Rice-Wheat Cropping Systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plain of India

Rice-Wheat Cropping Systems
of the Indo-Gangetic Plain
of India
R S Narang 1 and S M Virmani 2
Abstract
Rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) is the
major cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic
Plain (IGP) of India. Major rice-wheat
growing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, and
West Bengal. However, majority of the 10.5
m ha rice-wheat cropping system are
concentrated in Punjab, Haryana and
western Uttar Pradesh. Concerns were
expressed in the early 1990s that the RWCS
in the IGP are showing signs of “fatigue”
due to continued cereal-cereal (rice-wheat)
cropping. An indepth analysis of data of rice
and wheat yield in the context of
agroecology and socioeconomic factors in
the IGP was warranted. The four major
agroclimatic regions (ACR) of the IGP in
India are : (i) Lower Gangetic Plain, (ii)
Middle Gangetic Plain, (iii) Upper
Gangetic Plain, and (iv) Trans-Gangetic
Plain. These were thus disaggregated into
17 rice-wheat growing agroclimatic zones
(ACZs) for the meso-level study of yield
trends. The book provides (i) the districtwise
distribution of rice-wheat, and (ii)
analysis of time-trends in rice and wheat
area, production, and productivity in
different rice-wheat growing states of the
IGP and adjoining non IGP regions of
India.
Introduction
Rice and wheat are the two major food
crops of India. Therefore, primary food
security concerns are focused on improving
1. Ex-Professor of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, Punjab, India.
2. ICRISAT, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
and sustaining their productivity. With the
advent of the “Green Revolution”, these
two crops have come to occupy a significant
area in the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) of
South Asia, which extends from Pakistan in
the west to Bangladesh in the east. Rainfed
rice predominates in the abundant rainfall
zones of the eastern IGP where there is
scope for growing rice under ponded water
conditions, during the rainy season while
irrigated rice is grown in the western IGP.
Wheat assumes greater prominence in the
western IGP, where it is normally grown
with irrigation in the winter, in rotation
with rice.
Cultivation of rice and wheat in the
IGP of Nepal and adjoining parts of India is
prehistoric, although in the north-western
IGP of Pakistan and India it is a recent
phenomenon. Its adoption accelerated after
the introduction of short-statured, fertilizerresponsive
varieties in the 1960s. The
photo-insensitive nature of these cultivars of
rice and wheat has extended the span of
their feasible sowing/transplanting times.
This has extended their growing region
much beyond their traditional
environmental limits. There has been a
steady expansion in the area of rice and
wheat in non-traditional areas. Therefore,
considerable new areas of wheat cultivation
in the IGP and the expansion of rice in the
north-western IGP has occurred during the
past quarter century. Both of these crops
are highly exacting in their water and
nutrient needs and have been extensively
supported by rapid and vast development of
surface irrigation systems.
The comparative short-duration (100–
120 days of rice after transplanting and 135
to 150 days of wheat) of recent varieties of
rice and wheat has offered an unique
opportunity for extension of area under a
two crops-a-year, rice-wheat sequence. The
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flexibility in planting time has induced
farmers to advance the transplanting
schedules of rice to still earlier dates so as
to enable them to practice double cropping
according to convenience of management of
the rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS)
within the overall limitation of their specific
agro-ecoregional domains.
The basic agronomic technology
applied to RWCS is very similar throughout
the IGP. It has led to a rapid increase in
the cultivation of RWCS since the
introduction of HYVs of rice, in the 1970s.
The area under rice has been extended to
even lighter textured soils, where the crop
is being grown virtually without any
ponding of water; just by keeping the soil
wet enough to prevent development of more
than hair-size cracks. In these areas, no
ponding of water in paddy is done except
for the initial two weeks or so. This
ponding is practiced for effective weed-kill,
from the applied herbicides–primarily
‘butachlor and arozin’ groups of herbicides.
Here also, percolation rates being very high
(more than 2 mm/hour) the deep
percolation losses of water soon after the
transplanting of rice are high. Therefore,
paddy fields are watered daily, by keeping
tubewells running almost non-stop,
supplemented by canal waters at frequent
intervals (because the canal water is
available on a weekly rotational basis); and
in these areas irrigated rice is being grown
with a water use of about 150 cm. Most of
the deep percolated water is in fact being
recycled. In spite of the extensive recycling,
the water-table of the system is receding.
The evaporation losses are high, both from
paddy fields and conveyance channels, and,
therefore, the water-table is showing a sharp
decline in fresh water areas; rise of watertable
is, however, observed in the zones
where underground waters are saline/
alkaline.
2
The general yield realized for rice
(unhusked paddy) in the north-western IGP
has been very high (5–10 t/ha), at least 2
to 3 times greater than that harvested
earlier from the traditional paddy-growing
areas. This has been ascribed to
comparatively long, uninterrupted sunshine
hours experienced in this region (13–14
hours) and comparative freedom of these
two crops from major insect-pests and
diseases due to relatively weed-free and
hygienic conditions practiced by the farmers
of this region. The extent of herbicide use
covers almost 90–95% of rice area and up
to 60% of wheat area in Punjab state of
India. The irrigated culture, supported by
mechanized farming practices and large
consolidated holdings, has allowed
development of sophisticated agronomy of
rice-wheat cropping systems; and relatively
high levels of productivity. The extent to
which such high levels can be sustained in
the future is a question of utmost concern.
The committed procurement policy
particularly of the Government of India
(GoI) to purchase these cereals at
remunerative support prices has further
encouraged the farmers to plough-back the
profits accruing from higher yields into land
and development, and refining of the field
environment to conform to HYVs ricegrowing
requirements. The farmers, on
their own initiatives and without any
significant guidance from the Government,
State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) or
other National Agricultural Research
Systems (NARS), have undertaken largescale
land-leveling works, including
removing the surface sandy/coarse soil
material to make the soil amenable to ricegrowing.
As a result, there is now little left
of the former areas of extensive sand dunes
or unleveled fields in rice-growing areas of
the IGP states of Punjab, Haryana or
Western Uttar Pradesh which together
account for much of the rice-wheat area in
the country, out of a total rice-wheat area
of about 10.5 m ha (Tandon 1994).

Of late, concerns have been expressed
that the IGP rice-wheat growing areas are
developing a so-called “fatigue”, due to
continuous uninterrupted cultivation of this
very exhaustive cereal-cereal (rice-wheat)
cropping system, for now nearly three
decades. There is no doubt that rice and
wheat, which have similar adventitious
rooting systems, are very heavy feeders of
plant nutrients, and rice in particular
requires large number of irrigations (20–25
in the irrigated rice-wheat on light alluvial
soils areas of the IGP). But a closer
examination of available data is needed to
ascertain whether the productivity of the
RWCS is indeed stagnating?
An indepth systematic analysis of the
issue becomes imperative. Herein, this
issue is discussed and analyzed in the
context of the natural agro-ecology of the
IGP, socioeconomic limitations, the present
state and recent trends of rice-wheat (RW)
area and productivity and options available
to sustain or improve upon the productivity
of the system.
The IGP Ecoregion
The IGP is one of three main tectonic
divisions of mainland India, the others
being the Greater Himalayas and the
associated young fold mountains and the
ancient Deccan Plateau. The IGP broadly
comprises the states of West Bengal, Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and
Rajasthan (northern) (Fig. 1).
The IGP is a huge aggredational
surface, having come into existence as a
result of continuous deposition of alluvium
from the hills and mountains from both
sides of the Plains, i.e. the Himalayas in
the north and the ranges of the Deccan
Plateau in the south. It is one of the most
fertile agricultural regions of the world and
is densely populated, accounting for nearly
one-fifth of the world’s population. The
IGP is a great crescent of alluvial soils that
stretches from the delta of the Indus in the
west to the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in
the east. The sediment has been deposited
in rifts with the varying depth, at places
reaching 4500 m. The IGP is relatively
homogenous in topography, the only relief
being that associated with the changes in
river courses or river erosion. In the west,
the elevation of the IGP is 150–300 m
whereas in the east it is generally less than
50 m.
The IGP is generally divided into four
major agroclimatic regions (ACR) (Fig. 2a)
1. Lower Gangetic Plain Region: ACR III
2. Middle Gangetic Plain Region: ACR
IV
3. Upper Gangetic Plain Region: ACR V
4. Trans-Gangetic Plain Region: ACR VI
At different times, these four major
ACRs have been sub-divided into a number
of Agroclimatic Zones (ACZ), depending
upon their broad physiographic features,
climate (rainfall, temperature, sunshine hour
duration, humidity, etc.), soil type, area
relief, drainage, and general cropping
patterns.
In order to standardize the
Agroclimatic Regional Planning at zonal
level, the Planning Commission,
Government of India (1979) divided the
whole of India into 15 main ACRs. The
basic criteria applied for this classification
were homogeneity in agroclimatic
characteristics, soil type, physiographic
features, operational convenience relevant
to agricultural development and
maintenance of the ecosystem equilibrium
for sustainable agriculture. It was felt that
geographical boundaries should be adjusted
as far as possible with the district
boundaries, so as to enhance the application
of zonal maps by the decision makers.
3

The Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), in order to further focus
research and development (R&D) and to
sharpen development of the needed
infrastructure under its National
Agricultural Research Project (NARP)
delineated the whole of India into 120
distinct ACZs. Based on this classification,
the four broad ACRs comprising the IGP,
could be further subdivided, state-wise, into
21 ACZs (Ghosh 1991). These are as
follows (location given in parentheses
indicates name of mandated research
station of the zone):
ACR III : Lower Gangetic Plain Region
West Bengal
WB3: Old Alluvial Zone
(Majhian)
WB4: New Alluvial Zone
(Gayeshpur-Kalyani)
WB5: Laterite and Red Soil
Zone (Jhargram)
WB6: Coastal Saline Soil Zone
(Kakdweep)
ACR IV : Middle Gangetic Plain Region
A. Bihar
BI-1: North-West Alluvial Plain
Zone (Madhopur)
BI-2: North-East Alluvial Plain
Zone (Agwanpur)
BI-3: South Bihar Alluvial
Plain Zone (Sabour)
B. Eastern Uttar Pradesh
UP8: North-Eastern Plain Zone
(Basuli)
UP9: Eastern Plain Zone
(Kumarganj)
ACR V : Upper Gangetic Plain Region
Uttar Pradesh
UP2: Bhabar and Tarai Zone
(Pantnagar)
UP3: Western Plain Zone
(Daurala)
UP4: Mid-Western Plain Zone
(Ujhani-Badama)
UP5: South-Western Semi-Arid
Zone (Madhuri-Kund)
UP6: Central Plain Zone
(Dalipnagar)
ACR VI : Trans-Gangetic Plain Region
A. Haryana
HR1: Eastern Zone (Karnal)
HR2: Western Zone (Bawal)
B. Punjab
PB1: Sub-Montane Undulating
Zone or Kandi (Balowal-
Saunkri)
PB2: Undulating Plain Zone
(Gurdaspur)
PB3: Central Plain Zone
(Ludhiana)
PB4: Western Plain Zone
(Faridkot)
PB5: Western Zone
(Bathinda)
C. Rajasthan
RJ2: Irrigated North-Western
Plain Zone (Sri Ganganagar)
Detailed descriptions of these ACZs can be
found in Ghosh (1991) and Basu and Guha
(1996).
Methodology
To analyze the RWCS of the Indian
IGP at meso-level, a study approach has
been developed to evaluate trends at the
ACZ level with district as the base unit for
statistical data input. The ACZs
characterized earlier by NARP have been
modified as sometimes, where the NARP
zonal boundaries did not coincide with the
district boundaries, the two zones have been
5

6
Table 1. Modified agroclimatic zones of RWGA of the IGP and adjoining regions of India.
Agroclimatic Agroclimatic Corresponding Name of ACZ (NARP)
region zone NARP
(ACR) (ACZ) Zone number
A. Indo-Gangetic Plain
Region VI: Trans-Gangetic Plain Region (Punjab and Haryana)
Punjab A1 PB3 Central Plain Zone (Ludhiana)
A2 PB4 Western Plain Zone (Faridkot) and
PB5 Western Plain Zone (Bathinda)
A3 PB1 Sub-Montane Undulating Zone or Kandi (Balowal /
Saunkri), and
PB2 (Undulating Plain Zone (Gurdaspur)
Haryana A4 HR1 Eastern Zone (Karnal)
A5 HR2 Western Zone (Bawal)
Region V: Upper Gangetic Plain Region (Uttar Pradesh)
Uttar Pradesh B1 UP3 Western Plain Zone (Daurala)
B2 UP2 Bhabar and Tarai Zone (Pantnagar), and
UP4 Mid-Western Plain Zone (Ujhani-Badama)
B3 UP6 Central Plain Zone (Dalipnagar)
B4 UP5 South-Western Semi-Arid Zone (Madhuri Kund)
Region IV: Middle Gangetic Plain Region (Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar)
Eastern C1 UP9 Eastern Plain Zone (Kumarganj)
Uttar Pradesh C2 UP8 North-Eastern Plain Zone (Basuli)
Bihar C3 B1-3 South Bihar Alluvial Plain Zone (Sabour)
C4 B1-1 North-West Alluvial Plain Zone (Madhopur)
C5 B1-2 North-East Alluvial Plain Zone (Agwanpur)
Region III: Lower Gangetic Plain Region (West Bengal)
West Bengal D1 WB3 Old Alluvial Zone (Majhian) and
WB4 New Alluvial Zone (Gayeshpur-Kalyani)
D2 WB5 Laterite and Red Soil Zone (Jhargram)
D3 WB6 Coastal Saline Soil Zone (Kakdweep)
B. Non-Indo-Gangetic Plain Rice-Wheat Growing Areas
(i) Western Himalayas and Himachal Pradesh
Himachal E1 HP1 Sub-Montane and Low-Hills of Sub-Tropical Zone (Dhaulakuan)
Pradesh HP2 Mid-Hills of Sub-Humid Zone (Bajaura)
E2 HP3 High Hills of Temperate Wet Zone (Mashobra)
Uttar Pradesh E3 UC1 Kumaon and Garhwal Hills Zone (Rani-chauri)
(ii) Eastern Plateau and Hills Region (Bihar)
F1 BI-4 & BI-6 Eastern Plateau (Santhal Pargana*) Zone and
South-Eastern Plateau (Singhbhum*) Zone
Note: Names given in the parenthesis indicate the Agricultural Research Station of the State Agricultural University
(SAU) of the region. *Dominant district of the zone.

amalgamated into one larger zone to give
17 ACZs, in all. The 17 rice-wheat (RW)
growing ACZs, have been designated as
(A1, A2,…F1 as depicted in Fig. 2b). The
zone-names have been detailed in Table 1.
The modified ACZs formulated have thus
been used for detailed meso-analysis of ricewheat-growing
areas (RWGA) of the IGP.
Numbering of zones has been done from the
most productive to the least productive
zone, in each region, in the descending
order.
Again, because sizeable scatter of rice
and wheat areas is observed in certain
tracts adjacent to the IGP, even though
they do not strictly form part of the IGP,
the regions E1 and E2 of the Western
Himalayan ACR of Himachal Pradesh, and
E3, the Kumaon and Garhwal Hills of Uttar
Pradesh and F1 comprising Santhal Pargana
and Singhbhum regions of Bihar, have also
been included in this analysis. However,
due to lack of data, an important RWGA
district Sri Ganganagar in Rajasthan, could
not be included in this analysis.
The information relating to zonecharacterization
is largely based on
information provided by Ghosh (1991) and
Basu and Guha (1996).
Distribution of Rice and
Wheat in the IGP
The data on rice area refer to the 5-year
mean for 1991–95 (Fig. 3). However, wheat
area data are averaged over four years,
1991–94, as data for a number of newly
formed districts could not be obtained
(Fig. 4).
Meso-analysis for Rice
Agroclimatic Region VI: Trans-
Gangetic Plain Region (Punjab and
Haryana)
ACZ A1—Central Plain Zone: This zone
comprises the central plain districts of
Punjab state, and out of all the RWCA of
the IGP, it shows the maximum
concentration of rice (Fig. 3).
Agroclimatologically, this zone falls in the
low rainfall zone of 400–800 mm. But this
zone has the unique advantage of enjoying
the highest irrigation intensity in the
country, with more than 94% of net area
sown being irrigated through a network of
perennial canals (Bist-Doab Canal, Upper
Bari-Doab Canal, Sirhind Canal and the
Bakhra Canal Systems) and nearly 0.8
million tubewells. Groundwater reserves are
being fully exploited with the result that
this area is showing a sharp decline in
groundwater-table, averaging 20 cm per
annum (Narang and Gill 1994). But at
places the rate of water-table decline is as
high as 100 cm per annum or even more;
with the consequence that sustainability of
rice cultivation is at risk. In spite of this,
an increase in rice area has continued
because stable high yield of rice is
harvested with a liberal use of fertilizers
(120–150 kg N/ha or more), overall
congenial growing conditions (bright
sunshine duration of 13–14 hrs or more)
during most of the active growth period of
rice and a continuous replenishment of
irrigation water. Although costly, operating
an additional diesel pump over and above
the electric pumps, along with availability of
canal water, makes rice the most
productive, and the only crop choice for
farmers during the kharif (rainy season)
season.
The farmers grow rice on light sandy
loam/loam textured soils found on more
than half of this zone. It requires 1500 mm
of irrigation water applied over 100–110 day
active crop growing phase besides the 330
mm average normal effective rain received
during the growing season (Narang and
Gulati 1992). The water application consists
of scheduling 20–25 cm water at land
7

preparatory tillage, puddling and
transplanting. Water is then kept ponded for
about two weeks. It is followed subsequently
by fresh irrigations applied 1–2 days after
the surface water has seeped in and the soil
surface develops hair-size cracks. This
process is repeated 20–30 times during the
life-cycle of the crop. Irrigation is
discontinued about 2–3 weeks prior to
harvest.
In fact, the “Green Revolution” which
originated at Ludhiana, has spread rapidly
engulfing the whole Central Plain Zone
endowed with good canal and tubewell,
fresh water resource.
ACZ A2—Western Plain Zone: There is
considerable rice area in ACZ A2 also,
which comprises the south-western semiarid,
sub-tropical zone of the Punjab state
(Fig. 3). In this zone rice competes with
cotton, which is another major cash crop of
the area. This zone primarily includes the
districts of Firozpur and Faridkot where rice
is cultivated mainly in reliable supply canalirrigated
sectors. Tubewell water use is
moderate, as the underground water is
mostly brackish; and, therefore, soils at
places are saline and alkali with an
impeded drainage. The extension of rice
cultivation together with high seepage from
Rajasthan Canal [Indira Gandhi Nahar
Pariyojna, (IGNP)] and Bakhra Canal
Systems are causing further rise of the
groundwater table. Cotton and other
oilseeds/pulse grains can no longer be
grown. Farmers are shifting to rice
cultivation. This shift in cropping pattern is
causing considerable concern for the
sustainability of cotton production in the
area. But area under rice is likely to
increase further.
ACZ A3—Sub-Montane Undulating Zone
and Undulating Plain Zone: There is a
sizeable area of rice in this undulating plain
zone of the sub-montane tract covering
8
large parts of districts Ropar, Hoshiarpur,
Gurdaspur and Patiala of Punjab state
(Fig. 3). Soils get enriched with good
sedimentation of silt and clay during the
rainy season. Availability of canal and
tubewell irrigation supplemented by rain
makes large-scale growing of rice quite
feasible and rice area has virtually spread to
occupy all of the plain land available in the
Undulating Plain Zone.
ACZ A4—Eastern Zone:
ACZ A4—Eastern Zone: This zone
includes the very fertile eastern districts of
Ambala, Yamunanagar, Kurukshetra, Karnal,
Sonipat, Faridabad, Gurgaon and parts of
Rohtak. It comprises the major rice-growing
area of Haryana (Fig. 3). The Kurukshetra-
Karnal-Sonipat-Gurgaon-Faridabad belt is
famous for Basmati rice production. The
area, being generally short of groundwater
resources (due to poor and marginal quality
water) is generally dependent on canal
water and rainfall for sustaining rice.
Therefore, rice is normally planted with the
onset of the monsoon, unlike in Punjab
state where more than 80% of rice planting
is completed within the first fortnight of
June, prior to the commencement of rains;
and in some districts of Punjab like
Amritsar and Firozpur, even in May. This
comparatively late planting makes this area
suitable for growing of Basmati rice, which
requires a steadily falling temperature
regime with comparatively cool nights, and
high relative humidity during the
reproductive and grain development phase.
These environmental conditions are
considered to improve the quality of Basmati
rice in terms of its aroma, cooking quality,
less breakage of slender-long grains during
milling and polishing and ultimately
accruals of high over-head yield recoveries.
The ACZ A4, thus, though predominantly a
Basmati rice-growing region, also contributes
a sizeable surplus, for the national food
pools, of slender-fine quality (Parmal) rice
and coarse-grain rice, as well.

ACZ A5—Western Zone: This zone
constitutes the south-western arid parts of
Haryana state interspersed with desert-like
soils, sand dunes, scarce water availability,
highly brackish (poor quality) waters and
limited canal irrigation resource. Thus, rice
area in this zone is nominal as rice growing
is limited to certain pockets only, where,
besides canal water, some supplemental
tubewell irrigation water is also available
(Fig. 3).
Agroclimatic Region V: Upper
Gangetic Plain Region (Uttar
Pradesh)
ACZ B1—Western Plain Zone: This zone
constitutes the western-most districts of
Uttar Pradesh, forming the Yamuna-Ganga
Doab, the most fertile zone of the state. It
comprises the districts of Saharanpur,
Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad and
Bulundshahr. It constitutes the sugarcane
belt of Uttar Pradesh. Agroclimatically, it
is well endowed with a congenial climate,
almost resembling the Central Plain Zone
(Punjab) and Eastern Zone (Haryana). It
possesses an extensive network of irrigation
and abundant underground water reserve
(due to high recharge from the Yamuna and
Ganges Rivers and their tributaries coming
from the Himalayas). In spite of all these
favorable factors, it has, however, very
minimal area of rice and that too confined
mostly to district Saharanpur (Fig. 3). This
area has a large number of sugar factories,
both in the organized and unorganized
(farmer-owned unrefined sugar
manufacturing units) sectors. Further, as
sugarcane is the most popular crop, there is
little scope for rice which competes with
sugarcane for labor, capital and intensive
field care.
ACZ B2—Mid-Western Plain Zone and
‘Bhabar and Tarai Zone’: This modified
zone, primarily constituting the districts of
Mid-Western Plains of Uttar Pradesh, has
been enlarged to include the Bhabar and
Tarai belts, which constitute two narrow
strips lying one above the other on the
North Plains districts comprising the Mid-
Western Zone. This zone comprises the
productive Rohil Khand area covering the
districts of Bijnor, Moradabad, Rampur,
Pilibhit, Budaun, Bareilly, Nainital
(including Udhamsingh Nagar) and
Lakhimpur (Kheri) parts of Tarai. This area
constitutes the sub-humid zone. It has an
annual rainfall of 1000–1200 mm and also
enjoys ample irrigation resources. The
underground water-table is shallow and can
be easily exploited. Soils too are
comparatively heavy permitting successful
cultivation of rice. Rice constitutes a major
crop of the area, only next to wheat, and
accounts for the highest rice area
concentration in ACR V (Fig. 3).
ACZ B3—Central Plain Zone: This zone
comprises the districts lying between
Allahabad in the East to Kanpur in the
West and includes the districts of
Lakhimpur (Kheri), Sitapur, Hardoi,
Farrukhabad, Etawah, Kanpur, Kanpur
Dehat, Unnao, Rae Bareli, Fatehpur and
Allahabad. It constitutes the Awadh area
of Uttar Pradesh. It has an annual rainfall
of 800–1200 mm and is liberally sourced by
the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers and their
tributaries. Soils are deep alluvial, medium
to medium heavy textured but are easily
ploughable. The favorable climate and soil,
and the availability of ample irrigation
facilities make growing of rice a natural
choice for the area. This zone has a
sizeable area of rice though its scatter is
generally more widespread (Fig. 3).
ACZ B4—South-Western Semi-Arid Zone:
ACZ B4—South-Western Semi-Arid Zone:
This zone lies in the south-west Uttar
Pradesh, just below Zones B1 and B2 on
the border of Rajasthan, and constitutes
relatively the driest parts of Uttar Pradesh.
The area has mostly a rainfed farming type
of environment and, therefore, accounts for
9

a minimal area of rice (confined to Aligarh
district). It is thus not an important ricegrowing
area of the state (Fig. 3).
Agroclimatic Region IV: Middle
Gangetic Plain Region (Eastern
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar)
ACZ C1—Eastern Plain Zone (Uttar
Pradesh): This zone lies between the Saryu
and Ganges Rivers in the Central IGP. It
encompasses the districts of Bara Banki,
Faizabad, Sultanpur, Pratapgarh, Jaunpur,
Azamgarh, Ballia, Ghazipur and Varanasi of
Uttar Pradesh. It has an annual rainfall of
1000–1200 mm, of which 85–90% is
received during the monsoon months of
June-September/October and is also
endowed with good soils. This zone
constitutes a major traditional rice-growing
area of the IGP (Fig. 3). The density of
rice area is quite high and extent of rice
cultivation well spread, except in the southwest
where it is thin and in the southernmost
district, Sonebhadra, where it is
negligible.
ACZ C2—North-Eastern Plain Zone: This
zone lies north of the River Saryu and
between the Rivers Gandak and Ghaghra.
It comprises the districts of Gonda,
Bahraich, Basti, Gorakhpur and Deoria of
Uttar Pradesh. The area enjoys a subhumid,
sub-tropical climate. The monsoon
season lasts from June–September. The
annual rainfall of 1000–1200 mm or more
and low flood intensity accounts for rice
cultivation on an extensive scale in this
zone (Fig. 3). In fact, Eastern Uttar
Pradesh, with copious rainfall and heavy to
medium heavy textured soils, is considered
as naturally the most-suited rice-growing
area in the IGP. Therefore, the intensity of
rice cultivation is very high in this region
and rice is also the primary staple food of
the people living here. The rice area
extends from the borders of Uttar Pradesh
with Bihar on the East to Allahabad in the
10
south-west and the River Ghaghra to the
north-west. This zone, along with the
Northern Plain Zone, has been the
traditional rice-growing area of the IGP.
ACZ C3—South Bihar Alluvial Plain
Zone: This zone lies to the south of the
Ganges River with the Sone River forming
its major tributary on the southern flank. It
is comparatively free from recurring floods
except on the eastern flank where floods
occur once in every 2–4 years. The soils of
this zone are well drained and water
availability is high. Rice cultivation is
concentrated along the Sone and Ganges
Rivers; with the intensity decreasing in
flood-prone areas (Fig. 3).
ACZ C4—North-West Alluvial Plain Zone:
The North-West Alluvial Plain Zone, lies on
the east of the River Gandak and north of
the Ganges River, at an elevation of 50–100
m (asl). It has an annual rainfall of about
1200 mm but it is most frequently flooded.
Deep water paddy in the flood-prone areas
and upland rainfed paddy at upper
elevations, besides transplanted paddy are
major rice-based cropping features of this
zone. High frequency of floods (once every
year or every 2 years) makes growing of
most other crops a risky proposition and the
predominance of paddy in this region is,
therefore, inevitable.
ACZ C5—North-East Alluvial Plain Zone:
ACZ C5—North-East Alluvial Plain Zone:
This zone constitutes, along with the North-
West Alluvial Plain Zone, the second most
severely affected flood-prone area of the
state after the North-West Alluvial Plain
Zone ACZ C4. This is inundated almost
regularly every year by high floods of the
Kosi and Ganges Rivers and their
Himalayan tributaries. Accordingly, even
though agroclimatically suitable for rice
production, the intensity of rice area here is
comparatively low but it is still higher than
that of the low lying eastern plains of South
Bihar Alluvial Plain Zone ACZ C3 (Fig. 3).

Agroclimatic Region III: Lower Gangetic
Plain Region (West Bengal)
ACZ D1—Old and New Alluvial Zone:
The Old and New Alluvial Zone lying on
the east of the Ganges River constitutes the
traditional rice-growing zone of the state.
This zone experiences a sub-humid to
humid and sub-tropical climate. It receives
1200–1600 mm annual rainfall. Rice is
grown primarily as a rainy season crop
under long-duration flooded conditions
(Fig. 3). The soils are ideally suited for
rice cultivation and rice constitutes the
main staple food of the people. This zone is
another primary traditional rice-growing
area of the IGP together with Bihar and
Eastern Uttar Pradesh of ACR IV.
ACZ D2—Laterite and Red Soil Zone:
This zone constitutes the major rice growing
component of West Bengal and lies on the
western side of the Ganges River. It
accounts for the maximum area of rice in
the state (Fig. 3). Intensity of rice
cultivation in this ACZ is the highest of all
the zones of the IGP of India. The
intensity is almost comparable to that of
Central Plain Zone of Punjab (the nontraditional
irrigated rice area of India,
having come into prominence after the
introduction of HYVs in early 1970s and
not accustomed to growing rice on a large
scale prior to 1970s).
ACZ D3—Coastal D3 Coastal Saline Soil Zone: Being
coastal saline zone, it has hardly any
sizeable cultivated area. In fact, it
constitutes the marshy saline bog lands of
West Bengal where hardly any farming is
possible.
Adjoining IGP Areas of India
Western Himalayas and Himachal
Pradesh
ACZ E1—Sub-Montane and Low-Hills of
Sub-Tropical Zone and Mid-Hills of Sub-
Humid Zone: This zone comprises the
districts of Kangra, Hamirpur, Una and
Mandi in Himchal Pradesh, where rice is
cultivated extensively during kharif on the
flat plateau and valley lands and on
terraces on gently sloping hills (Fig. 3). By
far, the largest rice area is in Kangra
(40,000 ha) followed by the Mandi district
(23,000 ha), while the other two districts
have just about 5,000 ha. Annual rainfall
in this region is high (more than 1200 mm).
Irrigation by diversion of hill streams
(locally called Kuls) is a common feature
and rice is cultivated under relatively
abundant water supply conditions.
ACZ E2—High E2 High Hills of Temperate Wet
Zone: There is no appreciable area observed
under rice in this district of Kinnaur valley.
ACZ E3—Kumaon and Garhwal Hills
Zone: Sizeable mountain/valley land, rice
area (‘000 ha) is observed in districts of
Pithoragarh (48) Almora (38), Garhwal
(26), Chamoli (18), Uttarkanshi (11),
Dehra Dun (18) and Tehri Garhwal (17)
(Fig. 3). The agroclimatic condition
available is suitable for rice cultivation in
the rainy season, viz., due to high rainfall
and comparatively warm climate with
sufficient bright sunshine-hour duration.
ACZ F1—Eastern Plateau Zone (Santhal
Pargana) and South Eastern Plateau Zone
(Singhbhum): Districts of Santhal Pargana
and Singhbhum of Bihar show sizeable area
under rice (Fig. 3). District Singhbum East
lying at the foot of West Bengal has almost
300,000 ha of rice. The rice area of Santhal
Parganas, which comprises the districts
Deoghar, Godda, Sahibganj, and Dumka,
together account for nearly 333,000 ha. This
area lies outside of the IGP, but is sizeable.
Likewise, cultivation of rice has also
spread to Sri Ganganagar area of Rajasthan
which forms the north-western fringe of the
Trans-Gangetic Plain Zone of the IGP.
11

However, unambiguous rice area data are
not available for this region.
Meso-analysis for Wheat
Distribution of wheat, region-wise and ACZwise,
is depicted in Figure 4. Their
description follows:
Agroclimatic Region VI: Trans-
Gangetic Plain Region (Punjab and
Haryana)
Wheat cultivation is widespread in this
agroclimatic region, because it receives
good winter rains (100–110 mm) and is well
endowed with a very comprehensive
irrigation system of tubewells and canals.
Besides, this region enjoys long bright
sunshine-hour duration (10–12 hrs d -1 ) and
low temperatures appropriate for
vernalization and good seed-set in wheat.
The density of wheat area is high in this
region; 80–85% of cultivated area is sown
to wheat during the rabi (postrainy, cool)
season. The irrigation water supply is
abundant, except in some pockets of West
Zone (e.g. district Mahendragarh of
Haryana) and in the Sub-Montane (Kandi
Hills) area. Fertilizer and herbicide (mostly
Isoproturon group and 2,4-D) use is widespread;
mechanization (tractorized land
preparation, harvesting, threshing and
transportation of produce) is extensive; and
basic infrastructure of rail, road, transport,
communications, electricity supply, etc., are
adequate. Delivery of inputs, seed,
fertilizers, herbicides implements and latest
production know-how and training are made
available to the farmers at their door-step.
The farmers of the region too are very
progressive, entrepreneur-minded, receptive
to the adoption of new innovative
technologies and adept in managerial skills.
Eversince the introduction of canal
irrigation from the early 1920s, they had
been consistently in the forefront of
12
improving wheat farming in India.
Since the introduction of high-yielding
varieties (HYVs) of wheat from the late
1960s and rice from early 1970s, the farmers
of the region have maintained an
uninterrupted lead of ever increasing yields
of wheat and rice in India. The total
productivity of rice (in terms of paddy) and
wheat grain in Punjab (1996–97) is the
highest (5.26+ 4.24=9.50 t/ha/annum)
which compares with the best in the world
(Anonymous 1991–95: Statistical Abstract of
Punjab, Economic Advisor, Punjab,
Chandigarh). This is being made possible
primarily due to the adoption of precision
farming and high input technology by more
and more medium, small-scale and marginal
farmers over the years. The area of wheat
has nearly reached a saturation point in the
states of Punjab and Haryana, with a
possible scope for only marginal adjustment
for stabilization at a slightly lower level in
the coming decades. Some diversification is
likely to occur with a shift from wheat
cultivation to feed and fodder crops for
dairy industry.
In the Trans-Gangetic Plain Region,
zone-wise, maximum wheat area density is
observed in zones A1, A2, A3 and A5.
Surprisingly, the density of wheat is less in
A4 (Eastern-Zone Haryana) comprising the
districts of Ambala, Yamunanagar,
Kurukshetra, Karnal, Sonipat, Gurgaon and
Faridabad. This is because the Ambala-
Yamuna Nagar-Kurukshetra belt has a very
large sugar mill located at Yamuna Nagar.
Besides, a number of small sugar mills of
2500 t/d (tonnes per day crushing capacity)
are also established in various other
districts. A large area in rabi, therefore,
remains under sugarcane. Secondly, this
zone as stated earlier, constitutes the
Basmati rice-growing belt. The Basmati rice
vacates the field late and much of rice area
is diverted to sunflower and potato, or left
vacant for sowing of sugarcane in February–

March. Thirdly, in districts with
comparatively deficient soil moisture
availability, such as Gurgaon and Faridabad,
a sizeable area is sown to barley, oilseeds
(canola and mustard) and chickpea crops.
Besides, the fodder crop of berseem
(Trifolium alexandrinum), raised for dairy
cattle, also accounts for appreciable area all
over Haryana. Even then, the wheat area
is higher than the area devoted to rice in
this region, to the extent of almost oneand-a-half
times.
Agroclimatic Region V: Upper Gangetic
Plain Region (Uttar Pradesh)
ACZ B1, B2, B3 and B4—Western Plain,
Bhabar and Tarai, Mid-Western Plain,
Central Plain and South-Western Semi-
Arid Zones of Uttar Pradesh: After the
Trans-Gangetic Plain Region,
agroclimatically, the Upper-Gangetic Plains
Region, forms the most natural wheatgrowing
area of India. This region, like the
former, besides receiving ample winter rains
(80–100 mm), also enjoys abundant
irrigation water availability. It has deep,
well-drained alluvial fertile soils. The region
has a well-developed infrastructure; like
rail, roads, transport, communications,
electricity, a vast network of canal and
tubewell-based irrigation systems, and an
easy access to markets. Fertilizers and other
inputs, a fairly high level of agro-technology
and credit are readily available.
The density of wheat, though quite
high is comparatively less than in the Trans-
Gangetic Plains. The density of wheat area
is high around Tarai in B2, the Western
(B1), Mid-Western (B2) and adjoining
districts of South-Western Semi-Arid Zone
(B4). It tends to be less in the Bhabar
Plains Tract and thins out further in lower
districts of dry zone B3, obviously due to
the water availability constraint.
In Western Uttar Pradesh, and in
Tarai regions the main competition to wheat
comes from sugarcane, while in the dry
zone, low water requiring crops like canola
and mustard, winter legumes such as
chickpea, mixed crops, etc. are cultivated
during rabi.
The cultivation of wheat though quite
widespread in the Central Plain Zone (B3),
tends to be comparatively less than that in
ACZs B1, B2 and B4. This is primarily due
to water availability constraint. The canal
irrigation is not vastly developed nor is
tubewell irrigation widespread in this zone.
The north-west monsoon rains also taper off,
thereby, leaving overall a net deficit water
balance. Secondly, large-scale cultivation
of long-duration pigeonpea in this zone
prevents planting of wheat in time.
Therefore, wheat area thins out
considerably in the Central Plain Zone (B3)
in comparison to that observed in ACZs B1
and B2.
Agroclimatic Region IV: Middle
Gangetic Plain Region (Eastern
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar)
Sizeable area of wheat is observed in the
Middle-Gangetic Plains Region, as well.
But this is largley concentrated in eastern
Uttar Pradesh. The density of wheat
cultivation tends to thin out from the west
to the east of the region. The state of
Bihar, though showing sizeable area under
wheat, has a comparatively thinner spread
of area in the north-eastern and southern
flanks. Agroclimatically, the Bihar IGP
region has mild winters and, therefore, has
a rather shorter wheat-growing span. In
fact, the growing season of wheat tends to
be shorter by almost 30–35 days as
compared with that of the Trans-Gangetic/
Western Uttar Pradesh regions. The abrupt
rise of temperatures in spring which often
causes terminal heat stress, further curtails
the growing period. This enforced maturity
results in imperfectly developed or
21

incompletely filled grains. Seed damage due
to shriveling is also noted. In spite of these
handicaps, because wheat has a stable
performance (though at lower yield levels)
and as it fits very well in the 2-crops-a-year
rice-based system, it is cultivated
extensively in the entire Middle-Gangetic
Plains Region. Of course, the area
intensity fluctuates in response to the water
availability resource and the time of
planting available. For example, in the
north-eastern and south-eastern perennial
flooded lands, where wheat is sown late
after recession of the flood waters, the crop
is raised mostly on stored soil moisture; its
density is also thin in the eastern Bihar
area (C3, C4, and C5 Zones) as compared
with that in the Western or Eastern Uttar
Pradesh.
Agroclimatic Region III: Lower
Gangetic Plain Region (West
Bengal)
Wheat is a recent entrant into West
Bengal. Prior to the era of HYVs, hardly
any wheat was cultivated in West Bengal.
But since the advent of HYVs in the late
1960s, because of their short duration and
photoperiod-insensitive nature, a sizeable
area in West Bengal is now sown to wheat,
particularly the area comprising the Old
and New Alluvial Zone (D1). This zone
includes the districts of Murshidabad, Nadia
and 24 Parganas (South) which lie along
the border of Bangladesh and enjoy
comparatively cool winters. This makes
wheat cultivation a successful economic
proposition. Very little area has come to be
occupied by wheat in ACZ D2 (Laterite
and Red Laterite Soil Zone); perhaps
because of (i) low soil water holding
capacity and little opportunity for irrigation,
and (ii) a comparatively higher temperature
regime (warmer winters with no or very
little chilling period). Total area of wheat
in ACZ D2 (Birbhum, Medinipur and
22
Barddhaman districts) comes to around
20,000 ha with 12,000 ha accounted for by
district Birbhum alone. The remaining two
districts could be considered less important
wheat-growing areas, having less than 5000
ha each.
Distribution of Rice-Wheat
Cropping System
District-wise distribution of rice-wheat
growing area (RWGA) is depicted in Figure
5. To qualify as an RWGA, only districts
having an area of 5000 ha or more of rice
as well as wheat have been taken to
constitute RWGA. Thus, any district having
less than 5000 ha of either rice or wheat
has been excluded as it was considered not
meeting the minimum requirement of
RWGA. Accordingly, the area of rice-wheat
on the basis of minimum common hectarage
has been taken to be considered as R-W
rotation. Further, it is quite possible that all
of the rice area may not be going under
wheat or vice-versa. By far the bulk of rice
area at least in Punjab, Haryana, Western
and Central and Eastern Uttar Pradesh and
over most of Bihar is occupied by wheat,
and bulk of rice area in West Bengal goes
to wheat, therefore, in absence of more
specific data, the minimum of the two crops
taken as common factor has been assumed
to represent RWCA.
With these assumptions, rice-wheat
cropping sequence (RWCS) is found to be
uniformly spread over the whole of the IGP,
stretching from India’s north-western border
with Pakistan to its eastern borders with
Bangladesh. The intensity of RWCS is
observed to gradually decrease from west to
east. Constraints of water availability
(assured and timely irrigation) seem to act
as the primary limiting factor in adoption of
RWCS. Besides, weather, short-growing
season, and absence of low temperatures of
sufficient duration also tend to limit wheat

cultivation in eastern Bihar and West
Bengal. RWCS is a stable system and
wheat after rice could be grown under
varied soil, climate, socioeconomic,
technological, and population-food
preference scenarios. More and more
people in the rice-eating states are now
consuming wheat. Further, wheat with its
natural resilience grows well even under
the low-input, low-moisture availability
situations, particularly, when grown on
residual soil moisture on medium to heavy
paddy growing lands. Even a single
irrigation to wheat makes a lot of difference
and helps double its yield realization. It is,
therefore, preferred over all other rabi
season crops across a water availability
range from nil, (except the carry-over
profile stored moisture) to 100% irrigation
(4–5) over the growing season.
The rice, of course, as discussed
earlier, is grown in Trans-Gangetic and
Western and Central Uttar Pradesh
irrigated regions solely for sale, made
possible by committed procurement of the
produce in full at fixed procurement prices.
The area under rice continues to register
an increase, though at a reducing rate, as
underground water resource is increasingly
becoming a limiting factor. Rice area is
now being extended to saline-alkali
brackish irrigation and waterlogged soils in
Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, though
whether it would be possible to sustain it in
the long run is a mute question. The
considered view is that unrestricted
increase of rice area in the brackish water
zone and water-logged areas should be
discouraged as in the long run flooding of
these lands and increased additions (8–12
times more water than those needed to
grow cotton or other low water requiring
crops of oilseeds and pulse grains) may lead,
in due course, to an abnormal rise of
groundwater, too near to the root zone.
This will cause serious waterlogging and
build-up of salinity-alkalinity hazards. The
cultivation of rice on soils with rising watertables
may ultimately prove counterproductive.
Present estimates put the total area
occupied by RWCS at about 10.5 million ha
(Tandon 1994) though some other estimates
describe it as high as 12 million ha.
Production of Rice and
Wheat in the Indo-Gangetic
Plain of India
Rice
Unlike the scatter of area, production of
rice is concentrated primarily in four broad
bands (Fig. 6): The first band of the highest
production is focused around Punjab and
Eastern Haryana. This area encompasses
Zone A1 (Central Plain), A3 (Undulating
Plain Zone and Sub-Montane Undulating
Zone) and Zone A2 (Western Plain Zone)
of Firozpur-Faridkot districts of Punjab,
and Zone A4 (Eastern Zone) of Haryana of
ACR VI: Trans-Gangetic Plain Region of
the IGP.
The second band of the highest rice
production lies in West Bengal in ACR III:
Lower Indo-Gangetic Plain Region, with
production being equally thickly distributed
over both the ACZ D1 (Old and New
Alluvial Zone) and ACZ D2 (Laterite and
Red Soil Zone). The production density
thins out near the ACZ D3 (Coastal Saline
Zone) due to obvious reasons of nonsuitability
of this zone for arable farming.
The third high density rice-production
band is observed to be centered around the
Bhabar & Tarai, and Mid-Western Plain
Zone B2 of Western Uttar Pradesh, cutting
the state longitudinally from NW to SW,
and separating it from B4 on the southern
boundary.
23

The fourth band of high rice
production is scattered over comparatively
much larger area. It comprises the ACR
IV: Middle Gangetic Plain Region
comprising Uttar Pradesh (Zone C1–Eastern
Plain Zone and Zone C2–North Eastern
Zone of eastern Uttar Pradesh) and Zones
C3 (South Bihar Alluvial Plain Zone) and
C4 (North-West Alluvial Plain Zone) of
Bihar and ACZ B3 (Central Plain Zone) of
ACR V: Upper Gangetic Plain Region of
Uttar Pradesh. Rice area localization is
linked with the availability of irrigation in
the West while it is rainfall determined in
the East.
Wheat
Unlike, rice, wheat production is primarily
more thickly concentrated in the Trans-
Gangetic Plain Region VI comprising the
whole of Punjab and Haryana states (Fig.
6). The second most concentrated band is
focused in ACR V: Uper Gangetic Plain
Region of ACZ B2 (Bhabar & Tarai and
Mid-Western Plain Zone) and B4 (South-
Western Semi-Arid Zone), which transverses
from NE to SW. The third band of wheat
production comprises the ACR IV: Middle
Gangetic Plain Region of Eastern Uttar
Pradesh which encompasses the ACZ C1
and C2 of Eastern and North-Eastern Plain
Zones respectively. The production density
thins out towards the east in Bihar. It
becomes low in West Bengal with the
maximum being in ACZ D1. Wheat shows
only token presence in ACZ D2 and is nil
in ACZ D3.
The so-called “Green Revolution
Effect” seems to be spreading from Punjab
and Haryana towards SW/Mid-Western
Tarai Zone in the west; from east of Uttar
Pradesh to towards Central Uttar Pradesh
in the east and in between it is coalescing
to form one solid block. The production is
slowed down in Central Plain Zone (B3)
24
only on account of limited irrigation
availability and saline-alkali soil problems at
places.
Productivity of Rice and
Wheat in the Indo-Gangetic
Plain of India
Rice
The productivity of rice, zone-wise, for each
of the four agroclimatic regions, viz., Region
III, IV, V and VI is depicted in Figure 7.
It may be noted that rice yield is in terms
of milled rice after removal of the husk;
which normally has a factor of 0.67 of the
field unhusked paddy yields. Accordingly
the paddy yield would be about 1.5 times
greater than the rice yield expressed herein,
on the basis of which the statistics are
reported in India.
The productivity of rice realized
indicates a variation from less than 1.5 t/ha
to as high as 3.5–4.0 t/ha in the Punjab.
This variation, when expressed in terms of
field paddy (unhusked rice) equivalent
yields, would be 2.25 to 6.0 t/ha.
The highest productivity zone of 3.5–
4.0 t rice/ha (5.25 to 6.0 paddy/ha) is
concentrated over Zone A1 (Central Plain)
and large part of Zone A2 (Western Plain
of Punjab. This is surrounded almost in a
concentric ring by the next highest
productivity zone of 3.0–3.5 t rice/ha (4.5–
5.25 t paddy/ha) which encompasses the
surrounding areas of Punjab and Haryana.
Figure 7 thus illustrates how high
production technology for rice seems to be
expanding from the center of origin of the
“Green Revolution” in concentric rings to
the adjoining areas and marching steadily
towards the east.
The second focus of the ricerevolution
is centered in the Bhabar and
Tarai, Mid-Western Plain and adjoining

plain districts of Western Plain Zone. This
represents the zone of 3.0–3.5 t rice/ha
(4.5–5.25 t paddy/ha) productivity. It is
localized in the Tarai area of district
Nainital (Udham Singh Nagar) and
adjoining areas. Again, the high
productivity zonation seems to be spreading
towards the east, west and south in a semicircle
as observed in Punjab. A similar
trend of high productivity is also seen to be
emerging in West Bengal where a high
productivity zone of 2.5–3.0 t rice/ha (3.75–
4.5 t paddy/ha) is spreading from district
Barddhaman to towards the surrounding
areas.
The productivity of rice realized
continues to be dismally low (less than 1.5–
2.0 t rice/ha (2.25–3.0 t paddy/ha) over
most of the rest of the Uttar Pradesh. The
productivity tends to slump to still lower
levels of less than 1.5 t/ha rice or 2.25 t/ha
paddy in the north-eastern and northwestern
zones. It seems that the advent of
“Green Revolution” has not made any
impact here. The yield realization
continues to be pegged down to pre-green
revolution era at the low level of less than
3 t ha paddy (2 t ha rice). This suggests
that farmers have not yet started adopting
the new high-input high-yield rice culture.
Even though HYVs have been introduced
and farmers educated about inputs, use of
fertilizers, herbicides and tractorization of
land for preparatory tillage on an extensive
scale and mechanized management of rice
and wheat (threshers/harvesters) remains
scarce. Probable reasons for this may be
many. Probably the Zamindari (large
landowner) system, absence of active
peasant farmers, and less than desired
availability of technical, financial and
extension support may be the major
constraint. Many of the able bodied males
and females move out from eastern Uttar
Pradesh, leaving their lands to be managed
by older people or children. Often times
tenant farmers are engaged who have little
interest in land development. But, in
contrast, the low yield realization in the
western and central parts of Uttar Pradesh
is rather an interesting case, in that, that
little migration of labor takes place from
these areas. Further intensified efforts to
increase rice productivity in this area
through a mix of appropriate policy changes,
farmer education, and infrastructure
development are obviously needed to make
a break-through. In fact, this zone holds
the potential of meeting the increased food
needs of the future and ought to be given
the active attention, it deserves.
The productivity of rice in Bihar,
ACR IV: Middle Gangetic Plain Region is
particularly low. It is mostly less than 1.5 t/
ha rice or 2.25 t/ha paddy over most of the
eastern Bihar. This region is highly floodprone
(Fig. 9b), and flooding of lands over
an extended period makes rice cultivation
very risky. Thus, until and unless the
government in cooperation with the Royal
Government of Nepal undertakes (i) largescale
agroforestry and aforestation programs
in the Hills of the Himalayas, (ii)
construction of appropriate dams, and (iii)
appropriate steps to control water flows by
canalization of river flows, rice productivity
in this area is likely to remain low.
However, rice productivity in the upper
western Bihar (inclusive of both North-
Eastern and South Bihar Alluvial Plain
Zones) which are not subjected to severe
flooding [(as those obtained in the eastern
Bihar) (Fig. 9b)] holds promise of
undertaking productivity improvement
measures like harnessing of natural local
water resources and adoption of modern
high-input guided production techniques.
Perhaps, the agriculture and rural
environment obtained in this region
continues to suffer from similar
socioeconomic problems as described for
eastern Uttar Pradesh. This coupled with
25

large-scale migration of able-bodied male
and female labor-force is slowing progress of
this region.
Wheat
There is a very high productivity zone for
wheat (4–4.5 t/ha) localized in just 3
districts, viz., Ludhiana and Sangrur in
Punjab and Yamunanagar in Haryana (Fig.
7). This zone of high production is
encircled by a very large compact block of
(3.5–4.0 t grain/ production/ha), comprising
almost the whole of the Punjab and the
eastern (wet) zone of Haryana. The only
exceptions to this zone enlarging to one big
compact block, are (i) the low productivity
(< 3.0 t/ha) area comprising Sub-Montane
Undulating Zone or Kandi on the North,
and (ii) the dry districts of south-western
Punjab and adjoining area of Haryana,
which lack good quality underground water
and where introduction of canal water has
created problems of waterlogging and soil
salinization.
The next high productivity area (3.0–
3.5 t/ha) lies in Western Plain Zone, B1 of
Uttar Pradesh which stretches from
Muzaffarnagar to Ghaziabad. Around this
lies the next highest productivity zones
(2.5–3.0 t/ha): (i) to the north—district
Saharanpur (B1), (ii) along the north-east
—districts Moradabad, Rampur and Nainital
Tarai plain and Mid-Western Plain (B2),
and (iii) in the South-Western Semi-Arid
Zone B4 (Agra, Aligarh, Mathura, etc.).
Wheat productivity ranges between
2.0–2.5 t/ha over most of the area lying
along the central longitude belt formed
between River Doabs and stretching from
West Bihar border to Western Uttar
Pradesh. This, however, seems to be a
prospective promising area. The productivity
of wheat in this area could be increased to
3.0–3.5 t/ha with little effort, as most of the
26
area lies in a non-restrictive water
availability zone and tubewells could
provide supplemental irrigation to assure
water availability during long periods of
drought. Obviously, more concerted efforts
need to be undertaken in the northern and
southern districts showing an average wheat
yield of 1.5–2.0 t/ha. Detailed micro-level
constraints analysis, possibly along with
strengthening of the water resources, could
help break the low-input low-yield syndrome
in this zone.
Wheat productivity, like that of rice,
continues to be very low in the eastern
Bihar (1.5–2.0 t/ha) and at places it slips
even below 1.5 t/ha level. Here probably
introduction of suitable short-duration
wheat varieties with terminal heat tolerance
specifically bred for these areas could help
improve the productivity. Above all,
however, control of flooding of agricultural
lands holds the ‘key’ to a less risky
agriculture.
Productivity-wise, ACR III: Lower
Gangetic Plain Region of West Bengal
seems better placed than Bihar with
average productivity of 2.0–2.5 t/ha. The
productivity realization could improve
further with adoption of area-specific shortduration
HYVs and complementation of
location-specific crop-agronomic practices.
Likewise, the productivity of wheat in
the Western Himalayan Region, too, is very
low: it is (i) less than 1.5 t/ha in the
mountainous region of Kumaon and Garhwal
Hills to (ii) 1.5–2.0 t/ha in the Kangra
valley and adjoining hill districts of
Himachal Pradesh. The cause of low
productivity of both wheat and rice in this
region is the soil moisture constraints,
particularly during the reproductive phase,
when most of the water streams dry up and
stored soil moisture in the root zone gets
depleted. The very low winter

temperatures also could be another factor.
But there seems little scope for making any
significant breakthrough, except by way of
shifting some area from wheat to other less
water requiring crops and confining wheat
cultivation to heavy soils of good moisture
retentivity; and strengthening of irrigation
supplies, wherever, possible.
Productivity of the Rice-
Wheat Cropping System
The total productivity of rice + wheat
(R+W) in the rice-wheat growing areas of
the IGP is depicted in Figure 8. An
interesting picture emerges upon plotting
the total rice and wheat productivity of
RWCS specific to the R-W growing areas.
A solid compact block of very high
productivity of 7–8 t/ha of rice + wheat is
found concentrated in the Trans-Gangetic
Plain Region VI (Punjab-Haryana). On the
periphery of this very high productivity
block, lies the next high productivity area
of 6–7 t/ha which comprises the districts of
Gurdaspur on the north-west and parts of
Haryana (A4) and little further below in
South-West Uttar Pradesh, the district of
Aligarh. This is followed by zone of 5–6 t/
ha comprising parts of Zone A4 of Haryana,
mid-upper part of Western Uttar Pradesh,
Zone B1, Tarai Region B2, and South-
Western parts of B4 on the eastern flanks.
Next to these high productivity zones,
north-eastward and south-eastward lies a
fourth zone of high productivity. This
encompasses the large number of districts of
zones B2, B4 and B3 with average R+W
productivity of 4–5 t/ha. Another similar
productivity area is apparent in (i) southern
Bihar (ii) south-eastern Uttar Pradesh (iii)
north-eastern parts and in central districts
of Uttar Pradesh of Faizabad, Barabanki,
etc. A similar range of productivity (4–5 t/
ha) is also observed in West Bengal ACZ
D1 (Old and New Alluvial Plain Zones), as
well. Elsewhere, the total rice +wheat
productivity continues to be dismally low,
i.e. less than 3 t/ha, as in eastern Bihar,
and 3–4 t/ha as observed over most of the
eastern and central Uttar Pradesh, southern
Uttar Pradesh, and western Bihar. Thus,
high productivity of rice and wheat seems
to go hand-in-hand across the IGP. Low
productivity seems positively correlated with
flood-prone areas (Fig. 9b).
Time-trends in Rice and Wheat
Temporal trends of area, production and
productivity of rice and wheat based on 3year
moving averages along with compound
growth rates are depicted in Figures 10–16.
The detailed analysis for various regions is
as under:
Rice
ACR VI—Trans-Gangetic VI Trans-Gangetic Plain Region
(Punjab and Haryana): The rice crop
continues to show an overall steady increase
in area, production and productivity in this
agroclimatic zone, the primary Green-
Revolution region in India (Fig. 10).
Although productivity appears to be getting
plateaued from the 1980s, there are no
declining trends observed for any of these
three parameters viz., area, production or
productivity, which are vitalfrom the
national food security point of view.
27

The compound rate of growth (Table
2) for rice for the period 1991–95 was 1.6%
for productivity, 2.7% for area and 4.3% for
production for the region as a whole. The
productivity growth rate of 1.6% for the
period 1991–95 was in fact 0.1% higher
than that for 1981–90. The rate of increase
28
Region / Period Rice Wheat
Area Production Productivity Area Production Productivity
Trans-Gangetic Plain (VI)
1971-80
1981-90
1991-95
1971-95
Punjab
Haryana
1971-80
1981-90
1991-95
1971-95
1971-80
1981-90
1991-95
1971-95
Upper Gangetic Plain (V)
1971-80
1981-90
1991-95
1971-95
Middle Gangetic Plain (IV)
1971-80
1981-90
1991-95
1971-95
Lower Gangetic Plain (III)
1971-80
1981-90
1991-95
1971-95
Western Himalayas &
Himachal Pradesh (E1-E3)
1971-80
1981-90
1991-95
1971-95
Eastern Plateau and Hills (F1)
1971-80
1981-90
1991-95
1971-95
9.2
5.0
2.7
7.1
11.4
5.8
3.2
8.1
5.3
2.8
1.3
4.7
1.7
0.2
0.7
1.3
0.7
0.6
-5.0
0.3
0.7
1.0
0.8
0.7
7.7
1.0
-1.1
5.1
0.3
-1.2
-2.4
-0.8
16.2
6.6
4.3
10.0
18.7
7.5
5.0
11.1
11.3
3.6
1.9
7.2
6.0
6.6
1.0
5.5
3.0
5.7
-5.0
3.1
3.7
6.2
2.8
4.1
8.7
2.1
-0.1
5.7
0.6
1.9
-2.7
-0.5
in area is substantial, showing that the
trend of the general shift from pulses,
oilseeds and millets to rice continues at a
substantial rate, even now. This has been
made possible by the extension of irrigation,
leveling of land and related improvements
being accomplished to accommodate rice,
Table 2. Compound rate of growth (%) of rice and wheat in the Indo-Gangetic Plain of India
6.4
1.5
1.6
2.7
6.5
1.6
1.7
2.8
5.8
0.6
0.6
2.3
4.2
6.3
0.3
4.2
2.1
5.0
0.0
2.7
2.9
5.1
1.9
3.3
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.3
3.3
-0.3
0.2
2.1
1.8
0.3
2.0
2.1
1.4
0.6
1.8
2.1
2.6
-0.1
2.4
2.3
1.1
1.2
1.9
3.8
2.0
-1.8
2.3
5.3
1.7
-1.7
0.3
7.7
0.7
-4.3
3.7
12.3
-4.2
4.4
0.1
3.8
5.0
2.4
5.0
4.0
4.4
2.6
4.6
3.4
6.4
2.1
5.8
4.4
4.8
2.8
5.3
7.0
5.6
1.3
5.5
10.3
5.3
1.6
2.7
8.3
1.1
-4.7
4.9
15.4
-2.2
5.8
1.5
1.6
3.1
2.0
2.9
1.8
2.9
2.0
2.7
1.2
3.7
2.1
3.2
2.0
3.7
1.6
3.3
3.1
3.5
3.1
3.1
4.8
3.8
3.2
2.4
0.6
0.3
-0.5
1.1
2.7
2.2
1.3
1.3

esides extension of rice cropping to
waterlogged areas, both in Punjab and
Haryana.
The meso state-level analysis of the
two components (viz., Punjab and Haryana)
of Trans-Gangetic Plain (Figs. 11 and 12),
shows that the rate of growth (Table 2) is
still maintained by Punjab at a much higher
rate (productivity 1.7%, area 3.2% and
production 5.0%) than by Haryana
(productivity 0.6%, area 1.3% and
production 1.9%). The reasons for this
differential performance in Punjab over
Haryana, as already discussed, are better
soil (alkali free), abundant water (fresh
water availability) better technology
adoption level of the farmers, financial and
technical patronage of the state and
differences in the rice genotypes (more of
HYVs of non Basmati types) grown in the
former than the latter.
ACR V—Upper Gangetic Plain Region
(Uttar Pradesh): A progressive positive
trend of growth in productivity (0.3%), area
(0.7%), production (1.0%) has been
observed over 1991–95. But this rate of
growth falls far short of that for the 1981–
90 decade (Fig. 13). Thus, an area and
productivity plateau is apparent in this
region. Reasons for this are not entirely
clear as the physical environment is
potentially conducive to high productivity.
Socioeconomic and infrastructural factors
may assume an important role here.
ACR IV—Middle Gangetic Plain Region
(Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar): The
productivity and hence the area and
production of rice seems to be falling in the
1990s (i.e. 1991–95) (Fig. 14). The three
plausible reasons which could be advanced
for this are: (i) shift of a large productive
area in South Bihar Alluvial Plains to
winter maize, (ii) a sharp decline in
productivity of paddy soils since the
introduction of RWCS (which has been
observed to occur within a couple of years
under low or no inputs of nitrogen,
phosphorus and zinc), and (iii) the
29

ineffective extension/inputs services and a
high incidence of floods over large areas.
ACR III—Lower Gangetic Plain Region
(West Bengal): West Bengal has maintained
a very vigorous rate of growth of rice in
productivity (+1.9%), production (+2.8%)
and area (0.8%) over the period 1991–95
(Fig. 15). A small increase in area
emphasizes the near saturation position in
the case of traditional rice growing regions.
High productivity indicates that the tempo
of high input-use and improved cropgrowing
techniques are being adopted on a
wide-scale and are percolating down to
small and marginal farmers somewhat similar
to what has been witnessed in the Trans-
Gangetic Plain Region.
30
Adjoining Non-IGP Western Himalayas
and Himachal Pradesh Region: Table 2
and figure 16 show that during the period
1991–95, even though the rice productivity
has sustained a steady positive growth rate
(+0.9%), the growth rate of area has
declined sharply (-1.1%). When compared
with corresponding growth rates of 1981–90,
the slippage in area seems quite substantial.
It may be due to the inability of farmers to
maintain soil productivity (to apply the
necessary inputs) and the absence of a
vigorous procurement program at
remunerative prices, as is available in the
Punjab and Haryana states.
Adjoining Non-IGP Eastern Plateau and Hill
Region of Bihar: Rice has shown decline in
area, productivity and production in the 1990s
(Fig. 17 and Table 2). Lack of appropriate backup
in higher use of appropriate inputs at balanced
rates seems to be the primary factor for the decline
as also observed in ACR IV and Western
Himalayas and Himachal Pradesh Region.
Therefore, technical interventions coupled with
concerted efforts for increased inputs, probably,
seem pertinent to reverse the trends.
Wheat
ACR VI—Trans-Gangetic Plain Region
(Punjab and Haryana): As for rice, a

healthy growth rate of 2.0% in productivity
was maintained in the 1990s with a nominal
increase in area growth rate of 0.3% (Fig.
18 and Table 2). The area under wheat
already exceeds 80–85% of the net shown
area (Figs. 18, 19 and 20). It is a rather
impressive statistic and is due to several
factors, chief amongst these are:
improvements and extension of irrigation
facilities to new areas, particularly in
Punjab, easy availability of inputs and their
liberal use supported by an able and
vigorous extension of knowledge on better
farming practices, credit, infrastructure and,
above all, the assured procurement of every
grain of the produce by the Government
agencies.
The scenario emerging from a study of
time trends once again confirms that
productivity and hence production growth
rates are being healthily sustained,
individually both for wheat and rice, over
both the component states of Punjab and
Haryana. Hence, the generally expressed
fears that RWCS leads to fast depletion of
soil productivity or could be too wastefully
exploitive of the available water resources
are not borne out, under these liberally
fertilized crop conditions.
ACR V—Upper Gangetic Plain Region
(Bhabhar and Tarai, and Western and
Central Uttar Pradesh): Like in the Trans-
Gangetic Plain Region VI, the trend of
growth in productivity is positive and
31

encouraging and the ‘Wheat Green
Revolution’ along with the ‘Rice Green
Revolution’, is maintaining a steady growth
rate, but the wheat growth rates tend to be
much superior to those of rice (Fig. 21 and
Table 2). Concerted extension efforts and
the related developmental efforts at the
state level at accelerated rates are needed
if this region is to positively contribute to
attaining the national food production
target of 240 million tonnes by 2010 AD.
ACR IV—Middle Gangetic Plain Region
(Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar): A
sharp reduction in area of rice (-5%)
(Fig. 14 and Table 2) and a significant
reduction in wheat (-1.8%) (Fig. 22 and
Table 2) in ACR IV is a matter of serious
32
concern, when viewed with zero growth
rate in productivity of rice. The
productivity of rice is pegged down to just
nearly 1.5 t/ha even nearly 25 years after
inception of the “Green Revolution”. Wheat
area has been declining from 1991–92,
though productivity level is being sustained
at an impressive 3.1%. Reasons are
complex and many as explained earlier. But
primarily they seemed linked with the
large-scale migration of the labor-force from
this area, and general subsistence level of
farming practices used by the residual laborforce.
A possible approach to improve the
situation in this important and very large
agroclimatic region, would be to reorient
extension services towards female farmers
and address problems of input supply.
ACR III—Lower Gangetic Plain Region
(West Bengal): In West Bengal (Fig. 23 and
Table 2), growth rate in area of wheat
(-1.7%) is not very encouraging. The
adoption of wheat in sequence to rice has
not been a smooth success anyway. Wheat
hectarage increased during 1971–80 at a
fast rate but declined over three years,
touching the lowest ever in 1983. It again
increased in 1987 and ever since it has
again been on a steady decline (Fig. 23).
The productivity of wheat too has not been
sustained at the 1971–80 level. It has since

declined from 4.8% (1971–80) to 3.8%
(1981–90) to 3.2% (1991–95); and so has
the production rate reduced from peak of
10.3 in 1971–80 to just 1.6% in 1991–95
(Table 2). By contrast, the progress in rice
has been very consistently positive
throughout and hence priority needs to be
given to steadying the wheat area to sustain
RWCS in West Bengal. Focused attention
should also be given to developing the
upper reaches of ACZ D1, where wheat
area has shown a significant reduction.
Adjoining Non-IGP Western Himalayas
Region (Kumaon and Garhwal Hills of
Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh):
Both rice and wheat individually seem to
be declining in area, the extent being more
severe and sharp in wheat than in rice
(Figs. 24 and 16). The inference emerging
is that RWCS is not capable of being
sustained over extended areas in the hills,
probably on account of uncertainty and
inadequacy of water resources, continuous
degradation of land resources, and poor or
inadequate arrangements for procurement of
grains by the Government agencies in the
hills.
Adjoining Non-IGP Eastern Plateau and
Hills Region (Bihar): A steady decline in
wheat area and production until 1991,
followed by a steady rise, thereafter,
indicates renewed interest of farmers in
adopting RWCS (Fig. 25). A watershed
management program aimed at harnessing
rainwater storage to provide one irrigation
at sowing to facilitate timely planting of
wheat or to provide at least one
supplementary irrigation later in the crop
cycle seems to hold the key for steadying
RWCS in this region.
Conclusions
Even though there are signs of area and
yield plateau in RWCS of the “Green
Revolution” areas of Punjab and Haryana, it
is suggested that the system is sufficiently
robust to get over the present temporary
and transitory emerging problems of (i)
receding water-table, (ii) skewed cropping
patterns focused around rice-wheat in the
hub-position, and (iii) the emerging
problems of depleting soil fertility. The
solutions to these problems are known but
need to be applied diligently to sustain
RWCS at a well-stabilized high productivity
level, without much possibility of further
degradation. One immediate priority task
would be to develop agro-technology to
organically recycle the vast bio-mass (crop
residue, of rice and wheat : 12–16 million
tonnes) which is burnt annually, causing a
serious waste of precious nutrient resource
33

esides contributing to intense air pollution
hazard.
Despite the many unique features that
propelled the “Green Revolution“ in the
Trans-Gangetic Plain Region VI (Punjab
and Haryana), it is considered that the
Upper Gangetic Plain Region V (The
Bhabhar and Tarai, Western and Central
Uttar Pradesh) could readily emulate the
Punjab’s and Haryana’s success story of rapid
productivity increase. A strong positive state
intervention is imperative to double its
productivity over the next decade. In
context of the Middle Gangetic Plain
Region IV (Eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar), a basic policy-shift in the approach
for extension education and development
efforts targeted on female-farmers and doorto-door
supply of inputs could help bring a
significant shift, due to the very peculiar
socioeconomic situation of migratory male
labor force from the region. In Agroclimatic
Region III of West Bengal future thrust
should be focused on stabilizing wheat area
and productivity in Zone D1 through
provision of assured procurement of wheat
in particular. Specific research efforts to
develop rice-wheat rotations suitable for the
region are also required.
This meso-level analytic study reveals
recent trends in RWCS of the IGP of India,
and highlights some of the emerging
problems and opportunities for system
improvement. It is proposed that these
trends need to be continually and carefully
monitored, as the IGP is a major food
production source for a high concentration
of human population. Early warning signals
to the non-sustainability of the system need
to be recognized in a timely manner so that
corrective actions can be planned and
implemented. Overall, however, it is
concluded that RWCS can be managed in
a sustainable manner, by applying existing
knowledge. To achieve this, further efforts
34
are required to apply this knowledge in a
systems context, rather than keeping the
same as component-focused.
References
Anonymous. 1991–1995. Statistical Abstract
of Punjab. The Economic Advisor to the
Government of Punjab, Chandigarh.
Basu, D.N. and Guha, G.S. 1996. Agroclimatic
regional planning in India, pp 330,
Concept Publishing Co., New Delhi, India.
Ghosh, S.P. 1991. Agro-climatic zone
specific research, Indian perspective under
NARP, pp 539. Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India.
Narang, R.S. and Gill, M.S. 1994. Water
management constraints in Rice-Wheat
rotation in India. In proceedings of
International conference under wheat in
heat stressed environments, Irrigated dry
areas, warm area rice-wheat farming system,
held during 13–15 February 1993, Dinajpur,
Bangladesh, Vol. II, pp. 328-39.
Narang, R.S. and Gulati, H.S. 1992.
Optimum cropping pattern for judicious use
of water resources. In proceedings of
seminar on water resource day, held on 30
April 1992. Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana, Punjab, pp. 125–133.
Singh, Jasbir and Dhillon S S. S 1982.
Agricultural Geography. Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 1982; pp.
412.
Tandon, J.P.
Tandon, J.P. 1994. National Testing System
– Breeding strategies and recent progress in
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Rice-Wheat Consortium Paper Series 11
Rice-Wheat Cropping Systems of
the Indo-Gangetic Plain of India
R S Narang and S M Virmani
Rice-Wheat Consortium for the Indo-Gangetic Plains
CG Block, National Agricultural Science Centre (NASC) Complex,
DPS Marg, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India
2001

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to profusely thank Chris Johansen for his initiative and efforts in getting
the manuscript to its final shape. They wish to acknowledge K S Prasad and K Srinivas of Cartography
Unit/Agroclimatology, ICRISAT who helped in developing and updating the maps and figures in
this publication, and J Nalini for word processing and handling the manuscript at all stages of its
revision. Finally, the authors would like to thank the help provided by C L L Gowda (current Project
Manager of the ADB-funded project) and Raj K. Gupta (Facilitator of the Rice-Wheat Consortium
for the Indo-Gangetic Plains) in bringing out this publication.