Soils, Natural Vegetation, and Wildlife - Department of Geography ...

3 

Soils, Natural Vegetation, and Wildlife 

INTRODUCTION 

Combinations of physical processes, which are often modified 

through culture, create our ‘natural’ environment. Our environment 

consists of differing characteristics from the Tidewater 

to the Mountain Region. Daily, as well as seasonal, variations in 

weather help create an interesting, diverse, and ever changing 

landscape. This chapter presents the soil, natural habitat and 

vegetation, and wildlife distributions occurring throughout the 

state. These component parts of the physical environment play 

an important role in understanding a geographic perspective of 

our state. 

SOILS 

Figure 3.1: Soil Forming Factors. 

Source: Modified from Bradshaw and Weaver, 1995. 

Geographers are intrigued with the spatial component of 

soils and their capabilities. Soils are the center of the land’s life 

layer. Where they exist and how they were formed are important 

considerations when studying this resource. Soils vary from place 

to place, with controlling factors such as climate and parent material 

influencing their characteristics. These dictate which physical 

and chemical processes help create our soils. Additionally 

interaction with plant and animal life play an important role in 

determining the soil’s properties. These properties have evolved 

through millenia as organic processes interact with the physical 

and chemical soil forming processes. 

Soil Formation Processes 

Physical, chemical, and organic processes are continuously 

active in the creation of soils. Figure 3.1 illustrates these and 

their interactions. Over time wind and water erosion facilitate 

the physical weathering process. Severe weather events can accelerate 

this process and create a vehicle for the transport or 

movement of large amounts of soil through overland flow. In 

the cooler mountain climates, frost heaving also can be important. 

While this process is much slower, it does generate soil 

through water seeping into cracks in rock forming minerals, then 

freezing, expanding, and breaking apart the rock. Chemical 

weathering is created mainly through the interactions of atmospheric 

components and water. Oxidation, hydrolysis, carbonic 

acid reactions, and direct solution are involved here. These processes 

then work on parent material made available through 

physical weathering to create soil. Organic processes synthesize 

organic compounds, which are eventually added to the body 

of the soil. Plants then use the mineral nutrients to build complex 

organic molecules and release these nutrients back to the 

soils, where they are reused by living plants. Soil development 

processes depend on this nutrient cycle of plants. All of these 

complex interactions coupled with time have created the soils 

on our land today (Strahler 1997, McKnight 1996). 

Soil Properties 

One of the most obvious and identifiable properties of soil 

is color. This derives from the soil forming processes and some- 

45

times is inherited from the parent material. Soils of the Tidewater 

and Coastal Plain are a mix of color, from the tans of sands to 

a rich, dark color provided by high organic content, or humus, 

in some cases containing a black layer of peat (Photo 3.1). Piedmont 

soil colors vary, but one is dominant: red clay (CP 3.1). A 

form of iron, hematite, provides the red hue that has stained 

many children’s clothes through the years. The oxidation process 

of iron or aluminum in parent rock material generates this 

color. The Mountains provide a wide mixture of colors as physical 

weathering processes are vigorously at work. Valley floors 

contain the deepest soils and most have a dark brown color. The 

shallower soils that occupy the slopes and the ridges are similar 

in color, but without the same profile. 

Soils also are classified or described by their particle size 

or texture. Texture classes are based on the proportions of sand, 

silt, and clay (expressed as percentages). Figure 3.2 is a Ternary 

diagram representation of the three components of soil used by 

the U.S. Department of Agriculture, allowing all soil to be classified. 

Texture is an important soil property as it determines water 

retention and transmission rates. For instance, sandy soils allow 

water to pass through rapidly, while clay soils have very small 

particles that do not allow water to pass through easily. Texture, 

as well as the organic content of the soil, can then be said to 

control soil moisture storage capacity, which is its ability to hold 

water against the pull of gravity. This in turn determines what 

plant life a soil might sustain or what might be an appropriate 

use of the land. 

Mineral properties also are important characteristics of the 

soil’s personality. Soils in the state tend to be acidic due to the 

prevalence of granitic or gneissic parent material, the warm moist 

climate of the region, and the predominance of needle leaf forest 

vegetation. Most soils need heavy liming for agricultural productivity 

or for having a lush green lawn. In addition, soils may 

Figure 3.2: Soil Texture Classes. 

suffer from leaching of mineral nutrients, particularly nitrogen, 

phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium, as a result of 

excessive rainfall and warm temperatures. Preparation for agriculture 

through the application of fertilizers is necessary throughout 

the state. 

While most of us normally see only its top layer, a soil 

profile is a valuable tool in understanding the total soil structure, 

including its depth. A profile, that allows for the inspection 

of what lies beneath the surface, can be viewed readily by visit- 

Photo 3.1: An area of the Pamlico Peninsula 

in Tyrrell County has been 

cleared and drainage ditches excavated. 

Soils are dark and rich in humus 

and sometimes contain a layer 

of peat, which can also be used as a 

fuel source. 

46

ing new road cuts or construction sites. Each layer is a soil horizon, 

which is a distinctive layer of soil set apart from other layers 

by differences in physical or chemical composition, organic 

content, structure, or a combination of those properties. We see 

the color transitions from one horizon to the next. Figure 3.3 

illustrates a generalized soil profile. Figure 3.4 describes a soil 

profile from the Mountain region. Often these soils of complex 

terrain have thin horizons (5 cm/2 in) and overall soil depth is 

minimal. Topography and local relief additionally impact the 

soil development process, as shown in Figure 3.5. 

Spatial Extent and Distribution of Soils 

CP 3.2 shows the spatial extent and distribution of the 

state’s soils. As with other physical features of the state, the east 

to west variation from the Tidewater to the Mountain regions 

continues. 

The Tidewater coastline consists of wide cusps or arcs in 

the southern half and a series of barrier islands in the northern 

half. Landscape features like these are a result of sediments being 

moved by offshore currents as the coast slowly emerges (Box 

1B). Poorly drained areas, sand flats, bays, and sounds dominate 

the surface land features. Soils of this region are relatively 

young, generally deep, over 91 cm (36 in), and of medium to 

fine texture. Differences in age and thickness are a result of various 

periods of erosion and deposition. Wet lowlands or upland 

bogs (pocosins) are poorly drained with dark colored soils from 

decomposed vegetation. These soils belong to the soil order 

Histosol meaning “tissue soil”, from decayed plant remains. 

Figure 3.3: Soil Profile and Horizons. 


Figure 3.4: Designations of Horizons. 


In the Coastal Plain Region, elevation gradually increases 

inland to 91 meters (300 ft) above sea level. Here land surface is 

characterized as gently rolling with prominent sand hills on the 

southwest margin. Most soils of the Coastal Plain are deep and 

coarse or sandy in texture with heavier sandy clay subsoil, hence 

the “Sandhills.” These and most of the Piedmont soils belong to 

the order Ultisols, which are very acidic, highly leached, and 

weathered. 

Westward, the Piedmont consists of irregular rolling plains 

with local relief of 30 to 91 meters (100 to 300 ft). Elevations 

reach to 457 meters (1,500 ft) east of the Brevard Fault. As discussed 

earlier, the region is interrupted by erosional remnants 

and includes the Uwharrie, Sauratown, Kings, Brushy, and South 

mountains. Piedmont soils are generally over 91 cm (36 in) deep 

and have heavy, red or yellow clay sub-soils. They are relatively 

young due to recent erosion. Differences of soil depend mainly 

on the type of parent material. The Central Piedmont has considerable 

alfisol areas, a slightly acid soil derived from more 

basic rock. 

Topographic complexity of the Mountain Region creates 

many ‘micro’ environments in which plant and animal species 

can thrive. This region rises abruptly from the Piedmont along 

the Brevard Fault escarpment. The Blue Ridge Mountains comprise 

the eastern part of this region. Mountain soils tend to be 

young due to recent erosion and mass wasting on steep slopes 

caused by precipitation events. They tend to be shallower here 

than in the Piedmont as a result of cooler temperatures that re- 

47

duce the rate of parent material weathering. Sub-soils tend to 

have less heavy clay than the Piedmont soils. In broad valleys 

and basins, soils are more fertile and less leached; where a broadleaf 

forest dominates, humus is less acidic than in needle leaf 

forest. Steep ridges and higher mountain areas, especially on 

south facing slopes, have thin, acidic soils of the Inceptisol order. 

Figure 3.5 illustrates typical mountain soil characteristics 

and landform types. 

Agricultural Soils 

While the state’s future may lie in high tech industries, its 

tradition is agriculture. The majority of agricultural lands are 

located within the Coastal Plain (CP 1.14). What makes the 

Coastal Plain well suited for agriculture? Certainly there is a 

complex interaction of many factors. The gentle slopes and the 

soil and its capacity to support plant life are dominant factors. A 

mixture of the right proportions of sand, silt, and clay coupled 

with the organic content of the soil, provides the foundation for 

prime agricultural lands. This type of agricultural soil is generally 

referred to as loam (Figure 3.2), whose distribution dictate 

the most suitable agricultural areas of the state (CP 3.2); refer to 

CP 1.14 and note the coincidence of loamy soils to the areas 

currently in agricultural use. Additionally, climate (Figure 2.14), 

growing season (Figure 2.20), and availability of ground water 

(Figure 1.15) add to the formula of agricultural success. Photos 

3.2, 3.3, 3.4, and 3.5 give testament to the wide variety of agricultural 

activity in North Carolina, much of which is due to soil 

resources. 

As mentioned earlier, the use of soil for agriculture often 

requires input of fertilizer, particularly phosphorus and potassium. 

Application practices vary throughout the state and care 

should be taken to protect the surface and ground water supplies 

from the overuse of fertilizers; pollution readily occurs through 

runoff and infiltration processes. 

Figure 3.5: Mountain Soils and Topographic Influences. 


Photo 3.2: Farmland of the Triassic 

Basin, a transitional 

zone between the Coastal 

Plain and Piedmont regions, 

in Harnett County. The landscape 

takes on a patch like 

or quilted character, as fields 

of different crop types are intermixed 

with forested areas. 

Sedimentary rock providing 

the base for the soils of the 

region, and a long growing 

season, have given the area 

a longstanding tradition of 

agriculture. (photo by Robert 

E. Reiman) 

48

Photo 3.3: Strawberry fields are found nestled in 

the broad valleys of the Inner Piedmont Geologic 

Belt where soils are generally deeper and 

often more fertile. This field is located in the 

South Mountains (Cleveland County) of the 

western Piedmont Region. Note the peach orchard 

on the back edge of the field. 

Photo 3.4: Apple orchards are common place in 

the Brushy Mountains of Wilkes and Alexander 

Counties. Mountain soils and climate factors 

make the region a productive area for apple 

growth. This area recognizes the importance of 

the crop by hosting the Apple Festival each fall. 

Photo 3.5: Soils of the Mountain Region vary 

within the complex terrain. Here an area near 

the Old Buffalo Trail (Watauga County) is 

being prepared for planting. Note the predominance 

of forest cover still surrounding 

this farm and the small size of the fields 

when compared to those of the Coastal Plain 

and Piedmont regions. 

49

NATURAL HABITATS AND VEGETATION 

As seen in Chapter One, forests provide the most widespread 

environmental feature of the state. However, North Carolina 

supports a great diversity of natural vegetation. This is due 

in part to the variety of climatic and topographic conditions or 

“habitats”, ranging from the moist, shaded coves of the Smokies 

to the exposed sand dunes of the barrier islands. Figure 3.6 displays 

the major vegetation types that are possible in the absence 

of human impact. Inevitably, people have played an important 

role in modifying or introducing vegetation (Box 3A), most noticeably 

in managing the pine forests of the Piedmont, Coastal 

Plain, and some of the Tidewater region. Pines are generally 

intolerant of shade and would be replaced by broadleaf trees as 

the climax vegetation in a natural succession. However, foresters 

have maintained pine for its commercial value by controlling 

broadleaf species and by planting or encouraging natural 

seeding of desired pine species. In the following discussion of 

vegetation by regions, only the common plant names are used 

and readers who are interested should refer to Appendix B for 

their scientific name equivalents. 

Tidewater Habitats 

Along the easternmost edge of North Carolina are the barrier 

islands and outer banks, a thin chain of sandy beaches and 

marshes. The barrier islands are situated between the pounding 

of the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the sounds of Currituck, 

Albemarle, Pamlico, Core, and Bogue (Photo 3.6) to the west. 

These are popular vacation destinations for millions of people 

who enjoy the sea air, gentle waves, and warm weather. Colder 

ocean currents from the north meet the warmer southern currents 

at Cape Hatteras and have made ocean travel treacherous 

in this area for centuries (Early 1993). 

Forming a series of graceful arcs, these barrier islands protect 

the mainland from the destructive effects of powerful storms 

and their resulting waves (CP 3.3). Several theories regarding 

the formation of these islands are presented in Box 1B. 

Important wildlife habitats are found on the barrier islands 

and in nearby waters. Behind the dunes lie the maritime forests 

while on the western sides of the islands, fringing the sounds, 

salt marshes nurture countless numbers of fish, shellfish and 

wildlife. Out on the shallow continental shelf not far from the 

islands, are underwater habitats known as “hardbottoms”, diverse 

communities of plants and animals. Rocky ledges provide 

shelter for fish and invertebrates whose only other homes are in 

the tropical coral reefs or on ship wrecks (Early 1993). 

Tidewater Vegetation 

Strong winds, salt spray, shifting sands, extreme heat, desiccation, 

and flooding create an inhospitable environment for 

vegetation adjacent to the coast (Photo 3.7). Only the hardiest 

plants can survive. Sea oats and American beach grass have been 

used extensively in an attempt to stabilize sand dunes. Increasing 

pressures from development have further complicated this 

environmentally sensitive area, and attempts to protect ocean 

front property have become a priority (Chapter 10). Other plants 

found on dunes include croton and dune elder. Broomsedge, 

spurge, and primrose are found in protected areas behind dunes; 

Figure 3.6: Natural Vegetation. 

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all are plants less tolerant of salt spray. A maritime thicket of 

yaupon, red cedar and wax myrtle often develops as an asymmetric 

mass to the lee of ocean winds along the inner dunes. 

Behind this thicket is a maritime forest dominated by live oak 

and, in the northern part, by beech and other broadleaf trees, 

holdovers from earlier periods when sea level was lower (CP 

3.4). Development has caused the loss of the majority of North 

Carolina’s maritime forests. Occasionally, an active dune will 

migrate and completely cover part of this forest. Where the dune 

moves on it leaves a stark reminder of previous life. Gnarled 

and wind swept branches are reminiscent of high mountain or 

arctic growth conditions (Photo 10.1). 

Along the sounds (protected by barrier islands) and in 

coastal bays are found vast areas of salt marsh characterized by 

cordgrass and needlerush. Freshwater marshes that are flushed 

by large coastal rivers, such as the Cape Fear, support bulrush, 

cattail, and sawgrass. 

Coastal Plain Habitat 

This low, flat region extends from the fall line toward the 

Atlantic Ocean; near the fall line elevations reach 152 meters 

(500 feet) above sea level. With so little slope and with little 

hard rock to flow through, the rivers entering the Coastal Plain 

form the rocky Piedmont meander in broad, graceful loops 

through the soft layers of sand (Early 1993). 

The sandy soils make it clear that the Coastal Plain was 

once wholly under water. Over the last two million years, the 

sea has inundated it many times, leaving a series of terraces across 

Photo 3.6: Bogue Sound in Carteret County, 

one of the smaller sounds, is protected 

by the barrier islands. Saltwater marshes 

thrive in the center of the narrow sound. 

Photo 3.7: As sediments reach the sounds they 

no longer can be carried by the rivers that 

brought them there and are deposited at the 

mouths of these rivers. Deposition creates 

a braided net of shallow waters and marsh 

vegetation. Here the Shalotte Inlet, in 

Brunswick County between Ocean Isle and 

Holden Beaches, drains into Long Bay. 

Note the development on the bottom right 

of the photo. (Photo by Robert E. Reiman) 

51

Box 3A: Creeping, Climbing 

Kudzu. 

You are warned not to nap beside a southern roadside 

in summertime, or you might be covered in kudzu when you 

awake. There is a house in Chatam County obscured by the 

leafy vine, as well as a gas station in Dunn (Raleigh News 

and Observer 1997). Farm machinery and earth moving equipment 

are quickly covered by kudzu if left unattended. 

The U.S. Congress’ Office of Technology Assistance 

recently published a 390-page report on 4,500 species of exotic 

plants and animals that have been introduced into this 

country. The Associated Press quoted the project director as 

saying, “The economic and environmental impacts (of these 

exotic species) are snowballing...” Exotic species are those 

which have been relocated to a new environment. Many are 

transported accidentally, such as the tiger mosquito, which 

carries a virulent form of malaria. Others are brought purposefully 

for research, but are released accidentally, such as 

the African bee (killer bee). Often these exotic species are 

useful, but many become nuisances. 

One such plant species, kudzu, has been spreading 

across the southeastern U.S. for nearly 100 years, creating 

problems for farmers, foresters, telephone and power companies, 

and highway maintenance crews. It now covers more 

than two million acres and extends as far north as Illinois, 

Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and is still going. 

Its potential geographic range is as far north as Michigan, 

Wisconsin and the states of New England. 

Several kudzu vines typically sprout from a single 

deep-rooted stem, which may reach two to four meters (six 

to twelve feet) underground. The vines have wide, 

three-pronged leaves and short-lived purple flowers during 

the summer. As the vines creep across the landscape, roots 

may enter the soil anywhere the stem touches the ground. 

Additionally, wherever the vines contact trees, they will attach 

with root-like appendages and begin to climb. Because 

of the stem’s ability to “take root,” highway-mowing operations 

often help spread this plant to new sites by dragging 

pieces of vines into new areas. 

52

The plant evolved in the Orient, probably in China. 

Kudzu has been cultivated in China, Korea and Japan for 

1,000 or more years because of its hardiness and its usefulness 

as food, fibers and medicines. It was initially brought to 

the U.S. in the late 1800s as a decorative ornamental for 

porches and walls. Advertised as livestock feed well into the 

1930s and ’40s, kudzu was often promoted by the leading 

land grant universities and agriculture schools in the Southeast. 

During the Depression, highway departments across the 

Southeast used kudzu to control erosion along road cuts or 

where roads were cut into hillsides. Today, across the Southeast, 

the largest and oldest expanses of kudzu follow the roads 

that were built during this period. 

Kudzu does have some positive qualities, though they 

are limited. As a land cover, particularly where soil is poor 

and erosion prone, kudzu quickly covers the raw earth. Furthermore, 

the roots of kudzu nurture nitrogen-fixing bacteria 

that remove nitrogen from the air and place it in the soil. 

Although livestock will graze on the young leaves of kudzu 

in the spring, most will eat almost any other plant in preference. 

Only goats and hogs seem to truly thrive on kudzu foliage. 

The negative qualities of kudzu greatly overshadow the 

positive ones. Perhaps the most troublesome trait is the speed 

of the plant’s growth. Growth rates of six to twelve 

inches per 24-hour period are common. The plant’s rapid 

growth and canopy of foliage make it extremely competitive 

with virtually all other natural plant species; it even climbs, 

and kills, fully grown trees, particularly pines. 

Strong herbicides are not very effective in killing a mature 

kudzu plant. Since many roots enter the ground from 

various points along the stem, spraying of herbicides is seldom 

totally effective. Researchers at North Carolina State 

University are working to engineer some type of kudzu-eating 

bugs that they can safely introduce into the environment. 

It might be a bio-engineered soybean looper, a small hairless 

caterpillar, with an appetite enhanced for devouring kudzu 

(Raleigh News and Observer, 1997). 

Although kudzu is used to produce fibers, medicines, 

and foods in the Orient, few such aspects of the plant are 

utilized in the U.S. Most North Carolinians consider it a weed 

of the most terrible variety and treat it accordingly. Perhaps 

the best one can say about kudzu is that it has been the subject 

of numerous good jokes. One disenchanted former promoter 

of kudzu, in comparing the vine to his favorite dog, 

wrote, “It was like discovering Ole Blue was a chicken killer.” 

Modified from Geography in the News #261, Neal G. Lineback, 

Appalachian State University, October 22, 1993. Photos by Ole 

Gade. 

53

the landscape to mark its advances. As recently as 18,000 years 

ago, the shoreline would have been many kilometers east of 

where it is today (Figure 1.8). 

Great natural diversity exists within the Coastal Plain. Most 

of the states wetlands - bald cypress swamps, deep peat bogs, 

freshwater marshes and the mysterious Carolina bays - occur in 

the Coastal Plain and Tidewater regions. Historically, the uplands 

of the Coastal Plain were covered in longleaf pines and 

scrubby oaks (Photo 3.8). Altered by natural and frequent fires 

through the centuries, Coastal Plain habitats have a rich diversity 

of plant and animal communities adapted to fire. Sandhills 

longleaf pine forest is most notable in this respect. So common 

was fire that plants and animals developed many adaptations to 

resist, avoid, or even take advantage of it. Bottomland hardwood 

forests, longleaf pine savanna, pocosin, and the unique Carolina 

Bays (Box 1D and Figure 11.6) cover other parts of the Coastal 

Plain (Early 1993). 

Coastal Plain Vegetation 

The vegetation of this region also shows the impact of 

human activity. Early settlement resulted in wide spread clearing 

for agriculture that produced a fine mosaic of land cover. In 

recent decades many holdings have been consolidated, with additional 

land being cleared and drained for large scale farming 

operations, while other areas show extensive reforestation of 

pine for pulp and paper production. Of particular interest are the 

vast deposits of peat which underlie the Pamlico Peninsula, “fossil” 

swamp vegetation from eight to nine thousand years ago 

that may have great promise as an alternative source of energy. 

Its use, however, would have great environmental consequences. 

The physical setting of the Coastal Plains is generally favorable 

for vegetative growth, as a long frost-free season, ample 

moisture, good soils, and flat terrain characterize the region. Plant 

diversity is encouraged by differences in drainage conditions, 

depth to water table, soil types, and frequency of fire. Welldrained 

but moist sites of the Inner Coastal Plain have finely 

textured soils and are generally covered with an oak-hickory 

and loblolly pine forest similar to that in the adjacent Piedmont. 

However, coarsely textured soils of the Sandhills area as well as 

the extreme southeast coast have open stands of longleaf pine, 

an understory of scrub oaks, and a ground cover of wire grass. 

Longleaf pines develop deep taproots during the first three years 

of growth, while a grass-like cluster of needles at ground level 

withstands the frequent fires. Then a rapid growth of its stem 

places needles and branches high enough to avoid fire damage. 

If fire were controlled, an oak hickory forest would soon replace 

the pines. Although fire destroys valuable timber, particularly 

in the southern Coastal plain, it can also be an important 

tool in managing the forest. 

Floodplains along the river courses support two types of 

swamp forest. First, is a gum-cypress forest with high organic 

peaty soil that is almost continually under water. The second 

forest type is a broadleaf mixture of water oak, willow oak, sweet 

gum, ash, elm, sycamore, and river birch where soils usually 

dry out in summer months. An unusual wetland vegetation, restricted 

to the North Carolina lower Coastal Plain, is known as 

“pocosin” from the Indian description “swamp on a hill” (Figure 

10.6). The pocosin evolved from the tidal sound environment 

as the coast was rising or as the sea receded. First, a swamp 

forest of cypress and gum developed; later, as thick deposits of 

organic matter accumulated, soils became highly acid and deficient 

in nutrients. Fires occurred frequently until only a sparse 

growth of pond pine and dense shrubs was left. Similar vegetation 

dominates the Carolina Bays, elliptical depressions of the 

southern Coastal Plain (Box 1D). 

Occupying the flat areas between river courses in the southern 

Coastal Plain is savanna vegetation of pine flat woods. 

Coarser soils nurture a scattering of longleaf pine, a continuous 

ground cover of grasses, and a wide variety of wild flowers. 

Finer soils that are poorly drained support stands of pond pine 

as well as the endemic Venus flytrap, found only in southeastern 

North Carolina! Again we find that frequent fires perpetuate this 

savanna area; otherwise shrubs and trees would naturally succeed. 

Photo 3.8: The Cape Fear River, as it flows through 

Harnett County in the Coastal Plain Region’s far 

western edge, has a mix of land uses. The river 

bank is still forested, but encroachment of homes 

near a golf course communtiy is beginning.Note 

the gentle rapids on the southern section of the river. 

(photo by Robert E. Reiman) 

54

Piedmont Habitat 

Early settlers used the term “Piedmont”, meaning “foot 

of the mountain”, to refer to this region west of the fall line and 

east of the Blue Ridge Mountains, because its softly rolling hills 

reminded them of their foothills homes in Europe. As rivers and 

streams flow across the fall line, it is the resistant crystalline 

rocks that form the rapids and small waterfalls (as the river erode 

the less resistant sedimentary materials below) (Early 1993). 

Of all the regions in the state, the Piedmont has been most 

densely settled. Although the clay soils disappointed early settlers, 

the fast flowing rivers provided power for grist and textile 

mills and industry grew rapidly. Most of the state’s urban centers 

and population are located in the Piedmont, and it is the 

most important economic region of the state (Early 1993). 

Much less is left of the Piedmont’s natural communities 

than those of any other region in the state because the original 

mixed pine and hardwood forests were cut and the land was 

farmed by the Europeans and by the native Americans before 

them. Topsoil has been denuded by decades of poor farming 

practices. As the farms became less productive, they often were 

abandoned and succeeded by forests (CP 3.5, 3.6, 3.7) (Early 

1993). 

Piedmont Vegetation 

A fine mosaic of forest and cultivated land indicates the 

impact that people have had on vegetation in the Piedmont. Early 

settlers found a continuous oak-hickory forest on well-drained 

uplands and a mixture of broadleaf species on the floodplains. 

As land was cleared for agriculture and subsequently abandoned, 

the growth of pines was favored. Pines dominate early stages of 

natural succession, requiring much light and developing as an 

even-aged stand. However, they will eventually be replaced by 

broadleaf species if left unmanaged. The need for lumber and 

pulpwood has enabled pines to dominate much of the Piedmont 

through forestry practices. 

Virginia pine occupies the western and northern sections 

of the Piedmont, short leaf pines the central section, and loblolly 

pine the eastern section of the Piedmont (CP 3.8). Soil and topographic 

differences account for the variety of hardwood species. 

Fertile, upland sites favor southern red oak, white oak, and 

mockernut hickory. A colorful under-story of dogwood and sourwood 

is common. Dry sites with thin soils support post oak, 

scarlet oak, and shagbark hickory. Sycamore, sweet gum, tulip 

poplar, willow oak, river birch, elm, and ash are common to 

floodplain areas. Some remnants of the mountain flora such as 

hemlock, white pine, and rhododendron occur in cool or elevated 

parts of the Piedmont, as is the case with Hanging Rock in Stokes 

County. 

Mountain Habitat 

The region of lofty mountains from the Blue Ridge to the 

Tennessee border has the highest peaks and the greatest concentration 

of high elevations in the Southern Appalachians. National 

Forests cover vast expanses of the region and include the Pisgah 

and Nantahala. Great Smoky National Park also adds to these 

forest reserves. It is a region of spectacular waterfalls and gorges, 

with varying amounts of precipitation in the form of rain, mist, 

and snow (see Chapter 2). Trickling down from higher elevations 

are innumerable cold-water streams sheltering trout and 

other aquatic life (Early 1993). 

The Mountain Region has a rich diversity of habitats, from 

rare bogs, to cove forests, to spruce-fir forests on the higher 

mountaintops. There are nearly 1,400 species of flowering plants 

in the region, including 85 native tree species (Early 1993). 

Mountain Vegetation 

The Mountain Region displays two major types of vegetation, 

a broadleaf deciduous forest (CP 3.9, 3.10), at elevations 

up to 1,524 meters (5,000 feet), and a needle leaf evergreen 

forest or spruce-fir forest above that elevation (CP 3.11, 

3.12, 3.13). Also referred to as a boreal (northern) coniferous 

(cone-bearing) forest, this latter type resembles the vegetation 

of central Canada or the spruce-fir forests of New England with 

red spruce and Fraser fir as dominant species. Fir is found on 

the highest exposed ridges and often develops a banner or 

“krumholz” (twisted tree) form caused by the exposure to the 

prevailing winds and to ice breakage. Extensive logging, fires 

and wind-throw have allowed growth of mountain ash, fire cherry 

and yellow birch. While the spruce-fir forest has declined dramatically 

in recent decades due to environmental changes that 

are poorly understood. 

On steep, south-facing gaps, a deciduous forest of beech, 

yellow birch, and sugar maple known as “northern hardwoods” 

often replaces the spruce-fir forest that is more sensitive to windthrow. 

However, the deciduous forest is best developed at lower 

elevations where conditions are ideal for large and dense growth. 

Cove forests contain a great variety of species including tulip 

poplar, yellow buckeye, cucumber tree, hemlock, white pine, 

beech, birch and maple. Rosebay rhododendron reaches tree size 

in some areas. On drier, exposed south-facing slopes, oaks dominate 

the forest, replacing the original American chestnut which 

covered up to eighty percent of the area before a blight was 

introduced in the mid-1920s. Various species of oak have different 

environmental needs and migrate towards elevation zones. 

Northern red oak dominates from 1,524 to 1,220 meters (5,000 

to 4,000 ft), chestnut oak from 1,220 to 915 meters (4,000 to 

3,000 ft), and white oak below 915 meters (3,000 ft). On most 

steep south or southwest-facing slopes and on dry open ridges 

pines and black locust are dominant, with mountain laurel and 

blueberry providing a dense scrub layer. Fires and thin soils encourage 

this community to develop. 

The entire Mountain Region is not characterized by forest 

cover; in some places treeless “balds” have developed. A thick 

growth of mountain laurel and rhododendron or a cover of mountain 

oat grass dominate balds. How the balds are caused is not 

completely understood. Most likely they are due to a combina- 

55

tion of fire, windfall, and landslides, along with human activities 

such as hunting and grazing of cattle. For many years in the 

early part of this century, it was a common practice to bring in 

cattle from the Tennessee valley to the west, fatten them on high 

mountain pastures during the summer, and then send them to 

the Piedmont for slaughter in the fall. It is said that the community 

and township of Meat Camp in Watauga County derived its 

name from that practice. 

WILDLIFE 

A variety of mammals, birds, and fish live within our landscape. 

Given the state’s varying habitats, one finds an abundance 

of wildlife present throughout the state. As our landscape is 

modified by spreading urbanization, reservoir construction and 

other environment altering activities, our wildlife must adapt to 

survive or migrate to more appropriate habitats. However, not 

all wildlife adapts easily so while one species may flourish, others 

may suffer. Outdoor recreational pursuits include hunting, 

fishing, and boating. Protection of wildlife habitat from the 

marshes of the Tidewater to the forests of the Mountain Region 

is critical. 

Mammals 

Our state mammal is the gray squirrel. Squirrels seem abundant, 

as they appear plentiful in any city park on a spring day. 

However, the population of gray squirrel has been dwindling as 

hardwood forests, the best squirrel habitat, has been slowly converted 

through the years into pine forests. Squirrels adapt to many 

habitats, but do not always thrive in them. Adaptation is crucial. 

Rabbit numbers are also down as farmers eliminate brush piles 

and wooded lots for crops. Pesticide and herbicide uses that cause 

pollution are another factor effecting squirrel and rabbit populations. 

In 1910 deer populations numbered 10,000, in 1970 they 

numbered 300,000 and it has since more than tripled to 900,000 

in 1997 (Charlotte Observer 1999). What is the cause of the 

increase? Figure 3.7 illustrates the deer population and distribution. 

Simply stated, deer are very adaptable creatures. North 

Carolina’s checkerboard landscape of forests, pastures, farms, 

developments, marshes, and water create a habitat in which deer 

can survive and thrive. Edge environments are critical to deer 

habitat. Great diversity of land cover provides this edge environment 

and is better for deer. Yet, it is clear from 3.7 that deer 

habitats gradually improve from west to east. 

Black bear, on the other hand, require large expanses of 

swamp or forests to survive (Figure 3.8). Compare the distribution 

of the bear populations with the pattern of land cover (CP 

1.14). Note that the largest concentrations of black bear are found 

in the Coastal Plain and Mountain regions. Development, such 

as vacation homes, golf courses, and roads are diminishing the 

56 

Figure 3.7: White-Tailed Deer Harvest, 1998-99. 

Source: North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, 1999.

Figure 3.8: Black Bear Kill, 1998-99. 

Source: North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, 1999. 

Figure 3.9: Coyote Diffussion, 1988-1997. 

Source: Modified from the Charlotte Observer, 1999. 

bear’s habitat. While changing landscape may provide useful 

habitat to one mammal, others may suffer or approach extinction. 

Coyotes have been sighted in our state, from the Tidewater 

to the Mountain regions. Figure 3.9 illustrates the spread or 

diffusion of coyotes throughout North Carolina. If this trend 

continues, coyotes will soon be present in every county. 

Beaver were abundant in the earlier years of settlement, 

were eradicated, were reintroduced in the 1940s, and today beaver 

are common in much of the state (Figure 3.10). It is not 

uncommon to see a beaver dam in the small northwestern mountain 

community of Beaverdam in Watauga County. 

Other recent reintroduction programs for mammals have 

been accomplished. These efforts have included the red wolf, 

which has been successfully reintroduced in the Tidewater region 

(Figure 3.11), while attempts to stabilize a population in 

the Smoky Mountains have failed. Road densities and road pattern 

seem to have a direct impact on the success of this reintroduction 

program. Roads create edge habitats that are a crucial 

source of food for the red wolf. The otter has been reintroduced 

to the western part of the state after they were forced to the eastern 

Piedmont and Coastal Plain regions, because of diminishing 

expanses of quality habitat. 

Wild boar were introduced to North Carolina in 1912, as 

14 European wild boars were released in a game preserve on 

Hooper’s bald in Graham County. After escaping from the preserve 

the wild boar established occupied ranges in some mountain 

counties (Figure 3.12). The first open hunting season was 

in 1936, and in 1979 the North Carolina Legislature designated 

the status of game animal to the wild boar. Figure 3.13 reflects 

the number and location of wild boar harvested during the 1998- 

99 hunting season (North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission 

1999). 

Wild horses of the Outer Banks have been allowed to roam 

the range of a remote Carteret County island for decades and 

they have thrived there. In 1995, an estimated 225 horses grazed 

the eight-mile long Shackleford Banks (part of the Cape Lookout 

National Seashore). Their populations have increased since 

sheep, goats, and cattle were removed in the mid-1980s, when 

the Park Service took over the land for the national seashore. 

Concern for the horses has heightened as their increasing population 

has placed great stress on the habitat. Grasses that once 

grew to knee height are now eaten close to the ground level. 

Officials fear that food supplies will continue to dwindle and 

horses may starve and die off as they have on Carrot Island near 

Beaufort. 

Figure 3.10: Beaver Distribution, 1999. 


Figure 3.11: Red Wolf Distribution. 

Source: United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999. 

57

Figure 3.12: Wild Boar Distribution, 1999. 


Wild turkeys, with populations dwindling, were reintroduced 

through an active (3,565 birds since 1970) and somewhat 

costly restocking program (about $500 per restoration bird). Now 

the turkeys are flourishing. Populations have experienced dramatic 

increases since this program began. Only 2,500 birds existed 

in North Carolina in the early 1960s. Numbers increased 

to 7,500 in 1980, then to 28,000 in 1990, and in 1996 turkeys 

numbered more than 86,000 (Charlotte Observer 1996). Herds 

of over 100 birds have been seen in Watauga and Ashe Counties 

(CP 5.19). In North Carolina 95 of the 100 counties have wild 

turkey populations (Figure 3.14). Wild turkeys provide a popular 

game bird during the fall season, as hunters work their distinctive 

calls of gobbling in hopes of attracting a bird. As will be 

seen in Chapter 5, the domesticated cousin of this bird has also 

contributed to the state economy. North Carolina is the number 

one turkey producer in the nation. Hunters also find the morning 

dove a popular game bird, though this bird along with grouse 

and quail have experienced declines. 

Bald eagles have made a comeback since the banning of 

DDT. Only one nesting site was known in the state in 1972; in 

1995, there were 12 known sites and in early 1999 there are 

over 20 sites. Seven breeding pairs were in the northeastern part 

of the state, nesting in Pasquotank, Chowan, Washington, Hyde, 

Beaufort, Tyrrell, and Dare counties (Raleigh News & Observer 

1995). North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia have made 

intensive efforts to increase the population of our nation’s sym- 

Figure 3.13: Wild Boar Harvest, 1998-99. 


Birds 

A multitude of song birds find habitat in our state, and the 

cardinal is designated as our state bird. However, as the large 

forested areas dwindle, so do the populations of the birds that 

need this habitat to thrive. Over the past 25 years, nearly 20 

species of bird populations have declined. The loggerhead shrike, 

a forest dwelling bird, is down 95 percent, while meadowlarks, 

mockingbirds, and blue jays are down 53, 45, and 38 percent 

respectively. At the same time, bluebirds have increased 369 

percent; cowbirds, 301 percent; and robins, 75 percent; these 

birds favor forest edges, which are created or enhanced with 

road cuts and construction (Charlotte Observer 1990). 

Figure 3.14: Wild Turkey Harvest, 1998. 


bol; unless people interfere again, the eagles are back to stay. 

Not as lucky as the eagle is the red-cockaded woodpecker, 

a bird heading toward possible extinction. In 1989, Hurricane 

Hugo ripped through the nations second largest population in 

the Francis Marion National Forest in South Carolina. About 

450 birds died and most of the rest were left without viable habitat. 

Now work is continuing to restablish a viable habitat in the 

Sandhills (see Chapter 11). Natural disasters can have a dramatic 

impact on habitat quality: hurricanes devastate large areas 

while the tornadoes impact a much smaller area (Chapter 2). 

Fish and Turtles 

Fresh and saltwater fish provide a valuable economic and 

recreational resource for our state. Our shores are blessed with 

barrier islands, hundreds of miles of inland shoreline, sounds 

and estuaries, all providing habitat for a diverse saltwater fish 

population. Inland, the surface waters of our state provide many 

excellent recreational opportunities as well (see Chapter 10). 

Over-fishing and dams have reduced the striped bass fisheries 

in the Coastal Plain region. However, in mountain rivers 

reintroduced muskies have made a comeback since the removal 

of some dams (Charlotte Observer 1990). 

Trout, which are abundant in many of the state’s rivers, 

suffer because of increasing development near their habitat. De- 

58

velopment activities may release sediment that flows into 

streams; this process of sedimentation can kill trout. Road, resort, 

and golf course development, if done improperly, devastates 

trout stream quality. Additionally, the clearing of forest 

which once shaded the waters and kept them cold are no longer 

there to protect the water from warming by the sun. Increasing 

the temperature of the water decreases the trout population. Agricultural 

introduction of fertilizering compounds in streams 

through runoff will also decrease water quality. 

Loggerhead turtles find the shores most suitable for nesting 

from May through August. These turtles have found it increasingly 

difficult to thrive in the rapidly developing coastal 

areas. Representatives at Brunswick County’s Turtle Watch Program 

estimate that only about 100 turtles reach adulthood for 

every 7,000 eggs laid. Newborn turtles are attracted to the brightest 

lights; years ago that light was moonlight, which lead them 

to the ocean. However, lights from nearby modern development 

attract the newborn turtles inland to their demise. Predators such 

as raccoons, snakes, and ants also find the turtle’s eggs a tasty 

food source. 

59

Orange 

North Carolina’s Place 

in the World 

CANADA 

U N 

I T E 

S T A T E S 

D 

North Carolina’s 

Place in the 

United States 

MEXICO 

Currituck 

Camden 

Physiographic Regions 

and Counties of 

North Carolina 

Mountain Region 

Piedmont Region 

Coastal Plain Region 

Tidewater Region 

Iredell 

Surry Stokes 

Yadkin 

Rowan 

Cabarrus 

Stanly 

Union Anson 

Richmond 

Montgomery 

Moore 

Mecklenburg 

Harnett 

Halifax 

Northampton 

Edgecombe 

Pitt 

Hertford 

Bertie 

Martin 

Gates 

Pasquotank 

Chowan 

Hoke 

Person 

Brunswick 

Nash 

Durham 

Robeson 

Wake 

Johnson 

Sampson 

Bladen 

Columbus 

Franklin 

Warren 

Alamance 

Granville 

Vance 

Cherokee 

Graham 

Clay 

Swain 

Macon 

Haywood 

Jackson 

Madison Yancey 

Buncombe 

Henderson 

Polk 

Avery 

McDowell 

Rutherford 

Burke 

Ashe 

Caldwell 

Alleghany 

Watauga Wilkes 

Rockingham 

Transylvania 

Alexander 

Davie 

Forsyth 

Davidson 

Perquimans 

Cumberland 

Scotland 

Guilford 

Randolph 

Caswell 

Mitchell 

Catawba 

Lincoln 

Gaston 

Chatham 

Lee 

Wilson 

Wayne 

Duplin 

Pender 

Greene 

Lenoir 

New 

Hanover 

Jones 

Onslow 

Craven 

Beaufort 

Pamlico 

Carteret 

Tyrell 

Hyde 

Dare 

Cleveland 

Color Plate 1.1: North Carolina’s World, Regional, and Local Settings. 

61

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