by health regions is as follows: there is one general
hospital in each of Bitola, Veles, Gevgelija, Gostivar, Debar, Kavadarci, Kicevo, Kocani, Kriva
Palanka, Kumanovo, Ohrid, Prilep, Struga, Strumica, Tetovo and Stip; Veles, Gevgelija, Demir Hisar,
Skopje and Tetovo each have one special hospitals; there is one health care center in all of Bitola,
Veles, Kocani, Kumanovo, Ohrid, Prilep, Skopje, Strumica, Tetovo and Stip; and one rehabilitation
center in Bitola, Resen, and Struga, and two in Ohrid and Skopje.
The number of staff at the secondary health care level is presented in Table 40 Publication II.
At this level, there are 324 registered general practitioners (37 in Bitola, 31 in Strumica and Tetovo, 4
in Kocani and Kriva Palanka, 5 in Demir Hisar and Resen, and 6 in Debar and Kicevo); the number of
specialists totals 12,805 (starting from 187 in Bitola, 178 in Skopje, 128 in Ohrid, to 11 in Kriva
Palanka, 16 in Demir Hisar, 18 in Debar and 19 in Resen); 3,627 nurses (their number varying
between 403 in Bitola and 354 in Skopje and 30 in Resen, 35 in Kriva Palanka, and 43 in Debar). (Table
41, Publication II)
In 2002, all 27 hospitals had a total of 6,200 beds used for the treatment of 56.9 individuals
per 1,000 citizens, while the total number of hospital days amounted to 1,291,786.
The disparities in terms of the capacities and utilization of hospitals are presented in Table 42
Publication II. There were at least 48 hospital beds in Kriva Palanka, 70 in Debar, and 71 in Resen. As
opposed to this group, Ohrid had the largest number of beds – 798 ones allocated in four hospitals,
Bitola had 630 and Stip had 511 beds. The number of treated patients was the lowest in Skopje – 2.4
per 1,000 citizens, with this number being 45.9 in Resen, 49.4 in Demir Hisar and (the highest) in Stip
– 204.2, Ohrid – 155.7, Veles – 135.6, and Bitola – 126.2. (Table 42, Publication II)
In general, the average duration of a stay in hospitals lasted 13.4 days, whereas the level of
utilization of hospital capacities was 68.5 percent.
59

4.4. Tertiary Level of Health care
This type of health care requires highly specialized health workers and highly specialized
institutions. At a national level, this type of protection is located in Skopje and, in addition to providing
health care, also carries out both education and research activities. Access to such institutions is
by means of special referrals obtained from physicians at the lower levels of health care.
There are a total of 48 health institutions in the country – clinics and institutes. The data presented
in Table 7 helps in the analysis of the number of staff and utilization of these services per
10,000 citizens.
Table 7. Number of health workers and visits to health institutions
at the tertiary level of health care per 10,000 citizens
Year Beds Physicians Specialists Dentists Nurses No. of patients treated
per 1,000 citizens
Treated
patients
Hospital days
2002 187.88 16.22 42.08 8.50 127.61 34.9 70.695 854.141
2001 194.36 13.16 40.17 7.76 115.35 33.2 67.542 864.130
2000 196.95 11.37 40.67 7.68 110.39 34.8 70.770 933.412
1999 195.46 10.81 40.00 7.60 111.36 42.5 85.967 963.891
1998 199.00 10.01 40.19 7.57 113.89 34.5 69.285 1.011.111
As it may be seen from the table above, the indicator of number of beds per 1,000 citizens,
points to a slight decrease of 199 to 187.88 beds per 100,000 citizens. The number of general practitioners
in this health sector is on the increase: from 10.01 in 1998 to 16.22 in 2002. The number of
specialists was 40.19 per 100,000 citizens in 1998, rising to 16.22 in 2002. The number of specialists
was 40.19 per 100,000 citizens in 1998 and 42.08 in 2002. The number of dentists slightly increased
from 7.57 in 1998 to 8.50 in 2002; the number of nurses is rising: it grew from 113.89 to 127.61. The
average number of hospital days in the clinics was 12.6, and the bed utilization was 74.5 percent,
below the established standards. In the other institutions at this level, the number of days spent at
the clinics varies between 4.3 days at the Gynecology Clinic in Cair, to 128 days at the Psychiatric
Hospital in Bardovci 20 .
The level of utilization of beds for children is declining: it was 83.1 percent in 1998, 58.7 percent
in 2002, and 56 percent in 2001. Consequently, the number of days spent in children hospitals
is also decreasing: from 11.8 days in 1998 down to 8.9 days in 2002.
4.5. Health Condition 21 of the Population (2002)
This type of indicators refers to the process of mapping the health condition of the population.
The low weight infants indicator shows the quality of nutrition of the community or inadequate
nutrition. The total number of newly born children with a body weight lower than 2.5 kg was
1,493 children in 2002, or 5.38 percent of the total number of newly born in that year. Expressed in
absolute numbers, the largest number was in Skopje – 359, which is 5.98 percent of the total number
of newly born in 2002. Suto Orizari with 8.5 percent is a municipality with the largest number of
infants of a low weight, with Kisela Voda being the municipality in which this percentage is the lowest
– 3.9 percent. Expressed as a percentage, the number of children with low weight in 2002 varied
between 20.0 percent in the municipality of Samokov and 0.34 percent in Drugovo. The following
municipalities are high above the average: Makedonski Brod, Pehcevo, Staro Nagoricani (all with
20
WHO (2004) The Public Health Report of the Republic of Macedonia
21
A general term for the condition of the health of individuals, groups or population, measured by defined standards. See for details:
Roberts, J.L. (1996) Terminology for the WHO Conference on European Health Care Reform, Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe.
60

11.9 percent), Mavrovi Anovi (11.1 percent), Caska (9.7 percent), Plasnica (9.3 percent), and Berovo (9
percent) (Table 43, Publication II).
The indicator most widely used for the assessment and identifying the nutrition condition of
a community is the level of alimentation of children younger than 5. The average of children of short
height suggests insufficient nutrition and certain infections at birth, and is even an indicator of infections
during pregnancy. In addition, the indicator is relevant in that it points out poverty or low
nutrition at the earliest age. The goal is to have at least 90 percent of the children with the weight
corresponding to the age, which is a standard measure defined by the World Health Organization.
In the Macedonia, children at the pre-school age of 2 – 6 are subjected to checks aimed at
identifying their nutrition levels 22 .
The 2003 data yielded the following results: within the framework of the height standards,
77.9 percent were of normal height (76.2 percent of the boys and 79.8 percent of the girls); 15.6 percent
were tall (16.5 percent boys and 14.8 percent girls); and 6.4 percent were short (7.4 percent
boys and 5.4 percent girls).
In comparison with 2001, there was a 7.9 percent increase of the percentage of children with
normal growth, and a 2.6 percent decrease of children of short and 6 percent of tall height (See
Figure 4).
Figure 4. Assessment of the growth of pre-school children at the age of 2 – 6
On the basis of the nutrition status in 2003, 73.7 percent of the children at this age were
normally fed; 11.7 percent were moderately overweight (10.6 percent boys and 12.8 percent girls);
8.8 percent are overweight (8.3 percent boys and 9.4 percent girls); 5.2 percent are moderately fed
(5 percent boys and 5.45 percent girls), and 0.5 percent of the children are poorly fed (0.5 percent
boys and 0.5 percent girls).
In comparison with 2001, there are differences in the category of “moderately overweight”:
in 2001, 9.3 percent of the children were assessed as moderately overweight, and 11.0 percent as
overweight children.
According to the same source, 57.5 percent of the children in Skopje are normally fed, 20 percent
are of above average weight and 17 percent are overweight; 4.5 percent are moderately underfed
and 0.35 percent are underfed. In comparison with the other cities, there are a higher percentage
of overweight children in Skopje.
22
The nutrition status is examined by means of anthropometrical measurements in the health protection centers in accordance with the
standards on monitoring the growth process, development and nutrition status as a whole. The 2003 data were obtained from a sample
of a total of 1,130 children, of whom 576 were boys and 554 were girls.
61

The system of immunization of the population includes preventive programs, aimed at controlling
contagious diseases and protection against various diseases of the more vulnerable groups
of the population. Information regarding the immunization of the population to a large extent also
gives indications of the implementation of preventive protection of the health of the population.
Analyzed in a comparative fashion, the period between 1998 and 2002 may be characterized
as one with a satisfactory level of scope of the immunizations carried out in the Macedonia.
Figure 5. Immunization of children in the Macedonia: 1998-2002
According to the data, 95.6 percent of the children at a national level received shots against
d-t-per, and 96.7 percent received shots against polio. At the age of up to one year, 90.8 percent of
the children were vaccinated against tuberculosis and 97.8 percent against measles. (See Figure 5)
This trend of an almost total immunization of the population with the d-t-per vaccine continued
in 2003, as well, when it amounted to 95.8 percent of the total population. According to the
Annual report of the State Health care Office in Skopje, the percentage of immunized children was
lower than the average on the territory of the Health care Office in Veles – 83.4 percent (90.7 percent
in the city and 72.1 percent in the surrounding villages0 and in Kocani – 89 percent. (Table 44,
Publication II)
In regard to the polio vaccine given orally, Kocani and Veles are again the regions in which
this immunization was carried out in a lower percentage. The total immunization percentage at a
national level was 95.9 percent, while it was 87.4 percent in Veles and 89.0 percent in Kocani. Belowaverage
percentage of immunization against polio was also registered in the following cities:
Kumanovo (90.7 percent), Ohrid and Debar (93.2 percent), and Stip and Radovis (92.1 percent).
(Table 44, Publication II)
In terms of health regions, there are disparities in the percentage of children immunized
against tuberculosis. Thus, in Resen, the percentage is 162.8 percent, 113.6 percent in Prilep, 110.3
percent in Skopje, 102.3 percent in Debar, 10.2 percent in Resen, 53.6 percent in Kicevo, 58.3 percent
in Gostivar, 68.35 in Struga, 73.1 percent in Tetovo, 74.6 percent in Makedonski Brod. (Table 44,
Publication II)
Almost all newly born (98.2 percent) in 2002 were delivered with the assistance of experts.
In terms of this indicator, the more critical municipalities are Sipkovica, where the percentage of chil-
62

dren born with the help of experts is lower than the average – 83.9 percent, Studenicani – 86.2 percent,
Izvor – 87.5 percent, Zelenikovo – 88.5 percent, Aracinovo – 88.6 percent, Cucer Sandevo – 88.7
percent, Brvenica – 89.9 percent, Klecovce and Samokov – 90 percent, Zelino – 90.4 percent, and
Veles – 90.5 percent. This trend seems constant throughout the entire period between 1998 and
2002. (Table 45, Publication II)
4.6. Health-related Behavior
This group of indicators is aimed at identifying certain segments of the way of life affecting
the health of people. This sphere is largely connected with and, in a way, preconditioned by the
social environment.
One of the main preconditions for health is clean drinking water; in 2002, 93 percent of the
population had clean drinking water. In the health region of Struga, 100 percent of the population
had access to clean drinking water; this percentage was 99 percent in Berovo, Valandovo, Gevgelija,
Krusevo, Kumanovo, Negotino and Ohrid; and it was 98 percent in Vinica, Kavadarci, Kriva Palanka,
Resen, and Stip. Contrary to these regions, the percentage is 71 percent in Kratovo, 73 percent in
Kicevo and Strumica, 76 percent in Delcevo, 85 percent in Gostivar, and 89 percent in Kocani and in
Prilep. (Table 47, Publication II)
According to the data available, the number of cases of tuberculosis is declining from 1,547 in
1998 to 1,086 cases in 2002. Comparatively, there is one cases in each of the municipalities of Delcevo,
Kratovo, Kriva Palanka, and Sveti Nikole, two in Debar, four in Probistip, five in Berovo, with the largest
number of cases in Skopje – 377, Tetovo – 315, and Gostivar – 118. (Table 47, Publication II)
The total number of registered cases of individuals suffering from AIDS in 2002 was 5, of
whom two men and three women, whereas there are two adults living with the virus. This number
was higher by four in 2000 and lower in comparison to the other years in the period. Of the five
cases, four were registered in Skopje and one in Tetovo. In 2002, there were no registered children at
the age between 0 and 14 infected neither by the HIV virus, nor among women at the age between
15 and 49, as opposed to one such case in 2001.
In the total number of four institutions registered for rehabilitation of drug addicts, 767 addicts
(678 men and 89 women) were registered in 2002. In comparison with all other previous years, this is
almost a double increase of the number of registered drug addicts. (Table 48, Publication II)
According to the data available for 2001, there were 5,585 registered patients suffering from
cancer, of whom 53,66 percent were men and the remainder (46.37 percent) women. In 2002, there
were a total of 5,436 cancer patients. A comparative historical analysis of the number of cancer
patients per 100,000 citizens shows a decrease from 306 (1998) to 263.38 in 2000 and a slight
increase to 274,46 in 2001. Analyzed by health regions, the largest number of such patients was registered
in Skopje – 1,817, and the smallest in Valandovo and Demir Hisar – 25 in each region. In the
other health regions, the number varies between 27 in Krusevo and 363 in Prilep. (Table 49,
Publication II)
The reproductive behavior is an exceptionally significant factor in the assessment of the
reproductive health of the mother, but also of the child. Among other things, the use of contraception
and abortions are relevant indicators of the reproductive behavior of women. In 2002, a total of
12,044 means of contraception were prescribed in the family planning centers. According to this, 19
of 1,000 women at the reproductive age used contraceptive means. (Table 50, Publication II)
In 2002, there were 12 registered abortions per 1,000 women at a reproductive age, or 284
abortions per 1,000 newly born children that year. In absolute numbers, the largest number of abor-
63

tions took place in Skopje and Tetovo – 1,098, and the smallest in Radovis – 2 and Delcevo – 6. (Table
50, Publication II)
4.7. Mortality
The general mortality rate 23 in 2002 was 8.9 per 1,000 citizens. In comparison with the previous
years, there is a slight increase of the number of deceases: it was 8.3 in 2001, 8.5 in 2000, 8.3 in
1999, and 8.4 in 1998. By municipalities, Dolna Banjica had the lowest death rate of 3.3, and
Staravina had the highest one of 47.5 individuals per 1,000 citizens. The following municipalities also
had a relatively higher mortality rate: Demir Hisar – 31.3, Petrovec – 29.9, Vevcani – 28.6, Drugovo –
27.0, Studenicani – 24.2, Sopiste – 21.5, Saraj – 20.4, Murtino – 18.3, Kriva Palanka – 18.1, Veles – 17.5,
Konce – 16.9, Tetovo – 16.5, Kuklis – 16.4, Gazi Baba – 16.2, Centar – 15.9, Vasilevo – 15.8, Resen –15.6,
Dolneni – 15.5, and Rostusa – 15.2. Contrary to those, the following are characterized by a lower
death rate: Karpos – 1.6, Lipkovo – 1.9, Debar – 3.5, Ilinden – 4.0, Kamenjane – 4.2, Vinica – 4.3, Kisela
Voda – 5.3, Stip – 5.5, Gostivar – 5.6, Negotino-Polosko – 5.9, and Bosilovo – 6.0 deceased per 1,000
citizens. (Table 51, Publication II)
In terms of the cause of death, the leading causes are diseases of the circular system: 57 percent
of the total number of deaths was a result of such diseases. The percentages vary from 32.7 percent
in Sipkovica to 100.0 percent in Konopiste. Those suffering from the neoplasm group of diseases
account for 17.4 percent of the total number of deaths (from 2.9 percent in Srbinovo to 27.4 percent
in Krusevo and 27.3 percent in Zitose). The deceased due to an unidentified cause constitute 8 percent
of the total number. The percentage of deceased due to such cause is the lowest in Bosilevo,
Kratovo and Probistip (0.8 percent) and the highest in Karbinci (38,5 percent), Sipkovica (34.7 percent),
Staravina (3.5 percent), and Stip (32.3 percent). Injuries and poisoning are registered as causes
for death in 4.2 percent per 1,000 citizens. The lowest percentage is again in Bosilevo – 0.8 percent,
the highest is in Mavrovi Anovi – 13.3 percent, followed by 12.5 percent in Aracinovo and 10.9
percent in Makedonska Kamenica. Those who died from diseases of the respiratory organs account
for 3.3 percent of the total number of death cases. Bitola has the lowest such percentage – 0.8 percent,
Krusevo has 0.9 percent, while Orizari the highest one – 21.6 percent. The endocrine diseases as
the cause of death constitute 3.1 percent of the total. This percentage is lowest in Vinica – 0.7 percent
and highest in Lukovo – 10.5 percent. (Table 52, Publication II)
The death rate among newly born (infants) shows a decrease from 16.3 in 1998 to 10.2 per
1,000 newly born in 2002. This rate is much higher in the municipality of Meseista, where it was calculated
at 96.8 percent, and Kukurecani – 41.7 percent. The rate was lowest in the municipality of
Karpos – 1.6 deceased per 1,000 newly born. (Table 53, Publication II)
The mortality rate of children younger than 5 (0 to 4) is 11.7 percent. This percentage is higher
than the average in the municipality of Meseista – 111.1. (Table 53, Publication II)
There were a total of 153 cases of suicide registered in 1998. In 1999, this number grew to
170, to go down to 152 registered suicides in 2001 and 149 in 2002. Analyzed at a municipal level,
this number was highest in Skopje or 12 in the municipality of Kumanovo, whereas there was one
suicide case in each of the following municipalities: Suto Orizari, Berovo, Bistrica, Bogomila, Brvenica,
Vranesnica, Delcevo, Demir Hisar, Zletovo, Kamenjane, Karbinci, Kondovo, Konce, Krusevo,
Negotino-Polosko, Oblesevo, Orizari, Ohrid, Probistip, Rosoman, Sopotnica, Studenicani, Topolcani
and Cesinovo.
Mortality among mothers, expressed in absolute numbers is very low: there were 3 cases
altogether in 2002 (in Debar, Kumanovo and Ohrid) and 4 cases in 2001 and 200 (Skopje, Suto
23
The data on specific mortality rates by gender and age were not available.
64

Orizari, Veles, Kriva Palanka, and Saraj), 2 cases in 1999 (Kumanovo and Lipkovo), and only one in
1998 (Negotino – Polosko).
Concluding remarks and Recommendations
Although the purpose of the analysis was to illustrate the disparities between the municipalities
in Macedonia, it was conducted only at the national level due to the unavailability of data; the
analysis was also the basis for the proposal to establish a database for recording the activities in this
area at a local level. It showed that there are disparities in the facilities in the health institutions in
different municipalities, as well as differences in terms of staff, health condition of the population
measured by weight of the newly born, health condition measured by the nutrition status of children,
health condition indicated by the number of deliveries with the assistance of experts, in the mortality
of the population by the death rate of the newly born, which is in a declining trend (this fact, like the
previous one, imposes the need of more detailed analyses aimed at identification of the social factors
of influence that are mostly related to the features of the local community), as well as in terms
of the most frequent causes of death.
An attempt was made to identify the existing disparities between the municipalities regarding
health issues and which, by their nature, are useful in terms of achieving more efficient prevention,
detection and treatment of certain diseases or certain aspects of the health behavior of the
population. The proposal regarding the next required step is to expand the database and to complete
the list of indicators in the area of the health behavior of the population.
65

5. TRANSPORTATION AND MOBILITY
This part of the analysis presents the data related to the analysis of the infrastructure and its
users in the traffic, i.e. the transport and mobility. The analysis is comparative and includes a period
of five years – from 1998 to 2002 – for which there are available data, stressing the major disparities
between municipalities.
5.1. Road Transportation 24
5.1.1. Road Network Length, Excluding Highways
Table 8. Categorization of roads in Macedonia
ROADS AND CATEGORIZATION OF ROADS
In kilometers
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
TOTAL 11.657 12.309 12.666 13.072 13.182
Excluding highways 11.513 12.165 12.522 12.927 12.974
BY ROAD CATEGORY
Motorways 909 909 909 937 957
Regional 3.461 3.461 3.542 3.643 3.623
Local 7.143 7.795 8.071 8.347 8.394
Highways 144 144 144 145 208
Macedonia has a total of 13,182 km of categorized road network (2002 data), of which 957
km are motorways, 3,623 km regional, and 8,394 km are local (Table 8). The majority of the motorways
(548 km) are included in the system of the European road network of “E”-roads, whereas only
208 km of these may be included in the TEM-roads system (Trans-Europe Motorway), as follows:
Kumanovo-Petrovec-Veles-Gradsko; Skopje-Petrovec; Hipodrom-Miladinovci; Skopje-Tetovo-
Gostivar.
Table 9: Length of the Road Network of Macedonia, Excluding Highways
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Road length in km 11.513 12.165 12.522 12.927 12.974
Area in km 2 27.513 27.513 27.513 27.513 27.513
Indicator
km/km 2 0.418457 0.442155 0.45513 0.469851 0.471559
According to Table 9, the indicator of the length of the road network excluding the highways
in relation to the area of Macedonia increases from 0.418 in 1998 to 0.4649in 2001 and then
declines in 2002.
24
The categories subjected to analysis are explained in more details in Annex 2
66

Figure 6. Indicator of Road Length Excluding Highways
5.1.2. Length of Total Road Network Including Highways
According to Table 10the indicator of the length of the road network in relation to the area
of Macedonia varies from 0.423 in 1998 to 0.479 in 2002.
Table 10. Length of the Road Network of Macedonia, Including Highways
Road length in km
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
11.657 12.309 12.666 13.072 13.182
Area in km
27.513 27.513 27.513 27.513 27.513
Indicator
km/km 2 0.423691 0.447389 0.460364 0.475121 0.479119
Figure 7. Indicator of Road Length in Macedonia
The Figure shows the curve of the increase of the length of the total road network in
Macedonia and the period of stagnation in 2001.
5.1.3.Length of Roads Made of Stone Blocks
Table 11: Roads Made of Stone Blocks in Macedonia
in kilometers
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Total in Macedonia 62 65 68 85 97
From the table above, it may be seen that the roads made of stone blocks had a trend of
increase in the period between 1998 and 2002. This is mainly due to the needs of the rural – but also
67

partially of the urban – areas, where the asphalt is increasingly being avoided as the material for construction
of boardwalks and pedestrian streets. The trend is going back to the nature and communicating
on areas constructed with natural materials.
5.1.4. Length of Macadam Roads
Table 12: Macadam Roads in Macedonia
in kilometers
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Total in Macedonia 1.123 1.152 651 1.176 1.214
The macadam roads are most frequently used in the rural areas, in newly established settlements
as parts of urban centers, and in tourist resorts with no urbanized communications.
According to the data of the State Statistical Office, the length of such roads at a national level slightly
increased over the period 1998 – 2002. At the municipal level, the data only refer to the situation
of up to December 31, 2002 and there is no way to assess the trend or to identify the disparities
between municipalities if this is the only type of roads analyzed.
5.1.5. Length of Unpaved Roads
Total in
Macedonia
Table 13: Unpaved Roads in Macedonia
in kilometers
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
1.123 1.152 651 1.176 1.214
5.1.6. Length of Roads Maintained by the Local Self-government
The roads maintained by the local self-governments in Macedonia are included in the category
of local ones. Their length increased in the period between 1998 and 2002, and the trend is
mainly due to the new territorial division into 132 municipalities. It may be seen from Table 1,
Publication II that the increase is particularly high in the newly formed municipalities, which may in
this way more easily draw the attention of the central government to the problems, as the central
budget is the main source of funds for the maintenance of existing and construction of new roads.
The former municipalities have an obligation to maintain the already constructed roads. The disparity
is larger between the newly formed municipalities and the old ones. The construction and maintenance
of roads is simplified in the newly formed municipalities, which in part inherited structures
from the former ones (example: Bogdanci).
5.1.7. Length of Roads Supported by the Central Government
The central government maintains the motorways, regional roads and E-category roads, i.e.
highways.
Table 14. Length of Roads under the Competence of the Central Government
Year
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
14.209 km 14.861 km 15.299 km 15.778 km 15.848 km
68

The increase in the length of the motorways and regional roads is a result of the rise in the
need of communication between the cities, i.e. municipalities.
5.1.8. Length of Roads in Urban Areas
The length of roads in urban areas, i.e. city roads, has not been classified separately within
the data of the State Statistical Office. In Table 54, Publication II, one may only note the length of the
roads in the entire municipality, which is irrelevant for the formation of this type of indicator of
assessing the disparity at a municipal level.
5.1.9. Length of Roads in Rural Areas
The length of the road network in rural areas is not classified separately within the data of
the State Statistical Office. In Table 54, Publication II, one may only note the length of the roads in
the entire municipality, which again is irrelevant for the formation of this type of indicator of assessing
the disparity at a municipal level.
5.1.10. Use of Public Transportation
In 11 cities in Macedonia, the city transportation, as a part of the public one, is in fact transportation
of passengers with buses. An indicator of the public city transportation used as a measure
of the disparity between municipalities is the density of city transportation lines. (See Table 55,
Publication II)
According to the data analyzed and presented in Table 15, the public transportation indicator
in 1998 varied from 0.42 in Kriva Palanka (where it is least developed) to 3.37 in Bitola,(where it
is most used). There was an evident decline of the indicator in 2002: in Kriva Palanka, it was 0.33, in
Bitola 0.53, and it was highest in Tetovo – 12.87.
Table 15: Indicator of Density of Public City Transportation Lines
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Kriva Palanka 0,42 0,42 0,42 0,33 0,33
Bitola 3,37 3,37 0,62 0,38 0,53
Tetovo 3,22 10,11 12,87 12,87 12,87
Skopje 0,61 0,61 0,71 0,74 0,78
Figure 8. Density of Public Transportation Lines
69

The Table and Figure above clearly show the disparity in the development of the public city
transportation, i.e. the density of the bus lines in the four urban areas analyzed.
5.1.11. Utilization of Public Transportation by Pupils and Students
There is no sufficient information for this part of the analysis that would enable identification
of the indicators. In principle, this type of analysis should be conducted at a national level in terms
of the students and the location of universities in Macedonia, whereas at a municipal level it is only
possible to conduct such an analysis for pupils. The next problem is the lack of information on the
number of pupils using public transportation, as the elementary schools are mainly located at a 10-
minute walk from their homes. The secondary schools are a subject of a separate analysis, as the
number of students there includes a daily migration from rural to the urban areas in which these
schools are located.
5.1.12. Utilization of Motor Vehicles
This indicator refers to the overall utilization of motor vehicles in the country. The table
below indicates the number of registered vehicles.
Table 16. Registered Road Motor Vehicles and Trailers
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 No. of vehicles /
No. of citizens in
2002
Number of citizens 2.022.547
Total number of motor vehicles: 330.155 330.831 342.468 355.776 350.384 0,1732
Motorcycles 3.566 3.506 3.729 4.483 2.918 0,0014
Private 3.354 3.298 3.512 4.180 2.751 0,0014
Passenger cars 288.678 289.860 299.588 309.562 307.581 0,1521
Private 274.664 275.514 285.081 294.328 292.443 0,1446
Buses 2.478 2.479 2.498 2.620 2.497 0,0012
Private 410 433 476 530 557 0,0003
Load-carrying vehicles 20.075 20.011 20.763 21.727 20.213 0,0100
Private 11.761 11.879 12.526 13.278 12.356 0,0061
Special vehicles 4.027 4.151 4.687 5.385 6.187 0,0031
Private 1.849 1.948 2.245 2.509 2.931 0,0014
Towing vehicles 3.365 3.459 3.865 4.169 4.105 0,0020
Private 280 356 497 564 593 0,0003
Tractors 1.954 1.526 1.067 1.170 538 0,0003
Private 1.573 1.292 886 968 378 0,0002
Working vehicles 238 251 350 390 380 0,0002
Private 23 28 69 83 77 0,0000
Side-vehicles 5.774 5.588 5.921 6.270 5.965 0,0029
Private 892 895 1.069 1.183 1.114 0,0006
No. of vehicles /
0,16 0,16 0,17 0,18 0,17
No. of citizens
In the period between 1998 and 2002, there was a considerable increase of the number of
motor vehicles at a national level; during the same period, there are also intervals of decline in this
number.
70

Figure 9. Indicator of Utilization of Motor Vehicles in Macedonia
According to the data obtained from the Ministry of Interior (Table 56, Publication II II), it would
be possible to identify the disparity between the urban areas, but not between the municipalities, as the
Ministry has not processed the data by municipalities, but according to the regional units where the
records of vehicle registration are kept. In this case, the analysis of the indicators of disparities between
municipalities will be conducted at a regional level. It is illustrated by the Figure below.
Figure 10. Disparities in the level of utilization of motor vehicles in Macedonia
Use of Motorcycles
According to the 2002 data (Table 16), there were 2,918 registered motorbikes in Macedonia,
of which 1,388 in Skopje, i.e. the municipalities in the Skopje region; 2,751 motorbikes are privately
owned and 1,275 of those are in the Skopje region, 205 in Bitola, 205 in Kumanovo, and only 2 in
Brod and Krusevo each.
71

Lines
Buses
5.1.13. Transportation of Passengers by Buses
Transported
passengers,
in thousands
Table 17. Number of Lines, Buses and Transported Passengers
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Number 230 233 208 205 213
Length in km 4.016 4.531 4.273 4.180 4.270
Number 837 821 894 915 889
Seats and standing
places
99.349 96.729 105.008 106.214 100.960
Average number of vehicles in
the car park at year end
604 820 893 915 889
Average number of vehicles in
the traffic at year end
428 417 600 681 475
Average number of annually
transported passengers per 1
bus, in thousands
Income from transportation of passengers, in
thousands
135.254 136.231 111.408 98.474 101.709
224 166 125 108 114
1.505.756 1.671.876 1.765.990 1.522.891 1.508.557
The number of transported passengers is an indicator which shows the mobility of citizens
by public transportation.
Table 18. Mobility of Citizens with Public City Transportation
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2002 population
passengers/ number,
citizens/ 2002 2001 1998
Struga 1.520 1.062 834 751 791 61.256 0,01 0,01226 0,024814
Bitola 2.390 1.764 1.100 805 1.081 105.644 0,01 0,00762 0,022623
Tetovo 3.321 3.404 3.166 2.098 1.490 189.066 0,01 0,011097 0,017565
Veles 440 584 566 533 491 38.391 0,01 0,013883 0,011461
Kriva Palanka 217 197 281 285 266 24.964 0,01 0,011416 0,008693
Kumanovo 3.017 3.143 2.981 2.494 2.006 137.382 0,01 0,018154 0,021961
Skopje 122.293 124.341 100.633 89.058 93.393 495.540 0,19 0,179719 0,246787
Kocani 666 693 666 617 445 48.846 0,01 0,012632 0,013635
Stip 274 151 293 945 985 51.808 0,02 0,01824 0,005289
Strumica 1.009 892 888 888 761 92.625 0,01 0,009587 0,010893
The number of transported passengers is in a declining trend over the past two analyzed
years. The trend is particularly strong in the city of Skopje, where the bus transportation is most
used; Stip, on the other hand, has a trend of an increase: from 0,005 in 1998 to 0.02 in 2002.
5.1.14. Number of Taxi Vehicles per Citizen
The taxi transportation in Macedonia is a significant factor in the organization of the public
transportation. According to the data available, obtained through research, the number of taxi vehicles
varied between 2.346 in 1998 to 5.200 in 2002.
72

Table 19. Selected Indicators Related to Taxi Transportation
Number of
passenger
vehicles
Population at mid year, in
thousands
Number of passenger
vehicles/vehicles
1998 2.346 2.008 1,17
1999 2.477 2.017 1,23
2000 2.020 2.026 1,00
2001 1.746 2.035 0,86
2002 2.501 2.042 1,22
1998 3.167 2.008 1,58
1999 3.220 2.017 1,60
2000 3.440 2.026 1,70
2001 3.600 2.035 1,77
2002 5.200 2.042 2,55
5.2. Railroad transportation 25 *
The development concept of the railroad system is based on the need of modernization and
expansion of the railroad as a whole, as well as the need to connect the railroad network in
Macedonia with the corresponding networks in the Republic of Bulgaria and the Republic of
Albania.
The Railroad Plan until 2020, representing a stage towards the definite realization, foresees
construction of approximately 120 km of new railroad lines.
The density of the railroad network is planned to achieve 3.18 km per 100 km 2 of the territory
of Macedonia in the target year 2002.
The completion of the definite railroad network (after 2020) will occupy space of approximately
1,350 ha required for the 1,100 km of railroad lines, which will ensure a railroad network coverage
of about 4.3 km per 100 km 2 . The network is to be completed by additional 250 km of station
rails and approximately 200 km railroad rails for industrial needs,
5.2.1. Railroad Network
The railroad network in Macedonia was of a total length of 697 kilometers in 1995 and in
2002. The number of railroad stations increased from 106 in 1995 to 126 in 2002.
5.2.2. Passengers, Goods and Cattle Transported by Railroad
According to the data obtained from the State Statistical Office, the number of passengers
transported in the country in 1995 totaled 1,075,000 and 930,000 in 2002, i.e. the railroad transportation
of passengers is in a declining trend.
The table below illustrates the transportation of cattle at a national level; it is also decreasing.
Table 20. Railroad Transportation
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Transported cattle, in thousands 2,694 2,166 3,231 2,799 2,208
25
The data about the planned development are taken from the proposal Spatial Plan of Macedonia for the period until 2020.
* The categories analyzed herein are explained in more detail in Annex 2
73

5.2.3. Passenger Traffic at Railroad Stations in Major Municipalities
In 1998, there were 102 railroad stations in Macedonia in which there was passenger traffic;
in 2002, this number was 35.
5.2.4. Passenger Traffic at Railroad Stations in Major Cities
The cities of Bitola, Kumanovo, Prilep, Skopje, Stip, Tetovo, Veles and Gevgelija may be used
in the analysis of the railroad traffic. According to the data from the State Statistical Office, the number
of departed passengers decreased in all cities. In 1998, 79,029 passengers departed from Bitola,
while their number in 2002 was 57,133; in the case of Skopje, the numbers are 486,069 (1998) and
164,079 (2002).
5.2.5. Transportation of Cattle at Railroad Stations in Major Cities
According to the numerical data, the transportation of cattle may also be analyzed in several
cities. In 1998, 419,616 t of cattle were loaded and 86,382 t were unloaded in Gevgelija. The
respective figures in 2002 were 12,561 t (loaded) and 78,409 t (unloaded). This disparity is not so
large in Bitola, but the situation in Skopje is such that the railroad transportation of goods declined
as much as twice.
5.3. Air Transportation 26
The needs of transportation of passengers and goods by air are covered by the airports in
Skopje and Ohrid.
The existing sports airports in Skopje (Stenkovec), Kumanovo (Rezanovce), Bitola
(Logovardi), Stip (Susevo) and Prilep (Malo Konjari), satisfy the current needs for the most part. The
tracks only need certain improvements (all airports have grass tracks) and modernization of the airport
equipment.
There are a total of eight agricultural-commercial airports: Bitola (Logovardi and Dame
Gruev), Prilep (Sarandinovo), Veles (Karatmanovo), Sveti Nikole (Pesirovo), Stip (Vrsakovo), Negotino
(Crveni Bregovi) and Gradsko (Rosoman). The tracks on the airports are combined: a portion of 300
h and 20 m is made of concrete, and the remainder 500 h and 50 m is grass. The number of such airports
is insufficient for the current needs, particularly in the Polog and Ohrid-Prespa region, as well
as in the surroundings of Kumanovo, Strumica, and Gevgelija.
The table below is a numerical presentation of the total realized transportation of passengers
and goods in the air traffic in Macedonia.
26
The categories analyzed herein are explained in more detail in Annex 2
74

Table 21. Traffic of Aircrafts of Domestic and Foreign
Companies at the Airports in Macedonia
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Airport - Skopje
Number of departed passengers 253.293 534.054 493.034 234.082 251.414
Regular flights 148.935 252.282 406.546 221.584 196.967
Charter flights 104.358 281.772 86.488 12.498 54.447
Number of transit passengers 13.167 9.205 5.395 3.641 8.174
Tons of goods sent by air 2.715 695 802 663 513
Regular flights 504 511 736 636 416
Charter flights 2.211 184 66 27 97
Tones of goods in transit 57 10 - 0 1
Airport - Ohrid
Number of departed passengers 27.903 40.47 33.781 26.533 31.45
Regular flights 17.216 22.49 33.171 17.732 15.419
Charter flights 10.687 17.98 610 8.801 16.031
Number of transit passengers 2.745 2.784 2.77 3.217 2.307
Tons of goods sent by air 14 55 14 8 9
Regular flights 9 13 14 3 6
Charter flights 5 42 - 5 3
Tones of goods in transit 4 7 68 7 3
5.4. Telecommunications 27
The introduction of the new digital systems allowed for the use of integrated network of
services in the telecommunications, through the so-called ISDN (Integrated Service Digital
Network). The network is organized in three hierarchical levels: international, national, or transit, and
primary and local.
The hierarchical structure of the commutation systems are organized in a similar way.
In 1998, the total number of installed telephone switchboards in Macedonia was 324; their
number grew to 418 in 2002.
In 2002, there were 793,132 telephone lines, i.e. 0.39 lines per citizen. The number of telephone
lines rapidly grew in the period between 1995 and 1998 (according to the data taken from
the proposal Spatial Plan of the Republic of Macedonia and the State Statistical Office).
The mobile lines rose by more than six times at a national level, growing from 70,000 in 1998
to 450,000.
There is also an increase in the Internet lines: from 5,399 in 1998, they reached 36,639 in 2002.
5.4.1. Number of Telephone Line Subscribers
The number of telephone line subscribers by municipalities is also used in the analysis of the
disparities between the municipalities. The report includes only several specific municipalities in its
analysis and the table below is a presentation of the disparities at municipal level.
The indicator of the number of telephone line subscribers to the total population indicates
a disparity between Tetovo and Gostivar in relation to Stip, Kocani, Resen, and Veles.
27
The categories analyzed herein are explained in more detail in Annex 2
75

Table 22. Number of Subscribers / Total Population
Population
2002
Telephone
subscribers
No. of subscribers /
total population
Bitola 105.644 30.556 0,29
Demir Hisar 9.497 2.209 0,23
Krusevo 11.812 2.490 0,21
Prilep 94.358 22.748 0,24
Resen 16.825 6.376 0,38
Veles 38.391 16.721 0,44
Kavadarci 42.882 11.784 0,27
Negotino 23.757 5.440 0,23
Kratovo 10.441 2.678 0,26
Kriva Palanka 24.964 5.262 0,21
Kumanovo 137.382 27.561 0,20
Debar 24.251 3.900 0,16
Kicevo 56.739 8.163 0,14
Makedonski Brod 11.686 1.742 0,15
Ohrid 61.256 21.876 0,36
Struga 61.256 10.524 0,17
Skopje 495.540 176.645 0,36
Valandovo 11.890 3.281 0,28
Gevgelija 35.121 7.156 0,20
Radovis 31.780 5.924 0,19
Strumica 92.625 14.489 0,16
Gostivar 116.864 9.989 0,09
Tetovo 189.066 15.467 0,08
Berovo 19.458 3.906 0,20
Vinica 19.938 4.577 0,23
Delcevo 25.615 4.680 0,18
Kocani 48.846 9.609 0,20
Probistip 16.193 3.698 0,23
Sveti Nikole 21.355 5.208 0,24
Stip 51.808 15.752 0,30
5.4.2. Postal Services 28
Up to and inclusive of December 2002, there were 310 registered postal units (post
offices). The number of citizens served by a single postal unit was 6,756, meaning that the area covered
by a single unit was 88.75 km 2 . In the same period, there were 496 registered post tellers, or a
teller per 3,923 citizens.
The internal postal traffic is organized mainly by means of road transportation, as is the
international postal traffic to the Republic of Albania and the Republic of Bulgaria; to the Republic
of Greece and FR Yugoslavia, post travels by railroad, while to the other destinations it is air borne.
The analysis of the postal traffic in Macedonia has been conducted on the basis of the number
of post offices by municipalities (Table 57, Publication II II). According to the State Statistical
Office, the postal traffic is only registered at a national level and is no relevant indicator for the analysis
required.
28
The categories analyzed herein are explained in more detail in Annex 2
76

Concluding remarks and Recommendations
According to the above presented analysis, the differences between the municipalities in
Macedonia are explicit, with variations at a national level in certain areas. The analysis points out the
need of setting the following goals aimed at development of the transportation and mobility at a
national level, and at reducing the differences between the municipalities:
Further development of the transportation-communication system in Macedonia, in a manner
that will support equal distribution of the types of transportation and will meet the needs of
transport and communication of the Macedonian citizens in the best possible manner;
Development of a transportation system that will minimize the adverse impact of the traffic on
the environment and will help raise the quality of living in the urban and rural areas in the country;
Establishment of transport inter-modal centers as starting contact points between the different
types of transport, as a precondition for the development of an efficient, flexible and economic
transportation system;
Reconstruction and construction of transportation and communication networks and provision
of transportation means by applying state-of-the-art technology in the investment preparation,
design, construction, maintenance and exploitation;
Dynamic completion of the infrastructure, with priorities based on traffic and economic criteria,
that is in accordance with the strategic goals of the state wherever the traffic is the initial factor
of the overall development;
Special attention to routes passing by or around larger city agglomerations;
Increasing the permissibility of the Macedonian transportation and communication system,
connecting the system with the neighboring countries and joint inclusion in the European systems
and trends;
Provision of a high level of mobility of the population and products, as well as a high level of
telecommunication links on the territory of Macedonia;
Provision of an adequate accessibility on the entire territory of the state, to create conditions
for a more equal development in all parts of Macedonia;
Development of a plan for a transportation system that will support and stimulate the economic
development and international integration of Macedonia;
Permanent control aimed at high levels of safety in the traffic and environment protection;
Maximal utilization of the traditional roads to locate the major traffic corridors;
Adaptation of the general direction of the routes to the natural terrain features;
Adaptation of the traffic network of the major generators of future transportation of passengers
and goods;
Minimizing the traveling time and the transportation costs;
Protection and preserving the space for future strategic transportation corridors, for which
there is currently no traffic or economic justifiability.
77

CHAPTER THREE
EDUCATION, CULTURE AND CIVIL LIFE
1. EDUCATION
1.1. Municipal Educational Facilities
There is a developed network of elementary and high schools in the country. Of the total
1,292 school buildings in the Macedonia, elementary schools use 1,139, while 116 buildings are for
use by the high schools. The largest part of the school buildings is located in the municipalities of
Tetovo (the Polog region) (110 school buildings), whereas the smallest portion is in the municipalities
of Centar (Skopje region) – 13 school buildings, Valandovo (Southeast region) – 13 school buildings,
and Kratovo (Northeast region) – 12 buildings. In terms of the buildings used for implementation
of the education at secondary level, there is a high-school building in almost all municipalities
(by NUTS 4), except in Kriva Palanka. The largest number of buildings is located in the municipality
of Centar (13 buildings). (Table 58, Publication II)
The number of classrooms in the schools is, however, different. At a national level, 695 (61
percent) of the buildings for elementary education have between 1 and 4 classrooms (the schools
are such in all municipalities with the exception of the municipality of Centar - Skopje region); 188
schools have between 5 and 8 classrooms; 88 have more between 9 and 12 classrooms; and there
are 163 schools with 13 or more classrooms. The following municipalities have the smallest number
of classrooms in comparison with the number of schools: Tetovo (60) – Polog region, Bitola (54) –
Pelagonia region, Kumanovo (45) – Northeast region, Strumica (43) – Southeast region, Gostivar (43)
– Polog region, Prilep (36) – Pelagonia region, Kisela Voda (30) – Skopje region. It should be noted
here that these are municipalities with the largest number of school buildings in which elementary
education is realized. It is an interesting fact that these are the same municipalities in which there
are schools with the largest number of classrooms (13+), in addition to the municipalities of Karpos,
Kisela Voda, Cair and Centar. As it may be noticed, these are among the biggest municipalities in the
country. The majority of the other municipalities have between 5 and 8 classrooms. (Table 59,
Publication II)
The majority of the secondary schools (54) have 13 classrooms, 18 have between 9 and 12
classrooms, 12 have between 5 and 8, whereas 10 schools have between 1 and 4 classrooms. The
high schools with 1 to 4 classrooms are in the following municipalities: Prilep (4), Bitola (2), Gostivar
(2) while Berovo, Valandovo, Sveti Nikole, and Tetovo have schools with one classroom each. (Table
59, Publication II)
Of the total of 1,289 buildings, 1,287 have central heating. Of them, 1,241 have their own
heating, 46 use central heating (in the municipalities of Gazi Baba, Karpos and Centar – Skopje
region), whereas the remaining ones have their own heating, of which the majority (839) are schools
heated with movable heaters using solid fuels, and 380 have their own central heating. (Table 60,
Publication II)
Among others, one of the competencies of the municipalities is the provision of
transport for elementary pupils who do not have a school in their place of residence and live
in that municipality. In relation to the total number of pupils, this percentage in the school
year 2002/03 varied between 50.0 percent in the municipality of Rankovce (Izvor and
Karabinci have 39.2 percent each, Orasac 37.3 percent, Belciste 37.2 percent, Dolna Banjica
78

and Capari 36.9 percent, Oblesevo 36.7 percent, Jegunovce 35.0 percent, Bogomila 33.0 percent,
Demir Hisar 32.9 percent, Vasilevo 31.9 percent, Novo Selo 31.2 percent, Samokov and
Cesinovo 30.9 percent) and 0.1 percent in Kicevo. (Table 61, Publication II) As it is a legal obligation
of the municipalities to provide such transportation, the assumption is that the obligation
is met in full.
1.2. Input Education Indicators
1.2.1. Pre-school Education 29
The pre-school education is a particularly significant factor for development of childredn,
their social integration and preparation for further levels of education.
In 2002, there were a total of 435 preparatory schools in the elementary schools in the
Macedonia, with 52 organizations within the pre-school institutions.
The number of preparatory schools in the municipalities varies between 21 in the municipality
of Kumanovo and 1 in each of the following ones: Velesta, Vrapcista, Vrutok, Demir Hisar,
Drugovo, Zitose, Jegunovce, Klecevce, Kukurecani, Lukovo, Mogila, Novaci, Orizari, Pehcevo,
Sopotnica, Staro Nagoricani, Cegrane, Djepciste and Sipkovica. It should be noted that there are no
preparatory schools in the municipalities of Bogdanci, Bogomila, Kratovo, Kriva Palanka and
Makedonski Brod. There are 59 preparatory schools in the city of Skopje, but their distribution
among the municipalities in the city is different. Thus, there are 16 preparatory schools in the municipality
of Kisela Voda, 10 in each of Gazi Baba and Centar, 8 in Karpos, 7 in Gjorce Petrov, 6 in Cair and
2 in the municipality of Suto Orizari.
In terms of the organizations (nurseries, kinder gardens and preparatory schools) within the
pre-school institutions, which are institutions providing care for children, the largest number is in
Skopje (17), of which 4 in each of Karpos, Kisela Voda and Centar, 2 in each of Gazi Baba, Cair, Bitola,
Prilep and Stip, with one such organization in all the other urban municipalities, which include
Tetovo and Kumanovo, as one of the large municipalities in the country, having the highest number
of newly born as compared to the other municipalities. It should be noted that in municipalities in
which there are no pre-primary schools, the work with pre-school children takes place in organizations
within the pre-school institutions, with the exception of Bogomila, where there are no such
institutions. (Table 62, Publication II)
It is a fact that the inclusion of children in pre-school education positively impacts their success
in the elementary education. The total number of children included in the two types of preschool
care and education is 36,417 or 20.57 percent of the total number of children at the age of up
to 6. The gender differences are such that there were 106 boys against 100 girls included in the
process of pre-school education. With regard to the municipalities, the municipalities of Bistrica,
Brvenica, Vrutok, Demir Kapija, Jegunovce, Klecevce, Krusevo, Novo Selo, Oblesevo, Sopotnica,
Srbinovo, and Kriva Palanka stand out as a group with a considerably high level of masculinity.
Municipalities in which the number of boys was relatively high include the municipalities of
Cesinovo (42.9 boys per 100 girls) and Kukurecani and Rosoman (57 boys per 100 girls), while the
level of masculinity is lower in Aracinovo, Berovo, Bogovinje, Velesta, Vratnica, Delgozdi, Delcevo,
Dolneni, Zelino, Zelenikovo, Karbinci, Kondovo, Konce, Kocani, Kratovo, Krivogastani, Labunista,
Lozovo, Ohrid, Pehcevo, Podares, Probistip, Studenicani, Topolcani, Cucer Sandevo and Dzepciste.
(Table 63, Publication II)
29
This level of education is not mandatory. The latest regulations include the pre-school education as one of the mandatory education levels,
as well.
79

1.2.2. Elementary Education
In the school year 2002/03, mandatory elementary education was carried out in a total of
344 elementary schools, which included 10,062 classes between 1 st and 8 th grade. The average number
of pupils per teacher at a national level was 17, with the municipality of Ilinden exceeding the
average with 24 pupils per teacher. The municipalities of Suto Orizari and Aracinovo had an average
of 23 pupils per teacher, Cegrane, Radovis and Lipkovo had 21, and the municipalities of Gjorce
Petrov, Kisela Voda, Kocani and Stip had 20 pupils per teacher. Contrary to this, the following municipalities
had a below-average – or the smallest - number of pupils per teacher: Staravina (4 pupils per
teachers), Kosel (5 pupils), Lukovo, Mavrovi Anovi and Orasac (6 pupils), etc. (Table 64, Publication II)
The average number of foreign languages per pupil in the elementary education is 1.2. This
figure fluctuates as pupils go from lower to upper classes. Thus, 4 th grade pupils had an average of
0.8 foreign languages, while those in 6 th grade had an average of 1.4; the average is declining in the
following grades (1.3 in 7 th and 1.2 in 8 th grade). (See Table 9)
The total percentage of inclusion of all pupils from 1 st to 8 th grade, regardless of their gender,
amounts to 95.2 percent (95.6 percent for boys and 95.1 percent for girls) 30 . Such a percentage of
inclusion is high for a country with low- to middle income. There is a below-average percentage of
inclusion in the municipalities of Dolna Banjica – 33.7 percent (32 percent for boys and 35.0 percent
for girls), Staravina – 36.4 percent (25.0 percent for boys and 42.9 percent for girls), Vratnica – 56.2
percent (60.5 percent for boys and 52.0 percent for girls), Sopiste – 57.3 percent (55.2 percent for
boys and 59.4 percent for girls), Sipkovica – 61.1 percent (56.4 percent for boys and 66.1 percent for
girls), and so on. (Table 65, Publication II)
The net rate of inclusion in the elementary education, i.e. the number of children of an
adequate age (7 to 14 years of age) attending elementary education as a percentage of the total
population at that age indicates a lower rate of inclusion of 92.5 percent (92.7 percent for boys and
92.4 percent for girls). The municipalities with a lower gross rate of enrolled pupils, such as Staravina
(27.3 percent), Vratnica (52.8 percent), Dolna Banjica (31.9 percent), Sopiste (56.0 percent), and
Sipkovica (61.1 percent), have an even lower net rate of inclusion. (Table 65, Publication II). The same
table shows the 28 municipalities with rates computed at below 90 percent. In addition to the
municipalities of Struga, Radovis, Gjorce Petrov, Krusevo and Vinica, which belong to the urban parts
of the country, the remaining 25 are municipalities in the rural areas.
1.2.3. Special Elementary Schools
Children with impediments in their development are educated in special elementary
schools. There is a total of 45 such schools, with the largest number being located in Skopje (13), of
which 5 in each of Gazi Baba and Kisela Voda, and one in each of Gjorce Petrov, Karpos and Cair;
then, there are 5 in Bitola, and 2 in Gostivar, Ilinden, Ohrid, and Tetovo each. There are a total of 167
classes (less than 7 as compared to the 2001/02 school year), which include 1,125 pupils. The largest
number of classes is in the municipalities of Kisela Voda (26), Cair (22) and Bitola (19). The average
number of pupils per teacher is 5. At a municipal level, the burden is largest in Gostivar and Negotino
(13 pupils per teacher), Aracinovo, Medonska Kamenica and Tetovo (12 pupils per teacher), and
Kavadarci (11 pupils per teacher). (Table 66, Publication II)
1.2.4. Secondary Education
In the same school year, the secondary education was carried out in 95 secondary schools
(46 gymnasiums and 49 vocational secondary schools) with a total of 3,037 classes (844 gymnasiums
30
A large portion of the municipalities point to the fact that the number of enrolled children who attended elementary school exceeds
the number of children at the adequate age; this in a way indicates that children from other municipalities also enroll in those municipalities.
In this sense, the data regarding the gross rates exceeding 100 are commented herein
80

and 2,193 in vocational schools). A little more than one third of the children (39 percent) continued
their education in gymnasiums and the rest went to vocational secondary schools. The average
number of children per teacher is 17. This average is lowest in the municipalities of Negotino-
Polosko (7 children per teacher) and Rostuse (6 per teacher), and highest in Delcevo (22) and
Negotino, Sveti Nikole and Strumica (21). (Table 67, Publication II)
Of the total 95 secondary schools, 91 are state-owned and 4 are private schools.
The gross rate of inclusion of children in the secondary education in the school year 2002/03
at a national level is 71 percent, meaning that 72 percent of the children at the age between 15 and
18 are included in the secondary education. In terms of gender, this rate is lower among girls (71.0
percent) as compared to boys (73 percent).
The net rate of inclusion in the secondary education in the 2002/03 school year at a national
level is 63.5 percent, meaning that 63.5 percent of the total number of children at the age
between 15 and 18 is included in the secondary education. In terms of gender, this rate is lower
among girls (62.2 percent) than among boys (65.0 percent).
Comparatively, the net rate of inclusion in the elementary education indicates that 27 percent
of the children never proceed to secondary education.
It is not possible to conduct a comparative gross-net analysis by municipalities, as the
records of the number of enrolled secondary education students are not maintained in accordance
with their place of residence.
1.2.5. Higher Education 31
The higher education is carried out at two universities: “St. Cyril and Methodius” and “St.
Kliment of Ohrid”. The higher-education institutions are distributed in the following cities:
Municipality
Table 23. Distribution of high education institutions
School year
2002/03 2001/02
Enrolled Masculinity Enrolled Masculinity
Total
Faculties
Higher
vocational
schools
Skopje 22 22 35.146 78,4 34.593 80,3
Bitola 4 3 1 5.198 80,2 4.791 87,9
Ohrid 1 1 2.525 86,3 2.441 92,1
Prilep 1 1 1.663 79,4 1.666 87,2
Stip 2 2 1.092 45,4 1.219 52,8
Total 30 29 1 45.624* 78,1 44.710 81,1
Of the total number of enrolled students (45,624) in the school year 2002/03, 45,478 were
Macedonian citizens. In terms of gender, there were 78 male per 100 female enrolled students in the
year. This proportion is also present in the other university centers, with the exception of the Faculty
of Tourism and Hospitality in Ohrid, where there are 86 male per 100 female students. Unlike this,
there were 45 male per 100 female enrolled students at the faculty in Stip (Mining-Geology and
Faculty of Pedagogy).
31
The data refer only to higher-education institutions in public ownership. The indicators refer only to the national level.
* This is the total number of enrolled students. Of those, 45,478 were citizens of the Republic of Macedonia. Different data are provided
with regard to the total number of students. Thus, for instance, the data referring to higher education students by gender and age are
based on a total number of 45,468 students. We note that this is also used in the calculation of the gross and net rate of students enrolled
in the higher education institutions in the country.
81

The average change of the number of students in the higher-education increased by 113.51
percent in comparison with the previous year, while in regard with the masculinity percentage, the
inclusion of male students in the higher education is on the downward line.
The percentage of students included in the higher-education groups of science, mathematics
and engineering is 42.1 percent. In comparison with the previous years, this number is lower (it
was 45.4 percent in 2001/02 and 46.1 percent in 2000/01).
The gross or total rate of inclusion in the higher education in the 2002/03 school year is illustrated
in Figure 11 below.
Figure11. Total (gross) rate of students enrolled in higher-education institutions (2002/03)
Not surprisingly, the rate is highest at the age of 19, going gradually down as the age level
increases. The rate of inclusion at the age between 19 and 29 – a level corresponding to the highest
degree to the higher-education process in the country – is 11.8 percent (10.0 percent in the case of
male and 13.6 percent in the case of female students), which is by 10 percent and more than in
developed countries of the type of USA, Canada, Great Britain, Germany and others.
The net or pure inclusion in the percentage of higher education in the 2002/03 school year
is illustrated on Figure 12 below.
Figure 12. Pure (net) rate of students enrolled in higher-education institutions (2002/03)
82

At national level, 16.0 percent of the population at the age between 19 and 24 is included in
the education process (13.3 percent of the male and 18.8 percent of the female population).
1.2. Changes in the Education Process 32
The transition from a lower to a higher grade is a considerably important factor and indicator
in the monitoring of the efficiency of the school and the education system in ensuring literacy of
the population. On the basis of the data by cohorts 33 , the calculated percentage of pupils who
arrived at 5 th grade in the school year 2001/02 is 96.5 percent. Compared to the 2002/03 data (when
the percentage is 94.9 percent), this percentage is somewhat higher, implying future increase of the
number of individuals who have not completed their elementary education.
1.3. Results from Education
1.3.1. Illiteracy rate
In 2002, 3.6 percent of the population at the age of 10 and above was illiterate. In comparison
with 1994, this percentage is lower. Back in 1994, the illiteracy rate was 5.4 percent. Examined
by gender, the illiteracy rate is higher among the female (5.5 percent) than among the male (1.7 percent)
population. The illiteracy rate of the population significantly increases among the population
at the age of 60 and above. This trend is noticeable among both genders. Thus, for instance, the percentage
of the illiterate population at the age between 60 and 64 was 5.2 percent (2.0 percent
among the male and 8,2 percent among the female population), while as soon as in the next age
group it was 12.2 percent (4.7 percent among males and 18.9 percent among females). As the elementary
education is mandatory, it is worth noting the fact that the illiteracy rate among the
youngest is 1.0 percent (0.9 percent among boys and 1.1 percent among girls). The specific illiteracy
rates of the population by age are illustrated in Figure 3 below.
Figure 13. Illiteracy rate of the population by gender, Macedonia (2002)
32
The indicators related to this refer only to the national level. Due to a lack of data, the following relevant indicators were not calculated:
number of students enrolled in 7th and 8th grade; changes in the rate of inclusion of students in the secondary education; changes in the
rate of inclusion of students in the higher education; changes in the number of adults included in the higher education.
33
As understood by the statistics, a 'cohort' means an event for a group of people sharing a common demographic experience - a cohort
- over a given period. The most frequently used is the cohort by birth, i.e. people born in the same year. Other examples include cohorts
of people by marriage or by class. The latter is used in this text, to refer to individuals who started their education at the same time.
83

In terms of the number of the illiterate population as a percentage of the total one, there are
certain disparities at a municipal level. As it may be seen, the highest and lowest rates of illiterate
individuals are found in the municipalities presented in the table below.
Municipality
Table 24. Illiteracy rates
Total Female Male
Highest
Vitoliste 24,0 33,9 14,5
Klecevce 15,9 28,2 4,8
Staravina 15,1 24,8 5,8
Orasac 13,7 23,6 4,9
Karbinci 13,6 18,9 8,6
Demir Kapija 12,5 14,6 10,5
Kosel 12,5 19,7 5,5
Rankovce 12,4 21,7 4,0
Staro
12,4 20,7 5,1
Nagoricani
Samokov 12,3 22,9 3,1
Suto Orizari 12,0 19,2 4,7
Sipkovica 11,3 15,7 7,1
Zitose 11,1 17,6 4,7
Konopiste 10,8 17,0 5,5
Belciste 10,1 17,1 15.0
Lowest
Kisela Voda 1,0 1,5 0,4
Gevgelija 0,9 1,3 0,5
As noticed, the rate of illiteracy in municipalities varies between 0.9 percent (o.5 percent
among males and 1.3 percent among females) in Gevgelija and 24.0 percent in Vitoliste (14.5 percent
among males and 33.9 percent among females). The specifics of the impact of age on illiteracy
in certain municipalities, such as in Suto Orizari, reveal a high percentage of the younger in the
group of ‘illiterate’. Namely, for 35 years now, the number of illiterate is 10.0 percent and increases
gradually as the age levels increase. Another specific of this municipality is that the percentage of
illiteracy is 10.0 percent or higher among all age groups (Table 68, Publication II)
1.3.2. Educational Structure
The differences between municipalities may also be identified according to the achieved
level of education.
At national level, the 2002 data indicate that the total population at the age of 15 and above has
been mapped in terms of the educational structure as follows: secondary education – 36.9 percent (with
a maximum of 57.49 percent in Kisela Voda, and a minimum of 5.59 percent in Plasnica); elementary education
35.5 percent (with a maximum of 74.04 percent in Negotino-Polosko and a minimum of 16.92 percent
in Kisela Voda); uncompleted elementary education 13.8 percent (maximum 54.36 percent in
Staravina and minimum 4.91 percent in Kisela Voda); university degree 6.5 percent (maximum 9.70 percent
in Bitola, minimum 0.06 percent in Dobrusevo); 4.2 percent have no education (maximum 48.22 percent
in Vitoliste and minimum 1.06 percent in Kisela Voda); 3.2 have a college degree (maximum 6.48 percent
in Bitola, minimum 0.21 percent in Vitoliste); 0.2 percent are still in the process of obtaining elementary
education (maximum0.88 percent in Srbinovo, minimum 0.02 percent in Bistrica); 0.2 percent have
an MA degree maximum 0.74 percent in Centar, minimum 0.01 percent in Bosilevo, Valandovo, Vasilevo,
84

Kondovo, Kratovo and Rostusa), and 0.1 percent have a Ph.D. (maximum 0.92 percent in Centar, minimum
of 0.01 percent in Suto Orizari, Bosilovo, Kondovo, Kriva Palanka, Lipkovo, Negotino, Negotino-
Polosko, Sveti Nikole and Tearce). (Table 69, Publication II)
An analysis of the educational structure of the population as a whole in each municipality
individually shows that the population with elementary education only dominates in 86 of the 123
municipalities in Macedonia. These are mainly rural municipalities, with the exception of Suto
Orizari, Gostivar, Debar, Krusevo and Tetovo. (See Table 19) There is a group of municipalities where,
in addition to the mild domination of the population with only an elementary education, one fourth
and more have a secondary education. Those are: Belcista, Bistrica, Blatec, Brvenica, Vranesnica,
Vratnica, Gostivar, Gradsko, Debar, Zelenikovo, Jegunovce, Kosel, Krivogastani, Krusevo, Lozovo,
Lukovo, Mavrovi Anovi, Makedonska Kamenica, Meseista, Miravci, Novaci, Oblesevo, Orizari,
Petrovec, Pehcevo, Rosoman, Sopiste, Struga, Cesinovo. (Table 69, Publication II)
Concluding remarks and Recommendations
It is expected that the analysis of the indicators will be of an adequate influence in the
process of decision making, as well as in providing higher levels of visibility in the process of designing
and constructing facilities.
The concluding remarks imply the following: there are discrepancies in the infrastructural
equipping of schools with classrooms, including heating as well, which points to the need of
evening out the differences in terms of existential needs of realizing educational activities; there are
disparities in terms of the number of school staff, which affects the quality of teaching; the disparity
in terms of the rates of inclusion in the elementary education is a problem that will have a considerable
impact on the educational structure; the low rates of inclusion in the secondary education
indirectly implies differences in the level of accessibility of schools in different parts of the country,
not excluding the factor of culture and domination of tradition in some areas; there is a low rate of
continuous education and the disparities in terms of the educational structure indicate differences
in the human resources of the municipalities and their future sustainability and autonomy.
It is necessary to expand the data base and to complete the list of indicators in areas already
existing at a national level and it is more than necessary to establish a data base of records of such
activities at a local level.
85

2. CULTURE
2.1. Cultural institution and their technical and human resources
Data will be presented in this section pertaining to the analysis of the institutions which host
the performance of cultural activities. The following are considered cultural institutions: museums,
theatres, cinemas, libraries and people’s and workers’ universities, as well as culture centers, which
are indirectly linked with culture (as a form of use of free time). It also includes sporting facilities and
the public information media: radio and television.
2.1.1. Museums 34
There are a total of 21 museums in the country, 16 of which, according to the type of objects
and collections which they host, are complex 35 , with the remaining 5 defined as specialized museums
36 .
Several large towns, which were municipal centers of the old municipalities, lack complex
museums: Gostivar (Polog region with mixed ethnical composition); Kocani (east region); Radovis
(Southeast region) and Debar (Southwest region with mixed ethnic composition). There are complex
museums (one in each) in several minor towns which are also municipal centers such as: Gevgelija,
Kratovo, Negotino and Sveti Nikole. There are three museums in Skopje, two of which are in the
municipality Centar and one in the municipality Karpos. Each of the two municipalities also has a
“special” museum “. The other two “special” museums are in the municipalities Kicevo and Krusevo.
(see Table 70, Publication II)
2.1.2. Theatres
In 2002 there were a total of 19 theatres in the country, 11 of which are professional theatres
37 , one is a professional theatre for children and youth 38 and seven theatres fall into the group of
amateur theatres 39 .
According to the data, there are no theatres in the Southwestern and Polog region, both of
which are of mixed ethnic composition. The professional theatres are found in the “leading” municipalities
of the other statistically determined regions. (NUTS 3): Skopje, Bitola, Veles, Kumanovo,
Prilep, Strumica and Stip. The only professional theatre for children and youth is located in the
municipality Centar. The amateur theatre life is active in Skopje with two theatres, and there is one
in each of the flowing municipalities: Debar, Demir Kapija, Kavadarci, Kicevo, Kocani, Kumanovo and
Negotino. (see Table 71, Publication II)
2.1.3. Cinemas 40
There were active cinemas in only 27 towns in 2002, to of which were open type, out door
cinemas. Outside of the city of Skopje, there are cinemas in only 18, mainly urban, municipalities. The
city of Skopje has a total of 9 cinemas, all in the municipality Centar. It is worth mentioning that
34
Museums and museum collections collect in a systematic fashion, make a scientific research, keep and exhibit objects of significance for
the education, science and art. Art galleries fall under art museums category.
35
Complex museums - host several thematic collections which cover one or several regions
36
Special museums- collect one type of artefacts. They may be social historical, natural history museums, economical-technical and art
museums (National office of Statistics of)
37
Professional theatres are autonomous organizations of culture and art with a permanent management and theatre crew..
38
Professional theatres for children and youth are autonomous organizations of culture and art with a permanent management and professional
theatre crew, which give performances for children and youth..
39
Amateur theatres and organizations of culture and art which work with mainly actors-amateurs. There are either autonomous or are part
of some other entity (State Statistical Office).
40
Cinema theatres, indoor or outdoor, are equipped with the necessary facilities for showing films to the public.
In terms of organizational set-up, a cinema may be an autonomous entity or a unit of some other entity, such as the culture center, school
etc. Types of cinema: permanent, summer open type outdoor or movable cinemas.
86

etween 1998 and 2000, the other city of Skopje municipalities had facilities for showing works of
the art of film. In the newly created municipalities, with the exception of Pehcevo, and in the regions
with mixed ethnic composition there are no active cinemas. (see Table 72, Publication II)
There are also notable differences in terms of the number of seats per capita in the municipalities.
The number of seats per one thousand of population ranges between 45.4 in the municipality
of Pehcevo and 41.0 in Centar to 2.7 in Prilep, and 2.5 in the municipality of Strumica. (see Table
72, Publication II).
2.1.4. People and workers’ universities, houses and centers of culture,
pioneers’ homes 41
In 2002, there were 31 houses of culture, 12 workers’ universities, 5 pioneers’ homes, 4 centers of
culture and one people’s university. Almost as a rule, these institutions are located in the municipal
centers, while as regards the rural municipalities, only Pehcevo and Cucer – Sandevo have houses of
culture. All other institutions are located in the urban areas. The specific of City of Skopje, where
almost one quarter of the population lives, is that only the municipality of Centar has institutions of
this type, i.e. one house of culture, and one workers’ university (see Table 74, Publication II).
According to the total data, it becomes evident that there is a trend of decreasing number
(closure) of institutions of this type in all regions, with the exception of Vardar Region. The biggest
number of institutions of this type is found in the Southeast and east region. Most of the workers’
universities and houses of culture are found in the Southwest region (a region with mixed ethnic
composition), as well as in the Skopje and Southeast region. Pioneers’ homes can be found in the
Pleagonia region – municipality of Bitola, Vardar region – municipality of Veles, Northeast region –
municipality of Kumanovo, Southeast – municipality of East region – Stip and Kocani.
Almost all the institutions of this type are experiencing a decrease in the number of performances,
with the exception of the houses of culture in Bitola, Kavadarci, Valandovo, Gevgelija and
Vinica (see Table 74, Publication II)
2.1.5. Libraries 42
One of the forms through which culture is passed on from generation to generation are the
libraries. In 2001 in Macedonia there were 208 libraries in total. One of them is the national library
located in the municipality of Centar.; one is a general science library located in the same municipality;
42 libraries are higher education libraries under the higher education institutions in the municipalities
of Gazi Baba (9), Karpos (4), Centar (22), Bitola (3), Ohrid (1), Prilep (1) and Stip (2); 72 libraries
are special 43 ; one is a general science library 44 and 92 se people’s libraries. (see Table 74, Publication II)
In light of the specifics of this analysis, we provide a closer view of the people’s libraries.
According to the data, out of 123 municipalities, in 1998, 72 municipalities had a minimum of one
library, with a drop in 2001 to 60 municipalities. It can be seen that in 2001 the libraries in the following
rural municipalities stopped the provision of services to the citizens:: Bogovinje, Vrapciste,
Vratnica, Delogozdi, Zelino, Labunista, Lukovo, Negotino-Polosko, Orizari, Rostuse, Cucer-Sandevo i
Dzepciste. According to the number of libraries, the municipality of Centar is the richest (6) with 5
libraries in the municipalities of: Kisela Voda, Chair, Bitola; 3 libraries in the municipalities of Gazi
Baba, Karpos, Vinica, Kratovo and Negotino; 2 libraries in Prilep, Kavadarci, Delcevo, Gjorce Petrov
41
These institutions conducts their activities in the areas of education and culture by way of seminars and courses, organizing public lectures,
performances of art and culture, guest visits of other institutions engaged in the same or similar activities..
42
Library: Regardless of the name, any organized collection of published books and periodic journals or any other documents, including
graphic and audio visual materials and services rendered by the staff to the users to make the use of the said materials easier for the purposes
of obtaining information, scientific research, education or leisure,
43
Special libraries (;libraries under management of another entity - other than university libraries);
44
Other important non-specialized libraries (general science) - data on general science libraries is with reference to the library of the
Macedonian Academy of Science and Arts - MANU
87

and Bistrica. The remaining municipalities have one library each. The striking thing is that there are
no libraries in the rural municipalities of the Polog and Southwestern part of the country (regions
with mixed ethnic composition). Furthermore, there are only two libraries in the Polog region. In
comparison, the Skopje region has 25 libraries, and the east region- 16. (see Table 74, Publication II)
The level of stocks of the libraries is measured by the number of titles available in each
library. In 2001 to total number of titles in the 92 libraries were 766,473, which on average means
that there were 8,331 titles per library. The most distinct deviations from the norm are seen in the
municipality of Valandovo, which has a bellow average number of 273 titles, with the municipality
of Bitola with the highest number of 77,295. titles (see Table 75, Publication II)
2.1.6. Sporting facilities
According to the data obtained from the Agency for youth and sport, the number of sporting
facilities is lowest in the newly formed, by and large rural municipalities. As regards the old
municipalities, the number of sporting facilities is lowest (not more than 5) in municipalities:
Gevgelija, Demir Hisar, Kratovo, Kumanovo, Negotino, Prilep, Radovis and Resen. (see Table 76,
Publication II)
2.2. Radio- and TV-enterprises 45
There is one public broadcasting enterprise in the country which broadcasts radio
rpogrammes and one public broadcasting enterprise which broadcasts TV-programms. In Macedonia
there are 29 public radio broadcasting companies which operate at a local level, 11 of which also
broadcast TV programmes. There are three national registered stations which broadcast programmes
at a national level and 55 radio companies which broadcast programmes at a local level.
(see Table 77, Publication II)
The municipality of Centar has the highest number of radio stations, 8; Karpos and Tetovo
have 5 each; Veles and Ohrid have 4 each; Bitola, Kumanovo and Prilep have three each; Kisela Voda
and Struga have two each and the other 14 municipalities have one radio station each. The
Northeast is the region with the lowest number of radio and television stations, with only three electronic
media in the town Kumanovo. The Vardar and Pelagonia regions also have a small number of
electronic media. The emergence of new electronic media in the rural newly created municipalities
with a mixed ethnic composition in the Southwestern part of the country, as well as in the Polog
region (Cegrane and Tearce). (see Table 78, Publication II)
The data on the art, culture and humanitarian science radio programmes broadcast
(hours/per year) shoe that the national radio channels broadcast annually at a national level a total
of 750 hours (which is 5.9 percent of the total programmes broadcast) for this type of programmes.
This radio broadcasting enterprise annually broadcasts 2,074 hours of programmes, which is 2.8 percent
of the total hours of broadcasting in the country. Compared with the privately owned commercial
radio channels which have a national coverage, this figure is much lower, standing at 640 hours
(or 8.5% of the total hours of broadcasting), and at a local level, this type of programme has a total
of 2.534 hours of broadcasting (or 1.5 percent of the total programmes broadcast).
Radio art, culture and humanitarian science programme broadcast (hours/per year) – number
of hours:
Local privately owned radio stations – ranking 10 th in the programming schedule.
National privately owned radio stations – ranking 6 th in the programming schedule:
45
Public broadcasting enterprise - Macedonian radio-television, level-national, owned by the government; Commercial broadcasting
enterprises: level- local and national; privately owned
88

Local government owned radio stations – ranking 9 th in the programming schedule.
Macedonian national radio: ranking 5 th in the programming schedule.
TV programmes broadcast (in hours/per year) dedicated to art, culture and humanitarian
science by number of hours of programme broadcast:
Local privately owned TV channels: ranking 12 th in the programming schedule (2.527
hours).
National privately owned TV-channels: ranking 5 th in the programming schedule(788
hours).
Local government owned TV channels: ranking 12 th in the programming schedule(135
hours).
Macedonian national television: ranking 10 th in the programming schedule(365 hours).
What can be seen is that there is a visible trend of decreasing number of electronic media in
the Vardar region, and all the other regions, with the exception of the Pelagonia region. Regarding
the radio programme broadcast (in hours/per year) dedicated to art, culture and humanitarian science
by the privately owned radio channels at a local level, the conclusion to be drawn is that the number
of hours is decreasing. As to the government owned local radio channels, the opposite is true, i.e. the
number of hours is increasing.
2.3. Performances in the cultural institutions and attendances:
The active relationship of the citizens to the institutions which stage activities linked with
culture is measured through eh data on the number of visitors going through the gates to such institutions.
The attendance to manifestations staged in such institutions is measured through the number
of visitors during the year divided by the total population number.
2.3.1. Museums
A total of 191, 687 objects are stocked by the 16 complex museums, 20,279 of which are
exhibited. The total number of objects stocked in the special museums is 127,419, and 8,624 have
been exhibited.
The total number of exhibitions staged in the exhibitions has been 154, with the complex
museums hosting a total of 119 exhibitions, against the 35 exhibitions staged by the specialized
museums. In 2000, the total number of museum collections registered in the specialized museums
was 39, 403, of which 2,255 were exhibited. The total number of visitors was 20,683 or 10.2 visitors
per 1,000 populations.
During 2000, all the museums were visited by 85.4 visitors per 1,000 populations. The attendance
at complex museums is higher (69.6 visitors per 1000 population) compared to the specialized
museums (15.8 visitors per 1000 population).
2.3.2. Theatres
A total of 124 plays and operas were staged in the professional theatres, with a total of 1,047
performances. 64 of the total number of pieces staged were premiers, 40 of which by foreign and 24
by domestic authors. One half of the total number of pieces was staged in the city of Skopje. Bitola
staged (22) pieces and Kumanovo (10), with the theatre in Prilep even less than that - 9 pieces
staged, and Veles and Stip with 6 pieces staged, and Strumica 5.
The theatre attendance in the period between 1998 and 2002 is rather stable. In 2002 there
were 271,118 visitors to all the professional theatres in the country, which are 133.8 visitors per 1,000
89

populations. Theatres in the city of Skopje account for 49 percent or 133,144. The lowest attendance
rate was that in the theatres in the municipality of Strumica, 4,901 visitors.
A total of 14 pieces were staged in the professional theatres for children and youth (4 premiers,
of which three by foreign and one by a domestic author), with a total of 177 performances. During
the same period the total number of visitors was 21,122 or 45.3 visitors per one thousand population.
A total of 17 pieces were staged in the amateur theatres in 2002 (13 premiers, of which 9 foreign
and 4 domestic). The performances staged were attended by 18,333 fans of the art of theatre.
Nationally, the attendance to amateur theatres was 9 per one thousand people. Skopje accounts for
44 percent and the theatre in the municipality Negotino for 24 percent of the total number.
2.3.3. Cinemas
In 2002, 937 films were shown, of which 925 foreign authors and 12 domestic authors. Of the
total number of films, 375 were shown in the cinemas located in the municipality Centar (373 foreign
and two domestic authors), and least, i.e. two films, were shown in the municipality Pehcevo.
Municipality of Pehcevo has had only two film shows, which shown the extent to which this institution
is under utilized. According to the number of films shown, the highest number was in the Centar
municipality, 9,114, and the lowest (6), besides Pehcevo, in the municipality Berovo.
The audience figures were highest in Centar, with 3,362.3 visitors per one thousand people.
In terms of the other municipalities, the highest number of visitors was seen in the municipality of
Veles, 417.3 per thousand population, with the lowest in Berovo (6,8), Kochani, (19,4) and Pehchevo
(30.2). In absolute numbers, the cinemas in the municipality Centar and the most active, where for
example, 298,286 or 69 percent of the total of 431,286 visitors watched the cinema show.
2.3.4. Libraries
With regard to issue of how much the people’s libraries are put into service, on a national
level there are 335 registered visitors per thousand people who have used the libraries’ services.
Compared with 1998, there was a decrease in the number of users of public libraries in 2001,
from 759,767 to 682,084 users. In proportion to the total figure, that means that the drop was from
378 to 335 visitors per thousand inhabitants. In terms of membership, there was an increase from
68,613 members to 73,291 members.
The biggest users of library services are the citizens of the municipality Bitola, 61,462, with
the lowest number of users in the municipality Mogila - 36 users.
With the opening of new higher education institutions in Tetovo, a need has arisen for a higher
education library in Tetovo, as one of the centers of the Polog region (region with mixed ethnic
composition).
Conclusions and Recommendations
The data and the analysis lead to the following recap and comments: the difference between
the municipalities in Macedonia is explicit regarding culture. Performance of cultural activities in an
institutionalized framework, with the exception of cinemas and houses of culture, is at present
viable only in urban areas, with the city of Skopje, municipality Centar standing out amongst the
others – in terms of the level of equipment of cultural institutions. This also shows the “cultural”domination
of this municipality over the other municipalities in the country.
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The closing comment is in the proposal on the extension of the data base with supplements
as to the list of indicators in the following areas which are already present at a national level, though
it is an absolute necessity to set up a data base to register local level activities:
Civil society and culture: the number of associations of citizens (NGOs) active in the field of
culture, membership, the number of project activities carried out, music, the number of concerts and
other events with performances of works by domestic authors by category, the audience number.
Local cultural manifestations: the number of manifestations, the number of visitors.
Cultural heritage: the number of monuments of culture, the number of visitors, the number
of archaeological sites, the number of visitors.
Art: the number of independent and group exhibitions, the number of attendants, the number
of galleries, ( categorized) in private, government or state ownership, the number of art colonies, the
number of participants, the number of independent projects.
Manifestations of culture and art: the number of manifestations of culture and art, the
number of participants, the number of attendants.
Young talents support: the number of identified young talents, the number of supported
young talents.
The expectations are that the findings from this analysis will be used in the process of erasing
the disparities between the municipalities in Macedonia, in order to achieve a more balanced
local development, but also to promote the development of the regions in Macedonia which are less
developed. Also, the sector culture indicators will allow for a more relevant formulation of the culture
development policy, targeted programming and planning, crucial guidelines for decision making,
opening of important issues as a constituent part of the political agenda, identification of the
main trends, stimulation and promotion of dialogue between the parties concerned and measuring
of the accomplishment of the main objectives.
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3. CIVIL LIFE IN MUNICIPALITIES
The data available allow for a partial analysis of three aspects of civic life: electorate changes
and election turn-out, participation of women in the election process, and the situation regarding
the citizens’ actions.
The situation in the sphere of citizens’ actions in terms of citizens getting together to act
through associations of citizens, foundations and neighborhood units may be analyzed on the basis
of the partial data obtained.
The quality of data gathered on the two aspects identified allows for making of an initial
analysis, though it is not suitable for a more in-depth study of phenomena and their trends. The data
on the elections and the participation of women in the election process are of higher quality compared
to the others, and it is possible to add new data for the purposes of our analysis. However,
when it comes to data on the associations of citizens and neighborhood units, they are only superficial.
In this sphere, which is important from the development perspective, it is necessary to invest
serious and systemic efforts to generate the genuine basic data, since the secondary data available
have serious shortcomings, which renders them largely unusable.
3.1. Elections, electorate and conduct of voters
As regards the situation and developments in the electorate, partial data have been
obtained only with respect to the local elections held in 1996 and 2000, and full data on the presidential
elections held in 2004 (the latter were collected from the official web site of the State election
commission).
3.1.1. Local elections: candidates for council members and mayors
The local election data are available by municipality, though there are data missing on the
total number of voters, (without which it is impossible to gauge the percentage of enfranchised of
the total population)) as well as they are missing on the number of citizens which cast their votes
(without which it is impossible to come up with the indicator of the turn-out in 1996 and 2000). The
data available are shown in the Table on the number of candidates for municipal council members
and the number of candidates running for mayors, 1996, 2000 (Table 79, Publication II).
The analysis of the available data allows for making the initial assumptions in terms of the
changes taking place in this particular aspect of the civic and political life in the municipalities. The
general conclusion is that in the second round (in 2000), the local election process was stabilized. In
terms of the degree of participation at the local elections, measured by the number of council member
candidates, we may say that there are four categories of municipalities: those with a high level
of electoral activities, medium level, low level and extremely low level of electoral activities.
In most cases, it is the old municipalities that fall into the first category, with the newly
formed municipality of Suto Orizari joining them in 2000/. This category also lists the smaller of the
older municipalities, though municipalities such as Brvenica and Ilinded joined them in 1996, while
in 2000 the municipalities Dolneni, Saraj and Petrovec also joined this group.
The second category lists municipalities with a medium level of intensity of electoral activities,
mainly newly formed rural municipalities, former rural centers, such as Novo Selo, Studenicani,
Tearce, Lipkovo, Belcista, Rostusa, Cegrane, Vrapciste, Zelenikovo, Sopiste and other. However, some
of the old municipalities also fall into this category - Radovish, Valandovo, Negotino, Sveti Nikole,
Vinica, Kriva Palanka, Resen, Demir Kapija and other. A total of 52 municipalities fell into category
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three and four in 1996, while in 2000 the number dropped to 38, by and large rural municipalities,
such as Veleshta, Delgozdi, Zitose, Kondovo, Plasnica, Sopotnica Dzepciste, Sipkovica and other.
We can see a similar situation regarding the candidates running for mayors. As to this particular
aspect of local democracy, as a particularly important development factor, we can see that the
number of candidates in 2000 was lower than that in 1996. This stabilization trend is expected to
continue in future given the increased powers delegated to the local self management.
3.1.2. Presidential elections: electorate and election turn out
The presidential elections data by municipality are quality data, though they are not source.
They have been generated from the data provided by the State Election Commission at the level of
constituency, which is not equivalent to the administrative municipal borders as local self-government
units. However, due to the absence of data on the total population in 2004, it is impossible to
draw the indicators as to the percentage of enfranchised of the total population. With such constraints,
we will analyze further the data provided in the electorate table, and voters conducts during
the presidential elections in 2004, during the first round (Table 80, Publication II)
The last presidential elections took place under rather peculiar circumstances. The extraordinary
character of the elections had a certain impact on the turn out. However, presidential elections
as such are not the most appropriate level to draw any conclusions as to the situation with the electorate
and voters conduct. Parliamentary and local elections are much more appropriate in this
respect. However, no municipal level data has been provided so far on the parliamentary elections.
Such data would be possible to generate from the existing archive documentation of the SEC,
though it warrants a special approach.
At present, on the basis of the available data on the presidential elections we can say that
there are enormous variations between the 123 municipalities in terms of the turn out (with the
assumption that there are significant differences in terms of the percentage of enfranchised of the
total population). The turn-out variations by municipality range between 89.36 percent Delgozdi to
31.74 percent in Labunista. Four municipalities stand out within this range with an unusually high
turn-out (in addition to Delgozdi, we also have Oslomej, Zajas and Lipkovo), all of them with more
that 85.31 percent turn-out. They are followed by sixteen municipalities with a high turn out rate
between 77.64 percent in Suto Orizari to 65.5 percent in Berovo), then by about eighty municipalities
with plus or minus ten percent of the average turn out rate (56.38).
3.2. Participation of women in the local election life
Participation of women in the political life generally speaking is a significant indicator of the
degree of social and economic development, but also of the cultural changes in the society, or
rather, in the minor social segments. As many studies and examples of the development of the society
to date have shown, changes in the social deployment of economic, social and political
resources of women are an important precondition and an indicator of the broader development
processes. The data obtained are shown in the table on the number of women candidates and elected
council members-women, as well as the number of women candidates running for mayors, in
1996 and 2000 (Table 81, Publication II)
The analysis shows that the processes mentioned above are notable at a national level, but
also in most municipalities in Macedonia. This data, in light of the negative economic processes in
the country, may imply that the municipalities, or rather local government bodies, are becoming a
factor of emancipation of women. That alone produces enormous development prospects.
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However, these are minor improvements, in particular, if the changes are seen against the backdrop
of activities of the women lobby in Macedonia over the past period.
On the whole, the total number of women-council member candidates grew in 2000 compared
to 1996 by 3 percent. However, as a result of an action carried out by the Macedonian lobby
of women – that is, moving women to higher positions on the lists of candidates, chances for
women to be elected councilors greatly improved. This means that the mechanisms employed to
deprive women of their rights in politics have deep roots, but also, that a conscious development
intervention is possible, and when it happens, rather effective. Politics, in particular local politics, is
an important mechanism for unleashing the emancipating potential and development prospects of
women.
Nevertheless, this general picture at a national level is significantly different when brought
down to a municipal level. Namely, the highest percentage of participation of women in local politics
by way of council membership (running for candidates and being elected) is found in the old
municipalities, with a small number of the newly formed larger rural municipalities. Unlike those
municipalities, in a significant number of rural municipalities (71 in 1996 and 50 in 2000) there is no
single women-council member.
3.3. Associations of citizens and Red Cross organizations
The data on the civic sector in Macedonia are not systematic. There are no official statistical
data covering this segment of life in our society. The basic source of data is data gathered through
the basic courts. However, the data hosted by the basic courts are rather limited in terms of the number
of indicators and in terms of accessibility.
The only systematic database for this sector is the one hosted by the Macedonia Center for
International Cooperation (MCIC). This database has been built through surveys run by MCIC and on
the bases of their collecting secondary data from the registries of associations of citizens in the basic
courts in the country. To cover the needs of this project, MCIC made its database available, which
allowed for a partial gaining of knowledge in this important sphere of social life.
According to the data obtained from the basic courts, in 2003 there were 5,288 associations
of citizens registered in the country over a period of five and a half years, following the enactment
of the Law on associations of citizens and foundations (July 1998). Compared to the highest number
of associations in the preceding period (6,526 registered associations since the enactment of the
1991 law to the coming into force of the 1998 law) this figure is lower by 1,238. This makes room for
further growth in the number of registered associations in the country.
The data obtained from the MCIC data base provide a more detailed picture of the situation
in this sphere. They are structured in two databases, though neither is exhaustive. The first one contains
data on the 1512 registered associations (or 28.6 percent of the total number of registered
associations). The second database is richer in terms of indicators, though it covers even a lower
number of associations (562 or 10.63 percent of the total number of registered associations). The
data in the two databases have been obtained on the basis of primary sources (surveys) conducted
by MCIC. This means that they do not have an official character (they have not been verified and
standardized).
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With all these constraints, the analysis shows that in this respect also there are significant differences
between the municipalities. Namely, 43.87 percent of the total number of registered associations
are concentrated in the municipalities falling under the Skopje region. There is no municipality
in this region without a registered main office of an association. A comparatively small number
of municipalities (1 to 3) without a registered main office of a municipality may be found in the
Pelagonia region, in the East region, Northeast and Southeast regions. Compared to that, a significant
number of municipalities without registered associations are found in the Southwest (11) and
the Polog region (13). There are a total of 53 municipalities on the territory of which there are no
associations with a registered main office. Most of the municipalities without an association are
rural, though according to the data provided by MCIC, the municipalities of Resen, Demir Kapija and
Makedonski Brod also fall into this category.
The situation is similar regarding the membership number of the associations of citizens. The
data available for this indicator are indeed impressive. According to such data, in a total of 1,512
associations of citizens covered by the MCIC database, there is a total membership base of 1, 267,
096 citizens. This would mean that every, on average 1.6 citizen in the country is a member of an
association, or on average 838 members for each of the 1,512 associations included in the MCIC
database. The data has to be taken with a huge theoretical reserve. The same can be said in terms of
the number of active volunteers. Namely, according to the said database, all of the 1,512 associations
covered operate with a total number of 548,060 active volunteers. The same reserves have to
be maintained in terms of the number of employees.
Namely, the real number of employees, as well as other data on the status of employees in
this sector, is a real enigma. In this respect, the data base available provides a possibility for a conclusion
that in this sector, according to the statements given by the respondents, a total of 823 people
are fully employed. They work in only 12,785 of the total number of associations covered (1512)
nearly half of them are employees and associations concentrated in the Skopje region.
We can also include in this sphere of citizens’ actions the Red Cross organizations. They have
a special status in this sector, as they also function by having relations with the government and
public sector bodies. The data obtained show that there are a total of 34 municipal Red Cross organizations
in the country, which means that they are found only in the old municipalities form before
1996, and no changes have been made in this respect until the present day.
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CHAPTER FOUR
ECONOMY
1. GENERAL ECONOMIC SITUATION
1.1. Introduction
Economic indicators at a municipal and regional level are a prerequisite necessary for the
conceptualization of an efficient regional development policy. We have made a selection of the
available reliable indicators which may best illustrate the level of economic development and economic
trends in the municipalities in Macedonia. The data presented cover three areas: national
accounts, labor force and public finances. Each data group shed light to a specific aspect of the
social-economic character of our municipalities.
On the basis of data on national accounts generated by the State Statistical Office, estimates
have been made of the Gross Domestic Product per capita according to the purchasing power parity
(PPP) at a regional level for 1998 and 2002. Such data provide the basis for the analysis of the level
of economic activity on a given territory of each region and the associated disparities.
The second aspect covered in the economic analysis of Macedonian municipalities is the
economic activity of the population. To that end, the data used were the data generated from census
of population, households and dwellings carried out in 2002, which opened up opportunities for
the first time since the beginning of transition for acquiring an enhanced level of knowledge about
the labor force available at a municipal level.
The analysis of economic disparities between the Macedonia municipalities would not be
complete without addressing public finances. The analysis of public expenditure and revenues of
municipal budgets, as well as the transfers from the central budget reveals some interesting details
about the costs incurred by Macedonian municipalities for the services provided to the citizens. Any
effort to examine thoroughly the structure of public expenditure, in particular in the health and education
sectors, will invariably lead us to the analysis of the set up of the systems of education and
health in Macedonia.
1.2. Data
We are using here three broad groups of economic indicators for the Macedonian municipalities:
Gross domestic product, labor force and public finances.
A combination of the said indicators with other social-demographic characteristics of municipalities
and then the breakdown of indicators by various features have led to a table with a number
of indicators, each describing a specific segment of the level of economic development of municipalities.
When compounded, they present a clear picture of the economic power of each individual
municipality.
1.2.1. Gross Domestic Product
The Gross domestic product is defined as the total production of goods and services indented
for end use which are produced on the territory of Macedonia.
The data on the Gross Domestic Product in Macedonia is available only on a national level.
Hence the necessity to make a GDP estimate for levels NUTS 3, NUTS 4 and NUTS 5. However, in light
96

of the fact that EU countries prepare and publish GDP data only on a regional, rather than municipal
level, a decision has been made to attach only a working character to levels NUTS 4 and NUTS 5
estimates. Therefore, all the analysis has been made only on the regional NUTS 3 level.
The database hosted by the State Statistical Office (SSO) used in the estimate of national
accounts and GDP in the country was the main source used in the estimate of regional GDP. The
database contains financial data on all active legal entities registered in the trade registry organized
in three dimensions relevant for the estimate of the regional GDP: according to the location of the
economic entity, according to the institutional sector and according to the principal activity. Some
of the data used in the national GDP estimate are external data, i.e. they are not data contained in
the national accounts database. These are data pertaining to small farmers and small non-farming
businesses which are not registered in the trade registry. The financial data on this type of activities
is gathered by the SSO through indirect methods at a national level and according to the principal
activity of the entities.
This publication offers two types of regional GDP analysis: static, of 2002 data, and dynamic,
by comparing the 2002 and 1998 data. The static analysis allows for ranking the regions according
to the most recent data available (2002), production activities and the key economic sectors in each
of the regions. On the other hand, the dynamic analysis offers a useful insight into the economic
trends in each of the regions, which may be used as the basis to identify the growth, stagnation and
decline by region.
The regional GDP data was improved by using the DV-01 survey conducted by the SSO,
which gathers financial data on large companies, which have local subsidiaries in several municipalities
conducting more than one activity. This survey provided useful data on further distribution of
the national value added on a regional level in several activities, in particular in trade and commerce
and production of electricity.
1.2.2. Labor force
The estimate of the active segment of the population, labor force, and employment and
unemployment levels is based on ILO definitions (International Labor Organization) which are consistent
with ESA 95 in a broader context.
The Labor force survey carried out by the SSO since 1996 was designed to generate data only
at a national level. Hence the data used here are the data from the census of the population, households
and dwellings (the 2002 census) carried out in 2002. The definitions of labor force used in the
2002 census are consistent with the definitions used in the Labor force survey.
We should bear in mind the methodological differences between unemployed as defined in
the 2002 census and unemployed registered with the Employment Agency. According to the database
of the Employment Agency, the number of unemployed is by 100 thousands higher that the
figure obtained in the 2002 census. (See more about it in the methodological differences of definitions).
Due to the fact that the Employment Agency provides health insurance of unemployed people,
the data it hosts on the registered unemployed usually overestimate the factual situation.
1.2.3. Public finances
The local self government public revenues and expenditure data are provided by the
Ministry of finance. In addition to the local government budgets, in several municipalities there are
extra budgetary funds earmarked for local roads and communal (utility) services. However, the
Ministry of Finance does not provide the data on a consolidated basis. Then again, we are not in a
position to consolidate the data on our own accord due to the lack of information on the transfers
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etween the local government and the local extra budgetary funds. Therefore, the data presented
pertain only to the local government budgets. By definition, they also contain transfers to the local
extra budgetary funds.
The local government generates little revenues on its own, mainly as an effect of the current
tax system situation. Only the property tax is under the jurisdiction of the local self government. This
is why most of the expenditure of the local self government is financed through central government
transfers.
The data on public expenditure in the areas of education and health care at a municipal level
are obtained from the State Statistical Office database on national accounts. It includes all the services
provided by the public sector, and it also contains data on the expenditure incurred by the government
structures to provide services at a municipal level.
1.3. Analysis of economic differences between municipalities
1.3.1. GDP
GDP per capita on a regional level reveals huge discrepancies as regards the level of economic
activities between the Skopje region and the rest of the country. The Skopje region, with per capita
GDP of USD 11,964 (PPP) is way above the national average (6,850). Also, the Skopje region has
per capita GDP equivalent to 50 percent of the EU average, which is higher than in most of the new
EU entrants.
Account should be taken of the fact that the regional GDP values are with reference to production
generated on the territory of the region, rather than on the average income of citizens in a
given region. This means that many citizens from the other regions contribute to the generation of
Skojpe region GDP, though they transfer their incomes to the regions in which they live.
The Skopje and Pelagonia regions are the only regions with a GDP per capita higher than the
average in the country (USD 6,850 $). The Polog region exhibits the lowest level of economic activity,
with only USD 3,076 per capita.
With the exception of the Northeast region, all other seven regions have generated an average
real per capita GDP growth during the period 1998-2002, ranging between 1.4 percent in the
Polog to 8.7 percent in the Skopje region. However, if we look at the value added in the non-financial
sector, then it becomes clear that the growth of per capita GDP in other regions than Skopje
region is a result of the households or small businesses sector. The value added in the non-financial
sector is the most relevant indicator of the dynamics of the economic development in the regions.
The logic behind this approach is in that: (1) the non-financial sector is the largest sector of the economy
with approximately 60 percent of the total value added; (2) goods in this sector are manufactured
exclusively for the market, against the public sector which provides non-market services, and
the households sectors which produces goods for its own needs too; (3) the growth of the
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Macedonian economy has been generated by the non-financial sector; (4) the households sector is
highly cyclical, i.e. it grows in recession times and is stagnant during expansion.
The Skopje region is the only region with a positive average annual growth rate of 7,7 percent
between 1998-2002. All the other seven regions have seen a decline in the average value added
per capita over the five year period under observation. The reason for that may be found in the
unsuccessful restructuring of large socially owned enterprises which failed to find its place in the
market under changed economic and political conditions. It seems that the Skopje region, which
covers the largest urban part of the country and is populated with people with higher incomes,
offers better opportunities to set up and conduct business than the rest of the country. The large
concentration of the population with high incomes gives a very conducive environment to the
development of market based services which generate high economic growth rates in the Skopje
region. On the other hand, the service sector in the other regions could not generate sufficient
growth to make up for the closure of formerly large socialist enterprises.
The lowest drop rates were seen in the Southeast (-0,2 percent) and Pelagonia (-0,7 percent)
regions, while the most severe decline was experienced in the Polog (-7,0 percent) and Northeast (-
6,6 percent) region.
The common feature for all regions experiencing decline is that the rural municipalities produced
much better results that the urban ones due to the disappearance of the old industrial capacities.
This also is an indicator of the rapid growth of small businesses in several municipalities.
1.3.2. Labor force
The regional unemployment rate in 2002 varied between the range of the lowest of 30.4 percent
in the Skopje region to 49.9 percent in the Polog region. Three regions: Skopje, Southeast (34.4
percent) and East (34.5 percent) had a bellow national average unemployment rate (38.1 percent).
It is peculiar that the three regions with the best results are specialized in one sector where
the employment rate stands at its highest compared with the other regions. So in Skopje region the
service industry is the most dominant, employing 66 percent of the total number of people in
employment in that region. Also, this is one of the regions where the unemployment rate of women
(28.4 percent) is lower that that of men (31.8 percent) due to the high presence of women in the
service industries. The industrial sector is the most dominant in the East region, covering 49 percent
of people in employment in the region, much more than any other region. This is also a region with
equal rates of unemployment of men and women. The Southeast region is mainly an agricultural
region with 36 percent of the total number of people in employment. Then again, the employment
rate of men is very low, (31.9 percent) whereas the unemployment rate of women is significantly
higher (38.2 percent).
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Table 25. Selected labor force indicators on a level of NUTS 3
NUTS 3
Unemployment
rate
Unemployment
rate -
men
Unemployment
rate -
women
Unemployment
rate –
young
people
Share of
employment
in
farming
Share of
employment
in
industry
Share of
employment
in
services
Long term
unemployment
in
percent of the
total
unemployment
Rate of activity
of women
(share of female
labor in the
total
population of
women at the
age of 16+
Pelagonia 39.9 36.2 45.0 75.0 18 % 41 % 41 % 85.7 55.6
Vardar 43.9 38.8 51.4 80.6 13 % 40 % 47 % 80.0 50.3
Northeast 48.6 45.6 54.0 80.3 8 % 40 % 47 % 83.1 38.6
Southwest 42.4 41.5 44.0 75.4 4 % 40 % 52 % 82.4 35.0
Skopje 30.4 31.8 28.4 67.6 1 % 40 % 66 % 81.4 45.3
Southeast 34.4 31.9 38.2 67.2 36 % 40 % 36 % 83.8 53.2
Polog 49.9 50.1 49.2 78.4 10 % 40 % 50 % 86.9 18.5
East 34.5 34.5 34.6 65.4 12 % 40 % 38 % 75.6 50.3
Source: Census of population, households and homes in 2002
At a municipal level the lowest unemployment rate is seen in several small rural municipalities
(Podares and Konce in the Radovis subregion and Capari and Kukurecani in the Bitola subregion)
where labour is predominantly engaged in agriculture. Podares is the absolute champion with 11
percent unemployment rate, 9.8 percent for men and 12.8 percent for women.
Karposh is the municipality with the lowest unemployment rate (16.9 percent) amongst all
urban municipalities. Labor is mainly employed in the services sector, which covers about 74 percent
of the total number of employed in the municipality. We should bear in mind that most likely, most
of the labor in Karpos works in the municipality of Centar and other municipalities in the city of
Skopje.
Thirty of the 123 municipalities have unemployment rate higher than 50 percent. Most of
them are in the Polog region and the Southwest region, with only a few in the Skopje and Pelagonia
regions. Zelino (79.4 percent) and Topolcani (76.7 percent) municipalities are the bottom of the table
of unemployment rates. Most municipalities in the group of high unemployment rate are mountainous
rural municipalities. It is peculiar that in the municipalities with predominantly Albanian ethnic
background population, there are a high number of employees classified under unknown sector.
The low unemployment rate of women is typical for the regions with majority or significant
portion of the population with Albanian ethnic background. Hence the activity rate of women in the
Polog region stands at only 18.5 percent, in the Southwest 35.0 percent and Northeast 38.6 percent.
The regions with predominantly Macedonian ethnic background population, the activity rate of
women is above 50 percent.
This situation greatly contributes to the lowest aggregate rate of activity of the population
with Albanian ethnic background (32.3 percent) compared with the other communities. Another
factor in this context is the high number of Albanian men who work in foreign countries and are not
part of the domestic labor force. The Turks are the second ethnic community with the lowest activity
rate (42.4 percent), while Roma people have a surprisingly high activity rate of 50.4 percent. The
Macedonian population has the highest activity rate of 63.2 percent.
Unemployment rate of various ethnic groups range between the lowest - 25.3 percent of the
Vlach population to the highest - 78.5 percent of the Roma people. These big differences are a consequence
of several factors which need to be further studied. For example, the lower unemployment
rate of the Vlach people may be a result of the fact that they are grouped in the main urban
centers which offer better opportunities for employment than in the rural areas. On the other hand,
the high unemployment rate of Albanians (61.2 percent) may be a result of the fact that they are
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concentrated in the rural mountainous regions with a low level of economic activities. The enormous
unemployment rate of Roma is invariably linked with the level of education and the living conditions
of the Roma population.
Table 26. Selection of feature of labor according to the ethnic background
Total Macedonian Albanian Turkish Roma Vlach Serbian Bosniac Other
Activity rate 54.6 63.2 32.3 42.4 50.4 62.0 59.8 47.8 51.5
Unemploym 38.1 32.0 61.2 58.2 78.5 25.3 30.9 60.3 40.8
ent rate
The extremely high long term unemployment (80 percent of all the unemployed registered
with the Employment Agency) is a feature which can be found in all regions without an exception.
It also shows an ascending line in the record of unemployed at the Employment Agency. However,
even if we were to take out 100,000 unemployed who are registered in order to be entitled to health
insurance, long term unemployment would still be very high, i.e. 75 percent of the total number of
unemployed. This is a clear sign on the structural characteristics of the unemployment phenomenon
and insufficient creation of new jobs.
Civil Servants in the municipalities
According to the data obtained from the Civil Servants Agency, there were 8.587 employed
civil servants in 2000. Thereat, the differences among the municipalities are incomparable. The variations
are running between municipalities with one civil servant (13 municipalities or 9.23 percent
from the total number) and municipalities with more than 600, and in one municipality even 1,134
civil servants. Thereupon the average number of about 70 civil servants is not telling us much. In
about 62 percent of the municipalities (87 from 123) there are 26 civil servants. These municipalities
are, with no exception, small, new rural municipalities and they reach only 5.72 percent of the total
number of civil servants in the country. The rest 94 percents of the civil servants are working in about
30 old urban municipalities (the ones that existed before the territorial organization from 1996).
1.3.3. Public finances
Local government expenditure per capita is between 362 denars in the Northeast region to
548 in the Southwest region. There is a strong link between the average size of municipalities in the
region (measured by the population) and average expenses per capita. Higher average size of
municipality means lower expenses per capita.
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Public expenditure incurred in the education and health sectors at a municipal level give a picture
of the availability of public services across the territory of the country. It is quite peculiar that educational
services are equally distributed and available in nearly all the municipalities. On the other hand,
the health expenditure is concentrated in urban centers. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, the secondary
and tertiary health care services are very expensive and are organized regionally, i.e. at a NUTS 4
level. Secondly, nearly all of the 123 municipalities have primary health care services on their territory,
in most cases as branches of regional medical centers, however, for administrative reasons their expenditure
is recorded in the municipality where the regional center is located.
Concluding remarks and Recommendations
Generally speaking, there is a solid base of economic data on a municipal level. The national
accounts database in the State Statistical Office is a well organized warehouse of financial data on
all active registered legal entities, which allows fast data compilation into tables of several variables
by municipality, industry, institutional sector and size of legal entities. With certain adjustments of
these databases they could be easily used in order to calculate the municipal and regional GDP.
Anyway, the financial data of households and the so-called DV-01 survey are still outside this data
warehouse.
The data on households are only partially organized at a municipal level, which is why it is
necessary to use some keys in order to distribute the values at a national level by municipality. DV-
01 provides important data on large enterprises which have local subsidiaries in more than one
municipality and operate in more than one industry. However, DV-01 is not processed in a way
which allows for making an estimate of the regional and municipal GDP. Improvements are possible
in two areas. In a situation when DV-01 survey is carried out regularly, on an annual basis, additional
efforts must be made to integrate this survey in to the database on national accounts. This will
lead to an improvement of the distribution of value added of the municipalities to the large enterprises
producing goods and services in more than one municipality. The household data may benefit
from the Farming Census planned for 2004. The Farming Census data on the farmers, arable land
and livestock on a municipal level should be integrated in the regular method of estimate of production
and value added to the farming households.
In this publication we are largely using the 2002 Census of the population which provided
valuable data on the active population, labor force, employment and unemployment levels, by various
characteristics. However, we should bear in mind that this is only possible to do once in every
ten years. In between, the only available comprehensive source of information on labor is the Labor
force survey. At present, it provides authentic data only at a national NUTS 1 level. Efforts could be
made to redesign the sample so that quality data may be obtained at a NUTS 3 i.e. the eight regions.
Any additional efforts would be unrealistic.
With the impending government decentralization in 2005 the municipalities will continue to
see their budget grow. Hence the importance of the issue of transparency and authenticity of local
budgets is increasing. The Ministry of Finance should work on raising the capacities of the local governments
to produce consolidated budgets through a consistent and uniform approach. Also, in
addition to the classification of costs by type, municipalities will also have to prepare their budgets
by classification of costs by function, i.e., education, healthcare, social care etc/.
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CHAPTER FIVE
ENVIRONMENT
It is impossible to identify a single indicator that would present the quality of the environment
and quality of life, as this requires - among other things - a multidisciplinary approach and
process, as well as mutually connected activities expressed in the form of numerous indicators. The
group of indicators should include the key issues related to the environment, as well as the challenges
faced by the Macedonian municipalities.
The environmental indicators will serve as an instrument for quantification and simplification
of the assessment process and will inform of any changes.
The environmental data obtained are a true measure of the indicators, while the indicators
themselves represent a feature (quality, ownership, level, concentration) of the environmental system.
1. AIR POLLUTION INDICATORS
The air pollution issue consists of two segments: the first one is the release of polluting substances,
while the second is the quality of air (the existing qualitative condition of the air).
Table 99 (Publication II) contains a representative indicator of the level of pollution in some
of the major Macedonian municipalities that release polluting substances into the air. Of the municipalities
stated, Skopje (the data include all municipalities in Skopje) is the region with the highest
levels of air pollutants – SO2, CO and NOx; the annual quantity of SO2 is 105.6 thousands of tons, of
CO is 25.8 thousands of tons, and of NOx is 15.2 thousands of tons. The pollution with SO2 is also high
in Bitola – 78.7 thousands of tons, as well as in Kicevo – 9.2, Veles – 4.8, Jegunovce – 3.5, Tetovo – 3.8,
with the pollution levels in Gostivar (0.2) and Kocani (1.7) being the lowest ones. Regarding the
releases of CO, its quantity in Tetovo is 12.8 thousands of tons annually, whereas it is rather lower in
the other stated municipalities, varying between 0.2 thousand tons (Kicevo) and 2.3 thousand tons
(Kumanovo). In addition to Skopje, there is a higher level of NOx in the air in Bitola (10.8 thousand
tons annually) in comparison with the other municipalities. In the other municipalities, the quantities
of this substance vary between 0.1 (Kocani and Veles) and 1.2 (Kicevo). Jegunovce is the place
with the largest quantity of dust in the air – 23.2 thousand tons per year, whereas this quantity fluctuates
between 0.1 (Veles) and 1.5 thousand tons (Bitola).
Table 100 (Table 100, Publication II) presents the data from various sectors, giving a clear picture
of the degree of inclusion of the individual sectors in the overall release of air polluters.
The combustion and transformation of energy are the main sources of SO2; the production
processes are major sources of dust; CO is mostly produced by the traffic, while NO2 emissions are a
result of the energy production and the mobile sources – vehicles.
The industry, being a sector of a significant national and municipal value, is the major polluter
with SO2, NOx and CO emissions; this is particularly true for the metallurgy sector. The reason is
most often the obsolete technology and the lack of air filters.
The Zinc and Lead Smelter in Veles is not only municipal, but also national core of pollution.
As a result of its emissions and rose of winds, the pollution is transmitted into the city. On an annual
basis, the plant releases 4,000 tons of SO2, 2.5 tons of zinc and 6.5 tons of lead. The other major
polluters in Macedonia are the refinery Okta, Ohis – Skopje, Usje – Skopje, and the metal processing
plant in Jegunovce.
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Energy production. The thermo-power plants, as polluting capacities, generate 80 percent
of the total energy produced in Macedonia. The largest plant, producing 75 percent of the demand
for electricity in the country, is located in the municipality of Bitola, at a distance of only 12 km from
the city of Bitola. The SO2 emissions are constantly above the levels allowed, with the situation being
the same regarding the NOx and dust releases. The three central heating energy plants in Skopje
produce SO2 above the allowed limit, which largely contributes to the poor quality of the urban air.
The mobile sources – vehicles, particularly in the larger municipal centers, play a huge role
as a factor of air pollution. The reasons behind this are the poor road infrastructure, old vehicles with
no catalysts, poor technical maintenance and low fuel quality.
For the purpose of comparing the data on the air pollution in the selected Macedonian
municipalities with the lowest air quality given in Table 101 (Table 101, Publication II), Table 27 presents
the maximum allowed concentration of polluting substances, according to the Macedonian
laws on protection of air against pollution and according to the EU directives.
Table 27. Maximum and Average Daily Allowed Concentration of Polluting Substances
Polluting substances Maximum allowed
Average maximum allowed
concentration
daily concentration
SO2 500 ì g/m3 150 ì g/m3
Smoke 150 ì g/m3 50 ì g/m3
NO2 85 ìg/m3 85 ìg/m3
Suspended substance
120 ì g/m3
O3
110 ì g/m3
CO 3 mg/m3 1 mg/m3
Dust
300 mg/m3
Lead
0.0007 mg/m3
Skopje, with its municipalities, is facing a huge problem regarding the air quality, due to the
vehicles, but also due to the stationary sources of pollution, such as the smelters, cement -producing
plant, chemical complex, and refinery. In terms of polluting the air, the city topography has a
large impact, as a result of the favorable conditions for temperature inversions, particularly in the
winter period.
The largest percentage of the pollution in Skopje comes from the pollution with SO2 (44 percent),
CO (30 percent) and NOx (24 percent), due to the large number of industrial processes, the
smelters and the traffic.
Figure 17. Quality of the air in Skopje
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
Table 101 of the Publication II presents the quality of the air in individual municipalities by
the level of concentration of air pollution indicators in 2003, measured at the permanent measuring
points in each municipality. There are two measuring points in the municipality of Karpos and five
in the municipality of Centar; in Kisela Voda, SO2 is measured at three, while smoke at four measur-
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ing points; Gazi Baba measures is SO2 concentration at one and the quantity of smoke at two points;
the municipality of Cair has one measuring point for SO2 and smoke each. Gjorce Petrov, like the
municipality of Cair, also has one measuring points for each of the SO2 and smoke quantities.
The air polluting substances in Veles are mainly produced by DOO Investas and the zinc and
lead smelter. The highest percentage of pollution in Veles is with CO (39 percent), SO2 (52 percent),
while the air is also polluted by MHK – Zletovo, the households’ central heating systems and the traffic.
(Table 101, Publication II)
Figure 18. Quality of the Air in Veles
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
It is obvious that the municipality of Bitola is mainly polluted with SO2 (84 percent), which
is released by REK-Bitola (power plant). (Table 101, Publication II)
Figure 19. Quality of the Air in Bitola
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The highest percentage of the pollution in Tetovo comes from the pollution with CO (75
percent), produced by the textile industry and the households’ central heating.
Figure 20. Quality of the Air in Tetovo
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
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The highest percentage of pollution in Jegunovce comes from dust (79 percent), produced
by Silmak-Jegunovce.
Figure 21. Quality of the Air in Jegunovce
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The quality of the air in Gevgelija is measured at one measuring point. (Table 101,
Publication II)
The quality of the air in the municipality of Ohrid, just like in Gevgelija, is only measured at
one measuring point. (Table 101, Publication II)
The highest percentage of the pollution in Gostivar is that with CO (84 percent), coming
from the wooden and textile industries.
Figure 22. Quality of the Air in Gostivar
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
In Radovis, the major air polluter is the SO2 (72 percent), produced by the gold mine and
the pharmacy.
Figure 23. Quality of the Air in Radovis
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The highest percentage of the pollution in Demir Hisar comes from the pollution with SO2
(69 percent), mainly produced by the households’ heating.
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Figure 24. Quality of the Air in Demir Hisar
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
Debar is mainly polluted by emissions of CO (71 percent), coming from the wooden industry
and the heating of households.
Figure 25. Quality of the Air in Debar
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The highest percentage of pollution in Makedonski Brod comes from CO (81 percent),
produced by the wooden industry and the heating of households.
Figure 26. Quality of the Air in Makedonski Brod
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The highest percentage of the pollution in Kocani comes from the pollution with CO (55
percent), produced by the paper industry and the heating of households.
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Figure 27. Quality of the Air in Kocani
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The highest percentage of pollution in Kicevo is that with SO2 (82 percent), coming from
the TEC-Oslomej (power plant).
Figure 28. Quality of the Air in Kicevo
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The quality of the air in Prilep is measured at one measuring point (Table 101, Publication II).
The quality of the air in Stip is measured at one measuring point (Table 101, Publication II).
The only data on emissions of heavy metals are the ones in the 2000 Report on the
Environment Situation in Macedonia (Table 102, Publication II). The table shows that the major generators
of heavy metals are the smelter Zletovo in Veles, which releases 2.93 tons of Pb and 1,143 tons
of Cd per annum, and the cement producing plant Usje in Skopje, which releases 0.09 tons of Pb,
0.024 tons of Cd and 0.048 tons of Hg annually.
According to the Department for persistent organic polluters with the Ministry of
Environment and Physical Planning, Macedonia has still not established a monitoring system for
emissions of persistent organic polluters (POP).
The quantity of polluting substances in the air is of key impact on the level of air pollution
and, consequently, the health of the population, and is closely connected with the mortality caused
by chronic respiratory diseases. In spite of the lack of information about the issue, it is more than evident
that there is an essential link between the respiratory diseases and the pollution of the air with
dust and SO2 in Skopje and in Veles. The number of acute diseases related to problems with polluted
air is highest in the winter, due to the combination of two processes: the increased combustion
of fossil fuels and the temperature inversions.
In the winter of 1990, 20 percent of 36,000 children were suffering from serious respiratory
diseases. In Veles, the population living near the smelter has a higher concentration of lead in the
blood than the allowed levels; in addition, there are an increased number of cancer cases, respiratory
diseases and congenital deficiencies.
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2. INDICATORS OF THE STRATOSPHERIC OZONE LAYER
The depletion of the stratospheric ozone enables the entry of harmful ultraviolet radiation,
which affects the animals and plants.
The control measures in accordance with the Montreal Protocol in the case of Macedonia are
as follows:
Annex A
Group 1
(CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-115)
Basic level Average 1995-97
Frozen: July 1, 1999
50 percent reduction: January 1, 2005
85 percent reduction: January 1, 2007
100 percent reduction: January 1, 2010
Annex A
Group 2
(Haloni - 1211, 1301 and 2402)
Basic level Average 1995-97
Frozen: July 1, 1999
50 percent reduction: January 1, 2005
100 percent reduction: January 1, 2007
Annex C
Group 1
Basic level:
(HCFC-22, HCFC-141b)
2015 consumption
Frozen: January 1, 2016
100 percent reduction: January 1, 2040
Annex E
(MeBr)
Basic level: Average 1995-98
Frozen: January 1, 2002
85 percent reduction: January 1, 2005
100 percent reduction: January 1, 2015
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The use of substances potentially depleting the ozone layer, as classified under the
Montreal Protocol is as follows:
Cooling
Coolers, deep freezers, portable air conditioners (in cars, trucks, trains), stationary air conditioners
Aerosols
Cosmetics (deodorants, perfumes, gels, shaving foams)
Pharmaceutical products (MDI-inhalators for patients suffering from asthma, antibiotic
sprays for injuries)
Colors
Polishers
Food industry (cake toppings)
Foams
Flexible (furniture and textile industry)
Rigid (sandwich-panels used for isolation in the civil engineering)
Dissolvents
(computers, TV and VCR equipment, dry cleaning)
Pesticides
Methyl bromide
On the basis of the data gathered on the indicator of the use of substances depleting the
ozone layer (1998-2003) in the Macedonian municipalities, the ozone department with the Ministry
of Environment and Physical Planning constructed a table (Table 103, Publication II).
Table 7 presents the substances depleting the ozone layer and are used in Macedonia (Table
104, Publication II) and their threshold values regarding the ozone depletion. A comparison of these
values with the data in Table 103 (Publication II) on municipalities gives a clear picture of the situation
in the stated municipalities and the changes in the generation of these substances in the period
between 1998 and 2003.
The data about the consumption of ozone depleting substances in Macedonia between
1995 and 2000 show the effect of the activity of gradual release of ozone depleting substances
(Table 105, Publication II).
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3. CLIMATE CHANGES INDICATORS
3.1. Emission of Greenhouse Gases
The greenhouse effect is the process of heating up of the atmosphere as a result of the
absorption of the sun energy captured by certain gases, such as carbon dioxide and the water condensation
and its re-radiation from the ground surface. Emissions of large quantities of men-produced
gases into the atmosphere by combustion of fossil fuels releasing CO2, increase of the number
of agricultural products releasing CH4 and the use of industrial products emitting chloro-fluorocarbonates
(CFC), all add to the greenhouse effect. This leads to a rise of the middle temperature of
the ground surface. This process is called global warming and, as a global process, has various effects
on the climate and the life on the surface of the Earth.
It ought to be mentioned that the national emission of gases is nothing but a total sum of
the emissions of gases in the Macedonian municipalities.
The arsenical of gases released during the greenhouse effect is mainly consisted of the three
major gases; carbon dioxide - CO2, methane - CH4, and azote-oxide – N2O. In order to produce a uniform
measure of the emission of these gases, conversions of N2O and CH4 were introduced through
an equivalent of CO2.
The emissions of greenhouse gases appear as a result of the emissions in the energy sector,
industrial processes, waste waters, agriculture, and changes in the land utilization and in the forestry
sector.
Due to the complexity of the energy sector and its contribution to the total emission of 70
percent, the sector is divided into three sub-sectors: electricity, heating energy, and mechanical
energy for transportation.
The emissions of greenhouse gases by the industrial sector are divided into: emissions of
greenhouse gases by the production of minerals, chemical processes and production of metals.
The agricultural sector is divided into sub-sectors: GHG (Greenhouse Gases) emissions
from internal fermentation, agricultural waste, emissions from greenhouse gases from flooded rice
fields, agricultural areas.
The emissions of greenhouse gases as a result of the changes in the use of land and wood
sector are caused by two processes: changes in the biomass reserves and conversion of forests and
grass areas.
The greenhouse gases of the waste sector are mainly emissions of CH4 and N2O. The CH4
emissions largely result from anaerobic combustion in the solid waste deposits, waste waters and
sludge produced by households/companies, industrial waste waters and sludge. The N2O emissions
are a product of the foul sewer waters in the urban areas.
The integral results are composed of all emissions of greenhouse gases from all sectors.
According to the table (Table 106, Publication II), the emissions of industrial processes are declining
by 35 percent, while those generated by the agricultural sector are reduced by 22 percent, as a consequence
of the reduction in the activities of the two sectors. There are no significant changes in the
greenhouse emissions in the waste sector, while the emissions of greenhouse gases caused by
changes in the use of land and forests fluctuate. The emissions produced by the energy sector have
increased by 6 percent.
Macedonia is only a minor contributor to the global emission of gases. In spite of that, the
influence of the global climate changes is more than evident in Macedonia.
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3.2. Major Climate Elements – Air Temperature and Rainfalls
The major elements of the climate – the air temperature and rainfalls – are also one of the
key elements in the process of climate changes.
Regarding the air temperature and parameters of rainfalls, the meteorology stations in
Skopje and Bitola have the largest database, dating from 1926.
The warmest years of the 20 th century were the years between 1926 and 1966, when the period
of temperature decrease started to last until 1991. Since then, there has been an annual trend of
temperature increase. The average temperature of the air was at the lowest level in 1975: 10.1 0 C in
Bitola and 12.0 0 C in Skopje.
In regard to the annual rainfalls, they have a trend of decline since 1984, which is most obvious
in the East parts of Macedonia. The driest period took place between 1984 and 1994.
3.3. Effects of the Climate Changes
Adverse effects of the climate changes – especially those of the global warming – on the land
and agricultural sector are the effects on land productivity, degradation, formation of wastelands
and erosion, as the most adverse one.
According to the spatial plan of Macedonia, 934,128 ha or 36.7 percent of the total land in
the country is covered with forests, forestations and intensive plantations.
While the country is relatively well covered by forests (29.0 percent), the fact remains that 71
percent of the total area covered by forests is in fact covered by short dendriform and short trees
Table 107, Publication II. In order to explain the plant situation in the country, it should be stressed
that the air temperatures in the summer months have risen over the past 10 years and have dropped
in the winter periods, thus increasing the annual amplitude.
The lower level of rainfalls is yet another negative factor affecting the growth of forests. The
effect of the factors of climate changes and of the global warming in the form of increased frequency
of summer fires in the forests should also be taken in account.
Macedonia is a country with a rich biological diversity, as a result of the various climate and
geo-morphological features. The sensitive eco-systems will suffer to the greatest extent from the
changes in the temperature regime, as well as from the changes in the number of rainfalls and annual
changes in the distribution of rainfalls. These changes will adversely affect the biodiversity, structure
and features of an eco-system. As a result of the changes in the climate, the expectations are
that there will be considerable changes and redistribution of the vegetation zones, living organisms
and eco-systems. The size of the loss of species or the damages of the eco-systems will depend on
the intensity of the climate changes, as the change of biotopes of the species depends on their
adaptation and mobility.
It is difficult to isolate the anthropogenic effect of the water resources from the effect of the
climate changes. The permanent water resources and the assessment of their change in the future
are made by identifying their flow and the level of water in the lakes in the period between 1961 and
2000. According to the analysis of all the rivers analyzed during the period of observation, the average
outflow declined from 10 percent to 80 percent. The conclusion is, then, that the southern and
Southeast regions are the most vulnerable ones in Macedonia.
The weather changes related to the climate ones affect the human health, either as a direct
impact on the human body or indirectly, through its impact on organisms causing or carrying diseases.
People with chronic diseases, particularly older people, are susceptible to worsening of their
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condition during very hot or very cold weather. The increasing frequency or severity of the heat
waves may lead to increases in the mortality rates. The changes in the seasonal and daily temperatures
and in the humidity may affect the concentration of substances carried by air and thus affect
the respiratory systems.
4. WASTE INDICATORS
One of the major threats on the environment in the Macedonian municipalities is waste, as
the waste management techniques (mechanical sorting, composting, inseneration, recycling) are
still at the lowest levels.
Officially, there are 40 waste deposits managed by the municipal public enterprises and
1,000 illegal dumps and deposits. The only legal solid waste deposit in the country operating with
a work permit is Drisla, in the vicinity of Skopje, having a capacity of 26 million m 3 and receiving
150,000 tons annually. As for the industrial waste, it is worth noting that it is not mixed with the
communal one and is mainly stored near or within the industrial capacities. The data regarding the
potential pressure of the deposits on the environment are limited due to the lack of a comprehensive
system of monitoring the pollution caused by the deposits themselves. The existing situation
regarding the waste is clearly illustrated in Table 108, Publication II.
Hard communal waste of the municipalities is waste produced in the everyday life of people
and the work in homes, yards, business premises and other facilities, including: various types of
household waste, foodstuff waste, garden waste, fruits and agricultural waste, paper, cardboard,
wooden, metal, glass, china, leather, plastic, rubber and similar harmless waste. On average, the
urban areas produce about 360 kg and rural ones 120 kg of waste per person per year.
Table 28. Projected Collection of Municipal Waste - 1999-2025 (‘000 of tons)
Year Total / collection Urban collection Rural collection
1999 479 359 120
2005 541 424 117
2010 600 486 114
2015 667 558 109
2020 743 641 102
2025 828 735 93
Industrial waste is generated by work in the mines, metallurgy, fertilizers industry, chemical
industry, and power plants using coals. According to the analysis conducted, the technological
waste collected in the industrial capacities amounts to 65,000 tons annually, whereas the technological
waste collected during the technological processes in the industry totals 130,000 tons per year;
this waste is deposited within the industrial capacities. It should be noted that the legal entities
engaged in this sector have no systems for collection and management of technological (industrial)
waste.
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Table 29. Estimated Quantities of Collected Industrial Waste
Industrial sector
Primary process waste Other technological (industrial)
(tons)
waste (tons)
Oil and chemical processing 1.000 5.000
Secondary processing of metal ores 1.000 20.000
Metal processing and general
production
5.000 60.000
Textile production 1.750 12.500
Processing of food and beverages 50.970 12.500
Other industrial sectors 5.000 20.000
TOTAL 65.000 130.000
Source: Environmental Agency
It is estimated that about 46,000 tons of hazardous waste 46 are generated in the course of one
year. This quantity does not include the hazardous waste kept by the industries within their localities.
The analyses of ten industrial capacities generating hazardous waste in the country show that
4 million tons are dumped every year in the local deposits within the industrial yards. Ohis-Skopje
alone generates 4 tons of hazardous waste on a daily basis.
Deposits within the metallurgy companies are the facilities carrying the highest degree of
risk in their processes of production and storing solid waste, followed by the copper, lead, zinc, and
particularly antimony and arsenic mines; this category of waste producers also includes the oil refinery
Okta, Ohis, Alkaloid, the fertilizer plants in Veles, leather producing companies, thermal power
plants and medical centers.
The quantity of generated medical waste 47 varies between 8,000 and 10,000 tons per year. Of
this quantity, 15 percent is either toxic or infectious waste.
Construction waste is waste generated during construction works, industrial, processing and
craftworks, such that does not have the features of the communal solid waste and technological
waste. It consists of: construction waste materials, earth, mire, sludge (inert and harmless), rocks,
ceramic waste, sanitary accessories, etc.
5. LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN (LEAP)
AS AN INDICATOR
Local environmental action plans (LEAPs) are among the most efficient and useful instruments
for the attainment of a sustainable local development in the municipalities. The LEAPs are or
should be developed by the municipalities, for the purpose of coping not only with environmental
issues, but also with issues related to the sustainable use of resources, as well as with social and economic
ones.
The fundamental structure of LEAP should include: assessment of the existing environmental
situation, setting priorities, identification of most appropriate strategies for resolving the key environmental
issues, and implementation of activities aimed at improving the environment. The development
and implementation of LEAPs should encourage the local authorities to take over responsibility and care
for the environment, to ensure long-term sustainable use of the natural resources within the municipality,
to set local priorities regarding the protection of the environment, and to link and relate the LEAP to
the National Environmental Action Plan (Table 109, Publication II). Thus far, 29 municipalities have devel-
46
Hazardous waste is waste containing substances with one of the following features: explosiveness, reactiveness, inflammability, irritability,
toxicality, infectiveness, cancerogenous effects, mutation, teratogenesis, ecotoxicality, and release of poisonous gases through chemical
reactions or biological disintegration.
47
Special waste is the waste generated by: medical institutions (sanatoriums, hospitals, polyclinics and dispensary wards), scientific,
research and development institutions (institutes), laboratories of treatment, research and control. This type of waste differs in quantity
and features from the communal waste and is closer to hazardous waste due to its features.
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oped their LEAPs: Skopje, Berovo, Bogdanci, Veles, Debar, Dolneni, Gevgelija, Zrnovci, Jegunovce,
Kavadarci, Karbinci, Kocani, Kratovo, Kriva Palanka, Kumanovo, Labunista, Lipkovo, Lozovo, Negotino,
Pehcevo, Prilep, Probistip, Radovis, Resen, Sopiste, Struga, Sveti Nikole, and Stip. Of those, 19 have
already been completed, while 10 are in the form of proposals.
6. BIODIVERSITY INDICATORS
The biodiversity is the link between the variety of species, eco-systems and genes.
The process of monitoring biodiversity consists of continuing gathering of valid data regarding
the situation of certain species, communities, and eco-systems. In Macedonia and, consequently,
in the Macedonian municipalities, there is a lack of a comprehensive monitoring of the biodiversity.
This is the reason for the limitations of the attempts to conduct assessments and analysis of the
impact that various factors, including the anthropogenic factors had and will have on the eco-systems,
communities, and species.
Macedonia is a country with an extraordinary abundance of relict and endemic variety of
species and eco-systems. As a result, Macedonia is at the top of the list of countries referred to as
European biodiversity hot places.
6.1. Key Threats for Biodiversity in Macedonia
The key threats for the biodiversity in Macedonia are: loss of habitats (due to change in the
use of land), modification and fragmentation. These are followed by threats in the form of over utilization
of biological reserves, pollution, introduction of new sorts of flora and fauna and invasive
species.
6.1.1. Changes in the Use of Land
The loss of natural habitats as a result of changes in the use of land is most evident in the
case of water habitats (swamps). In the course of the decades following World War II, almost all larger
swamps were dried out for the purpose of acquiring new agricultural areas and fighting malaria.
This presented a serious threat for the biocenosis of the swamps and some of them were fragmented
and facing possible extinguishing. The process continues even at present (the Ohrid swamp
Studencista is turned into a construction waste deposit).
One of the existing ways of modification of habitats is their transformation, particularly by
constructions of artificial water accumulations, which turns the land habitats into water ones. There
are more than 20 larger accumulations in the case of which no attention was paid whether their construction
will destroy valuable habitats.
In terms of the agro- biodiversity, the most evident is the loss of highland meadows in the
near-mountain and mountain areas and in the valley pastures. The variety and mosaic of the habitats
typical for the rural areas (a frequent case in areas with traditional agriculture) are seriously jeopardized.
As a result of this, it should be expected that this part of the landscape will dissapear or will
be modified into bushes and small-trees forests in the next two to three decades.
6.1.2. Land Degradation
One of the most serious causes of loss of habitats is the inappropriate planning of the expansion
of urban centers, weekend settlements, and tourist resources. The pressure of the tourist on the
habitats is constantly increasing, and the measures proposed to reduce this pressure are the introduction
and implementation of a sustainable tourism.
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6.1.3. Fragmentation of Habitats
Habitats are mainly fragmented due to the construction of traffic infrastructure. The major
road corridors in Macedonia cut through the habitats that serve as bio-corridors for the vertebrates
(particularly the larger mammals). An example of this is the mounting crossing Gjavato, which is the
only link of the mountain of Pelister with the Bigla, Plakenska and Ilinska mountain ridge and,
through the latter, with the mountains of Osogovo and Bistra. The situation with the national park
Mavrovo is similar.
The fragmentation of water habitats is most evidently caused by constructions of dams,
which occurs rather frequently. In parallel with this, there is a failure to follow the recommendations
regarding biological minimum of the water flows and regarding the formation of routes of the fish
near the dams. This has led to a discontinuity in the natural migration routes of the eel in lake Ohrid.
Another typical example of fragmentation of the habitats is the long-distance power lines,
of which some pass through the national parks.
6.1.4. Over Utilization of Biological Resources
Over-extensive Use of Grass Areas and Pastures
There are approximately 650,000 ha of hill and mountain pastures in Macedonia. The pasture
degradation issue is linked with the increased amount of low vegetation at the cost of grass areas
due to their non-utilization, rather than due to their over-extensive use. The domination of low vegetation
damages the biodiversity, as grass communities are more heterogeneous and richer in
species.
Over-extensive hunting/fishing
Inappropriate activities of stocking the water accumulations with fish lead to drastic
changes in the structure of the algal flora. This is the case in the artificial lakes of Strezevo, Turija and
Mavrovica, where the mating of carps (Ciprinus carpio) brought about the appearance of blue-green
algae of the types of Microcistis aeruginosa, Anabaena planctonica, and Aphanizomenon flosaquae.
There are no sufficient data on hunting that could be used to analyze the situation regarding
the exploitation of the biological resources.
Exploitation of Waters
Frequently, there is also a frequent lack of control over the exploitation of waters. Such is the
situation with the rivers Petruska, Kovanska and Sermeniska, which for the most part of the year
have no water in their downstream parts due to being used for irrigation.
The case of the villagers from Podgorci (Jablanica), who built a channel at the ice lake in
Podgorci, is a clear example of how a rare type of a habitat may be destroyed.
Another drastic example is the idea to draw water from the river Bosava, in order to irrigate
the Kavadarci field. This plan jeopardizes the existence of this significant water eco-system in its midand
downstream and causes major changes in the hydrology of the wider region, as the river Bosava
waters are shifted to another water flow (that of the river Luda Mara).
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6.2. Pollution
6.2.1. Water Pollution
The main polluters of the waters are the following industries: chemical, leather, food, metal,
etc., as well as the pig farms and communal waste waters.
The irresponsible releases of high concentration of organic and non-organic polluters for
years in a row has led to a poor situation of the river eco-systems, as presented in Table 15.
Table 30. Major River Systems in Macedonia; Pollution,
Sources of Pollution, Legal and Registered Category
River system Pollution Source of pollution
Vardar
- Vrutok
- Jegunovce
- Skopje-Saraj
- Skopje- Juruml.
- Veles
- Chemic.indust. Veles
- Demir Kapija
- Gevgelija
Organic
Inorganic
Organic-inorganic
Organic-inorganic
Organic-inorganic
Non-organic
Organic-inorganic
Organic-inorganic
Solid waste
Chromium
Agriculture, waste waters
Industry, waste waters
Industry, waste waters
Chemical industry
Waste waters, tributaries
Waste waters, industry,
agriculture
Regulated
category
I
II
II
II
III
III
II
II
Category
I-II
III-IV
III-IV
Out of category
Out of category
Out of category
IV- Out of categ.
IV- Out of categ.
Lepenec Inorganic Asphalt-base, industry II IV-III
Treska Organic Waste waters II II-III
Pcinja Organic-inorganic Industry, waste waters II IV- out of categ.
Bregalnica Organic-inorganic Waste waters, mines II-III IV- out of categ.
Crna Reka Organic-inorganic Waste waters, industry III-II IV- out of categ.
Dragor Organic-inorganic Waste waters, industry III Out of category
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The situation with the stagnant water eco-systems is also alarming in terms of pollution. This
is particularly so in the case of lake Dojran, which is rapidly losing its status of a lake eco-system,
turning into a swamp. While there are evident efforts to protect lake Ohrid, little has been done to
do the same for lake Prespa, which is the main source of water in this system. In addition, the large
artificial lakes Tikves, Turija and Strezevo are under significant pressure.
Generally speaking, there is no continuous monitoring of the situation with underground
waters, while analyses are conducted only when necessary. One of the analyses conducted in the
Skopje region indicates a presence of trichloroethylene and zinc in the vicinity of the industrial complex
Ohis, as well as the increased radioactivity (approximately 1.3Bq/l) near the airport Petrovec.
This situation regarding the quality of waters has a large impact on the biodiversity and stability
of all water eco-systems. Only water eco-systems located high in the mountains are preserved,
but the war activities on the mountain of Sar Planina will have an adverse effect on these eco-systems,
as well.
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6.2.2. Soil Pollution
The pollution of the soil in Macedonia is of high levels and presents a serious threat for the
biodiversity. The most polluted areas in Macedonia have a considerable adverse impact on the biodiversity
in the country. Those are regions in and around the large urban centers (mostly due to the
traffic), industrial regions (due to emissions of polluters) - such as Veles, Skopje, and Bitola – and agricultural
regions (as a result of the intensive agricultural activities) – the Strumica field, Polog,
Pelagonia, Kocani field, etc.
6.2.3. Air Pollution
The impact of the atmospheric pollution of the biodiversity in Macedonia is significant in the
urban areas and the areas surrounding valleys in the vicinity of urban centers. In this way, pollution
jeopardizes the natural elements in areas modified by the anthropogenic factor. The rural areas at a
greater distance from urban pollution of the air are not directly endangered.
The phenomenon of acid rains in Macedonia is not very often, except in the large urban and
industrial centers (Skopje, Veles). The incidental acid rains are a result of the cross border transportation
of polluters. In addition, certain modifications have also been registered in the structure of silicon
algae in certain glacier lakes (Pelister).
In view of the above, the atmospheric pollution is not the key threat to the biodiversity in
Macedonia.
6.2.4. Introductory and Invasive Species
The introduction of new types of flora and fauna adds to the enlargement of the overall biodiversity
in the country (for instance, many crops used in the food, horticulture, special groups of
domestic animals, etc.). Still, a large number of them become invasive, particularly if their expansion
is uncontrolled. At the same time, they also invade the habitats of the autochthonous species,
squeezing them out from the area.
The majority of the invasive plant species may be found on uncultivated locations (by the
roads, railroads, waste deposits, etc.), while some appear in the water eco-systems.
A typical representative of the flora is the species Elodea Canadensis (water plague), introduced
for the first time in lake Ohrid in 1957 through the channel Studencista. It is invasive specie,
reproducing itself and expanding very quickly, driving the autochthonous species out of the area.
The expansion of this specie is constantly monitored; it may also be found near the springs in Sveti
Naum and the river Crn Drim.
Ailanthus altissima is invasive specie, which usually occupies large area in the low regions
and is characterized by an intensive reproductive activity.
During the past few years, there was also a considerable presence of American neophytes,
i.e. species of the class of Conyza, Solanum, Juncus, etc.
In the area of forestry, analyses must take into account the unlimited forestations with the
specie Pseudotsuga douglasii, which acts aggressively in beech trees regions and in regions with
alochtonous conifers in low regions.
As regards the fauna in Macedonia, the majority of the introduced species (including also
invasive ones) belong to the classes of fish (Pisces) (11) and mammals (Mammalia) (8). Regarding the
other species of vertebrae (Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves), no invasive species have been identified
among the introduced species registered occasionally.
With regard to the fish fauna in the natural water eco-systems, the following species of the
group of introduced species are regarded as invasive: Oncorchynchus mykiss, Carasius carassius,
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Carassius auratus, Lepomis gibbosus, Ameiurus nebulosus, Rseudorasbora parva, and Acerina cemula.
The size of the populations of these species constantly increases at the cost of inferior
autochthonous types of fish. The eco-systems where invasive types exist are the lakes of Ohrid and
Prespa, as well as the section of the water flow of the river Vardar.
Among the mammals (Mammalia), the invasive species includes Ondatra ribethicus, which
expands along the north-south line along the river Vardar and along the East part of its flow, and
nutrias, which are for the time being limited to the area of the lake Prespa and the upper stream of
the river Vardar. Thus far, however, these two types had no direct negative impact on the autochthonous
fauna of the mammals.
The natural pathogenic agents are plant diseases and pests in the forests, cultivations and
capacities for production of seed material.
6.4. Protected Areas
In accordance with the relevant international criteria IUCN, the natural heritage of
Macedonia has been valorized and placed under protection by certain regulations. The protected
areas are divided into six classes; the total area under protection in Macedonia occupies 237,419 ha,
which is 9.23 percent of the country’s entire territory. The largest portion of this area are national
parks – 108,338 ha (45.63 percent); the national park Mavrovo occupies 73,088 ha, the Galicica one
22,750 ha, and Pelister 12,500 ha.
Category of protected
area
Rigorously protected
natural reservations
(category I IUCN)
National parks
(category II IUCN)
Natural monuments
(category III IUCN)
Other protected areas
(category IV-VI IUCN)
Table 31. Biological diversity within the protected areas
Area (ha)
No. of protected
species
Note
61 Water birds
22 Birds of prey
14 Other water animals
12.730
32 Hairy wild animals
24 Bats
13 Reptiles
42 Types of fauna
108.338
Ramsar location 18.920
Location of international
significance
38.000
TOTAL 237.419
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
134
37
45
16
27
83
57.093 -
2.338 - “
62
17
34
24
7
42
142
19
36
Ornitofauna
Hairy animals
Fish and reptiles
Reptiles
Bats
Types of flora
Representatives of species given in
the previous categories
Water birds
Birds of prey
Other water animals
Reptiles
Types of flora
Water fauna
Water flora
Coastal vegetation
119

The representatives of mountain dendro-flora and the large hairy animals are dominant in
the national parks. The rigorously protected natural reservations occupy 12,730 ha (5.36 percent):
Ezerani near the lake Prespa – 2,080 ha and Tikves in the canyon of the river Crna Reka – 10,650 ha.
The biological diversity at Ezerani is mainly in the form of swamps and grass vegetation and
water birds, while the one in Tikves in the form of hill and mountain dendroflora, carnivorous birds
and large hairy wild animals.
The natural monuments occupy 57,093 ha (24.05 percent).
• Lake Ohrid – 23,000 ha;
• Demir Kapija - 200 ha;
• Botanic garden Gazi Baba – 3.3 ha;
• Lake Dojransko - 2.730 ha;
• Gazi Baba - 13 ha;
• Naked Man - 5 ha;
• Lake Prespa - 17.680 ha;
• Lake Matka gorge - 5443 ha;
• Katlanovo area - 5442 ha;
• Towers of Marko - 2300 ha;
• Monospitovo marsh - 250 ha;
• Drenacka gorge - 5 ha;
• Karsi gardens - 10 ha;
• Murite - 10 ha;
• Konce – 0.7 ha;
• Morodvis – 0.5 ha.
The biological diversity of the natural monuments mainly includes water types of flora and
fauna 9in the water eco-systems), grass, swamp, hill and mountain flora, fungi, and fauna.
The other categories of protected areas occupy 2,338 ha (0.1 percent). Those are three areas
of specific natural features: Leskoec with 300 ha, Vodno with 1,953 ha, and Kozle with 85 ha.
In addition to the above, there are also natural habitats with various types of wild flora, fungi
and fauna. They include 14 locations, covering a total area of 2,645 ha. They mainly include protected
types of dendro-flora (mostly pine, silver fir, yew, juniper, oak, beech, birch, wild chestnut, etc.).
Two water eco-systems in Macedonia have been nominated for international lists of the
world natural heritage. Those are the locality Ezerani near the lake Prespa with an area of 18,920 ha
(7.97 percent), included in the global Ramsar list in 1995, as well as the natural, cultural and historical
area of Ohrid occupying 38,000 ha (16.01 percent), included in the list of world heritage in 1981.
the two areas are exceptionally rich with endemic relic elements of flora and fauna, as well as with
habitats.
7. NOISE INDICATORS
Institutions conducting measurements of the level of noise in Macedonia are the Central laboratory
with the Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning, the State Public Health Institute and
the city offices in Skopje and Bitola.
The measured level of noise caused by the industry in Skopje is higher than the maximum
allowed level: 35dB(A), 40dB(A) and 45dB(A).
Noise caused by hotels and restaurants is within the maximum allowed noise levels.
Radovis (with 40dB(A)) and Veles (60 dB(A)) are other two cities with an industry-caused level
of noise higher than the maximum allowed level.
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The noise in the Skopje municipalities is higher than the maximum allowed level at every
measuring point. The highest levels of municipality noise in 2003 were registered at the measuring
point bull. “Aleksandar Makedonski” and the “International Brigades” street (the noise at both points
was 84.9dB(A), while the lowest level (56db(A)) was measured at the point located
8. INDICATORS RELATED TO TERRESTRIAL ECO-SYSTEM
8.1. Land Degradation Processes
Due to the large scope of the vital functions of land, the preservation of the condition of the
land as one of the most important media in the nature is of essential significance for the protection
of the environment. The land is under constant threat from a large number of activities that degrade
its long-term availability and ability to endure.
There is no constant monitoring of the level of degradation of the land in Macedonia, as
there is no monitoring system of land degradation in the country.
8.2. Erosion
Erosion is a natural geological phenomenon occurring as a result of the process of tearing
away the land particles by the water or wind and their re-allocation to other places. The erosion
process, which is generally irretrievable, may be dramatically intensified by certain human activities.
Erosion is caused by a combination of factors, such as steep slopes, climate (e.g., long dry periods
followed by heavy rainfalls), inappropriate use of land, rare vegetation and ecological disasters (e.g.,
forest fires). In addition, certain internal features of the land may make it more susceptible to erosion
(e.g., a thin layer of surface earth, small-grained structures or a low content of organic substances). The
results from the erosion of land are the loss of functions of the land and loss of land itself.
According to the data from the “Erosion Map” (developed and showing the condition of land
in 1992), the condition is as follows: 38 percent of the territory in the country has a high percentage
of erosion. The total annual loss of land is about 17*106 m 3 . Of this number, 7,5*106 m 3 are transported
out of the country as a result of the transportation force of the water (through the water flows),
while about 3*106 m 3 are carried into natural and artificial accumulations.
Figure 29. Distribution of Land Erosion
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
121

8.3. Reduction of Organic Substance
The organic substance plays a central role in the maintenance of the key functions of the
land and is a fundamental pre-conditioner of the degree of erosion and fertility of the land. It
ensures the cohesion and mitigating capacity of the land, thus contributing to the limitation of the
expansion of the pollution from the land into the waters.
The cattle breeding and forestry have a considerable impact on the organic substances in
the land. In spite of the importance of maintaining the organic substances in the land structure,
there is evidence that the organic substances dissolving in the land are frequently not replaced in
sufficient quantities and in accordance with the cultivable land systems, which lead to higher levels
of specialization and monoculture. The specialization in the cattle breeding led to separation of cattle
from land cultivation, so that the rotation practices used to renew the organic substances in the
land structure are increasingly not practices in the agriculture.
The carbon is the main component of the organic substances in the land, playing a major role in
the global carbon cycle. Studies show that the organic substances in the land produce about 2 gyga tons
of carbon annually. A comparison of this quantity with the 8 gygatons of atrophic carbon emitted in the
atmosphere on an annual basis stresses the importance of the organic substances in the land in relation to
the climate changes. However, the quantity of organic substances and, consequently, of the carbon that
may be stored in the land is limited. In addition to that, there is a need of a more serious approach in order
to maintain or increase the content of organic substances in the land.
8.4. Land Pollution
8.4.1. Local Pollution of the Land
The local pollution is generally connected with the mining, industrial capacities, waste
deposits and other active and inactive capacities. These activities may bring about risk for both the
land and the waters.
The risk in the mining industry is linked with the storing or dumping of waste, acid ores
channeling and use of certain chemical agents.
The industrial capacities, both operating and closed ones, may also be a source of local pollution.
8.4.2. Diffuse Land Pollution
The diffuse land pollution is mainly a result of emissions of polluting substances in the air
and their dry or wet sedimentation, of certain agricultural activities, and of inappropriate recycling
and management of waste and waste waters.
Emissions of polluting substances into the air and their sedimentation in the land appear as a
result of industrial emissions, traffic and agriculture. The sedimentation of polluting substances in the air
releases polluters that increase the level of acid in the land 48 (e.g., SO2, NOx), heavy metals (cadmium,
lead arsenic, mercury) and some inorganic compound substances (e.g., dioxins, PCB, PAH).
The ammonia and other nitrate compounds (resulting from emissions in the agriculture,
traffic and industry) because undesired enrichment of the land and reduction of the biodiversity in
the forests and high-quality pastures.
A large number of agriculture activities may also be regarded as sources of diffuse pollution
of land, although their effects on the water are more known than their effects on the land.
48
Polluters reducing the Ph factor in the land dissolution, i.e. increase the level of acid in the land, gradually reduce the mitigating capacity
of the land and lead to crossing over the critical thresholds, which contributes to sudden and massive releases of aluminum and other
toxic substances in the water systems. In addition, the polluters raising the acid levels in the land may lead to elimination of nutritional
substances, which will in turn lead to loss of the fertility of the land and possible eutrofication in the waters and extreme quantities of
nitrates in the drinking water, thus damaging the useful microorganisms in the land and slowing down the biological activity.
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The production systems with no balance between the agricultural inputs/yields and the
availability of soil and cultivable land lead to misbalance of the nutritional substances in the soil,
which often results in pollution of the underground and surface waters. The heavy metals (e.g., cadmium,
copper) in the fertilizers and cattle food are an additional problem.
The agriculture in Macedonia use about 25,000 tons of mineral fertilizers per year, 48,000
tons of nitrate fertilizers, and 3 million tons of organic ones. Over the last 20 years, the consumption
of pesticides constantly decreased from 2,706 tons (1983) to 659 tons (1993). The situation with the
consumption of other protection means is similar. This is not a result of the environmental protection
awareness among the farmers, but of the decreased standards. The trend is particularly noticeable
among private farmers.
There are a very small number of analyses of pollution of soils in Macedonia cause by heavy
metals (lead, cadmium, chrome, nickel, zinc, copper, molybdenum, and arsenic). The table below
presents the data obtained in those research and studies.
Table 32. Concentrations of heavy metals in the soil
Heavy Limit values of
In comparison with Heavy metals content in
metals concentrations of heavy
Germany
analyzed soil
metals in the soil, according
to European communities
Mg/kg
Pb 50 – 300 100 4220, river Zletovica
54-6764, Veles
273-519 Dracevo (Skopje region)
Cd 1 – 3 1 - 1,5 4,1-16,6, Dracevo
(Skopje region)
5,6-7,6, river Kumanovska
Zn 150 – 300 150 - 200 4083, river Zletovica
92-2105, Veles
652, Avtokomanda (Skopje
region)
Ni 30 – 75 50 63,11- 458,67, Trubarevo
(Skopje region)
29,24-260,29 in humus soil
As - 20 - 40 30,83, river Kumanovska
Cr - 100 131,95-208,14, Trubarevo
(Skopje region)
109,40-193,72 in humus soil
Cu 50 – 140 60 395, river Zletovica
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The State Public Health Institute is the institution conducting measurements of the radioactive
pollution of the soil. The measuring points are located in Skopje (Jurumleri) and Stip (railroad
station).
Table 33. Radioactive pollution of the soil
Pollution
Skopje[Bq/kg] Stip[Bq/kg]
15cm
15cm
Sr-90 0,82 2,07
Cs-137 67,68 15,60
Total uranium 4,70 6,320
Source: State Public Health Institute
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The damage incurred by diffuse pollution of the soil is not as evident in the soil itself, as it is
in the consequences of the destroying the mitigating capacity of the soil. Although the costs have
not yet been identified, the process of cleaning the water from organic substances, pesticides, vegetative
nutritional substances and heavy metals is very expensive.
8.7. Soil Sealing
Covering the soil by construction of buildings, roads and by other activities is called sealing
the soil. When the soil is sealed, the area over which the soil is to perform its function, including the
absorbing of rain water for infiltration and filtration becomes smaller. In addition, sealed areas may
have a significant impact on the surrounding soils, both in the form of changing the water flows and
increasing the biodiversity fragmentation. The soil sealing is an irretrievable process. The degree of
soil sealing mainly depends on the spatial strategies and plans that, unfortunately, often fail to
include potential losses of soil.
In terms of the level o utilization of the soil in Macedonia, the entire area is divided into
4,255,091 parcels in 1,714 cadastre municipalities. The average size of a parcel is 0.6 ha.
Figure 30. Soil utilization structure
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
The total utilization of soil in Macedonia includes 663,257 ha (25 percent) of agricultural
arable land, 634,209 ha (25 percent) of pastures, and 965,650 ha (38 percent) of forests. The largest
portion of the agricultural land, by categories of utilization, consists of cultivated land (84 percent),
meadows (8 percent), vineyards (5 percent), and orchards (3 percent).
Figure 31. Agricultural land by utilization category
Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
124

8.8. Structure and Utilization of Agricultural Land
The data on the agricultural land and its structure (by categories of utilization) show signs of
considerable changes in the percentage of the arable agricultural land (cultivated land, gardens, and
meadows) of the total agricultural land (cultivable land and pastures). In 77 municipalities, the percentage
of the cultivable land is declining, in 7 it remained at the same level, and in 30 it increased.
The situation is also similar with regard to the population per hectare of cultivable agricultural
area. About two thirds of the municipalities have less population per hectare of arable land
than the national average (3.58 citizens per hectare). This proportion reflects to a large extent the
population density of the municipalities, but also speaks of the level of (non)utilization of cultivable
agricultural land. Having in mind the low level of technical equipment in the form of agricultural
machines, the small number of inhabitants per unit of arable land also reveals a low level of utilization
of the land in some and high exploitation levels in other municipalities. In this sense, the Skopje
municipalities are the ones with the highest levels of exploitation (average of 37.37 citizens per
hectare), followed by Gostivar (29.52), Kicevo (21.47), Tetovo (20.42), Labunista, Rostusa, and Dolan
Benicia (about 13-14 individuals per hectare), Ohrid (12.5), Strumica (8.7), etc. Municipalities with the
lowest level utilization of arable land are the ones with less than one citizen per a hectare of arable
land (Konopiste, Vitoliste, Orasac, Klecovce, Staravina, Staro Nagoricane, etc.).
9. INDICATORS OF WATER RESOURCES, WATER QUALITY AND
AQUATIC ECO-SYSTEMS
Just like dry periods, floods are also a serious threat in Macedonia. The destruction and poor
maintenance of water habitats by channeling and construction of dams at rivers may lead to impoverishing
of the plant and animal life. Problems with water accessibility appear when the water demand
exceeds the quantities available for the period, particularly in areas with low quantities of rainfalls and
high population density, as well as in areas of intensive agricultural and industrial activities.
The process of eutrophication 49 , which includes massive blooming of algae (sessile and
plankton ones), is of particular importance when it comes to the reduction of the water levels in
Macedonia. Certain of the algae produce toxins that are toxic and harmful for both people and the
environment. When disintegrating, the algae use up the oxygen in the water; the animals living at
the bottom die out, and fish abandon the area or die out, as well. Increased concentrations of nutritional
substances may also bring about changes in the water vegetation.
In many tributaries, the outflow of water infiltrated from the agricultural areas is the primary
sources of pollution by nitrate and phosphor, especially when the agricultural areas have excessive
content of artificial and natural fertilizers.
The major sources of pollution by phosphor are the households and the industry; however,
in areas where the impact of households and industry is lower, infiltrates from agricultural areas are
the main diffuse source of phosphor.
Sources of organic substances are outflows from factories, industrial waste waters and the
agriculture.
Many of the waters in the country have been found to contain high concentration of hazardous
substances 50 , such as pesticides in the surface waters and heavy metals in the rivers, especially
near the sources of pollution.
49
Excessive quantities of nutritional substances (nitrate and phosphor) in the surface itself and in surface waters may cause a series of negative
and adverse effects, known as eutrofication.
50
"Hazardous substances" are substances or groups of substances that are toxic and permanent. Examples are the compound substances
containing heavy metals and certain organic substances.
125

The population of plants and animals in the lakes and rivers react to changes in their environment
caused by changes in the chemical and physical quality. There are also biological pressures
on the population, such as the introduction of new species by stocking the rivers and lakes with fish
for the purpose of recreational fishing.
9.1. Water Resources in Macedonia
Macedonia is a semi-aride region (the region of Ovce Pole is the driest one in the Balkans), so that
the total quality of available waters in Macedonia are of particular importance. The western part of the
country (the riverbed of the river Crn Drim) is richer with water than its central and East parts. The flow
of surface waters is brought down to 250 water flows (riverbeds longer than 20 km 2 ), of which the largest
surface water flow is the river Vardar. There are three natural lakes: Ohrid, Prespa, and Dojran. A considerable
portion of the riverbeds of rivers and lakes belong to the neighboring countries.
Water resources are a problem in the country whenever the water demand in the agriculture
and households is not always met. When waters are available in sufficient quantities, the drinking
water is of good quality, as the majority of the springs used for drinking waters are unpolluted
mountain ones. Yet, there is pollution of the water in the rivers and the surface water systems.
Rainfalls in the country are unequal, occasional and in relatively low quantities. The annual
average rainfalls are about 733 mm (19 billion m 3 ). The lowest quantity of annual rainfalls is registered
in central and East Macedonia: Gradsko (380 mm), Veles (470 mm), Kavadarci (489 mm), and
Sveti Nikole (500 mm), whereas the largest quantities of rain fall in western Macedonia: Sar Planina
and Baba (1,400 and 1,300 mm, respectively).
The hydrology of water systems in the country has been studied in details by the State Hydro
Meteorological Institute.
Table 34. Maximal, minimal and average water flows at major hydrological stations
Riverbed
Station
Max. Min. Average
(m 3 /sec) (m 3 /sec) (m 3 /sec)
Vardar Gevgelija 236,53 44,79 135,96
Treska Sveta Bogorodica 46,31 7,89 23,34
Pcinja Katlanovska Banja 23,57 2,48 11,89
Bregalnica Stip 19,01 4,23 11,24
Crna reka Rasimbegov Most 46,20 3,51 22,39
Crn Drim Lozani 31,80 18,89 23,39
Strumica Novo Selo 7,88 0,51 3,83
Source: 7 th session on water economy in Macedonia, June 1-3, 2000
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Table 35. Length of major water flows
Riverbed Area (km2) Average flow 106m3/year
1. Vardar 22 301 4 289
(136.0)
2. Treska 1 880 735
(23.3)
3. Pcinja 2 794 375
(11.9)
4. Bregalnica 2 897 353
(11.2)
5. Crna Reka 4 526 706
(22.4)
6. Crn Drim 1 899 738
(23.4)
7. Strumica 1 401 120
(3.8)
Source: 7 th session on water economy in Macedonia, June 1-3, 2000
The annual reserves and availability of water resources in Macedonia varies between 5.5 – 6.5
billion m 3 , of which 0.4 – 0.6 billion come from the springs. The annual quantity of surface waters is
from 0.3 to 0.5 billion m 3 , which is considered a low quality. According to 1995-1996 data, 1.7 billion
m 3 of water is used, of which 84 percent surface waters and 16 percent underground waters and
waters from natural springs, which is one third of the total water resources. This is a clear indicator
of a country with insufficient water resources.
9.2. Consumption and Drainage of Waters in Macedonia
The annual water consumption in the country is about 1.72 million m 3 , of which 82 percent
is used for irrigation, 11 percent for public use and 7 percent for industrial needs (Table 110 and 111,
Publication II). Generally, the households and industrial waste waters are drained directly into the
waters. Only 6 percent is subjected to treatment at cleaning stations.
About 70 percent of the population in Macedonia is connected to the municipal water supply
systems, which proved water for 1,440,000 citizens, with the remaining population being rural
and having either local or individual water supply systems.
In urban areas, the water supply capacities and the hygiene quality of the analyzed samples
are satisfactory, with negative results due to the lack of chlore and certain quantities of organo-leptic
parameters (Mn, Fe, and sediments).
In rural areas, more than 5 percent of the samples of water fail to meet the quality criteria,
which is a high percentage.
Only a handful of cities (Ohrid, Struga, Resen, Makedonski Brod, Sveti Nikole and Dojran)
have sewer systems with a waste waters cleaning station. Unfortunately, it is only the factories in
Vranista, Struga and Makedonski Brod that are operating. The capacity of the first one is 120,000
cleaning units, while the one in Makedonski Brod has a capacity of 5,000 cleaning units. The plant in
Vranista has a capacity for mechanical, biological and chemical processing. The rate of cleaning
waste waters meets the standards; these waters are drained into the river of Crn Drim.
The factories in Sveti Nikole, Dojran and Ezerani (Prespa) were recently reconstructed, but
their operation is still unsatisfactory (Table 112, Publication II). The additional efforts of the Ministry
of Environment and Physical Planning include construction of 6 to 8 small cleaning stations, for the
waste waters draining into the river Radika, as well as building a cleaning station in Gevgelija.
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Regarding the quality of water and the water flows in Macedonia, most comprehensive data
may be obtained from the RIMSYS program of the Hydro Meteorological Institute 51 (Table 113,
Publication II).
The analysis of the concentration of iron shows highest levels at the measuring points Brod and river
Eleska, Novo Selo and river Strumicka, and Skocivir at the river Crna, where the iron content is that of class 2.
The analysis of the concentration of dissolved oxygen at the measuring point Skocivir at the
river Crna indicates a high level of eutrification.
The maximum value of the biological consumption of oxygen in five days was registered at
Skocivir, Novo Selo, river Strumicka and Demir Kapija, Vardar, which falls under class 5.
Other analyses include checks of the concentration of Ni, Cu, Cr6+ and Pb in the water flows,
which categorizes the latter as waters of oligotrophic and mezotrophic nature.
The measuring point Sveta Bogorodica on the river Treska was the point where the measurements
revealed maximum concentrations of Zn in the waters: at this point, the Zn concentration
exceeds the value of 0.05 mg/l.
The analysis of the water flow of Vardar indicates that the highest concentration of suspended
particles is 168 mg/l, measured in Demir Kapija. The hypertrophic nature of the river Vardar
regarding the suspended particles is seen from the measuring point Taor all the way down to
Gevgelija, where Vardar leaves the country. Class 5 features are also present at measuring points on
the rivers Lepenec, Bregalnica, Crna, and at the point Sveta Bogorodica, where the river Treska flows
into the river Vardar.
Eutrophic or high-eutrophic waters in terms of the Mn concentration appear at the points
Krupiste – river Bregalnica, Skocivir – river Crna, Novo Selo – river Strumicka, and Brod- river Eleska.
The maximum concentration of Cd measured at the measuring point Nogaevci – river Vardar
is 0.49x10-3mg/l.
The highest quantity of KMnO4 used for chemical consumption of oxygen was registered at
Skocivir – river Crna and Novo Selo – river Strumicka.
The data on the quality of the lakes Ohrid and Dojran and their tributaries are provided by
the Hydro-biological Institute in Ohrid 52 .
According to the values of the biological consumption of oxygen for the lake Ohrid, the
results indicate waters of olygotrophic nature. The rivers flowing into the lake Ohrid are full of organic
substances. In certain periods, the quality of water in these rivers varies between that of moderately
eutrophic and that of high-eutrophic waters. These results confirm the majority of unresolved
issues regarding these rivers. In terms of pollution with phosphor, large quantities of phosphor flow
into the lake Ohrid through the river Velgoska, but also through other tributaries.
The average concentration of total phosphor in the lake Ohrid varies between 2.1mg/l and
8.37 mg/l. The lake Ohrid is still olygotrophic, but there is a considerable danger coming from the
tributaries. The collector of waste waters surrounding lake Ohrid shows good results, but certain
measures are to be undertaken to resolve the problems with waters flowing into the lake. Nitrate
also enters the lake through these rivers. In August 2002, the maximum average concentration of
nitrate registered was 676 mg/l. Compared with the previous research periods, the total quantity of
nitrate is increased.
51
Data on the hydrological condition of the water flows and the quality of water resources in the country may be obtained from the Hydro
Meteorological Administration. The Hydro-biological Institute in Ohrid is responsible for the quality of the lakes Ohrid and Prespa. The central
laboratory with the Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning provides results from the measurements of the quantity of the
industrial waste waters. Data on the quality of industrial waste waters may only be obtained from the monitoring of industrial capacities
("Okta", "Alkaloid", and "Vranista"). The State Health Institute provides data on the sanitary quality of the water.
52
Measurements are conducted on the largest rivers in the Ohrid and Prespa water flows: Velgoska, Koselska, Sateska, Cerava (flowing into
the lake Ohrid) and Brajcinska, Kranska and Golema (flowing into the lake Prespa). Measurements are also carried out in the Pelagonia
region on the lake Ohrid, with a vertical profile with 12 depth points, and on the lake Prespa, with a profile with 4 depth points. The water
quality consists of the following parameters: temperature, transparency, Ph, total alcality, CO2, oxygen, biological consumption of oxygen,
chemical consumption of oxygen, nitrates and total phosphor content.
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The olygotrophic nature of the lake Ohrid is not disturbed, but the inflow of harmful substances
is in a trend of increase.
In the lake Prespa, the concentration of oxygen suddenly dropped in the summer (0.6mg/l,
August). Still, in the periods of stratification, the concentrations of dissolved oxygen drastically
increased. A maximum concentration of 10.77mg/l was measured in April 2002. the values of the
biological consumption of oxygen in the lake Prespa indicate that the water is of a mezotrophic
nature in summer.
The measurements revealed to high concentration of organic substances in the mid parts of
the lake Prespa, which is normal, due to the small depth in those parts of the lake. The registered
quantity of phosphor in the tributaries to lake Prespa show that 61 percent of the total quantity of
phosphor comes from the river Golema Reka, and the remainder comes from the other two rivers.
There are also large quantities of phosphor in the middle parts of the lake. In addition, the measurements
showed high concentration of total nitrate. In general, the water in the lake Prespa is
mezotrophic, except in certain periods, when it becomes olygotrophic. The condition of the water is
worsened by the release of untreated waters into the lake.
Concluding remarks and Recommendations
In 1997, an office responsible for ozone was established within the Ministry of Environment,
with the role of coordinating all activities related to the reduction, elimination and management of
substances depleting the stratospheric ozone layer. It should be noted that over 80 percent of the
total consumption of such substances has been eliminated; with this, the obligations under the
Montreal Protocol (of which Macedonia is a signatory) have been met.
Conclusions reached at on the basis of the models of global warming point to the fact that
the increase of temperature of the air will also increase the quantity of water and water condensation
in the atmosphere, which in turn will have an impact on the global hydrological cycle.
Evaporations will also increase, thus leading to faster drying out of the land. The pluviometric regime
will also undergo changes. The increased intensity of rainfalls will contribute to higher levels of land
erosion and will adversely affect the overall life. It is more than obvious that the expected climate
changes will have an adverse impact on the overall economic development in Macedonia and, consequently,
on the economic development of Macedonian municipalities, as well.
The National Solid Waste Management Plan project is underway at the Ministry of
Environment and Physical Planning; it consists of a feasibility study on waste management in certain
regions in Macedonia financed by the European Reconstruction Agency. The project is divided into
two components: Component 1 – National Waste Management Plan, which will serve as the basis for
all further activities related to waste management, with a period of validity of 6 years; and
Component 2 – Regional Concept of Management of Waste in Northeast and Central east
Macedonia (including 25 municipalities and 400,000 citizens). On the basis of the financial capacities
of the citizens in the project region, a plan is developed to create a comprehensive and modern
waste management system, including selection and recycling.
The project and its success is of essential importance, as it is based on the new Waste
Management Law and the new decentralization laws.
According to the Waste Management Law, the local self-government units have the obligation
to adopt a waste management program each year.
The development and implementation of the Local Environmental Action Plan (LEAP) should
encourage the local authorities to assume the responsibility and care for the environment, to create
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a long-term sustainable use of the natural resources within the municipal boundaries, to set the
local priorities regarding the environmental protection, and to ensure a link with the National
Environmental Action Plan. Thus far, only 29 municipalities have developed their LEAPs; this is a
small number. This is why the development of a LEAP should be an imperative for every municipality
that wants to have in place a plan of sustainability in all segments and environmental media.
The noise issues are included in the provisions of the 1984 Law on Prevention of Harmful
Noise; yet, there is a need of a new law that will be in harmony with the EU strategy, i.e. its directive
on noise affecting the environment.
The Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning is in the process of revising the project of
a waste water cadastre, which is a step leading very close to resolving the negative anthropogenic
influence of the waste waters on waters in the country; this will also create a document required for
the assessment of the overall pollution by waste waters in the municipalities.
The overall coordination of the water resources management in Macedonia, the monitoring
and issuing of licenses should be under the competence of the Ministry of Environment and Physical
Planning. The municipal communal enterprises and the public enterprises for water resources management
do not have the financial capacity to maintain and improve the water supply and sewer
infrastructure. The unpaid bills are the main reason for the situation, along with the lack of legal
empowerment of the enterprises themselves to deal with the issue. The Law on Waters imposes an
obligation on the polluters to clean the waste waters, but the administrative controlling measures
are not sufficiently effective or implemented. It is particularly important to note that the competence
of water management in Macedonia is too dispersed between various ministries, which make
it difficult to have an integral approach to resolving the issue of pollution of waters and to manage
the waters.
The development of a national plan for reduction and elimination of persistent organic polluters
(POPs) and the project entitled “Possible Activities Aimed at Facilitating the Early Influence on
the Implementation of the Stockholm Convention on POPs” are a step forward to the establishment
of grounds for action in dealing with these high-risk polluters.
There are also several issues of key importance for the municipalities in terms of the protection
of the biodiversity: an assessment should be made of the distribution of species, domination
and jeopardizing, use of the biodiversity for commercial purposes, and the impacts leading to positive
and negative modifications.
For the purpose of protecting the natural heritage and, consequently, the biodiversity, the
municipalities should introduce the following measures: conservation of the natural habitats, reproduction
of plant and animal species and communities in order to preserve the biodiversity, regulation
of the picking of, hunting and trading with protected species, promotion of natural sciences
and understanding the nature through research and education, as well as establishing contacts and
links with national and international organizations involved in biodiversity protection.
In the course of 2002, the Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning initiated the development
of lists of endangered wild types of fungi and plants (such lists of types of animals are also
being developed). For the purpose of introducing records of the export of wild animals from
Macedonia, these lists were submitted to the Plant Protection Administration with the Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Water Economy, for their inclusion in the lists of products that will be examined
at border crossings. In such a way, Macedonia will introduce a system of monitoring the trade
and particularly exports. Unfortunately, trading in wild sorts of flora and fauna in the country will
remain with no appropriate legal regulation; this is an issue that needs to be dealt with as soon as
possible.
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The following are other factors of potential adverse impact on the biodiversity of that may
cause a chain of effects:
- Lack or inadequate regulations related to the conservation of the biodiversity, unclear institutional
competencies, overlapping duties and competencies;
- Low levels of public and institutional awareness of the importance of biodiversity, underdeveloped
awareness among non-governmental organizations;
- Economic instability, low living standard, and unemployment, all with strong influence on
the threats of this kind;
- Inappropriate implementation of spatial plans;
- Armed conflicts in the region and in the country are a serious and direct threat for the natural
resources;
- Erosion is a serious problem, caused by the past and current agricultural practices in the
country;
- Incomplete study of the various aspects of the biodiversity in Macedonia: no red lists and
books, vegetation maps, pedological maps, maps of distribution of eco-systems and habitats,
typical and endangered species, no information system, no databases, poor professional,
institutional and staff resources in the area of biodiversity;
- Lack of personnel in the system’s institutions: Ministry of Environment and Physical
Planning, inspection offices, customs, Environmental Protection Fund, etc; poor inter-governmental
cooperation;
- Inappropriate biodiversity monitoring system (except a partial monitoring in three national
parks).
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Appendix 1
NUTS CLASSIFICATION OF REGIONS, GROUP OF MUNICPALITIES AND MUNICIPALITIES
NUTS1, 2
Territory of
the country
Macedonia
NUTS3
Regions
NUTS4
Group of
municipalities
Pelagonia region
Bitola
Demir Hisar
Krusevo
Prilep
Resen
Vardar region
Veles
Kavadarci
Negotino
Negotino
Northeast region
NUTS5
123
municipalities
Bac
Bistrica
Bitola
Dobrusevo
Kukurecani
Mogila
Novaci
Staravina
Capari
Demir Hisar
Sopotnica
Zitose
Krusevo
Vitoliste
Dolneni
Krivogastani
Prilep
Topolcani
Resen
Bogomila
Veles
Gradsko
Izvor
Caska
Kavadarci
Konopiste
Rosoman
Demir Kapija
132

Kratovo
Kratovo
Kriva Palanka
Kriva Palanka
Rankovce
Kumanovo
Klecevce
Kumanovo
Lipkovo
Orasac
Staro Nagoricane
Southwest region
Debar
Debar
Centar Zupa
Kicevo
Vranestica
Drugovo
Zajas
Kicevo
Oslomej
Makedonski Brod
Makedonski Brod
Plasnica
Samokov
Ohrid
Belcista
Kosel
Meseista
Ohrid
Struga
Vevcani
Velesta
Delogozdi
Labunista
Lukovo
Struga
Skopje region
Gazi Baba
Aracinovo
Gazi Baba
Ilinden
Petrovec
133

Karpos
Gjorce Petrov
Karpos
Kondovo
Saraj
Kisela Voda
Zelenikovo
Kisela Voda
Sopiste
Studenicani
Centar
Centar
Cair
Cair
Cucer - Sandevo
Suto Orizari
Southeast region
Valandovo
Valandovo
Gevgelija
Bogdanci
Gevgelija
Miravci
Star Dojran
Radovis
Konce
Podares
Radovis
Strumica
Bosilovo
Vasilevo
Kuklis
Murtino
Novo Selo
Strumica
Polog region
Gostivar
Vrapciste
Vrutok
Gostivar
Dolna Banjica
Mavrovi Anovi
Negotino -
Polosko
134

Rostusa
Srbinovo
Cegrane
Tetovo
Bogovinje
Brvenica
Vratnica
Zelino
Jegunovce
Kamenjane
Tearce
Tetovo
Dzepciste
Sipkovica
East region
Berovo
Berovo
Pehcevo
Vinica
Blatec
Vinica
Delcevo
Delcevo
Makedonska
Kamenica
Kocani
Zrnovci
Kocani
Oble{evo
Orizari
Cesinovo
Probistip
Zletovo
Probistip
Sveti Nikole
Lozovo
Sveti Nikole
Stip
Karbinci
Stip
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Appendix 2
I. ROAD TRANSPORT
Infrastructure
A road is a communication line which uses a stable bases different than the one use by the
railways or a runway open for public transport. It is primarily used by passenger motor vehicles on
moving their own wheels. Bridges, tunnels, support structures, passageways and thoroughfares, as
well as highways where toll is charged fall into this category. Ring roads for a specific use do not
belong in this category.
Road category
We can classify the roads by their significance into motorways, regional and local roads. Of
the total road network, motorways and “E” ways are given a special emphasis.
The road network is the total length of all the roads in a given area.
A course is the part of the rod on which the motor vehicles move.
A lane is one of the longitudinal parts into which the road is divided, whether marked or not
with longitudinal stripes along the road, which is wide enough to allow movement of passenger
motor vehicles, which are not motorcycles, in a line.
Transportation equipment
A passenger vehicle is a vehicle moving on wheels intended for use on the roads..
A national passenger vehicle is a vehicle registered in the reporting country, carrying license
plates of the said country.
A foreign passenger vehicle is a passenger vehicle registered in a country other than the
reporting country with license plates of a foreign country.
Passenger vehicles are vehicles constructed solely, or primarily, for transportation of one or
more persons. This group of vehicles includes: bicycles, mopeds, motorcycles, passenger cars,
busses and the mini-busses.
Passenger vehicles with loading capacity are vehicles constructed solely, or primarily, for
transportation of goods. This group of vehicles includes: trucks, trucks with trailers, lorries, lorries
with trailers.
Definition of features
Transportation of passengers in the road transport is expressed through a number of passengers
transported as well as the number of kilometers traveled with reference to both the domestic
as well as the international transport
A passenger is any individual which has purchased a ticket and boarded a buss to travel from
one place to another.
Passenger kilometer is a unit of measure which expresses the transport of a passenger over
a one kilometer distance.
Transportation of goods is expressed in tons and tons/kilometer.
A ton of goods is the unit of measure which expressed the weight of the goods.
Tons/kilometer is a unit of measure which expresses the transportation of a ton of goods
over a one kilometer distance.
Transportation per types of goods is shown according to the Standard transport classification
of goods (EUROSTAT) NST/R.
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Regular trans-boundary traffic of motor vehicles and passengers occurs on the basis of regular
international travel documents required for both the passengers and the vehicles without any
limitation in terms of the choice of destination which the foreigner wants to reach.
The cross border traffic of motor vehicles and passengers occurs on the basis of bilateral
agreements with neighboring countries only in the zone which is specified in the agreements.
Entry and departure of motor vehicles covers all vehicles which cross the boarder vie a road
and enter or leave Macedonia with a minimum of one passenger. Vehicles crossing the boarder without
a driver-passenger which are loaded on another means of transportation are not included in the
statistics pertaining to the vehicle border traffic.
Urban transport
The source of statistical data on urban transport is the regular monthly and annual reports
provided by business entities which, according to the national classification of activities, provide
urban and suburban transport services.
Infrastructure
Urban and/or suburban line is a line the beginning and ending point of which is a city area,
or one part is in a city area, while the other is in a suburban area.
Length of a line is a distance expressed in kilometers between the beginning and the last
stop. The length of a line is calculated in one direction only.
Transportation equipment
A bus is a passenger motor vehicle with seats for more than 9 passenger (including the driver),
intended only for transport of passengers.
A mini-buss is a passenger motor vehicle constructed to cater for more more than nine persons
including the driver.
Definition of features
Transportation of passengers in the urban and suburban transport is expressed with the number
of passengers transported and the kilometers traveled, relevant for both urban and suburban transport.
Kilometers traveled are a unit of measure which expresses the movement of a passenger
vehicle over a one kilometer distance. Kilometers traveled also include the movement of the empty
vehicle (without passengers on board).
Larger cities in Macedonia provide urban and suburban transport: Skopje, Bitola, Ohrid,
Tetovo, Veles, Shtip, Strumica, Kochani, Struga, Kriva Palanka and Kumanovo.
Data on passengers transported in urban transport are largely data referring to passengers
transported in the city of Skopje.
Transportation by taxi
The source of data on taxi services are the regular annual reports furnished by business entities
which provide taxi services as per the national classification of activities.
In 1998 a research of transportation of passengers by taxi was carried out for the first time to
be introduced as an annual research.
The statistical research of taxi services and transportation of passengers by taxi covers taxi
companies- (associations) in several cities in Macedonia. It also covers some of the taxi companies
and individual taxi drivers (self employed).
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Infrastructure
All roads of the road network in the urban, suburban and intercity areas.
Transportation equipment
Passenger vehicles and vans
Definition of features
The data on passengers transported and kilometers traveled ads regards the taxi transportation
refer to the transportation services delivered in urban, suburban and inter city areas.
When it comes to taxi services, passengers are transported in response to their telephone
call placed to the taxi company.
Kilometers traveled are with reference to the total number of kilometers in a given year (with
or without passengers on board).
II. RAILWAY TRANSPORT
The source of statistical data on the railway transport are the regular monthly and annual
reports furnished by business entities which under the national classification of activities, provide
railway transportation services – The public railway enterprise “Macedonian railways”.
Infrastructure
A rail track is a line of communication made up of tracks intended only for movement of
means of railway transportation. Railway network is the length of all rail roads in a given area. This
excludes the data on road extensions used only for tourist purposes during a season, as well as rail
tracks constructed only for the needs of mines, forests or other industrial or farming activities.
Railway network
The aggregate railroads along which the means of railway transportation move.
Transportation equipment
Means of railway transportation are movable equipment moving solely along rail tracks and
uses own drive (power engine) or is pulled by another means of transportation (in this case, wagons,
trailers, carriages).
The statistical data includes only means of transportation at disposal of the enterprise for
railway transportation.
The engine is a railway carriage which is equipped with an engine used only to pull other railway
carriages.
Railway carriage is a carriage with an engine constructed for transportation of passengers
or goods along railways. Such railway carriages are included in the statistical data as an inseparable
whole and are counted as one. Passenger and cargo trains fall into this as well.
Definition of features
Passengers- are individuals traveling on a carriage to cross a distance.
Passenger kilometers are a unit of measure of transport of a passenger along the railroad
per kilometer.
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A goods transported is the total of loaded, unloaded, exported and transit goods expressed
in tons.
Loaded goods are goods loaded in the national and international transport.
Unloaded goods are goods unloaded in the international and national transport.
The total transport of goods includes all kinds of cargoes: by carriage, express and for all
types of vehicles.
Net-tons/kilometer is a unit of measure of movement of a load over a one kilometer distance.
Data on the number of workers refers to the number of employees in the public transportation.
III. AIR TRANSPORT
Data on air transport is with reference to the operations of the Skopje and Ohrid Airports.
Definition of features
Regular transport covers flying of aircrafts on regular (scheduled) lines.
“Charter transport” includes flights which are unscheduled, i.e. are not regular. AS a rule,
there are users which book the aircraft on a given line.
The number of passengers arriving and departing, or the volume of goods, includes the total
nationals and international arrivals and departures.
The number of passengers also includes children though they do not use a seat on the aircraft.
Revenues and expenditure are shown in the annual accounts of business entities.
IV. TELECOMMUNICATION TRAFFIC
The source of statistical data on the telecommunication traffic are the regular monthly and
annual reports provided by the business entities which under the national classification of activities
are engaged in the provision of telecommunication services - AD “Makedonski telekomunikacii” and
AD “Mobimak”.
Definition of features
Data on telephone conversations is with reference to inbound and outbound national and
international telephone calls registered.
Telegraphic services include telegrams in the national and international traffic, while telex
impulses cover the inbound and outbound telex impulses in the national and international traffic.
The data on telephone impulses covers impulses spent in the national and international
traffic through land and mobile connections, internet and commercial telephones.
The data on telephone calls made from public telephones refers to the national and international
traffic.
The data on mobile telephony contains impulses expressed in minutes, and telephone calls
in numbers.
The data on the number of employees is only with reference to AD “Makedonski telekomunikacii”.
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V. POSTAL TRAFFIC
The source of statistical data on the telecommunication traffic are the regular monthly and
annual reports provided by the business entity which under the national classification of activities is
engaged in the provision of postal services – public enterprise “Makedonska Posta”
Definition of features
The data on letters in the national traffic refers only to the letters sent.
The data on letters in the international traffic refers to letters sent and received.
The data on letters refers to business documents, stamp printed documents, EMS-parcels
and others. The data on newspapers covers the number of joint shipments sent, while newspapers
addressed to individual subscribers are included in the printed documents sent.
The data on parcels in the national traffic refers only to sent parcels.
The data on parcels in the international traffic refers only to sent and received parcels.
Payment transaction covers postal order payments, payments in and out with cheques
from current and gyro accounts held with the saving Post Office saving house and commercial
banks, as well as payments with international postal remittances and from foreign accounts.
The data on revenues, expenditure and number of employees refers only to the public
enterprise “Makedonska posta”.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD.................................................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................................................7
CHAPTER I - DEMOFIGUREY..............................................................................................11
Population................................................................................................................................11
Households and families.....................................................................................................34
CHAPTER II - LIVING AND WORKING CONDITIONS..................................................39
Housing and amenities........................................................................................................39
Household income................................................................................................................44
Social protection....................................................................................................................45
Health.........................................................................................................................................54
Transport and mobility........................................................................................................66
CHAPTER III - EDUCATION, CULTURE AND CIVIL LIFE..............................................78
Education..................................................................................................................................78
Culture........................................................................................................................................86
Civil life.......................................................................................................................................92
CHAPTER IV - ECONOMY...................................................................................................96
CHAPTER V - ENVIRONMENT..........................................................................................103
141