Raytheon Technology Today 2011 Issue 1

Technology 

Today 

HigHligHting RaytHeon’s tecHnology 

Raytheon’s Integrated Energy Solutions 

Applying technologies critical to national security 

2011 ISSUE 1

A Message From Mark E. Russell 

On the cover: Raytheon, together with United 

Innovations and the University of Arizona, 

is developing a high efficiency solar energy 

system. The heart of the system is a novel 

photon-recycling photovoltaic cavity converter 

(PVCC). It works in conjunction with a parabolic 

dish reflector that concentrates sunlight 

through the PVCC onto an internal array of 

photovoltaic cells to produce electrical energy. 

2 2011 ISSUE 1 RAYTHEON TECHNOLOGY TODAY 

Vice President of Engineering, Technology and Mission Assurance 

Just as minimizing energy use and cost-effectively meeting energy needs are top-of-mind 

for all of us at Raytheon, so too are these major concerns for Raytheon’s defense and 

national security customers. Collectively we face the growing challenges related to 

energy and fossil fuel usage. Raytheon, known for technological innovation, is focused 

on helping to better meet these energy needs and create solutions that support our 

customers’ missions. 

This Energy issue of Technology Today focuses on Raytheon’s innovative approaches to 

satisfying the energy needs of its systems and its customers by leveraging and adapting 

advanced energy technologies. Assuring reliable energy sources, adjusting to unpredictable 

fuel pricing, and responding to mission needs are important variables in designing 

defense systems. 

Raytheon is at the forefront of providing the domain knowledge, technologies and 

solutions to meet energy challenges. We incorporate alternative energy sources such as 

solar, fuel cells and advanced batteries in our power management solutions. We are 

investigating power cells and storage technologies ranging from a few milliwatts to many 

megawatts. We understand what it means to efficiently manage and conserve energy in 

domains spanning air, land, sea, space and cyberspace. 

In this issue’s Leaders Corner, Tom Kennedy, president of Raytheon Integrated Defense 

Systems, discusses his vision for IDS and how he plans to meet the challenges that lie 

ahead — from changes in the external business environment to leveraging deep technical 

talent to addressing the energy needs of today. 

In the Meet a New Raytheon Leader section, we introduce Luis Izquierdo, vice president, 

corporate Operations. Luis is responsible for developing and executing Raytheon’s 

enterprise operations vision and strategy. He leads strategic initiatives for manufacturing 

and manufacturing business systems, and co-leads corporate initiatives related to energy 

and environmental sustainability and real estate utilization. Luis discusses how we are 

making an impact on energy efficiency by reducing Raytheon’s load demand. Raytheon 

has achieved the ENERGY STAR® Sustained Excellence Award from the U.S. Dept. of 

Energy for several years. 

Best regards, 

Mark E. Russell

View Technology Today online at: 

www.raytheon.com/technology_today/current INSIDE THIS ISSUE 

Technology Today is published 

by the Office of Engineering, 

Technology and Mission Assurance. 

Vice President 

Mark E. Russell 

Chief Technology Officer 

Bill Kiczuk 

Managing Editor 

Cliff Drubin 

Senior Editors 

Donna Acott 

Tom Georgon 

Eve Hofert 

Feature Editor 

Lindley Specht 

Art Director 

Debra Graham 

Photography 

Don Bernstein 

Rob Carlson 

Website Design 

Nick Miller 

Publication Distribution 

Dolores Priest 

Contributors 

Sarah Castle 

Kate Emerson 

Kenneth Kung 

Samantha Sullivan 

Frances Vandal 

Feature: Raytheon's Integrated Energy Solutions 

Overview: Applying Technologies Critical to National Security 4 

Building Tomorrow’s Energy Surety With Today’s Technologies 7 

Advanced Chemical Battery Technologies: The Lithium Revolution 9 

Power Sources That Last a Century 12 

Creating Compact, Reliable and Clean Power With Fuel Cell Technology 15 

The Battlefield Game Changer: Portable and Wearable Soldier Power 17 

Solar Power: Applying Raytheon‘s Defense Technologies 18 

External Combustion Engines for Military Applications 21 

The ReGenerator: Alternative Energy for Expeditionary Missions 23 

Intelligent Power and Energy Management 25 

The Role of Energy Storage in Intelligent Energy Systems 26 

Cyber Risk Management in Electric Utility Smart Grids 30 

Cybersecurity for Microgrids 32 

Standardizing the Smart Grid 34 

Raytheon Leaders 

Leaders Corner: Q&A With Tom Kennedy 36 

Meet a New Raytheon Leader: Luis Izquierdo 38 

EYE on Technology 

Advanced Vehicle Airframe Innovations Cut Missile Cost and Schedule 40 

Dynamic Ontology Creation Techniques: Weapon Smuggling Example 42 

Ka-band Cooperative Target ID for the Current Force 43 

Special Interest 

RF MEMS Development at Raytheon 45 

Carbon-Based Electronic Devices Open a New Window to Electronics 47 

People 

Profiling Raytheon Certified Architects 48 

Resources 

IPDS 3.4 for Engineers: The Right Way to Start a Program 49 

Events 

Fellows Meeting: Disruptive Technologies 50 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

10 

Power W/mm 

-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 130 nm CMOS 

1 10 

Editor’s note: Correction: Technology Today, 

2010 Issue 2, “Next Generation RF Systems,” 

2010 Mission Systems Integration Technology Network Symposium 51 

page 44. The reference to the FCC frequency 

allocation chart should have been to the United 

States National Table of Frequency Allocations. 

Figure 1 was taken from the United States Frequency 

Allocations: The Radio Spectrum, October 2003, 

National Telecommunications and Information 

Administration, Department of Commerce, Office 

Patents 53 

of Spectrum Management. RAYTHEON TECHNOLOGY TODAY 2011 ISSUE 1 3 

Fmax, Ft (GHz) 

InP HEMT 

Carbon-Based Electronics 

10 mW, 80% PAE, 20 dB Gain 

InGaAs PHEMT 

NextGen GaN 

GaN HEMT

Feature 

Raytheon Energy 

Solutions Overview 

Applying Technologies 

Critical to 

National Security 


Energy is becoming increasingly critical to national security. It is a major concern 

and cost consideration for current and future defense operations. The 2010 

Quadrennial Defense Review calls for crafting a strategic approach to energy and 

for operational energy considerations to be incorporated into force planning, requirements 

development and acquisition processes. 

Known for its technological innovation and total mission solutions, Raytheon is 

addressing energy applications from an overall system perspective by employing three 

complementary approaches, illustrated in Figure 1: 

1. Development and incorporation of advanced energy sources. 

2. Management and security of energy grids and infrastructures. 

3. Conservation of existing energy supplies, exemplified by Raytheon’s 

sustainability initiatives. 

Raytheon produces a large number of systems and products with diverse power and 

energy demands. Power demands range from less than 1 watt, for low-power, 

man-portable systems and unattended sensors, up to many megawatts for large radar 

installations and critical infrastructure needs. Operational environment and logistical 

constraints are also considered when evaluating alternative sources such as solar and 

wind power. For example, operations in a remote desert location may be better supported 

by incorporating solar energy and energy storage to minimize dependence on 

diesel generators and their corresponding fuel usage. However, incorporating new 

technologies should not inadvertently introduce vulnerabilities in the overall system 

architecture. This is one of the basic tenets of good systems engineering at Raytheon. 

In addition, it is important to properly assess the financial impact of these alternative 

energy implementations through a detailed return on investment analysis that examines 

total operational costs. 

In this issue of Technology Today, you will read about how Raytheon partners with 

developers and institutions on leading-edge, energy-related technology to provide the 

best system solutions for our customers’ unique applications. 

Systems Analysis and Architecture 

Beginning with a fundamental understanding of the mission objectives and power requirements, 

a comprehensive solution requires expertise in energy generation, storage 

and distribution, architecture, modeling and simulation, command and control, information 

management, sensing, cyberdefense, critical infrastructure protection, software, 

and power electronics integration. The next article, “Building Tomorrow’s Energy Surety 

With Today’s Technologies,” discusses Raytheon’s systems engineering approach to addressing 

our customers’ energy needs. The article describes how Raytheon, as an energy 

surety integrator, utilizes our resources in these areas to develop energy solutions that 

address the three primary stages in a system’s energy life cycle: concept, implementation 

and maintenance. This sets the stage for a series of articles highlighting Raytheon’s 

use of developing source technologies, our energy systems management solutions and 

our conservation initiatives. 

Applications 

Raytheon, as a technology company and as a systems integrator, recognizes that 

addressing the energy needs of our customers is key to providing total life-cycle solutions. 

In this issue, you will read about technologies such as advanced batteries for 

lightweight mobile applications, atomic batteries for persistent sensors, and fuel cells 

for man-portable, facility and fixed-base power applications. Renewable solar sources 

and energy management systems are being developed to support the energy needs of 

domestic communities, fixed bases and mobile tactical units. Another development is

Applications 

• Infrastructures 

• Bases 

• Airborne 

• Maritime 

• Ground 

• Wearable 

providing long-duration energy for the autonomous 

operation of underwater vehicles. 

With growth in domestic power needs and 

the complexity of interconnected power 

grids, integrated energy surety solutions 

have entered the forefront as the means 

for identifying and mitigating the risks and 

impacts of failure or compromise within 

the U.S. energy infrastructure. Raytheon is 

applying our considerable systems engineering 

resources to address power generation, 

distribution and storage strategies, and 

cybersecurity measures. Finally, as responsible 

citizens, we have a strong culture of 

energy awareness in everything we do, as 

evidenced by an established track record of 

conservation within our facilities. 

Source Technologies 

There are several existing and emerging 

electrical power generation technologies 

that play an important role in meeting the 

needs of our customers. 

The generalized Ragone chart in Figure 2 

is used to compare the performance of 

various energy sources. On the chart, the 

values of energy density (Wh/kg) are plotted 

against power density (W/kg). The vertical 

axis represents how much energy is available, 

while the horizontal axis represents 

how quickly that energy can be delivered 

to a load. The chart shows various energy 

sources — from low-power betavoltaics to 

Integrated Energy Solution 

System Analysis and Architecture Development 

Sources 

• Batteries 

• Fuel Cells 

• Solar 

• Wind 

• Generators 

• Others 

Approaches 

Management 

• Generation 

• Storage 

• Security 

• Distribution 

• Reconfigurability 

• Reliability 

• Recoverability 

• Safety 

Conservation 

• Consumption 

• Sustainability 

• Renewability 

Figure 1. Raytheon employs integrated systems resources to achieve comprehensive energy 

solutions for its customers. 

higher power lithium batteries, fuel cells 

and combustion engines. 

Many of Raytheon’s products require the 

use of electrical sources with moderate 

power and energy density. This need is 

typically met with conventional chemical 

batteries. In “Advanced Chemical Battery 

Technologies: The Lithium Revolution,” we 

start with a general discussion of chemical 

batteries, and then focus on advancements 

in lithium ion battery technology, which 

have evolved to dominate other common 

battery technologies for many of today’s 

applications. Work is ongoing to further increase 

lithium battery performance through 

improvements in three areas: chemistry, 

electrodes and electrolytes. 

Other applications benefit from very long 

life (high energy density), but require only a 

small amount of power. These applications 

are typically persistent unattended sensors 

for monitoring and tagging. The article 

titled “Power Sources That Last a Century,” 

about betavoltaics (atomic energy sources), 

addresses this class of applications, which 

will enable tiny smart sensors that never need 

their batteries recharged or replaced. 

For those applications requiring a clean and 

quiet power source — and where there is 

access to fuel for extended operation — the 

fuel cell is a viable technology. “Creating 

Compact, Reliable and Clean Power With 

Feature 

Fuel Cell Technology” discusses the various 

types of fuel cells with the capability to 

cover a very large power range. We highlight 

an application where this technology 

has the potential to replace conventional 

batteries that power equipment for manportable 

operations, significantly reducing 

the weight and volume of power sources 

that must be carried by soldiers on missions 

that range from days to weeks. 

Development of renewable solar energy 

sources is being undertaken at our sun-rich 

facility in Tucson, Ariz. We are participating 

in this collaborative research effort with 

Science Foundation Arizona, the University 

of Arizona, United Innovations and the 

California Energy Commission. This work is 

based on the photovoltaic cavity converter. 

The novel “photon-recycling” technology 

described in “Solar Power: Applying 

Raytheon's Defense Technologies” helps 

to increase the efficiency of current solar 

cells by capturing more of the incident 

solar energy. The goal is to develop a costcompetitive 

solar power solution to replace 

conventional power sources for many 

military and commercial applications. A 

photo of the team’s proof of concept demonstration 

hardware appears on the cover 

of this issue. 

The last article on power sources highlights 

our involvement with Cyclone Power 

10,000 

Energy Density (Wh/kg) 

1,000 

100 

10 

1 

0.1 

Fuel Cell 

Lead/Acid 

Battery 

Betavoltiac 

Continued on page 6 

Combustion 

Li-ion Battery 

1 10 100 1,000 10,000 

Power Density (W/kg) 

Figure 2. Ragone chart comparing the 

performance of several source technologies 

discussed in this issue 

RAYTHEON TECHNOLOGY TODAY 2011 ISSUE 1 5

ENGINEERING PROFILE 


Senior Principal 

Engineering 

Fellow, IDS 


has focused 

his career on 

discovering 

opportunities 

and innovating 

to help solve 

interesting 

customer problems. 

A 30-year 

Raytheon 

veteran, Specht continues to share his 

knowledge and expertise with all Raytheon 

businesses. 

“I have a relatively broad background 

that ranges from electrical engineering to 

chemistry, and continues to grow while I 

am at Raytheon,” Specht said. In his current 

assignment, Specht is responsible for 

the development of new technologies and 

capabilities for the warfighter. He is also the 

electro-optics and lasers technology champion 

for the company. 

Specht received Raytheon’s award for 

Excellence in Technology as well as the 

Thomas L. Phillips award for Excellence 

in Technology. He was a participant in the 

National Academy of Engineering second 

annual symposium on Frontiers in Science, 

and he was a member of the technical advisory 

committee for the University of Illinois 

Center for Compound Semiconductors. In 

addition, he was on the technical advisory 

committee for the Fundamentals of Infrared 

Detection Multidisciplinary University 

Research Initiative, sponsored by the Army 

Research Office. 

He holds a bachelor’s degree in chemistry 

with very high honors from the University 

of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. He also holds a 

master’s degree in electrical engineering, a 

doctorate in electrical engineering, and has 

completed all the requirements for a doctorate 

in physical chemistry, all from the 

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 

Urbana, Ill. 

Specht is a member of the Institute of 

Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the 

American Chemical Society. He is also a 

qualified Raytheon Six Sigma Specialist. 


Feature 

Continued from page 5 

Technologies, a company that has developed 

an innovative engine that converts 

heat from external combustion to electricity. 

Raytheon is integrating this technology as a 

replacement for batteries in long-endurance, 

long-range underwater vehicle applications. 

Energy Management 

We begin this series of articles with a system 

that illustrates the principles of energy 

management on a small scale. Raytheon’s 

ReGenerator is a self-contained hybrid power 

system that generates, stores and manages 

clean renewable energy, such as solar and 

wind power, designed for tactical use in remote 

locations. In fact, the ReGenerator has 

been deployed with the U.S. Marines in the 

Southwest United States, North Africa and 

Afghanistan. The article shows how the use 

of alternative energy along with intelligent 

energy command and control (IEC2) may 

considerably reduce a combat unit’s dependence 

on fossil fuels. This not only represents 

a cost savings, but it also reduces risk to 

warfighters by reducing the logistics footprint 

while providing reliable energy where and 

when it’s needed. The accompanying article 

discusses Raytheon’s intelligent power and 

energy management (IPEM) technology and 

explains how we employ it in development of 

our energy systems, such as the ReGenerator, 

to optimize efficiency and availability. 

A discussion of energy management must 

include energy storage. “The Role of Energy 

Storage in Intelligent Energy Systems” explains 

why energy storage is an important 

element of any energy system architecture, 

outlines general requirements, and identifies 

several technologies of interest along with 

their applications. 

The next two articles focus on the security 

risks associated with complex power grids. 

They discuss the complexities and challenges 

for managing risks in evolving smart 

grid concepts. “Cyber Risk Management 

in Electric Utility Smart Grids” discusses 

Raytheon’s collaboration with the University 

of Arizona, Tucson Electric Power, and several 

small-business partners to meet recently 

mandated regulations and guidelines for 

smart grid cybersecurity, architecture and 

Energy Overview 

infrastructure protection. “Cybersecurity for 

Microgrids” discusses our process and suite 

of modeling and evaluation tools used to assess 

the security of energy networks and to 

develop appropriate mitigation strategies. 

The last article in this series, “Standardizing 

the Smart Grid,” discusses Raytheon’s presence 

in the international energy standards 

community and our activities related to 

developing smart grid requirements and 

guidelines. The two key areas of standardization 

are interoperability and cybersecurity. 

Raytheon is represented on the Smart 

Grid Interoperability Panel sponsored by 

the National Institutes of Standards and 

Technology and the related series of task 

forces established by the Institute of Electrical 

and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) to address 

power systems, information technology and 

communications technology standards. 

Conservation 

In the “Leaders Corner,” Raytheon’s 

Integrated Defense Systems President Tom 

Kennedy provides examples of how our 

technology is being applied to reducing 

customers’ energy costs and how we are 

reducing our own energy footprint through 

our “Energy Citizen” program and “green” 

certified facilities. 

In “Meet a New Raytheon Leader,” 

Raytheon’s energy conservation and 

management measures are addressed by 

Luis Izquierdo, Raytheon’s vice president 

for corporate Operations in Engineering, 

Technology and Mission Assurance. In this 

Q&A, Izquierdo talks about his role and how 

it relates to energy conservation and management, 

Raytheon’s energy goals, and the 

key elements of Raytheon’s energy program. 

Summary 

We hope this issue provides you with a 

good perspective of the degree of focus 

and breadth of development that Raytheon 

is bringing to bear on the many energyrelated 

challenges. Energy is critical to our 

national security and Raytheon, as a systems 

and technology company, is using its resources 

to provide comprehensive solutions 

to meet our customers’ energy needs. • 

Lindley Specht

Building Tomorrow’s Energy Surety 

With Today’s Technologies 

Energy surety is an approach to an 

“ideal” energy system that, when fulfilled, 

enables the system to function 

properly while allowing it to resist stresses 

that could result in unacceptable losses. The 

attributes of the energy surety model include 

safety, security, reliability, recoverability and 

sustainability. 

Numerous existing and emerging electrical 

power generation and energy storage technologies 

may be employed to address the needs 

and objectives of U.S. Department of 

Defense (DoD) and other domestic and international 

customers. Maintaining energy surety 

throughout a system’s life cycle requires the 

identification, analysis and integration of the 

right energy technologies, while considering 

specific applications and environments. 

Raytheon accomplishes this by leveraging its 

expertise and resources in system architecture, 

design and integration; command and control; 

communications; cybersecurity; critical 

infrastructure protection; weather prediction; 

and modeling and simulation (M&S). 

Full Life-cycle Approach 

The system solution is developed and matured 

throughout the three primary stages 

Topology/ 

weather analysis 

Vulnerability 

analysis 

Concept Stage 

• Requirements 

derivation 

• Tech budgets 

• Gov’t mandates 

Cost benefit analysis 

Technology assessment 

Configuration 

trades 

in the energy solutions life cycle — concept, 

implementation and maintenance — as 

illustrated in Figure 1. 

During the concept stage, understanding 

the requirements, performing analysis of 

alternatives (AoA), cost benefit trades, and 

vulnerability analyses result in cost-effective 

solutions that meet user needs and are 

resilient to enemy attack. Early planning 

addresses the strategic concerns related to 

the architecture and deployment of a new 

initiative or mission and considers policy 

constraints, resource availability, personnel 

safety, target environment topology and 

weather characteristics, vulnerability and 

cost. AoA supports the planning process 

through rigorous trade-offs of operational 

approaches, technology configurations, 

cost-schedule-technology risks, and threats. 

Finally, architecture definition, modeling, 

simulation and systems analysis provide the 

foundation for design and implementation 

efforts and provide predictions of how — 

and how well — the system will operate 

once it is implemented. Some of these early 

analyses address the approach, effectiveness 

and costs of maintenance to ensure that the 

architecture and operational approach can 

Figure 1. The comprehensive system solution is matured throughout the energy solutions life cycle. 

EPA 

Deploy/install Design 

Feature 

be adequately supported and upgraded. 

This early total system analysis and architecture 

definition yields dividends during the 

implementation and maintenance stages by 

reducing the costs of operation, maintenance 

and upgrades. 

The implementation stage continues with 

detailed planning and design trade-offs that 

focus on installation performance, testability 

and supportability. Specific system and 

technology choices are made and a detailed 

deployment cost and schedule plan is created. 

All stakeholders are involved, and service-level 

agreement contracts are created and signed. 

System engineering, power systems design, 

supply chain and contracts management 

are critical during this and the maintenance 

stage. Proper analysis and selection in this 

phase reduces operational costs and improves 

system availability, enhancing energy surety 

and reducing the required frequency and cost 

of future upgrades. 

In the maintenance stage, the choices made 

during the concept and implementation 

stages are evaluated and evolved to support 

normal and peak operations. Power 

Implementation Stage Maintenance Stage 

Solution 

laydown 

Tech maturity 

and obsolescence 

Integrator Concept Integrator Baseline Integrator 

Contracts Procurement 

Cost and 

schedule 

Stakeholder coordination 

Maintenance 


Evaluate & 

Improve Plan 

Growth and upgrades 


road map 

M&S/data from estimates and “as likes” Mature models through data gathering Cost benefit for planned upgrades 

$ 

Implement 


Feature 


generation, power transmission, energy 

storage and load balance technologies 

are assessed and refreshed as needed. 

Optimization of human and system resources 

required to maintain the power system also 

occurs during this stage. The plan, implement 

and improve cycle runs continuously, 

drawing on the architecture, design, modeling 

and analysis skill sets. 

The attributes of energy surety are optimized 

through the application of Raytheon’s system 

engineering methods and resources addressing 

the full life cycle of the energy system. 

Enterprise Architecture 

The development and analysis of a comprehensive 

energy enterprise architecture 

is required for complex systems and is 

necessary before the total system can be 

understood and optimized. Raytheon employs 

the industry-standard Unified Profile for 

DoD Architecture Framework/U.K. Ministry 

of Defence Architecture Framework. This 

architecture captures all of the energy surety 

attributes and characteristics related to 

availability, performance, testability, interoperability, 

maintainability and scalability. One 

of the essential methods is model-based engineering 

(MBE) and the analysis capabilities 

it provides. 

Model-Based Engineering 

Model-based systems engineering is the formalized 

application of modeling to support 

system requirements, design, analysis, verification 

and validation activities beginning 

Energy 

Solution Gaps 

Intelligent Energy 

Management 

Interoperability 

Cyberprotection 

Physical Security 

Forecasting and 

Planning 

Comprehensive 

Solution Provider 

Raytheon 

Strengths 

Command and 

Control 

Communications 

Cybersecurity 

Critical Infrastructure 

Protection 

Environmental Data and 

Modeling & Simulation 

Systems of Systems 

Integration 

Figure 2. Raytheon’s core competencies 

address energy surety solution gaps. 


in the conceptual design phase and continuing 

throughout development and later 

life-cycle phases. Raytheon employs proven 

MBE practices to evaluate functional and 

non-functional system characteristics and 

perform engineering trade-offs of the energy 

solutions, considering the entire life 

cycle. Modeling and simulation are used to 

evaluate the scalability and cost-benefit implications 

of alternative architectures, designs 

and deployment strategies. 

For example, Raytheon’s MBE architecture 

analysis of one of the U.S. Army’s training 

bases demonstrated significant cost and 

time savings by employing a mixed profile of 

renewable and legacy energy generation resources, 

while deploying more efficient 

energy utilization strategies. 

For this analysis, several modeling, simulation 

and analysis tools were used to assess 

the viability of a wide range of energy surety 

capabilities and technologies. 

• The National Renewable Energy Laboratories’ 

HOMER (Hybrid Optimization Model for 

Electric Renewables) and ViPOR (Village 

Power Optimization Model for Renewables) 

tools were used to support the planning 

during the concept stage. The HOMER 

tool provided a low-fidelity modeling environment 

to trade cost, performance, functionality 

and risk factors associated with 

alternative energy deployment strategies. 

The ViPOR tool supported power bus and 

distribution line lay-down trade-offs. 

• Power transmission modeling tools such as 

PowerWorld Simulator were useful during 

the implementation stage to conduct 

trade studies on various power source and 

load balance alternatives. 

• General-purpose physics modeling and 

discrete event simulation models using 

tools such as Simulink ® and eXtend 

were useful for end-to-end system and 

device-specific performance trade-offs. 

A useful outgrowth of this modeling and 

simulation effort was the ability to employ 

both discrete and continuous modeling 

techniques in an integrated, end-to-end 

performance assessment, linked to live 

energy-generation and storage resources. 

Energy Surety 

Energy Security 

Defensive mechanisms that respond to a 

wide range of security threats and reduce 

vulnerabilities address an important attribute 

of energy surety. These mechanisms draw 

on Raytheon’s core competencies in cybersecurity, 

critical infrastructure protection, 

command and control, situational awareness, 

environmental data modeling and 

analytics, and secure communications. 

We have expanded our command and control 

situational awareness functionality to 

include energy-related resources (generation, 

storage and loads). These monitoring functions 

now provide the historical, current and 

predictive operational state of mission-critical 

energy subsystems. Secure, reliable wired 

and wireless communications technologies 

are being effectively applied to develop 

secure SCADA (supervisory control and data 

acquisition) capabilities that address the 

high risk of cyberattacks against the energy 

infrastructure. 

Physical security risks associated with the 

energy infrastructure are cost effectively 

addressed as part of a comprehensive critical 

infrastructure protection (CIP)-based suite of 

sensing, defense and deterrence capabilities 

demonstrated and matured in Raytheon’s 

existing CIP solutions. 

Forecasting and Planning 

Raytheon addresses the challenges of energy 

demand forecasting and planning by 

employing weather, social and technology 

modeling techniques to analyze trends 

and to project probabilities of occurrence 

of a wide range of factors that influence a 

system’s energy profile. Raytheon’s environmental 

weather modeling capabilities, linked 

with our partnerships in academia, government 

and industry, build a strong foundation 

for providing these capabilities. 

Closing the Gaps 

As shown in Figure 2, Raytheon’s strengths 

align with many of our customers’ energy 

solution gaps. The application of a total 

system and full life-cycle approach, along 

with appropriate expertise, enhances energy 

surety. The energy system is better managed, 

improving efficiency and reducing costs. 

Better defenses are provided to counter 

physical and cyber threats. • 

Ron Williamson and Bob Gerard

Advanced 

Chemical 

Battery 

Technologies: 

The Lithium 

Revolution 

The ability to provide 

reliable, long-lasting 

power to portable and 

compact systems is a 

key performance 

characteristic for a 

variety of government 

and defense products, 

ranging from radios to 

unmanned systems. 

Feature 

Many of us are aware of a number of technologies that have followed some variant of 

“Moore’s Law” for growth in long-term performance, but advances in battery technology 

have been more modest. The increased presence of power-hungry portable devices 

(e.g., smart phones, personal digital assistants and their military counterparts) as well as the push 

to clean hybrid or all-electric vehicles has intensified the focus on — and public and private sector 

investment in — battery chemistry and development. This article highlights recent developments in 

lithium battery technologies that may advance the current state of the art and meet the increasing 

energy needs of our customers. 

Battery Fundamentals 

A battery is a device that converts stored chemical energy, in the form of metals and electrolytes, 

into electric current through internal reactions at the battery’s positive and negative terminals. 

Performance of any battery is dependent on three technology areas: the chemistry that generates 

the electrons, the electrodes that provide half of the reaction and collect and distribute the electrons, 

and the electrolytes that provide the remaining chemistry and the internal pathway for the 

electron flow. 

Electrical current begins to flow when a load is applied connecting the two battery terminals. 

Without the load providing the path from the negative to the positive terminal, the chemical reaction 

does not take place and the battery remains charged. A single unit of a battery, commonly 

called a cell, will have a characteristic voltage range between charged and discharged states based 

on the electrochemical properties of the materials used and the specific reactions that occur in the 

electrolytic solution between the two terminals. 

There are basically two types of batteries. A primary battery is one where the energy is exhausted 

after the active materials are consumed (e.g., carbon-zinc, silver oxide and alkaline). A secondary 

battery is one where the active materials can be regenerated by charging (e.g., lead acid, lithium ion, 

nickel cadmium or NiCd, nickel metal hydride or NiMH). 

The specific materials used within a battery control its voltage; each different reaction has a characteristic 

voltage value. Take a car battery as an example. A single cell of a typical automotive 

lead-acid battery has a negative plate made of lead (Pb) and a positive plate made of lead dioxide 

(PbO2 ), both of which are placed into a strong electrolyte solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4 ) and 

water (H2O). When placed in aqueous solution, the sulfuric acid separates into a hydrogen ion (H + ) 

– 

and a hydrogen sulfate ion (HSO4 ). During battery discharge, a reaction takes place at the negative 

terminal, where the lead combines with the hydrogen sulfate ion to create lead sulfate (PbSO4 ), 

a hydrogen ion and two electrons (e – ) that drive the load (starting the engine). At the positive 

– + terminal during discharge, lead dioxide (PbO2 ), hydrogen sulfate ions (HSO4 ), hydrogen ions (H ) 

plus the returning electrons from the negative terminal create lead sulfate on the lead dioxide 

– 

plate and water. As the battery discharges, both plates build up lead sulfate, and the HSO4 concentration 

decreases in the electrolyte solution. This reaction generates a characteristic voltage of 

-0.356 volts at the negative plate and +1.685 volts at the positive plate, or about 2 volts per cell, 

so by combining six cells in series, a standard 12-volt battery is formed. To recharge, current is applied 

to the battery from the alternator with the 

Secondary Battery Example 

Automotive Lead-Acid 

Negative terminal (Pb): 

discharge � 

– Pb + HSO4 � PbSO4 + H + + 2e – (-0.356 V) 

� charge 

Positive terminal (PbO2 ): 

discharge � 

– + – PbO2 + HSO4 + 3H + 2e � PbSO4 + 2H2O (1.685 V) 

� charge 

Figure 1. The process within a common 

automotive lead-acid battery is a familiar 

example that illustrates the basic operation of 

all chemical batteries. 

additional electrons reacting to regenerate lead, 

lead dioxide, and hydrogen sulfate ions. Figure 1 

summarizes these chemical processes. 

Advances in Battery Technology 

Figure 2 identifies several milestones in the 

evolution of battery technology. The introduction 

of lithium-based batteries in past decades was 

revolutionary in that battery performance rapidly 

improved after years of attaining only small 

incremental gains over the universal lead-acid 

technology. 

Why lithium? Conventional, commercially available 

battery technologies typically have energy 

densities on the order of tens of watt-hours per 




Tony Marinilli 

Chief Hardware 

Engineer, ET&MA 

With more than 

32 years at 

Raytheon, Tony 

Marinilli’s considerable 

experience 

suits his current 

position as chief 

hardware engineer 

for Raytheon 

Engineering, 

Technology and Mission Assurance. 

As a member of the corporate Engineering team, 

Marinilli provides technical leadership and 

supports the development of innovative solutions 

that ensure mission success. He supports 

hardware development by driving performance, 

processes, innovation and the implementation 

of disruptive, leading-edge technologies. 

Before his current position, Marinilli was a principal 

engineering fellow for Raytheon Integrated 

Defense Systems and a senior manager and 

engineering fellow within the Northeast region’s 

Radar Design and Electronics Laboratory. 

He was also responsible for radar technology 

and strategic planning and acted as principal 

engineer and engineering section manager for 

the microwave systems department within the 

Missile and Radar Systems Laboratory. 

Among his many accomplishments, Marinilli 

has published 13 papers in the areas of missile 

seekers, photonic technology, satellite communications 

and solid-state transmitters. He has 

contributed to the design and development of 

low-noise, microwave-power amplifiers while 

utilizing microwave integrated circuits and 

microwave monolithic integrated circuits for 

advanced radar systems. 

Marinilli attributes his success to his inquisitive 

nature, saying, “I have always been curious and 

persistent. I’m not discouraged by failure, and 

I enjoy making linkages between obscure and 

unrelated facts.” 

In addition to his career, Marinilli is actively 

involved in promoting initiatives among institutions 

of higher education that help increase the 

number of students preparing for and entering 

careers that employ engineering, science, 

technology and mathematics. 


Feature 


kilogram. This is dictated by the chemistry 

used as well as the ionic transport media — 

the electrolytes. Lithium is a highly reactive 

element with the additional advantage that 

its ionic size (atomic number 3) is relatively 

small compared with other elements; this 

facilitates ionic transport. In order to utilize 

the stored chemical energy in an element 

or compound, the reaction with oxygen 

or other reactants needs to be controlled, 

and paths of electrons and ions need to be 

separated. Consequently, reaction rates are 

limited by ionic conductivity through the 

electrolyte. In lead-acid automotive batteries 

the ionic species is lead traveling through a 

sulfuric acid electrolyte. Since the liquid 

allows fast ionic conduction, these batteries 

can produce great power for, as an example, 

starting the engine. The downside, however, 

is that the chemicals are quickly depleted 

and the reaction slows. Therefore, the stored 

energy tends to be low, and the battery 

needs to be recharged to reverse the reaction 

and restore the level of stored energy. 

With an atomic number of 3, lithium is the 

lightest of all metals. The electrodes of a 

lithium-ion battery are made of a lithium 

compound, (e.g., lithium phosphate) and 

carbon, so they are generally much lighter 

than other types of rechargeable batteries 

of the same size. Lithium is also a highly reactive 

element (located on the far left of the 

periodic table of elements), meaning that 

a lot of energy can be stored in its atomic 

bonds, resulting in a very high energy density. 

A typical lithium-ion battery can store 

200 watt-hours of energy in 1 kilogram of 

Rechargeable 

Nickel-Metal Hydride Cell 

~80 Wh/kg 

Rechargeable 

Nickel-Cadmium Cell 

~50 Wh/kg 

Rechargeable 

Lead-Acid Battery 

~30 Wh/kg 

Advanced Batteries 

battery versus the automotive lead-acid 

battery, which can store about 30 watthours 

per kilogram. 

Lithium-based batteries’ higher energy 

density brings with it greater challenges 

to contain and control the chemical reaction. 

The first lithium battery experiments 

conducted in Japan and the U.S. were 

failures due to the explosive nature of 

the compounds used. The end result is a 

compromise that sacrifices performance 

for safety, an approach that utilizes lithium 

not in its elemental form, but in compound 

form. In this way, the explosive nature of 

pure lithium can be controlled, but at the 

expense of reduced energy storage. 

Application in Hybrid Power Systems 

While they find common application in 

portable devices, lithium batteries play an 

important role as energy storage devices 

in hybrid power systems being developed 

at Raytheon. Raytheon designed, and is 

now testing, hybrid power systems using 

advanced technology lithium-ion battery energy 

storage with solar, wind and generator 

inputs to provide power for forward-operating 

equipment in support of the warfighter. 

These systems are designed to provide 

power surety as well as significant reduction 

in fuel usage, resulting in fewer fuel sorties, 

thus lowering the casualty rate, reducing 

maintenance, and lowering total cost of 

ownership. Environmentally ruggedized 

batteries based on lithium with long-life, 

deep-discharge capability, high-efficiency, 

and high power and energy densities are 

instrumental in realizing the advantages inherent 

within these hybrid power systems. 

1859 1960 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 

Optimized Li-ion Cells 

– Nano-Surface Electrodes 

– Composite Electrodes 

~1,000 Wh/kg 

Lithium-Thionyl-CI Battery 

~350 Wh/kg 

Lithium-S02 Battery 

~250 Wh/kg 

The Lithium Revolution 

1990 and Beyond 

Figure 2. Battery Technology Evolution. Lithium-based batteries offer significant 

improvement in energy density over other known chemistries.

Courtesy of Polyplus Corporation, Berkeley, Calif., with permission of 

Dr.Steven J. Visco, chief technical officer, Polyplus Battery Company. 

The Future 

Lithium-ion batteries have made tremendous 

inroads in the commercial market, and 

their use in providing the driving power in 

automotive applications has now become 

possible. Boston Power’s lithium-ion batteries 

are a good example. Their rechargeable 

batteries, based on a proprietary lithium 

compound, produce energy densities of 

about 180 Wh/kg, and power densities of 

about 440 W/kg. These batteries are commercially 

available and well suited for long 

missions. Another promising lithium-ion 

variant is offered by A123 for the automotive 

market. These batteries are based on 

lithium iron phosphate nanotechnology, 

which creates an extremely large surface 

area on the electrodes for the chemical 

reaction to take place, and results in high 

power densities up to 2,000 W/kg. The large 

surface area provides for quick discharge to 

accelerate a vehicle and fast recharging. 

Several companies continue development of 

a pure lithium-based battery. Success in this 

will open up many applications, and it will 

be a breakthrough in the automotive world. 

Feature 

Chemistry 

• Complex chemical systems based on lithium 

compounds (e.g., lithium thionyl chloride or 

lithium manganate). 

• Energy density typically 350 Wh/kg. 

Future 

• Lithium-air and lithium-water cells offer 

simpler chemistry. 

• 1,200 Wh/kg demonstrated (Polyplus). 

Electrodes 

• Conventional graphite and lithium compounds used. 

• Surface area limits reaction rate and current flow. 

Future 

• Nano and bio-inspired technologies offer 

extremely high surface area materials. 

Courtesy of Prof. Daniel E. Morse, Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, California NanoSystems Institute, and the Materials Research Laboratory, University 

of California, Santa Barbara, from “Materials for New Generation High-Performance Lithium Ion Batteries.” 

Courtesy of Dr. Mason K. Harrup, “Advanced Membranes Produce Longer 

Lasting and Safer Batteries,” Idaho National Laboratory. 

Electrolytes 

• Liquids and gels used for high ionic conductivity 

and reactivity. 

• Downside: fast charge or discharge can lead to 

excessive heating and explosions. 

• Power densities ~100 to 250 W/kg. 

Future 

• Solid state electrolytes, ceramic or polymers. 

Figure 3. Lithium battery development to achieve large energy and power densities seeks to 

optimize performance within three technology areas. 

One company that has not given up on pure 

lithium is California-based Polyplus. It has 

developed a method to contain pure lithium 

in a solid electrolytic capsule that controls 

the violent reaction of lithium and oxygen. 

An experimental cell from Polyplus recently 

set a new record in energy density of 1,200 

Wh/kg. The company’s next challenge is to 

increase the power density of their system. 

The quest for more powerful and energetic 

batteries continues, and the available 

energy of lithium is still not fully tapped 

(lithium has an energy density potential 

of ~12,000 Wh/kg, close to gasoline at 

~13,300 Wh/kg). Consequently, another 

performance leap is anticipated for the 

near future. Figure 3 highlights ongoing 

developments in the three technology areas 

of chemistry, electrodes and electrolytes. 

Successful development and merging of 

these technologies could achieve an energy 

density of ~3,000 Wh/kg and a power 

density of ~2,000 W/kg. • 

Tony Marinilli, Peter Morico, Bart VanRees 

Contributor: Steve Klepper 


Peter Morico 

Engineering Fellow, 

IDS 

As the Power 

Cell Enterprise 

Campaign (PCEC) 

lead, Peter Morico 

is identifying and 

promoting powerrelated 

technology 

to bring about 

discriminating 

advantages 

to Raytheon products and pursuits. The 

PCEC enables technologies to grow product 

lines, and offers substantial benefits to our 

customers. 

Morico’s interest in power design developed 

early. At 13, he obtained his advanced-class 

amateur radio license. By 15, he had erected a 

40-foot tower complete with a four-element 

Yagi antenna. He also designed and built a 

2 kV power supply as well as a 1 kW linear 

amplifier using parts scavenged from old 

television sets and surplus military electronics. 

Morico began his professional career 

at Hughes Space and Communications, 

designing hybrid microcircuits and power 

supplies for military satellites. His passion for 

power design moved him from California to 

Massachusetts to design the first generation of 

kinetic hit-to-kill infrared seeker electronics. 

An 11-year Raytheon veteran, Morico has 

led power conversion design teams for 

several major surface radar programs. 

Speaking about the value of experience, 

he said, “With more than 30 years in the 

defense and aerospace industry, it is clear to 

me that the body of knowledge of what does 

not work far exceeds that of what worked the 

first time. This is where experience is vitally 

important, because no one is teaching what 

doesn’t work.” 

Morico has led a number of internal research 

and design projects and serves on the board 

of directors of the Massachusetts Hydrogen 

Coalition. He is frequently called on to solve 

difficult technical problems and conducts 

customer, academia and industry briefings. 


Feature 

Electronic devices that never 

need to have their power source 

replaced and can function 

unattended for 100 years. 

Science fiction? No, science fact. 

Raytheon’s customers need compact, 

reliable and long-lived, high 

energy density power supplies for 

applications such as sustainable low-power 

electro-mechanical devices. One such application 

is unattended embedded stress 

monitoring devices using microelectromechanical 

systems (MEMS) that are located in 

inaccessible areas such as aircraft structures, 

bridges and buildings. These applications 

all beg for a robust, viable, cost-effective 

power supply that can satisfy the long- 

duration needs and sustainable power 

required for predicting the onset of a 

structural failure, and then conveying this 

information to allow for pre-emptive action 

and avoid catastrophe. 

These isolated sensors are only practical if 

they are small, long-lived and unaffected 

by harsh environmental conditions. Typical 

chemical-based batteries may last a couple 

of years, whereas autonomous sensors require 

miniature power sources with much 

longer lifetimes. For sensor networks in 

harsh, inaccessible environments, battery 

replacement can be a practical impossibility 

or prohibitively expensive. There is also a 

need for MEMS technology that can overtly 

or covertly sense mechanical motion, 

temperature changes, chemicals and 

biological species. This requires long-term 

sources of compact energy. Applications 

include radio frequency identification (RFID) 

tags, autonomous sensors, and long-lived, 


Power Sources 

That Last a Century 

miniature, wireless transmitters. The discriminator 

in all of these technologies is 

long-term, reliable, high-energy density that 

is addressed using devices that contain embedded 

betavoltaic power sources, referred 

to, in general terms, as “atomic batteries.” 

Atomic Battery Physics 

Atomic batteries are power sources utilizing 

the emissive properties of a certain class 

of radioactive isotopes. These unstable 

isotopes are mostly man-made in nuclear 

reactors. They are a form of naturally 

occurring elements, where the normal distribution 

of protons and neutrons in the 

nucleus is disturbed, rendering it unstable. 

Over time it is destined to return to a stable 

state through an internal restructuring 

called transmutation. A consequence of 

transmutation is the emission of some 

nuclear constituents that convert the 

material into a different element. These constituents 

primarily include highly energetic 

particles such as alpha particles (helium 

nuclei) and beta particles (electrons). 

Upon impact with matter, these constituents 

deposit their energy through ionization 

in a predictable manner, creating tracks 

of secondary charged particles, such as 

electrons and ions similar to electron-hole 

pairs in semiconductors. Eventually, the 

particles are captured by the encountered 

material when their kinetic energy dwindles 

down to zero. In all cases, the total energy 

content of each of these particles, initially 

in the form of energetic charged particles, 

eventually emerges as deposited energy in 

the form of heat. Some atomic battery technologies 

are based on capturing the copious 

amounts of charged particles created during 

ionization, while others utilize the resulting 

generated heat. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

Several applications have exploited the 

heat generation aspects of atomic batteries. 

One is the radioisotope thermoelectric 

generator (RTG), which has been used in 

numerous NASA deep-space missions that 

cannot implement photocells as power 

sources; e.g., missions to the outer regions 

of the solar system, where power generation 

by sunlight is ineffectual. The basis for 

these types of power generators consists 

of hundreds of Curies of the alpha particleemitting 

isotope Pu-238 embedded in 

ceramics. This produces energy by heating 

the ceramic mass through alpha particle 

energy absorption, with subsequent thermoelectric 

conversion to useful electricity. 

These RTGs have no moving parts and have 

been the major source of power in at least 

41 NASA missions on satellites expected to 

operate for more than 20 years. Another 

lower power application of this type of 

technology is found in pacemakers (see 

Figure 1). This application uses about three 

Curies of Pu-238. Weighing only about 

three ounces, the pacemaker produces 

approximately 1 milliwatt of power while 

contributing a generally acceptable typical 

radiation dose of 100 millirems per year 

Figure 1. Pacemaker RTGs – Technologies 

based on “atomic batteries” are not new 

and have been used in various applications 

for many years.

to the patient. Although in use for a number 

of years, this application was replaced 

several years ago when improvements in 

pacemaker technology reduced energy 

requirements to the point where lithium 

battery technology became viable. 

Betavoltaics 

Betavoltaics, another form of atomic battery, 

are the little brothers to RTGs; the 

difference is that this energy source is not 

based on the heat generated, but on its 

ability to generate sufficient quantities 

of material-ionizing beta particles. While 

betavoltaics are similar in concept to photovoltaic 

cells, there is a notable difference. 

Where photovoltaic cells harvest energy 

from interacting photons, betavoltaics function 

by capturing and converting the kinetic 

energy of energetic electrons, emitted from 

decaying radioactive isotopes, into large 

amounts of secondary electrons. 

Betavoltaics-powered devices may be 

engineered to be extremely robust. Since 

the source of power is electrons emitted 

from the isolated atomic nucleus, electron 

emission rates are immune from effects of 

stressful, harsh environmental conditions. 

Since this technology is based on feature 

sizes on the scale of an atom, betavoltaics 

show potential improvement in both 

energy density and total energy content, 

compared with conventional power sources 

such as AA batteries. This large energy 

density is attributed to the huge number 

of radioisotope atoms contained in a small 

amount of material (recall Avogadro’s number), 

and each atom is primed to unload its 

Type 

Lithium AA 

Battery 

Betavoltaic 

1 cm 2 

Power 

(mW) 

~1 

(1.5 V) 

~0.3 

(2 V) 

Total 

Energy 

(mWh) 

energy-generating beta particle emission at 

a rate that is only dependent, in a statistical 

manner, upon the particular isotope’s 

half life. This advantage in energy density is 

indicated in Table 1, which shows a relative 

comparison of capabilities for a notional 

betavoltaic battery design with those of a 

typical lithium AA battery. 

Two betavoltaic manifestations are 

possible: the so-called direct conversion 

category, where secondary electron-hole 

pairs are generated in P-N semiconductor 

diodes, or the vibrating cantilever concept 

that converts mechanical energy to electrical 

energy using a piezoelectric-driven, energyscavenging 

mechanical converter. Miniature, 

low-powered technology devices, based 

on either of these two general operational 

classes, hold the potential for the development 

and integration of tiny smart sensors 

that will never need their power supplies 

replaced. Specific designs based on 

atomic batteries are customized for their 

intended applications; some of the basics 

that help dictate the design are briefly 

discussed below. 

Direct Conversion Betavoltaics 

One unique rendering of betavoltaics is 

the direct conversion approach based on 

a P-N semiconductor diode such as gallium 

nitride (GaN) placed in direct contact 

with a source of beta particles. Figure 2 

is a notional design for the P-N junction 

method. In the figure, the source adjacent 

to the semiconductor is a thin plated film 

layer of a beta particle-emitting isotope. A 

typical useful source for these applications 

Volume 

(cm 3 ) 

Weight 

(g) 

Total 

Energy 

Density 

(mWh/g) 

4,350 7.9 14.5 300 

10,512 0.025 0.08 131,400 

Table 1. Comparison of a lithium AA battery with conceptual betavoltaic power source. 

Source: M.V.S Chandrashekhar, et al., “Design and Fabrication of a 4H SiC Betavoltaic Cell,” 

Cornell University. 

I GEN 

+ 

− 

Feature 

Incident beta radiation 

p-semiconductor 

n-semiconductor 

Built-in 

electric 

field 

Figure 2. Schematic betavoltaics P-N junction 

power source. One betavoltaic conceptual 

design configuration is based on “direct 

conversion” that derives small currents from 

electron-hole pairs produced by impinging 

beta rays in P-N junction depletion zones. 

is a 5-micron layer of the pure beta particleemitting 

isotope Ni-63, providing an activity 

of roughly 0.25 milliCuries, that emit beta 

particles over a wide range of energies, with 

an average energy of 17 kiloelectronvolts 

(keV) and peaking at 67 keV. On average, 

half of all emitted beta particles are transported 

toward the semiconductor P-layer 

where, upon interacting with the material, 

some beta particles are backscattered from 

the interface and do not penetrate into the 

semiconductor. 

Those beta particles that make it into the 

semiconductor begin losing energy quickly, 

primarily through ionization, generating 

electron-hole pairs that are captured once 

all their energy is dissipated. Beta-particle 

path lengths depend on initial beta-particle 

energy and the material through which it 

is transported; in general, they are in the 

range of a few tens of micrometers. For this 

energy transfer to be effective as a power 

source, beta particles should be able to 

reach deep enough into the semiconductor 

to deposit most of their energy, through 

ionization, in the P-N junction depletion 

region. Those electron-hole pairs generated 

in the depletion region — where the 

number of pairs depends on material band 

gap and beta energy — are swept across 

the junction by the generated electric field 

and are converted into useful electricity to 

power an attached load (Figure 2). 



Feature 


These types of betavoltaics generally 

develop power levels that can approach 

1 milliwatt. Radiation-tolerant, wide band 

gap semiconductors are ideal candidates for 

direct-conversion betavoltaics. Several semiconductors 

have been identified as ideally 

suited for these applications. They include 

GaN, aluminum gallium nitride, silicon 

carbide and diamond. Since electrons are 

rapidly absorbed as they emerge from the 

radioactive plated surface, the useful isotope 

plating thickness is limited to a few 

micrometers at best. Therefore, methods 

to scale up the output of these devices depend 

primarily on increasing direct contact 

surface area. Honsberg, et al., described 

a conceptualized approach to address this 

issue. It consists of mating GaN layers on 

each side of thin Ni-63 wafers in order to 

maximize output power. Using this GaN- 

isotope sandwich design to capture a large 

fraction of emitted beta particles, the 

ability to develop a 2.3 volt open circuit 

voltage with a short circuit current of 

1.1 microamperes was reported. 1 Raytheon 

currently produces GaN devices for highpower 

microwave applications and also has 

an established and demonstrated capability 

for growing thin-film chemical vapor 

deposition diamond. With this established 

presence in developing materials that are 

highly desirable for betavoltaics-based 

power sources, Raytheon is in a good 

position to drive this technology forward. 

In light of the limited range of low-energy 

beta particles considered here, beta sources 

for direct conversion devices are considered 

to be relatively safe since they are literally 

stopped by the outermost dead skin layer. 

There are a number of radiologically-safe 

pure beta emitting isotopes with half-lives 

ranging from 2.6 to 100.3 years and with 

energy densities as high as 10 11 kilojoules 

per cubic meter (kJ/m 3 ). In comparison, 

diesel fuel has an energy density of approximately 

4x10 7 kJ/m 3 , illustrating that 

betavoltaic sources can have very high energy 

densities and, consequently, long lives. 

The choice of the appropriate isotope 

is dictated primarily by operational 


Radioactive 

Source 

Half-life 

(year) 

Specific 

Activity 

(GBq/g) 

considerations, where the isotope is selected 

based in part by matching its half-life to 

the application’s expected operational life. 

Use of a pure beta emitter is also preferred, 

since generating other decay products can 

lead to a significant dose to the operator 

and possible damage to the direct conversion 

device semiconductor when long 

term exposures are required. In general, a 

long half-life pure beta isotope provides 

prolonged battery life at the expense of 

generating low power, while a short halflife 

isotope provides higher power at a more 

limited sustainable life span. Table 2 shows 

some candidate beta-emitting isotopes and 

their relevant properties. 

Self-Reciprocating Cantilever 

Another unique betavoltaic application is 

based on a vibrating piezoelectric cantilever 

concept, the self-reciprocating cantilever. 

This functions initially as a charge-to-motion 

Maximum 

Decay Energy 

Average 

Decay Energy 

Specific 

Power 

mWatt/Ci 

Tritium, 3H 12.3 357,000 18.6 keV 5.7 keV 33.7 

63Ni 100 2,190 67 keV 17 keV 100 

147Pm 2.6 36,260 230 keV 73 keV 367 

Table 2. Pure beta particle emitters. Source: M. Mohamadian, et al., “Conceptual Design of 

GaN Betavoltaic Battery use in Cardiac Pacemaker,” Proceedings ICENES (2007). 

63 Ni radioisotope emitter 

Vout 

conversion process followed by mechanical 

energy conversion to electrical energy. In 

this rendering, the device contains a beta 

particle-emitting isotope-coated surface 

designed to continuously deliver a negative 

charge to a nearby piezoelectric materialcoated 

cantilever. This conceptual design is 

shown in Figure 3, where the self-reciprocating 

cantilever process begins by charging 

the opposing surface with a large fraction 

of the charge emitted by the isotope. Once 

a sufficient negative charge builds up on the 

cantilever surface, the resulting electrostatic 

force field begins to draw the cantilever to 

the fixed location, positively charged lower 

surface. When an adequate charge is 

accumulated, the cantilever bends to the 

point where it contacts the radioisotopecoated 

surface. Upon contact, electrons 

flow from the negatively charged surface, 

causing surface charge neutralization, collapsing 

the electrostatic field to zero and 

Piezoelectric plate (PZT) 

Atomic Batteries 

Silicon beam 

Collector, thick enough to 

capture all emitted particles 

63 Ni radioisotope emitter 

Figure 3. Self-reciprocating piezoelectric cantilever. One betavoltaic design configuration is 

based on vibrating piezoelectric cantilevers that convert electrostatic energy to kinetic energy 

and back into electric energy. Amit Lal, Rajesh Duggirala and Hui Li, “Pervasive Power: A 

Radioisotope-Powered Piezoelectric Generator,” PERVASIVEcomputing, Jan-Mar 2005.

forcing the cantilever to spring back and oscillate 

around its initial equilibrium position. 

This approach allows for the continuous 

transfer of energy from mechanical to 

electrical, generated by the vibrating piezoelectric-based 

cantilever. As the platform 

continues to oscillate, the piezoelectric- 

attached structure generates useful electricity 

that can be harvested for various 

applications. Its oscillation frequency can 

be fine-tuned by modifying the length 

of the cantilever and the strength of the 

radiation source. Depending on its intended 

application, the output of this device can be 

utilized as a source of tunable rapid current 

spikes, or filtered to produce a continuous 

DC output stream. 

An approach to implementing radio frequency 

identification (RFID), for example, is 

based on a modification of the self-reciprocating 

cantilever design described above. 

Tin, et al. 2 , report the generation of 264 

MHz wireless signals induced directly by 

vibration of the cantilever. Another RFID design 

employs a surface acoustic wave (SAW) 

resonator connected to and excited by the 

vibrating cantilever. This concept has been 

shown to produce a frequency modulation 

found useful as a CMOS-compatible wireless 

communications beacon. The authors 

report on the design of a SAW transponder 

that can transmit an RF signal at 800 microwatts, 

with a 10 microsecond pulse 

duration, every three minutes at a frequency 

locked to a 315 megahertz SAW resonator. 3 

In addition to RFID, Raytheon is pursuing 

applications such as power sources for 

autonomous sensors and long-lived, miniature, 

wireless transmitters. The benefit 

provided to these applications is long-term 

unattended, reliable operation achieved 

using devices that contain embedded high 

energy density betavoltaic power sources. • 

Bernard Harris 

1 C. Honsberg, et al., ”GaN Betavoltaic Energy Converters,” IEEE 

Photovoltaics Specialist Conference. Orlando, Fla., 2005. 

2 S. Tin, et al.,”Self-Powered Discharge-Based Wireless 

Transmitter,” IEEE International Conference on 

MicroElectroMechanical Systems, 2008. 

3 S. Tin and A. Lal, “A radioisotope-powered surface acoustic wave 

transponder,” J. Micromech. Microeng., 19 (2009). 

Creating Compact, Reliable 

and Clean Power With Fuel Cell 


Feature 

The demand for compact, reliable and clean power is an important driver and constraint 

for large and small systems. Rapid technological advances have been made in 

fuel cells, which are of interest to Raytheon and our customers as a more effective 

source of power for key products and as a more sustainable source of power for facilities 

and large-scale systems. 

Raytheon is employing new developments in fuel cell technology that are likely to be part of 

the next generation of power solutions. 

How Fuel Cells Work: The Basics 

Fuel cells produce direct current (DC) electrical power through an electrochemical reaction 

in which a fuel (hydrogen or a hydrocarbon) is oxidized, typically with pure oxygen or air. 

Some designs use chemicals such as chlorine as the oxidizing agent. A fuel cell consists of 

two electrodes, the anode and cathode, separated by an electrolyte. The electrolyte may 

be liquid, such as an aqueous alkaline solution, or solid, such as those using polymer membranes 

or solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). This distinction defines the two basic classes of fuel 

cells — liquid and solid — with numerous variants of each. 

Fuel cells are distinct from batteries, the other major class of electrochemical power cells. 

A fuel cell is a thermodynamically open system into which fuel is continuously injected to 

generate power. In contrast, a battery is a closed system that stores power, though many 

battery types can have power added through recharging. 

Figure 1 illustrates the electrochemistry that powers fuel cells. Because fuel cells create 

electrical power through an electrochemical reaction rather than through combustion, 

their efficiency is not limited by the Carnot cycle efficiency of traditional heat engines (e.g., 

internal combustion engines or turbines), but is potentially higher. Advances in fuel cell technologies 

during the past decade are helping to realize this theoretical efficiency advantage. 

Anode 

Current 

Carbon + 

Hydrogen 

C H + zO � nCO + mH O + e x y 2 2 2 − Fuel 

positive 

ions 

(H 

Air 

+ Heat 

+ ) 

or 

negative 

ions 

(O2- ) 

Electrolyte Cathode 

Oxygen 

Figure 1. Schematic of a fuel cell. Hydrocarbon fuel or pure hydrogen combines with oxygen 

in the fuel cell to generate electricity. (Source: Bloom Energy) 

Reaction byproducts from fuel cells include water, carbon dioxide (in the case of hydrocarbon 

fuels), and waste heat as well as useful electrical power. Some fuel cell schemes 

harness the waste heat to boost efficiency. Fuel cells can be considered a green technology 




Steven Klepper 

Director, Research 

and Development, 

ET&MA 

Steve Klepper joined 

the Engineering, 

Technology and 

Mission Assurance 

organization in 

2009 as director of 

research and development. 

In this role, 

he is responsible for 

the development of the overall ET&MA strategy, 

as well as supporting ET&MA-related growth 

initiatives, including aligning investments to 

required capabilities. Klepper joined Raytheon 

10 years ago, focusing on finance and strategy. 

Klepper describes his current role as a “homecoming.” 

He explained, “My original training 

is as a physicist. Being part of the ET&MA staff 

allows me to combine my technical background 

with my business experience to support growth 

and innovation at Raytheon.” 

Before Raytheon, Klepper received his Ph.D. 

from Yale University, was a post-doctoral 

researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology, and made a career transition 

into the business world. “I joined a strategic 

consulting firm in the mid-1990s and had the 

opportunity to serve a number of technology 

and industrial clients on topics ranging from 

strategy and finance to operations. It was an 

opportunity for me to apply my analytical and 

problem-solving skills learned as a scientist to 

solve the rather different problems facing 

these companies.” 

Klepper advises others to take advantage of 

their many learning opportunities. “Continuous 

learning is key to success. There is no single 

course that provides all the knowledge you will 

need as you advance in your career. But there 

are many excellent resources available, and 

Raytheon has made a tremendous investment 

in providing some of these resources 

to its employees.” 


Feature 


to the extent that they are more efficient, 

or have a lower carbon footprint, than traditional 

combustion power technologies, 

or when renewable (carbon neutral) fuel 

sources are used. 

Fuel cells offer the potential for a number of 

benefits in providing power to systems large 

and small versus traditional power sources: 

higher efficiencies compared to combustion 

sources, lower carbon profiles depending 

on the fuel, and possible cost savings depending 

on relative efficiencies and fuel 

costs. However, like any emerging technology, 

fuel cells must overcome a number of 

challenges prior to widespread adoption. 

Such challenges include life cycle/durability 

of SOFC stacks and other components, 

logistics and supply chain deployment of 

the alternative fuels consumed by fuel cells, 

and cost and performance trade-offs 

versus power sources with similar energy 

and power densities. 

Fuel Cell Applications 

At the lower-power end of the spectrum, 

companies such as MTI MicroFuel Cells 

Inc., NEAH Power Systems, Inc., Lilliputian 

Systems Inc., and Angstrom Power, Inc., 

are focused on developing battery 

replacement technologies to compactly 

provide extended power to handheld 

devices in environments where ready 

access to the electrical grid for recharging 

is impossible or impractical. 

The key discriminator for such fuel cell 

systems is the duration of power between 

refills. They promise to provide as much as 

two orders of magnitude greater energy 

density than conventional chemical battery 

technologies for power densities less than 

10 W/kg. Target applications include consumer 

electronics devices such as mobile 

phones and laptops. Compact, high energy 

density fuel cell systems equate to longer 

effective life between charges. This may be 

applicable to the power needs for man- 

portable military devices and may also simplify 

the logistics of providing such power 

versus traditional batteries due to fuel cell 

systems’ higher energy density. 

Bloom Energy, Fuel Cell Energy, UTC Power 

and Ballard are examples of companies 

focused on the higher end of the power 

spectrum. The power capabilities of these 

systems can span the range from 100 kW to 

50 MW using scalable architecture. 

Figure 2 shows a Bloom Energy system. 

Each 100-kilowatt EnergyServer SOFC 

power system can be combined with additional 

units to meet higher, megawatt-scale 

power requirements, such as those at a 

large business facility. (As a point of reference, 

the average electricity usage of a U.S. 

residence is just over 1 kilowatt, as reported 

by the U.S. Department of Energy.) 

Figure 2. Bloom Energy ES-5000 Energy Server SOFC system. (Source: Bloom Energy) 

Fuel Cells

SOFC systems run at high internal temperatures 

(500–1,000°C), improving electrical 

efficiency and more easily accommodating 

the use of alternative fuels. Higher temperature 

operation, however, increases start-up 

time and drives material costs. For these 

reasons SOFCs are currently a less favored 

solution for certain applications, such as 

automotive, where lower temperature fuel 

cell technology is dominant. 

Powering automobiles is a much-discussed 

application of fuel cells. The first fuel-cell 

vehicle offerings utilize proton exchange 

membrane (PEM) — also known as polymer 

electrolyte membrane — solid fuel cells with 

compressed hydrogen fuel. 

PEM fuel cells differ from SOFCs in that 

they operate at lower temperatures, 

typically 50 to 100 degrees Celsius. The 

principal fuel choice is pure hydrogen 

(although other fuels, including hydrocarbons, 

have been used). The electrolyte in 

this type of fuel cell is a polymer membrane 

that is electrically insulating, but that 

allows for the flow of protons, which are 

generated by the interaction of hydrogen 

fuel with the anode. The anode, typically 

consisting of a platinum catalyst, ionizes the 

hydrogen to generate hydrogen ions 

(i.e., protons) and electrons. Electrons are 

free to flow in the external load circuit 

and power the vehicle or other device, 

and combine with the hydrogen ions and 

oxygen at the cathode to form water as a 

waste byproduct of the PEM fuel cell. While 

the detailed engineering and materials 

challenges for constructing a PEM versus 

an SOFC fuel cell differ, the basic concept 

holds: Hydrogen/hydrocarbon fuel plus 

oxygen generates electrical power plus 

water/carbon dioxide and heat as byproducts. 

According to the U.S. Department of 

Energy, the appeal of PEMs for automotive 

applications is that they hold the promise of 

clean, reliable power; hydrogen production 

to power a PEM is typically greener than 

The Battlefield Game Changer: 

Portable and Wearable Soldier Power 

Feature 

a gasoline or diesel internal combustion 

engine. Hydrogen can also be produced domestically, 

reducing dependence on 

imported oil. Challenges in producing 

economically viable PEMs include on-board 

hydrogen storage; total cost of the fuel cell 

stack; durability, reliability and life cycle of 

the fuel cell, including ability to perform in 

sub-freezing temperatures; and the need 

for a consumer hydrogen fuel distribution 

network. 

The fuel cell examples cited here are 

representative of the type of research, 

development and product creation that is 

occurring in this rapidly evolving field to 

provide new types of clean, reliable power 

solutions. Raytheon’s continued pursuit of 

advances in this area ensures that our 

customers have access to the best technology 

in the marketplace, whether developed 

in-house or through partnerships with 

industry and academia. • 

Steve Klepper and Tony Marinilli 

Imagine that you have a 100-pound load on your back for the next 72 hours, and you’re hiking on rough terrain where there are likely to 

be many life-threatening dangers in your path. You can’t abandon your load, because it holds life-saving necessities. This is a 72-hour 

mission in Afghanistan. 

Of the 100 pounds in the load, approximately 25 percent is from batteries, which power all electronic devices a soldier carries. If the 

battery load can be decreased, while still allowing the devices to be powered, the soldier could carry more ammunition, water and other 

warfighting gear. Or it will simply help the soldier feel less fatigued when on the battlefield. 

In order to remove battery weight from our soldiers, Raytheon is developing an efficient, portable/wearable fuel cell that can either supply 

power directly or charge batteries anywhere, any time. Comparing this to the standard BA-5290 military lithium ion battery (880cc and 

1300g) with the same volume or form factor, the fuel cell can provide four times more run-time with a half of the BA-5290 weight. 

Revisiting the 72-hour mission, a soldier needs to carry seven different battery types weighing about 25 pounds. The battery cost per 

soldier, per day is approximately $40 to $50. Using this alternative fuel cell technology, a soldier could potentially drop portable power 

weight by more than 11 pounds (a weight savings of more than 40 percent). The savings become even more dramatic when considering 

next-generation, soldier-borne power management schemes where the fuel cell directly powers all equipment. In this example, no batteries 

would be needed, and no recharging would be required. A fuel cell with three cartridges of fuel could last 72 hours and weigh only 

about 5 pounds. The cost of this system would be about $5 per soldier, per day. 

Howard Choe 


Feature 

Solar Power: Applying Raytheon‘s 

Defense Technologies 

The demand for bringing more renewable 

energy power-generation 

capability online is enormous, both in 

the U.S. and internationally. Replacing the 

need for foreign oil imports is a growing national 

defense need; the U.S. Department of 

Defense has directed base commanders to 

reduce, and eventually eliminate, their dependence 

on foreign oil imports and to use 

renewable energy. At the same time, most 

utilities across the U.S. are required to meet 

state-mandated, renewable energy, electric 

power generation goals. In Arizona, for example, 

the renewable energy portfolio must 

be 15 percent of all energy supplied by 2025. 

Today, the technology is available to allow 

solar energy to compete with coal, natural 

gas and nuclear power. Research is underway 

at Raytheon to develop a highly 

efficient, cost-competitive solar power 

conversion unit (PCU) for military and 

commercial applications — one that utilizes 

“photon recycling” within a photovoltaic 

cavity converter (PVCC) (Figure 1.) 

Focus 

area 

Reflective 

surface 

Photovoltaic 

Cavity Convertor 

(PVCC) 

DOE targets: 

5-7 cents/kWh LCOE 

y the U.S. Department of Energy. The primary 

goal of DOE is to achieve a levelized 

cost of electricity (LCOE) of 5 to 7 cents 

per kilowatt hour in fiscal year 2005 dollars 

by developing power systems that can be 

manufactured and installed for less than 

$3 per watt. Working with the potential 

supply base, design to unit production cost 

(DTUPC) goals were set, resulting in a unit 

PCU cost of less than $2 per watt installed. 

The DOE validated Raytheon’s LCOE forecast 

of less than 6 cents per kilowatt hour 

using its Solar Advisory Model for the 

established DTUPC cost targets. 

The basic approach Raytheon selected to 

convert solar energy into electric power 

was HCPV, which utilizes Raytheon’s 

patent-pending, kaleidoscope photon 

recycling concept, where sunlight is concentrated 

using a large parabolic dish 

reflector (12.5 meters in diameter) and 

guided into a closed photon-to-electricity 

cavity converter. The photons trapped in 

this converter, initially reflected from the 

PV cell array, are provided more than one 

opportunity to strike the active portion of 

the multi-junction cells as they are reflected 

around the inside of the PVCC. Other flat 

panel array designs offer collected photons 

only one opportunity to be absorbed by 

the multi-junction PV cells, since reflected 

photons from these other arrays are immediately 

lost. Commercially available Emcore 

triple-junction cells were used in making 

the PVCC. These off-the-shelf cells consist 

of indium gallium phosphide (InGaP with a 

300-650 nanometers wavelength absorption 

band), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs 

with a 650-850 nanometers absorption 

band), and germanium (Ge with an 850- 

1,800 nanometers absorption band), which 

convert the absorbed photons in each layer 

to electrons, collectively covering the solar 

spectrum from 300 to 1,800 nanometers. 

The kaleidoscope design was carefully sized 

using ray tracing models to achieve a plusor-minus 

5 percent variation in solar flux 

density across the PV cell array located on 

the back wall of the PVCC. A uniform flux 

density across the cells is required since 

these PV cells are connected in series and the 

power output from the array is limited by the 

cell with the smallest output. 

12.5 m diameter, 120 m2 , 40 kW+ 

full size PCU 

12.5 m 

19 mirrors 

21 mirror 

segments 

2.5 m 

2.5 m, 5 m 2 , 1.5 kW 

demo PCU 

By focusing on DTUPC objectives from the 

outset, a PCU design concept was developed 

that will result in solar electric power 

costs that meet DOE’s solar energy LCOE 

goals and state-defined renewable energy 

portfolio standards for the next five to 15 

years. A related DOE objective is to increase 

the capacity of photovoltaic solar power 

generating equipment in the U.S. to 5 to 

10 gigawatts by 2015 — an aggressive but 

achievable goal. 

Demonstration 

The collaborative project test objectives 

were to demonstrate: 

1. The workability of photon recycling. 

2. A dramatic increase in photon to electricity 

conversion via recycling. 

3. The ability of University of Arizona mirror 

technology to focus the sunlight collected 

by a 2.5-meter diameter reflective dish 

into a focal area less than 1.5 inches in 

diameter. 

4. The ability of a closed-loop cooling system 

to maintain the array of PV cells at 

less than 50 degrees Celsius. 

A demonstration unit was built and tested 

with support provided by Tucson Embedded 

Systems, a Raytheon small-business partner. 

The sub-scale PCU consisted of a single 

sub-panel containing an array of 64 triple 

junction PV cells (an 8 x 8 array) and a parabolic 

dish reflector 2.5 meters in diameter 

with a focal length to diameter ratio (f/D) of 

0.6. (See Figure 2.) 

FULL 

SIZE 

SYSTEM 

DEMO 

24”x 24”x 38” 

full size PVCC cell array 

single 

full scale 

subpanel 

Figure 2. Relationship of 2.5-meter diameter demo to full-sized unit 

4”x 4”x 6.4” 

demo PVCC cell array 

Feature 

24” 

36 subpanels 

8x8 array of 

1 cm x 1 cm 

3 junction PV cells 

Figure 3. PVCC containing a PV cell array 

The ongoing test program has been highly 

successful; the first three objectives have 

been fully met. Photon recycling worked 

and resulted in a 33 to 54 percent relative 

improvement in conversion efficiency 

(recycling versus no recycling for the same 

flat panel array) for tests conducted, ranging 

from 10 to 500 suns. Figure 3 shows 

the demonstration PVCC containing the 64 

triple junction PV cell array. The 2.5-meter 

University of Arizona mirror, which consists 

of 21 mirror segments (Figure 4), concentrated 

the sunlight into a focal area of less 

than 1 inch in diameter. Although objective 

No. 4 has not been fully met, temperatures 

were controlled to less than 50 degrees 

Celsius at 400 suns concentration, and 

temperatures less than 60 degrees Celsius 

have been demonstrated for steady-state 

operation at 500 suns concentration. Work 

continues on refining the heat transfer 



Feature 


design to fully meet the objective of maintaining 

the PV cell array less than 50 degrees 

Celsius during full sun concentration. 

Next Steps 

The next steps in the team’s development 

effort are: 

1. Demonstrate that by reducing the resistivity 

of the electrical grid fingers on the 

surface of the PV cells (by increasing their 

number by approximately 40 percent), 

system efficiency can be increased by an 

additional few percent absolute (even 

though photon reflections from the surface 

of the PV cells will be increased), 

which is achievable with this design, 

given the unique ability to recycle reflected 

photons. 

2. Develop a full-size, 40-kilowatt prototype 

design that meets the DTUPC goal of less 

than $2 per watt installed with an LCOE 

of less than 6 cents per kilowatt hour. 

3. Develop a smaller scale, mobile PCU that 

could be used for U.S. Dept. of Defense 

Forward Operating Base Field applications. 

As more advanced multi-junction PV cells are 

developed — progressing from today’s 39 

percent efficient triple junction cells to a target 

of 58 percent efficient six junction cells 

— system efficiencies using our photon recycling 

concept should increase from 33 to 40 

percent, with the successful development of 

45 percent efficient four- and five-junction 

cells. The ultimate goal is 50 percent system 

efficiency using six-junction PV cells, as 

they become commercially available. These 

Figure 4. Demo PCU with 21 mirror segments 


Solar Power 

advanced PV cells can easily be integrated 

into Raytheon’s PVCC, enabling achievement 

of these increased system efficiencies. 

But even with these breakthroughs, over 

50 percent of the energy will be lost, mainly 

through dissipated heat. To convert more 

of the available solar energy to electricity, 

Raytheon is investigating the use of thermoelectric 

devices to complement the PVCC 

PCU concept. In addition, the University of 

Arizona is developing concepts that can use 

the low-energy content, warm water (possibly 

in the range of 50 degrees Celsius) from 

our closed-loop cooling system to purify 

brackish water and even desalinize sea water 

into drinking water, which would further 

increase the cost effectiveness of this solar 

energy concept. 

The major benefits of this unique solar energy 

power conversion system are that it: 

• Results in higher overall system conversion 

efficiency, compared with non-photon 

recycling HCPV systems. 

• Eliminates the use of boilers to generate 

steam and large turbines to generate electricity, 

resulting in far fewer moving parts 

than solar thermal systems, significantly 

reducing maintenance costs and increasing 

system reliability. 

• Dramatically reduces the use of water for 

cooling and cleaning of mirrors, which is 

critical when operating in the arid desert 

Southwest. 

• Eliminates emissions of carbon dioxide 

from the power generation process. 

Solar energy is rapidly becoming costcompetitive 

with fossil fuel power plants, in 

particular coal-burning plants. In 1990, solar 

energy power generation costs were in the 

55 to 65 cents per kilowatt hour range, and 

today the cost has dropped below 11 to 13 

cents per kilowatt hour — the price range 

for many of today’s typical utility power 

purchase agreement contracts. An HCPV 

solar electric power plant of 240 megawatts 

(typical power plant size) would consist of 

approximately 6,000 solar electric PCUs 

of 40 kilowatts each. Today such a power 

plant could support a minimum of 60,000 

homes. At rate production and a price of $2 

per watt installed, a contract to supply and 

install the PCUs for a 240-megawatt plant 

would be about $500 million. • 

John P. Waszczak, Steven L. Allen 


Kevin P. 

Bowen 

Engineering 

Fellow, IDS 

Kevin Bowen 

has 35 years 

of experience 

in systems 

engineering 

development 

on manned 

and unmanned 

maritime surface and undersea vehicles, including 

15 years as a field engineer. He is currently 

applying that experience to develop a high 

energy, high power, low cost, environmentally 

friendly undersea power and propulsion system 

in order to extend endurance, increase speed 

and lower the cost of undersea vehicle systems. 

He is also a key contributor to the Power Cell 

Enterprise Campaign. For the past two years, 

he has been investigating fuel cell, battery and 

external combustion technology. 

With all of his work, he aims to apply his extensive 

knowledge to assuring mission success 

— now and in the future. “An affordable longendurance 

energy system will enable a host of 

new undersea missions,” he said. 

Since starting at Raytheon, Bowen has been 

program manager for unmanned surface 

vehicle (USV) technology development and 

diver detection/intervention for port security; 

chief engineer for unmanned underwater vehicle 

(UUV) Propulsion Systems and riverine craft 

combat system architectures; technical lead for 

UUVs; and lead systems engineer on the MK 30 

ASW training target system. 

Bowen enjoys the variety of challenges he 

encounters in his job, and thoroughly immerses 

himself in all of his projects. Bowen advises others 

to be creative and work hard. When others 

ask him how he gets the fun jobs, he responds, 

“I don’t get jobs; I make them up.” 

Bowen is a member of the Association for 

Unmanned Vehicle Systems International, the 

National Defense Industrial Association, and the 

ASTM Maritime Vehicle Standards Committee, 

for which he has served as vice chairman, USV 

maritime regulations.

External Combustion Engines 

for Military Applications 

The U.S. Navy has called for increased 

stamina in unmanned undersea 

vehicles to enable missions that can 

last for weeks, not just one or two days; this 

exceeds the energy capability of traditional 

battery technologies. Raytheon engineers 

are addressing the need for an alternative 

power source through the use of external 

combustion engines and monopropellant 

fuels. The team investigated a number 

of engine types. Particularly promising 

technologies included a modified Rankine 

cycle engine developed by Cyclone Power 

Technologies, Inc. 

External vs. Internal 

Combustion Engines 

More than 150 years ago, the first practical 

steam engine (using external combustion), 

built by James Watt, started the industrial 

revolution. The use of low pressure and 

temperature was the sign of the times; a 

new technology and lack of materials set 

the pace. At the turn of the 20th century, 

power generation brought in turbine high 

pressure boilers and steam-powered automobiles, 

and in 1906, the Stanley Steamer 

set a land speed record of 127 mph. 

Throughout the 20th century, steam 

remained the dominant means of electric 

power generation, increasing its efficiency 

through the use of high temperatures, high 

pressures and heat regeneration. These 

supercritical steam power plants are now 

able to deliver efficiencies greater than 

45 percent, competing with the best 

diesel internal combustion engines, and 

with fewer and less toxic by-products. 

The Cyclone engine uses external combustion, 

which is very insensitive to fuel 

formulations or the degree of refining 

required to meet its performance specifications. 

If it can burn, the Cyclone engine can 

harvest the energy content. That characteristic 

opens up a new realm of promising 

possibilities. 

External Combustion for Undersea 

Power and Propulsion 

The Rankine cycle combustion process 

is external to the cylinder containing the 

working gas. The Rankine cycle is characterized 

by the working gas undergoing a phase 

change (from liquid to gas), which can be 

utilized to achieve high-power densities. The 

most familiar Rankine engine is the steam 

engine, where water boiled by an external 

Fuel 

Heat 

Regeneration 

Start of 

Combustion 

Cycle 

Blower 

Fuel 

Air 

Combustion Exhaust 

Working Fluid 

External 

Combustion 

Radial Piston 

Heat 

Exchanger 

Cylinder 

Exhaust 

Heat 

Exchanger 

Condenser 

Heat 

Exchanger 

Combustion 

Exhaust 

Exhaust Below 350º 

Feature 

heat source, expands and exerts pressure on 

a piston or turbine rotor, and hence, does 

useful work. Until now, oil was used to 

lubricate the moving components. 

Cyclone’s Schoell cycle steam engine with 

heat regeneration (Figure 1) is a modified 

Rankine cycle engine where deionized water 

operates in a closed cycle within the radial 

Primary Heat 

Exchanger 

Work-Output 

Shaft 

Pump 

Figure 1. Schoell (modified Rankine) cycle steam engine with heat regeneration 


Heat 

Regeneration 

Start of 

Working 

Fluid Cycle 


Feature 


Fuel − Combustor − Condenser flow path 

is independent of engine back pressure. 

Monopropellant 

Fuel 

Storage 

Muffler 

Helmholtz 

Resonator 

Fuel Pump 

Contact 

Condenser 

Helmholtz 

Resonator 

piston engine as both the working and 

lubricating fluid (blue lines). Using today’s 

high-temperature, water-lubricated bearings 

and radial pistons, with meticulous attention 

to material compatibility, Cyclone has 

developed a higher efficiency, smaller, environmentally 

friendly external combustion 

engine. The combustion is external and the 

fuel and exhaust (red lines) are the only 

elements exposed to external pressure. 

Three heat exchange stages (cylinder, condenser, 

combustion) are used to recover 

waste heat from the cylinders and combustion 

exhaust to improve overall engine 

efficiency. The cylinder exhaust is used to 


Recuperator 

SW Pump 

Seawater Boundary 

Exhaust 

MODEN Fuel 

Seawater 

Steam & Carbon Dioxide 

Water w/ disolved CO 2 

Battery 

Combustor 

Cyclone 

Engine 

Generator 

Power 

Figure 2. One possible configuration of a monopropellant-fueled external combustion engine 

modified by Raytheon for undersea power and propulsion 

pre-heat the input air (green lines) and 

the working fluid prior to the main heat 

exchanger. The input air is also heated by 

the combustion exhaust. 

Raytheon is employing a monopropellant 

developed by James R. Moden Inc. to fuel 

this engine, and is developing the surrounding 

system components to change the 

air-breathing, external combustion engine 

into an undersea vehicle propulsion system 

providing electrical energy for electronic 

control, vehicle/payload power and battery 

charging. Figure 2 illustrates the operation 

of this system. 

Combustion Engines 

Cyclone Power Technology has a family 

of external combustion engines as shown 

in Figure 3. Cyclone’s Waste Heat Engine 

(WHE) recaptures heat from external sources 

to create steam, which powers the engine. 

The WHE models are designed to provide 

5 to 10 kilowatts to run a grid-tied or 

primary electric power generator while 

producing zero emissions. The Solar One 

provides one to three kilowatts of electricity 

from solar steam generators. These engines 

can also run a grid-tied or primary electric 

power generator while producing zero 

emissions. The MK 5 produces 100 hp 

and is designed for automotive, marine 

propulsion, power generation, off-road 

equipment, industrial co-generation and 

specialty applications. Raytheon customers 

often have needs for remote or highdynamic 

range power. Environmentally 

friendly, high-efficiency external combustion 

engines yield an intriguing alternative. 

The U.S. Navy employs a number of largediameter, 

large-payload undersea vehicles, 

and has plans to expand that fleet in the 

next decade. The Navy requires that these 

next-generation undersea vehicles have 

high speed and long endurance (as long as 

120 days). Game-changing technologies like 

this are needed to address these undersea 

vehicle requirements. • 

Figure 3. Cyclone Power Technology’s Waste Heat Engine (left), Solar One (center) and MK 5 (right) power and propulsion external 

combustion engines 

Kevin P. Bowen

The ReGenerator: Alternative Energy for 

Expeditionary Missions 

Military operations in unconventional 

wars conducted in remote 

locations have numerous logistics 

challenges. One of the most prevalent 

among them is fuel supply. For example, in 

Afghanistan, because of logistics lines that 

must move fuel over more than 150,000 

square miles — through some of the most 

hazardous regions in the country — the 

fully burdened cost of fuel (FBCF) has been 

estimated to be in excess of $40 per gallon 

at some of the more extreme locations. 1 But 

more important, the true FBCF is the high 

risk of attacks along resupply routes, which 

pose a direct threat to warfighter safety. 

To help reduce this risk, and to mitigate 

the high cost of operations in countries 

such as Afghanistan and other remote 

areas, Raytheon and its small business and 

strategic partners have developed hybrid, 

renewable power solutions that are readily 

available for immediate deployment in support 

of ever-changing missions. 

The ReGenerator, depicted in Figure 1, is 

a self-contained, hybrid power system that 

generates, stores and manages clean energy 

for on-site use, minimizing or even eliminating 

the need for fossil-fuel generators or 

access to grid power. The on-board solar 

panels, batteries, and power conditioning 

and control electronics are integrated into 

a mobile package. The capability to accept 

and manage numerous external power 

sources, including generators, fuel cells and 

wind turbines, ensures that this expeditionary 

power solution is scalable and flexible 

enough to meet the evolving missions of 

the end user. 

Feature 

U.S. Marines demonstrate the simplicity of setting up the ReGenerator’s solar array during a 

training exercise in Twentynine Palms, Calif. The integrated, all-in-one design of the product 

eliminates the need for tools or specialty training, allowing for ease of deployment and sustainment 

where resources and personnel may be limited or inaccessible. 

This product was initially developed by 

ZeroBase Energy, LLC, with primarily commercial 

and relief efforts in mind, but its 

potential value for military operations was 

quickly recognized by the U.S. Department 

of Defense and various defense intelligence 

agencies. Leveraging Raytheon’s core capabilities 

and vast DoD experience — and 


Figure 1. The Ruggedized (R-Series) ReGenerator — integrating renewable technologies, battery 

storage, military standard power electronics, and Intelligent Energy Command and Control 

(IEC2) — is being evaluated by the United States Marine Corps for expeditionary applications. 


Feature 


through consultation with customers and 

end users — system ruggedization, enhancements 

and customization were rapidly 

incorporated into the ReGenerator. The 

ReGenerator is capable of operating in two 

primary configurations: a stand-alone 

renewable configuration and a generatortied 

configuration. 

Stand-Alone Renewable Configuration 

The stand-alone renewable configuration 

consists of single or multiple ReGenerators 

relying solely on renewable solar and wind 

technologies for power generation. This 

setup is optimal for year-round, continuous 

24/7 low-power applications in remote 

locations where refueling operations are restricted. 

Mountaintop communication relays 

and border surveillance equipment that continuously 

require up to 300 watts are prime 

candidates for this solution. Field hospital 

power, refrigeration and water purification 

power requirements are also easily met by a 

stand-alone ReGenerator. 

To meet varying environmental conditions, 

additional external renewable technologies, 

such as solar and wind modules, can be 

added to supplement the power generation 

of a stand-alone unit. For higher, continuous 

power requirements, additional 

ReGenerators can be combined to scale 

up the energy generation and storage 

capacity of the system. Command operation 

centers, tactical operation centers and 

other similar command centers, as well as 

disaster relief efforts, can all benefit from 

this configuration. In this configuration, 

the ReGenerator is able to provide the 

operational power required with no fuel 

consumption, compared with a stand-alone 

generator that must consume carbon-based 

fuels. 

Generator-Tied Configuration 

The generator-tied configuration is most 

advantageous for variable, medium-power 

requirements where reduced fuel consumption 

is needed. The ReGenerator, coupled 


with a standard fossil-fuel generator, can 

significantly improve the fuel efficiency of 

the generator through the use of intelligent 

control and management. It ensures highly 

efficient operations by selecting the optimal 

power source (renewable source, generator 

or battery bank) through autonomic control 

and smart algorithms, based on the efficiencies 

of the generator, inverters, charge 

controllers and renewable power availability. 

This power is then directed to meet the 

immediate power demand of the load. 

The RAID (Rapid Aerostat Initial 

Deployment) system and G-BOSS (Ground- 

Based Operations Surveillance System) 

utilized by the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine 

Corps for persistent surveillance are examples 

of prime candidates for this type of scenario. 

In the generator-tied configuration, 

the generator supplements the ReGenerator 

only when renewable and battery power 

is not available to power the load. This ensures 

that operational power requirements 

Liters 

Average daily fuel consumption, 

liters vs. continuous load demand, watts 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

1 kW 2 kW 3 kW 

5 kW generator 

1.5 kW ReGen + 5 kW generator 

3 kW ReGen + 5 kW generator 

Figure 2. Projected fuel consumption using 

a ReGenerator employing solar renewable 

energy sources supplemented with a 5 kW 

generator, compared with a stand-alone 

5 kW generator at varying continuous 

power demands 

ReGenerator 

are met, while reducing fuel consumption to 

a minimum, compared with a stand-alone 

5 kW generator. Figure 2 compares the fuel 

consumption of a 5 kW generator with a 

ReGenerator employing a backup generator 

to supplement renewable sources at varying 

continuous load demands. Depending 

upon fuel cost, payback can be as little as 

four months. 

Flexibility for End Users 

The ReGenerator power system was designed 

specifically with the end user in 

mind. The key discriminator of this platform 

is the modular, scalable design. Internal 

power components are consolidated in 

rapidly removable modules, ensuring that 

system maintenance, repairs and field upgrades 

can easily be performed on-site with 

minimal impact on the mission. System 

setup and stowage can be performed within 

minutes by two people, which allows for 

rapid deployment. Maintenance and repairs 

can also be easily conducted by personnel 

with minimal training through a basic 

troubleshooting process and removal and 

replacement of plug-and-play power module 

boards. Transportability requirements of 

the unit play a significant role in the design. 

To ensure power will be available wherever 

needed, the system modules are packaged 

to meet transportation weight and size 

limitations for most standard DoD ground 

and air movement. 

Power surety is guaranteed through the 

use of redundant, military-standard, ruggedized 

power electronics and a robust 

communication system selected to meet 

the harshest environments faced by end 

users. Redundancy of critical power components 

and communications ensure that 

failures within the system will be instantly 

mitigated, and continuous system 

operations will be maintained until 

maintenance efforts can be performed 

based on mission restrictions.

Smart management of the system is performed 

by the intelligent energy command 

and control (IEC2) system, which leverages 

open standards and a proven systems 

architecture. 

Through its IEC2 system, the ReGenerator 

conducts autonomic management of power 

generation, storage and distribution based 

on smart command and control algorithms. 

It enables various operational configurations 

for minimizing the use of fossil fuels, 

maximizing battery life, and providing clean 

power during hours of silent operation, 

which are available through both preset 

configurations and customized operational 

scenarios set by the end user. This provides 

end users with the flexibility to adjust the 

system’s operation to meet changing mission 

requirements. It continuously adapts to 

varying conditions by performing load shedding 

and making intelligent decisions based 

on two factors: demand prediction, and 

energy predictions using weather forecasting. 

External component and environmental 

monitors, coupled with internal sensors, 

provide local and remote near real-time mission 

performance monitoring, data logging 

and analysis for health, maintenance and 

prognostics. 

Raytheon is committed to reducing the 

risks to warfighters’ lives and helping our 

customers reduce the logistics fuel footprint, 

while assuring the power needed 

for successful mission operations. The 

company’s intelligent, integrated energy 

systems, as demonstrated by the 

ReGenerator, meet end-user needs for 

successful mission operations by providing 

smart, modular and tailorable solutions. • 

Arlan Sheets 

1 “Energy Security – America’s Best Defense” Deloitte 

LLP. Nov.18-19, 2009. 

Feature 

Intelligent Power and Energy Management 

Integrating advanced algorithms with sophisticated control 

to provide optimized and intelligent hybrid power systems 

Advanced power systems require 

intelligent energy command and 

control (IEC2) software to intelligently 

and dynamically interface with a 

diverse set of components. With intelligent 

management, energy can be used, stored 

or recycled in ways presently not possible 

in order to optimize the system for a variety 

of dynamic mission needs tailorable in 

real time by the user. IEC2 provides uninterruptable 

power surety for critical loads 

and, via existing communication links, 

provides prognostics as well. This allows 

preemptive maintenance to achieve maximum 

system availability. System security, 

health monitoring, hot swap and paralleling 

are capabilities enabled by IEC2 that 

cannot be satisfied by the generator sets 

and power distribution units currently used 

by the United States military. 

Inputs to IEC2 total resource management 

include comprehensive near real-time and 

forecast weather data, mission profiles, 

and load profiles. By leveraging these external 

inputs and by providing continuous 

situational awareness monitoring, IEC2 

manages the flow of energy between 

User Requirements 

Customers 

Stakeholders 

Raytheon SMEs 

Analysis and Optimization 

• System Performance and Functional Analysis 

• Technology/Component Trades 

• Optimization 

prime sources (e.g., fuel cells, solar arrays, 

wind turbines, power grids and generator 

sets); energy storage devices; and loads. 

IEC2 also includes safety, surety, fault, 

and catastrophic system anomaly handling 

and reporting. 

Raytheon’s IPEM Technology 

Raytheon’s intelligent power and energy 

management technology is a tool suite for 

the development of IEC2 for power systems. 

Illustrated in the figure below, its 

capabilities include system design and optimization, 

high-fidelity hardware modeling 

and simulation, development of autonomic 

command and control algorithms, and verification 

and validation for both functional 

and performance power system requirements. 

It also supports analysis of system 

design, technology trade studies, and 

evaluation of system configurations and 

the resulting impact on operations. 

Intelligent Power and 

Energy Management (IPEM) 

• Architecture Development 

• Modeling and Simulation 

• Algorithm Library 

• Processes 

The IPEM tool suite employs a flexible and 

modular architecture/framework that 

allows for use with both legacy and new 

system designs. Leveraging scalable and 

Power 

System 

Design 


IPEM Automated 

Design Approach 

Auto-code Generation 

IEC2 

Verification 

& 

Validation 

IPEM provides a rigorous approach to design, development, verification and validation of 

intelligent power systems. 


Feature 


IPEM 

configurable models from a library of proven 

algorithm and component models, IPEM enables 

rapid, low-cost design and development 

of power systems for applications ranging in 

size and complexity from small-scale, soldierworn 

power systems to complex microgrids. 

Algorithm libraries include those required 

to support mission-critical control functions, 

secondary control and optimization functions, 

and prognostics for preventive maintenance. 

Optimization of the algorithms and system 

includes criteria such as generator efficiency, 

fuel usage, costs, load leveling, storage and 

distribution efficiency, and overall system 

performance to promote successful 

mission operations. 

IEC2 code is auto-generated from the IPEM 

algorithms and models, and ported to the host 

system’s single-board computer, microcontroller 

or field programmable gate array. IEC2 

takes advantage of the hardware sense-points 

in legacy, commercial and developmental 

systems, providing a level of control commensurate 

with the type of signals being sensed. 

The IEC2 algorithms allow for autonomous 

operation of the power system based on historical 

performance as well as prediction of 

generation and demand. The user can input 

a desired mission profile and the system will 

recommend, in real time, configurations to 

meet the profile. IEC2 can be ported to small 

sensors, handheld devices, mobile platforms, 

ships, large fixed installations, and more. 

IPEM provides customer benefits that include 

expanded concepts of operation; a repeatable, 

low-cost and rigorous approach to power 

system design, optimization and analysis; 

and tactical code generation for IEC2. IPEM 

not only optimizes system performance, but 

provides our warfighters with increased operational 

capability and flexible solutions that 

continuously adapt the systems’ operations 

to meet ever-changing mission requirements. 

Raytheon’s deployable power solutions 

are beginning to benefit from IPEM — the 

ReGenerator is just one example. • 

Arlan Sheets, Ripal Goel, 

Pete Morico, Michael K. Nolan 


The Role of Energy Storage in 

Intelligent Energy Systems 

An essential element of any 

power system is the energy storage 

component. Requirements 

may include providing power for solar 

or wind-driven applications during times 

of low sunlight or wind, peak-demand 

buffering for electrical grids, pulsed load 

averaging, peak load shaving for consumers, 

and uninterruptable power for 

energy surety. 

Specific requirements are driven by the 

application. For example, requirements 

for transportable systems that might 

be used at forward operating bases are 

driven by the need for small size, low 

weight, moderate energy storage 

capacities and low deployment costs. 

Fixed-site and substation installations, on 

the other hand, may have requirements 

driven by the need for very large storage 

capacities, where size and weight are 

less important. 

Storage Technologies 

Although a number of battery and other 

storage technologies have been in use 

for decades, storage technologies that 

can deliver large amounts of energy 

and high power at reasonable cost have 

matured to the point where they are 

commercially available in small quantities. 

The accompanying figure puts some 

of these into perspective in terms of 

power capacity and available run time. 

These technologies are used in applications 

such as: 

• Power quality: Typically in the range of 

milliseconds to seconds of discharge 

time and power levels of 50 kilowatts 

to 50 megawatts and greater. 

Stored energy in these applications is 

required for only seconds or less to 

assure continuity of quality power and 

frequency regulation. Technologies 

that meet this need include flywheels,

Discharge Time at Rated Power 

milliseconds seconds hours days 

Ni-Cd 

Flow Batteries 

Li-ion 

Ni-MH 

Traditional Lead Acid 

Comparison of various energy storage technologies in terms of power capacity and 

discharge time 

superconducting magnetic energy 

storage (SMES), lead acid batteries, 

lithium ion batteries, flow batteries and 

ultracapacitors. 

• Uninterruptable power supply (UPS) 

bridging: Typically in the range of seconds 

to minutes of discharge time and 

power levels of 5 to 500 kilowatts. Stored 

energy, in these applications, is used to 

assure continuity of service when switching 

from one source of power generation 

to another. These demands are traditionally 

met by battery technologies such as 

lithium ion batteries, lead acid batteries, 

nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and 

nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries. 

• Energy management: Typically in the 

range of hours to days of discharge 

time and power levels of greater than 

1 megawatt. Stored energy in these 

applications is used to accommodate 

Traditional 

CAES 

Pumped 

Hydro 

Advanced Lead Acid 

Containerized 

Compressed Air Energy 

Storage (CAES) 

Flywheel 

Ultracaps 

NaS 

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 

Rated Power (MW) 

Superconductor Magnetic 

Energy Storage (SMES) 

1,000 10,000 

periodic variation in power-generating 

capacity, avoid peak demand charges, 

provide backup during outages, and 

maintain optimal loading of generators. 

Technologies to be considered are 

compressed air energy storage (CAES), 

pumped-storage hydroelectricity, sodium 

sulfur (NaS) batteries, advanced absorbent 

glass mat lead acid batteries, and 

flow batteries for larger energy systems. 

Various battery technologies may be 

considered for smaller applications, especially 

where mobility is a requirement. 

The U.S. Department of Energy has 

invested substantially in research and 

development of new storage technologies. 

This section highlights a few of these and 

several commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) 

technologies that are potentially of greatest 

value to meeting the requirements of 

the U.S. Department of Defense. 

Feature 

Advanced Absorbent Glass Mat 

Lead Acid 

Lead acid battery storage is one of the 

oldest and most developed technologies. 

Its low cost, fast response time, and good 

round-trip efficiency (75 to 90 percent) 

make it a popular choice for power quality 

and UPS applications. Until recently, its 

utility as an energy storage medium has 

been limited due to its low cycle life (500 

to 700 cycles). However, recent developments 

are increasing cycle life to more than 

4,000 cycles, making these “long life” lead 

acid batteries good candidates for energy 

storage applications. Advanced lead acid 

batteries are being used for power quality 

in multiple wind farms in Japan, as well as 

in utility applications in the United States 

and elsewhere. 

Flow Batteries 

Flow batteries consist of electrolyte storage 

reservoirs that are pumped into and out of 

cell stacks that consist of two compartments 

separated by a membrane. The potential 

between the two different electrolytes generates 

current. Flow batteries (such as zinc 

bromine and vanadium redox) are attractive 

for their low cost (the membranes, cells and 

electrolytes are composed of plentiful and 

cheap materials); excellent energy storage 

capacity; and available power. This makes 

the flow battery a strong choice for energy 

management as well as some power quality 

applications. Round-trip efficiencies vary 

from 65 to 80 percent. 

Lithium Ion 

Lithium ion batteries consist of a lithiated 

metal oxide (such as LiCoO2 and LiMnO2 ) 

cathode, a carbon graphite anode, and 

a lithium salt plus organic carbonate 




Kenneth Kung 

Senior Principal 

Engineering Fellow, 

NCS 

A senior principal 

engineering fellow 

for Raytheon’s 

Network Centric 

Systems business, 

Kenneth Kung 

has more than 30 

years of system and 

software engineering 

experience. He 

has served as chief engineer for the Energy 

Surety and Environment Enterprise Campaign, 

which focused on developing the capability 

to manage energy systems for military and 

national security customers, and combining 

environmental analytics for improved energy 

generation and transmission. 

Under his leadership, this initiative has 

developed the means to: 

• Apply situational awareness of the microgrid 

to stabilize the fluctuations inherent to any 

renewable energy-generation resource. 

• Use the environmental forecast to minimize 

the impact of weather on both generation 

and consumption of energy. 

• Leverage energy storage devices to augment 

energy needs when required, and to store 

surplus energy. 

• Screen and protect the microgrid against any 

cyber-related vulnerabilities and attacks. 

Kung is a technology champion leading the 

strategy for systems architecture, modeling 

and simulation, and system integration 

technologies. 

After 25 years of working at Raytheon, Kung is 

still excited about his job. “I meet many innovative 

people across the company and across 

the country. They offer an excellent avenue to 

engage in in-depth dialogues.” 

Before his Raytheon career, Kung supported 

the National Security Agency on information 

security product evaluation. He has lectured 

in colleges for more than 30 years on topics 

such as information security and communication 

networks. 


Feature Energy Storage 


electrolyte. During charging, the lithium 

atoms in the cathode are ionized and migrate 

through the electrolyte toward the 

carbon anode. The lithium ions combine 

with external electrons and are deposited 

between carbon layers as lithium atoms. 

This process is reversed during discharge. 

Lithium ion batteries are popular for their 

high volumetric and gravimetric energy 

density, relative to other batteries, and 

have high round-trip efficiencies (85 to 90 

percent or more). The drawbacks to lithium 

ion batteries are their high cost and their 

inability to store large amounts of energy 

for stressful operational scenarios with 

extended durations and many deep cycles. 

Research efforts are underway to extend 

the cycle life past the approximately 3,000 

deep cycles that currently characterize the 

technology. These batteries are used to 

store energy on the DC bus of a hybrid 

energy storage system. The stored energy 

can be tapped and converted to either DC 

or AC, or can be combined with other storage 

systems in an “islanded” mode, where 

a portion of the grid-tied load is operating 

in isolation from the normal power source. 

Superconducting Magnetic 

Energy Storage 

SMES operates by storing energy in the 

magnetic field of a superconducting wire 

inductor configured into a torus or a solenoid. 

This technology has high efficiency 

(greater than 95 percent round trip) and 

high reliability, and can repeat the charge– 

discharge sequence hundreds of thousands 

of times without degrading the inductor. 

Unlike most other storage technologies, 

SMES is capable of both fast discharging 

and charging, which makes it attractive 

for applications requiring high repetitionrate 

power delivery. SMES is costly and 

currently used only for power quality and 

frequency regulation applications at 

utilities servicing manufacturing plants that 

require ultra-clean power. However, the 

U.S. Department of Energy is funding 

development of this technology to make a 

less costly system that is capable of greater 

energy storage. 

Compressed Air Energy Storage 

CAES has historically been used by precompressing 

air using low-cost electricity 

from the grid, and then utilizing that 

energy plus gas fuel in a surpercharging 

process that significantly increases the 

efficiency of the gas-driven turbine engine, 

resulting in lower overall electrical 

energy production costs. The compressed 

air is stored in abandoned underground 

mines or salt caverns (which take one to 

two years to create), and the system is 

capable of storing gigawatt-hours of energy. 

Renewed interest in CAES is a result 

of system developments in above-ground 

compressed air storage (AGCAES), which 

are being funded by the Department of 

Energy. These isothermal designs use the 

compressed air to drive pistons that are 

coupled to an alternator to generate usable 

electrical energy. The AGCAES system has 

the advantage of being able to perform 

hundreds of thousands of deep cycles, thus 

making it attractive for long service-life 

applications. 

Flywheel Energy Storage 

Flywheel storage systems are kinetic energy 

reservoirs. Depending on the design, the 

rotor in a flywheel spins from 5,000 to 

50,000 rotations per minute. When power 

is needed, the rotors release the requested 

energy by translating their rotational 

energy via an electric dual function motorgenerator 

into usable electrical energy. 

Flywheels are similar to SMES due to their: 

ability to perform rapid charge as well as 

discharge at high-round-trip efficiencies 

(85 percent or more); long lifetimes (more 

than 150,000 full charge and discharge 

cycles); and favorable power quality and 

frequency-regulation characteristics.

Other Storage Technologies 

Although the majority of applications for 

Raytheon utilize the technologies outlined 

above, the following storage technologies 

are part of the solutions considered when 

proposing system designs specific to customer 

applications: 

Pumped hydroelectric storage: Over 99 

percent of the world’s total electrical energy 

storage capacity is presently in the form of 

pumped hydroelectric power1 ; however, this 

requires specific geographical features and 

cannot be made portable or installed flexibly, 

as many customer applications require. 

NiCd and NiMH batteries are COTS technologies, 

but newer storage media are more 

attractive for the applications considered 

here. Both battery chemistries have been 

rendered virtually obsolete by lithium 

battery technology. 

Sodium sulfur (NaS) is a promising near- 

COTS technology for bulk energy storage 

that Raytheon is presently investigating for 

potential applications. 

Ultracapacitors have an admirable power 

capacity and cycle life, but significant advancements 

are needed to reach energy 

densities suitable for bulk energy storage. 

Raytheon Applications 

The following Raytheon applications require 

energy storage capabilities that span the 

range of these energy storage technologies 

for the purposes of maintaining power 

quality and providing energy surety and 

continuity. 

• Mobile tactical systems: In a tactical 

environment, power surety is vital to 

executing the planned missions, where 

power interruptions could potentially 

cause catastrophic damage to equipment 

and personnel, compromising 

mission success. Flexible systems allow 

the warfighter to parallel-connect multiple 

energy storage modules to meet 

evolving unplanned and emergency 

demands. Weight, size and portability 

of the storage modules are significant 

considerations for systems requiring ease 

of movement. Storage technologies that 

can support this in a stand-alone configuration 

or in a hybrid system coupled 

to the existing diesel generator include a 

wide variety of electrochemical batteries 

such as lithium ion and lead acid, as well 

as ultracapacitors. 

• Small energy grids that employ renewable 

energy sources: The storage technologies 

that can meet these needs include 

lithium ion and lead acid batteries, flow 

batteries, NaS batteries and, potentially, 

containerized CAES. For mobile nano and 

microgrid applications, the power levels 

are lower and portability becomes a 

more significant factor. Total ownership 

cost and utilization of existing inventory 

are heavily weighted factors in determining 

the technology solution. 

• Naval electric ships, including electrically 

driven weapons systems, propulsion and 

distributed zonal power: In electric ships, 

energy storage will be used in the hybrid 

electric drive design as backup short-term 

propulsion. Weapons systems such as 

the rail gun and free electron laser can 

benefit from energy storage that effectively 

averages peak load demands, which 

reduces the size and number of diesel 

or turbine generator sets. This results in 

a significant savings in topside volume, 

maintenance and fuel. Some of the storage 

technologies being considered to 

meet this demanding load averaging 

requirement include flywheels, batteries 

and SMES. 

• Unmanned vehicles and aircraft that 

require extended mission durations using 

a variety of sensor suites: Both anaerobic 

underwater and in-air unmanned systems 

Feature 

are the most constrained systems under 

consideration, due to gravimetric and 

volumetric energy density requirements 

that exceed state-of-the-art capabilities. 

In order to meet stringent volume and 

weight requirements of novel power 

systems architectures for these applications, 

Raytheon engineers closely monitor 

emerging energy-storage technologies. 

Underwater anaerobic systems can potentially 

use the most advanced batteries, 

especially those using seawater as the 

electrolyte to improve weight and volume 

densities. In-air systems have used fuel 

cells to increase their mission durations 

and have optimized their weight and volume 

densities with the addition of smaller 

advanced lithium ion batteries to average 

the peak loads. CAES, SMES, flow 

batteries, and similar technologies are 

not presently being considered for these 

unmanned systems. 

There is no single technology that applies 

universally. The storage selection needs 

to be made carefully in order to optimize 

the system it is designed to work within. 

New energy storage systems are enablers 

for realizing reduced fuel consumption by 

capturing surplus renewable energy for 

synchronized real-time power-combining, 

and for providing flexible user-configurable 

energy systems to meet the evolving needs 

of the military for fixed-base and deployable 

systems. • 

Peter Morico, Gami Maislin, Ryan Faries 

1 Source: Energy Storage Systems for Communities, Dan Rastler, 

Electric Power Institute, Communities for Advanced Distributed 

Energy Resources (CADER) Conference 2010, April 28–29, 2010, 

San Diego, Calif. 


Feature 

Cyber Risk Management in Electric Utility Smart Grids 

Critical infrastructures are the basic 

facilities, services and utilities 

needed for the continued functioning 

of society. A short list includes electrical 

power generation and distribution systems 

(the grid), telecommunications, manufacturing, 

transportation, water and wastewater, 

and government. Electric power is vital 

for all other services and utilities to function; 

without it, societal order would be 

severely disrupted. The aging U.S. electric 

infrastructure and the rise in electric power 

consumption are factors driving utility industry 

and government experts to examine 

the reliability and vulnerabilities of the 

nation’s electrical grid. 

The electric power grid within the U.S. is a 

complex network of thousands of tightly 

coupled power plants, transmission and 

distribution elements. For clarity, Figure 1 

shows a simplified representation of the 

power grid that delivers electrical power 

from a generating station to homes and 

businesses. Much of the technology in use 

today is more than 30 years old, and there 

remains a high reliance on last century’s 

Generation 

Transmission 

Distribution 

Generating Station 

Generating Step Up 

Transformer 

Transmission Lines 

765, 500, 345, 230 and 138 kv 

Transmission Customer 

138 kv or 230 kv 


programmable logic controllers and electromechanical 

control systems, which were 

designed with little concern for protection 

from malicious cyberattack. As the electric 

power industry moves to modernize the 

grid, new cybernetworks for operational 

monitoring and control are being installed. 

Supervisory control and data acquisition 

(SCADA) systems, introduced in the 1980s, 

are computerized systems that automate 

management of industrial systems and are 

found in all sectors of business and industry. 

They improve control efficiency through distributed 

monitoring and regulation of field 

operations. Many SCADA systems utilize the 

Internet or non-secure radio links to maintain 

control networks between substations 

and central offices and are interconnected 

to corporate local area networks (LAN). 

However, the utilization of non-secure field 

communications and corporate LAN interconnectivity 

introduces new vulnerabilities 

to cyberattack. 

The smart grid integrates information technology 

with the existing electrical power 

Substation Step Down 

Transformer 

Subtransmission 

Customer 

26 kv and 69 kv 

Primary 

Customer 

13 kv and 4 kv 

Secondary 

Customer 

120 v and 240 v 

Figure 1. This simplified representation shows the major elements of a power system that are 

vulnerable to cyberattack. Source: United States Department of Energy. 

infrastructure to improve management of 

society’s energy needs. One can view a 

smart grid as an “energy Internet,” not only 

providing energy, but also providing realtime 

information and automated control of 

energy systems that promise improved 

energy reliability. The benefits of a smart 

grid are seen by government and industry 

as desirable and necessary. However, the 

technological improvements of the smart 

grid bring additional cyber vulnerabilities 

that are proving costly and technologically 

challenging to address. 

The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 

(FERC) and National Institute of Science and 

Technology (NIST) have recently mandated 

regulations and guidelines for smart grid 

cybersecurity strategy, architecture and 

high-level critical infrastructure protection. 

Compliance with these requirements is 

mandatory. However, the high cost and 

effort needed for compliance have hampered 

adoption. 

There are some additional technical challenges 

posed by the move to a smart grid. 

Legacy control and monitoring systems 

were developed using proprietary control 

system equipment, software and unsecure 

communication systems, some of which 

are no longer supported. SCADA engineers 

who are developing replacement systems 

are adopting open-source operating systems 

and communication protocols, resulting in 

systems that may be more vulnerable to 

cyberattack.

Next-Generation SCADA 

The future smart grid requires new and 

innovative technology to accomplish the 

vision of regulators and industry. The 

objective is to develop and demonstrate 

autonomic technology that will enhance 

utilization of available smart grid assets and 

reduce disturbance frequencies and durations. 

Raytheon engineers, together with 

researchers at the University of Arizona, 

Tucson Electric Power (a public utility) and 

small business partners, are working toward 

providing technology to achieve FERC/NIST 

smart grid 2,030 targets of 40 percent improvement 

in system efficiency and asset 

utilization with a load factor of 70 percent, 

and to demonstrate prognostic health 

management capability through distributed 

sensors located within critical distribution 

system assets. 

To specifically address the risks of cyber 

vulnerabilities, autonomic network defense 

and management solutions modeled after 

autonomic biological systems are being 

developed at the University of Arizona NSF 

Center for Autonomic Computing and 

Avirtek (a small technology company under 

license). This cutting-edge technology is 

being integrated with Raytheon-developed 

hardware to do the following: 

• Develop capabilities critical for identifying 

anomalous events triggered by malicious 

cyber and/or physical threats or failures. 

• Provide the ability to accurately characterize 

current state, and perform risk and 

impact analysis. 

• Develop proactive mechanisms to deploy 

autonomic agents to mitigate the impacts 

of malicious attacks. 

This new autonomic technology will be 

able to detect hostile behavior aimed at the 

smart grid by monitoring the physical and 

cyber infrastructures. Once hostile behavior 

is detected and characterized, protective 

countermeasures can be implemented to 

ensure uninterrupted grid operation. This 

effort builds upon previous and current 

research funded by Raytheon and the U.S. 

Departments of Defense and Energy. 

The ICSTB is located at the University of 

Arizona in Tucson. Currently one of a 

kind, it will soon be joined by an identical 

twin at Raytheon’s Missile Systems facility 

in Tucson. Because of the uniqueness 

of the ICSTB, researchers from many top 

universities and national laboratories are 

negotiating cooperative research and development 

agreements with Raytheon for 

future research into a broad range of 

industrial control systems and smart gridrelated 

projects. 

Feature 

Smart Grid 

Modeling and 

Simulation 

Test Bed 

Few facilities exist 

to test newly developed 

industrial 

control system 

cyberdefense and 

control automation 

technology. To fill 

this gap, Raytheon, 

together with the 

University of Arizona 

and Tucson Electric 

Figure 2. Smart grid test bed 

Power, has developed 

an industrial 

Electric Utility Vulnerability Assessment 

control system test 

bed (ICSTB) capable of modeling and simu- The first step to reduce risks and improve 

lating the operation of the future smart the cybersecurity of the smart grid is to as- 

grid (Figure 2). This test bed will be used to sess existing vulnerabilities. Raytheon offers 

develop, test and demonstrate new technol- electric utility and Department of Defense 

ogies for detection, isolation and defense of customers extensive security assessments, 

cyberattacks as well as the behavior of auto- including physical and cyber vulnerabilities. 

nomic control systems specifically designed Differing from other companies’ services, 

to defend industrial processes and systems Raytheon security assessments not only 

from malicious manipulation. Through identify vulnerabilities, they also include 

thoughtful design, the ICSTB can model remediation recommendations. Our cyber 

not only the electrical power system, but assessment teams consist of certified cyber- 

any part of our societal infrastructure (e.g., security professionals who work with our 

water/wastewater treatment, transportation customers, from vulnerability assessment 

and financial systems) to simulate behavior through remediation implementation, to 

with sufficient fidelity to permit integration, ensure that the most appropriate and cost- 

testing and analysis of new cyber defense effective actions are employed to meet all 

and control technologies. 

security and regulatory requirements. 

The vision of the Raytheon team is that the 

knowledge gained from detailed analysis 

of our critical infrastructures’ vulnerabilities 

and operation will support the development 

of advanced cyberdefense and autonomic 

control systems technologies to reduce risks 

from malicious operational disruptions. In 

this way, Raytheon is leading the way in 

developing innovative products and services 

that provide solutions to today’s problems 

and tomorrow’s challenges in cyberprotection 

and industrial control of the future 

smart grid. • 

Don Cox and Steven Kramer 


Feature 

Power for U.S. national needs is provided 

through three major grids 

consisting of 10 smaller grids. These 

are interconnected through only three gateways. 

The electrical grid provides consumers 

with electricity from generation systems 

through transmission systems (power plants 

to distribution stations) and distribution systems 

(distribution stations to consumers). 

By relying primarily on large power plants to 

provide most of the electrical power needs, 

a failure in any of the grids can have catastrophic 

effects. A more reliable approach 

that increases the level of energy surety is to 

establish distributed power generation services 

based upon microgrids. These may 

consist of any combination of supply sources, 

such as reciprocating engine generator sets; 

micro-turbines; fuel cells; photovoltaic cells; 

algae farms; wind farms; and other smallscale 

renewable generators, storage devices, 

and controllable end-use loads. By creating 

a network of small power generation facilities, 

entities such as military bases, state and 

local government facilities, and local neighborhoods 

can be guaranteed energy surety 

in the face of a loss of service from a large 

power plant or major electrical grid. 

While microgrids provide many advantages, 

such as making it easier to integrate renewable 

energy sources, they also increase 

the need for improved security across the 

physical, logical and virtual domains. Some 

security specialists feel that microgrids increase 

the possibility of cyber-based attacks 

by offering more access points via communication 

and electrical lines. Microgrids 

require increasing levels of computing and 

IP-based connectivity, and with that there is 

a significant increase in vulnerabilities that 


can be exploited by hackers. For this reason, 

designers and operators need to improve 

the robustness and level of information assurance 

within their supervisory control and 

data acquisition (SCADA) systems. 

Cyber Critical Infrastructure Protection 

Command and Control 

To support the development of microgrids 

and ensure that they are able to meet users’ 

security needs, Raytheon has leveraged its 

cybersecurity expertise and legacy products 

to develop a three-tier cyber critical infrastructure 

protection command and control 

(CIP C2) solution set and accompanying 

tools (Figure 1). Raytheon’s CIP C2 capabilities 

provide the means to assess, model and 

protect microgrids and previously developed 

energy systems. These proven capabilities 

have been successfully used to provide 

security posture evaluations of utility services 

providers both within and outside the 

United States. 

Access Physical 

and Network 

Model 

Protect 

C.A.R.V.E.R 

Certified Ethical 

Hackers 

Reports 

• Baseline 

• Mitigation 

• What If 

CIPview 

Figure1. Raytheon’s cyber CIP 3-tier 

solution set and accompanying tools provide 

energy surety for microgrids. 

Cybersecurity 

for Microgrids 

Assess: Physical – Relying on previously 

developed assessment service offerings, 

Raytheon performs customer interviews and 

site surveys to establish the site’s exposure 

to threats. Based on identified threats and 

physical vulnerability assessment data, a 

comprehensive threat assessment model is 

developed. The assessment is conducted 

using a scripted evaluation that is focused 

on site personnel and the facility itself to: 

• Identify high-risk assets. 

• Categorize and prioritize assets. 

• Assess vulnerabilities and consequences. 

• Recommend risk reduction and countermeasures. 

Raytheon uses the selection factors of 

criticality, accessibility, recoverability, 

vulnerability, effect and recognizability 

(C.A.R.V.E.R.) as its preferred vulnerability 

assessment methodology, because it quantifies 

the probability of attack based on 

target attractiveness to an adversary. The 

C.A.R.V.E.R. matrix is a decision tool used 

by U.S. Special Forces for rating the relative 

desirability of potential targets and for 

properly allocating attack resources. As the 

factors are analyzed and values assigned, 

a decision matrix is formed, indicating the 

highest value target to be attacked within 

the limits of the statement of requirements. 

Assess: Network – Certified ethical 

hackers perform a comprehensive evaluation 

of the customer’s network assets. 

These include traditional IP-based network 

components and software, as well as legacy 

SCADA devices. Client applications undergo 

static and dynamic analysis to ascertain their 

risk profiles with regard to attacks from external 

and internal adversaries.

Model – The assessment serves dual purposes. 

First, it drives the development of a 

comprehensive approach to improving the 

overall security posture of the environment 

by applying physical safeguards and process-based 

mitigation techniques. Second, 

it is used to drive a comprehensive model of 

the microgrid or the legacy energy system. 

The model generates three products: 

• The Baseline Report validates the actual 

person-based assessment performed 

upon the initial engagement of a customer 

and the threats against existing safeguards 

to establish a baseline residual risk. 

• The Mitigation Report allows customers 

to determine where to best apply resources 

and capital to achieve the highest 

return on investment when attempting to 

improve the security posture. 

• The What If Report allows the security 

analyst to evaluate various scenarios that 

are driven by possible new threats identified 

through open sources, or based on 

how a new safeguard may or may not 

help improve the overall residual risk of 

the environment. 

Protect – Raytheon’s protection capability 

relies upon the concepts inherent within 

traditional command and control systems. 

Every asset is monitored for changes from 

its established baseline. Any perturbation 

results in execution of predefined courses 

Perception 

Network Topology 

Current State 

of Environment 

Comprehension of 

Current State 

Human in the 

loop process Event 

of action (COA) that have been prioritized 

based on the type of threat they are 

responding to. The results from the application 

of COAs are used to refine the 

modeling capability, which in turn is used 

to refine the COAs. 

Raytheon Cybersecurity Tool Suite for 

Monitoring and Protection 

This effort has driven the evolution and development 

of a suite of cybersecurity tools 

to identify security-related vulnerabilities 

within existing energy systems and mitigate 

them before consumers experience any loss 

of service. Two key components of the approach 

are CIPview and CIPtrol. Through a 

wide range of adapters, they can seamlessly 

integrate with a customer’s power, HVAC 

and IT systems infrastructure. 

CIPview, shown in Figure 2, provides 

a cyber-oriented situational awareness 

view of the energy system’s current security 

posture. It integrates eIQnetworks’ 

SecureVue ® situational awareness platform 

and ComplianceVue , its add-on for North 

American Electric Reliability Corporation 

compliance monitoring, with Raytheondeveloped 

fusion and visualization engines. 

This provides analysts with an unprecedented 

understanding of the current state 

of the energy system. Raytheon’s technologies 

allow a cyberanalyst to gain insight 

into a system’s current threat vectors, their 

Feedback 

Projection 

of Future 

CIPview COA Workflow 

Figure 2. CIPview and CIPtrol – Integrated situation awareness and command and 

control for CIP 

Performance 

of Action 

Decision 

Feature 

susceptibility to attack, the impact of 

possible ongoing attacks, and potential 

mitigation actions that may be taken. 

Through the fusion and analytical interpretation 

of data collected both manually and 

from in-line sensors, a visual representation 

of the energy system is overlaid with key 

data, allowing analysts to quickly and accurately 

assess how best to proceed to protect 

the system. 

CIPtrol facilitates system protection actions 

by bringing together Raytheon’s proven 

legacy in command and control (C2) with 

newly developed capabilities in dynamically 

formulating COAs that may be taken either 

through manual execution or automatically 

by CIPtrol’s protect and launch features. The 

key enabler within CIPtrol is PRAETOR. 

PRAETOR is Raytheon’s most recent C2 

system and is capable of detecting and defending 

against cyberattacks or unplanned 

system outages in real time. PRAETOR is 

an end-to-end C2 solution that improves 

enterprise defense and ensures mission effectiveness 

in the face of a cyberattack or 

other enterprise disruption. PRAETOR employs 

a service-oriented architecture design 

to ensure easy deployment and integration 

with customers’ existing tool sets. 

CIPtrol includes a self-learning feature that 

fuses the results of actions implemented by 

a COA with modeling results to develop 

refinements to existing COAs or to support 

the dynamic generation of new COAs. 

Through this self-feeding loop, CIPtrol’s 

ability to respond to attacks and disruptions 

continuously improves to minimize the effects 

of false positives and maximize energy surety. 

Summary 

Cybersecurity in all its aspects is becoming 

increasingly important to safeguard the 

nation's, and the world’s, energy supply and 

infrastructure. Raytheon is providing solutions, 

by leveraging capabilities developed 

to meet the needs of the DoD and other 

agencies, for assessing and mitigating 

network vulnerabilities and countering 

cyberattacks. • 

Dan Teijido and Vincent Fogle 


Feature 

Standardizing the Smart Grid 

In recent years, Raytheon has been 

providing leadership in energy-related 

domestic and international standardsdevelopment 

organizations, such as the 

ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, IEEE 

P2030 [1] — Smart Grid Interoperability 

Guidelines Standards, and International 

Committee for Information Technology 

Standards. Additionally, Raytheon actively 

participates in the Smart Grid 

Interoperability Panel (SGIP) sponsored by 

the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology (NIST) of the U.S. Department 

of Commerce. 

The primary objective of standardization is 

to have open specifications for portability, 

interconnectivity and, most important, interoperability. 

For Raytheon, this facilitates 

greater openness, understanding and trust 

with our customers so that we can better 

address their needs. 

Raytheon has numerous technologies 

directly applicable to energy systems, including 

intelligent sensor technologies, sensor 

networks and architectures, command and 

control, data and information processing 

technology, cybersecurity, renewable energy 

technologies, and smart power management. 

Raytheon can play an important role 


in contributing its knowledge about these 

technologies to develop effective and useable 

standards for the smart grid. 

Creating the Smart Grid 

The United States power grid is one of 

the most complex networked systems in 

the world. While many modern systems 

and networks have transitioned in ways 

unrecognizable from their original implementations, 

the power grid has remained 

rooted in its original conception and 

implementation. As many have noted, if 

Alexander Graham Bell was introduced to 

today’s communications network, he would 

be overwhelmed at the magnitude of advancement; 

if Nikola Tesla was introduced 

to the modern power grid, he would recognize 

almost every part of the infrastructure. 

The American Reinvestment and Recovery 

Act of 2009 allocated and funded more 

than $4 billion through the U.S. Department 

of Energy (DoE) to initiate the modernization 

of the legacy power grid toward the 

smart grid, applying digital technology 

(e.g., IT backbone, digital information and 

communications) to the power grid. The 

smart grid will integrate stakeholder industries; 

such as generation, transmission and 

distribution; utility companies and end-users 

to make the grid more robust, fault tolerant, 

failure resistant, self correcting and self 

recoverable. It will achieve dynamic pricing 

and power redistribution through effective 

power management. The smart grid will 

also facilitate the addition of renewable 

energy, such as energy generated from solar 

photovoltaic sources, wind farms, fuel cells, 

tidal and geothermal generators. Utility 

companies may purchase the energy from 

individual homes or businesses if the homes 

or businesses are generating power through 

renewable energy systems. 

The migration from the legacy power grid to 

the smart grid is one of today’s most challenging 

tasks, and will take place over the 

next couple of decades and beyond. This 

transition will involve all aspects of the legacy 

power grid’s systems, and will also have 

to account for the introduction of new technologies 

and new players in the emerging 

smart grid. This will all have to be managed 

while ensuring that the legacy power grid 

maintains a robust energy supply service to 

end users without compromising reliability, 

safety and integrity in power delivery. 

Thus, the interconnectivity and interoperability 

of many heterogeneous systems 

and subsystems is a major area of concern.

Furthermore, building energy management 

systems to manage the complex smart 

grid is another challenge posed to the 

stakeholders. 

Delivering Interconnectivity 

and Interoperability 

The DoE recognized the need for smart 

grid interoperability standards in order to 

successfully deliver interconnectivity and 

interoperability. DoE requested NIST to lead 

and coordinate standards development 

for the smart grid. NIST has been granted 

primary responsibility to coordinate development 

of a framework that includes protocols 

and model standards for information management 

to achieve interoperability of smart 

grid devices and systems. 

The two key standardization areas of 

the smart grid are interoperability and 

cybersecurity. In 2009, NIST announced a 

three-phase plan to define the smart grid 

road map and frameworks and to achieve 

smart grid interoperability and cybersecurity 

standardization. This plan includes full collaboration 

and involvement of the power 

industry stakeholders and the domestic and 

international standards developing organizations, 

such as IEEE, NEMA, GWAC, ISO, 

IEC and ITU-T[1]. NIST also formed the SGIP, 

which will leverage existing standards, or 

develop standards where there are gaps 

for the emerging smart grid. 

In response to NIST smart grid standardization 

activities, IEEE formed a smart 

grid interoperability standards guideline 

entity called P2030. P2030 consists of 

three task forces: TF 1 – Power Systems; 

TF 2 – Information Technology; and TF 

3 – Communications Technology. The participants 

in P2030 are from an extremely 

diverse mix of industrial, academic and 

regulatory organizations. The TFs will define 

standard development guidelines to be used 

by the SGIP and other smart grid-related 

standards-developing organizations. 

In summary, the smart grid interoperability 

standards will: 

• Support gradual transition of legacy 

power grid equipment and systems to 

the smart grid. 

• Specify compatibility and coexistence 

requirements of legacy and new 

technologies. 

• Avoid unnecessary and unwarranted 

compromise in reliability, safety and 

integrity during the lengthy transition 

period to the smart grid. 

• Provide applications and services that 

were not available in the legacy power 

Feature 

grid; e.g., dynamic pricing, bidirectional 

energy distribution/redistribution. 

• Bring stakeholders together for common 

interconnectivity and interoperability 

(physical and data/information) benefiting 

all stakeholder business sectors, including 

end users. 

• Form the basis for developing effective, 

efficient, automated energy management 

systems that enable more robust, fault 

tolerant, failure resistant, and self correcting/recovery 

capabilities. 

Raytheon is represented on all three P2030 

task forces and on the SGIP. Partnering with 

industry experts and other organizations, 

Raytheon is helping to establish smart grid 

interoperability guidelines and standards 

early in the development process. • 

Howard Choe and Gordon Strachan 

[1] IEEE – Institute of Electrical and Electronics 

Engineers, NEMA – National Electrical 

Manufacturers Association, GWAC – Gridwise 

Architectural Council, ISO – International 

Organization for Standardization, IEC – 

International Electro-Technical Commission, 

ITU-T – International Telecommunication Union- 

Standardization Sector 


LEADERS CORNER 

Technology Today recently 

spoke with Kennedy about his 

priorities and technology strategy 

for Raytheon’s Integrated Defense Systems 

business, and the role that energy capabilities 

play in its customer deliverables. 

TT: What are your top priorities for 

Raytheon Integrated Defense Systems? 

TK: One of our top priorities is to grow 

the business. It’s clear from talking with 

customers around the world that we have 

many opportunities, and at the same time 

the global defense environment is and will 

continue to be very competitive. The good 

news is we have a very solid reputation for 

our products, technical core competencies, 

professionalism and our “can-do” attitude. 

We have the capability to address our 

customers’ most pressing needs for 

innovative solutions, affordability and 

flawless execution. 


TT: What do you see in the future 

for IDS? 

Tom Kennedy 

President, Integrated Defense Systems 

Dr. Thomas A. Kennedy is a Raytheon Company 

vice president and president of Raytheon’s Integrated 

Defense Systems business. Before joining IDS in June 

2010, Kennedy served as vice president for Tactical 

Airborne Systems within Raytheon’s Space and 

Airborne Systems (SAS) business. In this capacity, he 

was responsible for the overall strategic direction and 

operation of the organization. Previously, Kennedy 

served as vice president for SAS Mission Systems 

Integration. Earlier in his Raytheon career, he was a 

new business leader and program manager for several 

radar and electronic warfare systems development 

programs. He holds several patents related to radar 

and electronic warfare systems, and received the 

Aviation Week Laureate Award in 2003. 

TK: A much larger global component to 

our business. In order to meet the worldwide 

defense threats that are out there, 

many countries are looking to enhance their 

defense capabilities with newer technology. 

They are looking to Raytheon because of 

the strength of our global brands, which 

at IDS means the Patriot air and missile 

defense system, AN/TPY-2 radars, naval 

systems, and multidomain, situational 

awareness systems that are vital for civil 

and homeland security. 

As we extend these brands globally, we 

will also need the global people to develop, 

deliver and support our solutions. IDS is 

a great place to be for people who want 

to put their career in fast-forward with an 

international assignment. 

TT: How does technology play into your 

long term strategy? 

TK: We’re working on the best solutions 

for next-generation programs like the Air 

Force’s Space Fence and the Navy’s Air and 

Missile Defense Radar (AMDR). To do this, 

we must have innovative technology that 

provides us with both performance discriminators 

and cost discriminators. We’re 

pursuing several technology areas that are 

key growth enablers for our business. These 

include sensors, open and secure architectures, 

system engineering, manufacturing 

technologies, advanced materials, energy 

and several other areas. 

We are continuing to drive innovation in 

these technology areas so that we can deliver 

affordability and increased capability — 

essentially solutions that do more, and do 

it more cost-effectively. These are key factors 

in how we invest in our technology

Feature 

road map, and how we make front-end 

development decisions to create competitive 

discriminators for Raytheon. We also 

continue to look for the best technology 

companies to partner with in order to bring 

complementary capabilities to our customer 

solutions. 

TT: Can you give us some examples of the 

unique energy capabilities you are delivering 

to your customers? 

TK: Energy plays an important role 

because it’s another big driver of affordability. 

All of our customers are focusing on 

reducing their energy costs. For example, 

our long-endurance power solution for 

unmanned undersea vehicles will meet or 

exceed the Navy’s requirement to enable 

longer missions without refueling. It also 

provides enough power for high-energy 

applications such as active sensors and 

next-generation torpedoes. 

To take another example, gallium nitride 

(GaN) technology is a key energy saver 

in next-generation radars. GaN delivers 

greater performance with lower power 

consumption. We are pursuing several 

large programs that include GaN, such as 

Space Fence and AMDR, and also the Air 

Force’s Three Dimensional Expeditionary 

Long Range Radar program. 

We even have a “hybrid” power version 

of our Rapid Aerostat Initial Deployment 

system. RAID provides surveillance and situational 

awareness for the perimeter of a 

base camp, a city or other area. The power 

for the system is supplemented with solar 

panels so the main generator does not 

need to be running 24/7. 

TT: How are you addressing energy 

consumption in your facilities? 

TK: Raytheon is committed to environmental 

stewardship and sustainable business 

practices. As a company, we’ve reduced 

energy consumption by 38 percent per 

dollar revenue over the past seven years. 

We’ve also set a goal to reduce total 

greenhouse gas emissions 10 percent by 

2015 across the company. Our people are 

making this happen. In 2010, more than 

30,000 Raytheon employees participated 

in the “Energy Citizen” program, making 

a commitment to conserve energy at work 

and at home. 

Another key initiative is to achieve 

Leadership in Environmental and Energy 

Design (LEED ® ) certification for new buildings 

and major renovation projects. For 

example, IDS built a new, energy-efficient 

Raytheon facility in Huntsville, Ala., that 

was the first LEED-certified “green” facility 

in that state. 

TT: Your background is in engineering. 

What keeps you excited from a technology 

perspective? 

TK: What keeps me excited is the way 

technology keeps moving forward, bringing 

new possibilities to how we solve 

customer challenges. Our customers are 

looking for us to bring them something 

new and better. And better can mean 

lower cost or higher performance, lower 

power consumption or a new technology 

solution to a problem. Innovative thinking 

— inventing new technology or applying 

current technology differently — is how 

we deliver value to our customers. 

TT: What advice do you have for young 

engineers just starting their careers? 

TK: The world is changing very fast, 

and we all need to keep learning and 

keep innovating. It’s important to stretch 

yourself. Don’t get too comfortable in 

your current role. And if you want to 

keep growing your career, Raytheon is 

a great place to work. We get to solve 

the toughest technology challenges on 

the planet, in areas that are critical to 

national defense and homeland security. 

So you can challenge yourself to continue 

learning and to do your best technical 

work, while contributing to the safety 

and security of our country and our allies 

around the world. 

TT: Based on your experience, what is 

the most important attribute of a leader? 

TK: Accountability. Leaders need to take 

a “no excuses” approach to achieving 

whatever goal they set their sights on. 

Customers, partners, teammates — they 

all need to know that when you say you 

are going to do something, you will not 

stop until you’ve done it. This is the mark 

of real leaders, regardless of their position 

on an org chart. And this behavior 

is contagious. You can tell who the best 

leaders are because their teams hold 

themselves accountable and they accomplish 

more. Accountability is extremely 

powerful. That’s why it’s part of our 

company’s values and behaviors. 


MEET Feature A NEW RAYThEON LEADER 

Luis Izquierdo is Raytheon’s vice president of corporate Operations, 

responsible for developing and executing the company’s enterprise operations 

vision and strategy. As chair of the corporate Operations Council, he leads 

key strategic manufacturing and business initiatives and co-leads corporate 

initiatives related to energy and environmental sustainability and real estate 

utilization. Before assuming his current role in August 2009, Izquierdo 

held many engineering and leadership positions throughout a defense and 

aerospace career spanning more than 30 years. 

Technology Today recently spoke with Izquierdo about his responsibilities 

as the vice president for corporate Operations with a focus on his role in 

Raytheon’s energy conservation initiatives. 

TT: What are your responsibilities as vice 

president of corporate Operations? 

LI: Corporate Operations integrates the 

company’s development, manufacturing, 

integration and test operations, facilities 

and real estate. This responsibility includes 

overseeing 43 factories, along with office 

facilities and other space, comprising more 

than 30 million square feet worldwide. 

As vice president of corporate Operations, 

I am responsible for the development and 

execution of our enterprise operations 

vision and strategy. 

Our vision is to deliver maximum customer 

value by consistently providing innovative 

solutions and advanced capabilities and services 

that enable mission assurance, flawless 

execution, business growth and best-in-class 

return on invested capital. We accomplish 

this through the use of integrated engineering 

and manufacturing processes and tools 

to provide seamless transition and efficient 

production. We also incorporate energy 

reduction techniques and sustainable 

energy sources that reduce costs and greenhouse 

emissions. 

I also chair the Corporate Incident Support 

Team, which is charged with ensuring the 

company maintains business continuity in 

the face of natural or man-made disasters. 


TT: What is your specific role with respect 

to Raytheon’s energy initiatives? 

LI: My role is to drive energy conservation, 

environmental sustainability and cost-effective 

real estate utilization throughout the 

enterprise. I am building a culture of energy 

efficiency by setting aggressive goals, measuring 

energy performance, and establishing 

accountability and recognition systems 

across the company. Sustainability is our 

commitment to future generations to protect 

the environment and conserve natural 

resources. Our sustainability initiatives drive 

lean operations and improve manufacturing 

processes by eliminating waste, increasing 

recycling, conserving energy and reducing 

greenhouse emissions — all while delivering 

value to our customers. 

In addition to the Raytheon Operations 

Council, two other councils have been established 

to focus on energy conservation in 

order to reduce our impact on the environment 

— the Facilities Leadership Council 

(FLC) and the Enterprise Energy Team (EET). 

We are proud stewards of the environment 

while reducing costs; these efforts increase 

Raytheon’s competitiveness. The FLC is 

composed of business facilities directors, 

and the EET includes business professionals 

who have energy engineering and management 

expertise. 

Together with Rob Moore, vice president of 

Business Services, including Environmental 

Health and Safety (EHS), we drive the 

energy strategy for the company. The EET 

and FLC work in concert to implement and 

manage the company’s energy program. 

I am extremely proud of our team effort in 

energy management and the great results 

we have achieved. We recently received the 

2011 ENERGY STAR ® Sustained Excellence 

award from the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency for the fourth year in a 

row. This was the seventh time in ten years 

that Raytheon has received ENERGY STAR 

recognition, demonstrating that our energy 

program is truly world class. 

TT: What are the key elements of 

Raytheon’s energy program? 

LI: Our energy program centers on two 

areas: reducing energy consumption and 

instituting sustainable practices in our designs, 

facilities and operations. Our energy 

reduction efforts include supply considerations, 

demand-side management, cost 

control, data management, benchmarking 

and education. We also focus on building 

infrastructure (equipment, metering, 

controls), reducing user plug load and 

partnering across functions toward 

common goals.

In addition to controlling costs even as energy 

prices rise, efficiently managing our 

demand ensures that energy resources are 

available for our communities and future 

generations. Raytheon spends approximately 

$100 million each year on energy. 

We negotiate favorable rates with suppliers 

and utility companies, and we coordinate 

thousands of utility bills and energy data for 

consolidated payment. 

We have also investigated renewable energy 

sources. We have initiated five photovoltaic 

projects, and we have installed a geothermal 

heating and cooling system at our 

facility in State College, Pa. By embracing 

The U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED ® 

(leadership in energy and environmental 

design) program, we are defining our goals 

and using design principles that support 

green building certification. 

TT: How do you engage Raytheon 

employees in energy conservation? 

LI: Engaging employees with enterprise 

communications and outreach programs 

is critical to our success. The EET has established 

two key employee engagement 

initiatives: Energy Champions and Energy 

Citizens. A network of more than 1,200 

volunteer Energy Champions — energy 

conservation and sustainability enthusiasts 

— encourage fellow employees to act similarly. 

Our Energy Citizens campaign to raise 

employee awareness has been in effect for 

the past three years. Over half of Raytheon 

employees qualified as 2010 Energy 

Citizens. More than 37,000 employees 

learned about the importance of energy. 

We continually encourage employees to 

pledge for this effort. 

TT: What is the link between Raytheon’s 

energy use and its production of greenhouse 

gases? 

LI: Ninety percent of Raytheon’s greenhouse 

gases result from our energy use, 

80 percent of which are from electricity 

consumed in our facilities. We consume 

approximately 1 billion kilowatt hours 

annually. We continue to make a measurable, 

positive impact on the reduction of 

greenhouse gases by reducing the plug load 

in our workplace and by implementing innovative 

ways to reduce demand across the 

business. We need to maintain an “everyone, 

every day” energy conservation culture. 

TT: What are Raytheon’s energy goals, 

and what is the progress to date in 

reducing the energy load? 

LI: By establishing several goals, we have 

achieved significant reductions in energy 

consumption. Since 2005, we have reduced 

absolute energy consumption by 12 percent 

and saved $45 million in energy costs. These 

reductions were the result of implementing 

automated climate control systems; heating, 

ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) upgrades; 

and employing building utilization 

improvements. Our goal through 2015 is to 

achieve a 10 percent reduction from 2008 

levels. 

Since 2005, we have reduced our absolute 

greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent. We 

did this by using fewer greenhouse gas 

chemicals in our operations and by implementing 

energy conservation projects. Our 

current goal is to reduce emissions 10 percent 

by 2015 from 2008 levels. I expect this trend 

to continue as Raytheon employees become 

more involved and take responsibility for energy 

conservation and sustainable practices. 

Furthermore, we have reduced our solid 

waste by 45 percent from 2005, normalized 

by revenue. In this same period, hazardous 

waste has been reduced by 60 percent 

normalized by revenue, eliminating 4,600 

tons. Key reduction strategies include 

chemical substitutions and process efficiency 

improvements. We also reduced the 

amount of waste sent to landfill or incineration 

by 17 percent since 2008. 

In 2008, we started to focus on water 

conservation, and have already reduced 

water consumption 15 percent, saving 

110 million gallons cumulatively. Raytheon’s 

sustainable information technology strategy 

has reduced electricity use by more than 

42,000 megawatt hours in the past three 

years, and saved $23 million in energy and 

operational costs. 

TT: What projects has Raytheon 

initiated to reduce energy, and what 

renewable projects are attractive to 

the company? 

LI: During the past several years, Raytheon 

has completed hundreds of energy saving 

and energy efficiency projects across the 

company, such as upgrading chillers, boilers 

and HVAC systems; installing high-efficiency 

and sensor-controlled lighting; converting 

to variable-speed drives for motors, pumps 

and fans; and upgrading to state-of-the-art 

automated energy management and control 

systems. 

In addition to infrastructure upgrades, our 

Information Technology organization has 

reduced our energy footprint by employing 

computer server virtualization, which 

reduces hardware use and corresponding 

power needs. Our PrintSmart campaign 

consolidates printing operations and encourages 

employees to reduce their use of 

printers. Process engineering is partnering 

with Raytheon’s Double Green Technology 

Interest Group in a two-pronged effort for 

energy reduction: investigating energy reduction 

methods for product manufacturing 

and investigating product energy consumption 

reduction during product operations. 

Regarding renewable projects, we support 

the actions that power companies 

have taken to “green up” their energy 

portfolios by bringing on line renewable 

energy sources, such as wind, solar and 

geothermal. 

As conveyed earlier, Raytheon has made 

capital investments in photovoltaic systems 

and a geothermal heat pump system. We 

continue to evaluate other opportunities 

for on-site renewable energy projects, 

such as additional photovoltaic systems, 

wind turbines, fuel cells, landfill gas power 

generation, and hybrid solar cells for a combination 

of heat and power generation. 


on Technology 

Simplify, Simplify! 

Advanced Vehicle Airframe Innovations 

Cut Missile Cost and Schedule 

As threats increase in number and 

sophistication, Raytheon’s missiles must 

also evolve to meet increasingly demanding 

requirements, and must do so cost effectively. 

The missile airframe, a major factor 

in performance and production cost, has 

benefited from a new Raytheon development 

approach. 

Identifying Opportunities 

To identify weight and cost reduction opportunities, 

component requirements are 

considered collectively as a system before 

component specifications are generated 

and flowed down to subject matter designers. 

This less regimented approach enables 

creativity and innovation to be achieved 

via multidiscipline requirements analysis; 

technology studies; and research into 

state-of-the-art (SOTA) developments from 

university, industry, government laboratory, 

and foreign sources. Certain industries — 

automotive, sports, watercraft, aviation, and 

satellites — can also inspire new solutions. 

The critical feature of this strategy is to 

identify new applications for existing design 

and manufacturing solutions. 

Control 

section 

Propulsion section 


Applying the Approach 

Raytheon has shown that missile interceptor 

airframe performance can be improved and 

costs reduced by integrating commercially 

available, advanced materials and manufacturing 

technologies. To do this, Raytheon 

produced advanced composite airframes for 

several missile programs. 

SOTA supersonic missile airframes (Figure 1) 

typically involve exotic refractory materials 

and processing, and complex manufacturing 

and assembly processes, both of which incur 

high risk and expense. Although composite 

materials can be used to achieve specific 

performance requirements on airframe programs, 

until recently the precise integration 

of the technology or process know-how was 

not well understood. A research database 

established at Raytheon, after many system 

trade evaluations, has led to advanced 

airframe concepts; and Raytheon-initiated 

feasibility studies have led to innovative, 

low-cost airframe designs and a philosophy 

for integrating them into advanced missile 

systems. 

The approach is to simplify manufacturing 

and consolidate parts by using composite 

Armament section 

Guidance section 

Figure 1. Composite airframe applications are being evaluated on a number of Raytheon 

programs. Composite materials are needed to meet specific performance requirements on 

many developmental vehicle programs. 

material fabrication techniques. For example, 

substantial missile production cost 

savings result from integrating fuselage 

structures with components traditionally 

incorporated onto a vehicle as a secondary 

process. Consolidating common features 

and integrating fabrication steps simplify 

the design and streamline production. 

Product reliability and repeatability are 

also enhanced. 

This approach also improves material efficiency, 

providing multifunctional airframe 

capabilities. Experience has shown that 

part consolidation leads to features of one 

component augmenting features of another 

component. For example, using a radome/ 

thermal protection system (TPS) continuous 

wrap not only provides a seal, but improves 

structural integrity. Features of an 

integral composite design are driven to be 

multifaceted; hence, redundant details are 

eliminated, airframe performance is robust 

and fabrication becomes more efficient. 

Moreover, as numerous components are 

integrated into the composite structures, 

fabrication processes and quality inspection 

steps previously done in parallel are 

integrated into a minimal number of manufacturing 

processes. 

Here are two developments that benefited 

from this approach. 

Integral Missile Radome-Seeker 

Airframe (IMRSA) 

SOTA tactical missile forebodies have typically 

incorporated ceramic radomes, metallic 

fuselages, and ablative TPS overwraps 

with numerous cut-outs and joint area 

reinforcements for side-viewing antennas 

and radomes. Some design features can be 

problematic, however. Joint O-rings and 

silicone beads that seal the SOTA forebody

Metal 

nose tip 

Co-cured 

electronics 

mounting 

ring 

Glass or quartz composite ogive radome 

Glass or quartz composite conformal radome 

from external environments can allow moisture 

to leak into the internal electronics, 

hastening degradation. Teflon-based sidelooking 

radomes have thermal limitations 

and are heavy. Metal fuselages with external 

ablative TPS laminates are heavy, expensive 

and incompatible with radomes. Bonded 

side-looking radomes can fail during flight. 

To eliminate these issues, the IMRSA forebody 

integrates the radomes, fuselage and 

TPS with a single high-temperature resin, 

but with different fibers for radio frequency 

(RF) transmittability, structural integrity and 

thermal insulation (see Figure 2). The external 

glass or quartz laminate layers perform 

multiple functions — as the forward- and 

side-looking radomes and the fuselage TPS 

— without breaking the external surface 

continuity. The internal graphite-reinforced 

laminates provide the load-carrying structure 

and internal mounting surfaces for the 

antenna trays and electronic assemblies. 

The IMRSA minimizes the need for fasteners, 

bonded joints and antenna cut-outs, 

providing greater environmental isolation 

to seal sensitive, active RF components 

while also providing greater load-carrying 

performance. Automated manufacturing 

processes, including resin-transfer-molding 

(RTM), filament winding or tape placement 

techniques, provide greater quality and 

repeatability. Because a single high-temperature 

resin is used throughout the coupled 

laminate structure, the entire IMRSA can 

be cured as a single piece, significantly 

reducing cost and weight, simplifying manufacturing, 

and improving structural integrity 

and production reliability. 

Active Damped, Piezoelectric Composite 

Structures (ADPCS) 

ADPCS uses commercially available technologies, 

found in the sporting and remote 

sensor industries, to preserve accurate 

inertial missile guidance by decreasing missile 

seeker loads and stabilizing inertial 

measurement units (IMUs). Missile vibration 

loads from captive-carry aero-buffeting during 

aircraft carriage, and shock loads from 

stage separation and rocket motor ignition 

may harm guidance functionality and 

reduce probability-of-kill (Pk) performance. 

Raytheon therefore investigated ways to 

reduce these vibration loads. 

SOTA missile applications involve complicated 

mechanical shock absorption systems 

that are hard to design and to dynamically 

characterize. In most cases, the surrounding 

structures must be redesigned to accommodate 

the shock absorption systems. 

Mechanical, Materials and Structures 

Laminate antenna 

bonded onto tray 

Aluminum antenna tray 

(bonded to primary structure) 

Metal foil ground plane 

Graphite structural laminate 

Figure 2. IMRSA nosecone assembly with multiple conformal antenna mounting concepts. All 

SOTA leak paths are eliminated for humidity permeability mitigation, protecting internal 

electronics from long-term storage degradation. 

Continuous 

fibers 

Seeker 

electronics 

Guidance system 

electronics 

modules 

Figure 3. Notional pitch and yaw 

piezoelectric vibration absorption system 

for typical air intercept missile or surfaceto-air 

missile. 

ADPCS (Figure 3) integrates lightweight, 

power-generating piezoelectric fibers into 

composite structures for reliable environmental 

attenuation. This approach is easily 

characterized and can be electronically 

modified for any dynamic “tuning”; a 

major mechanical redesign is not needed. 

The piezoelectric current, generated during 

vibration, flows into a self-powered integrated 

circuit, is reconverted and supplied to 

the fibers to dampen the structure per the 

desired, pre-programmed frequencies. 

A Final Word 

A system emphasis on using common composite 

material systems, industry standard 

processing and multi-supplier availability 

is key to the success of this strategy. 

Moreover, because missile airframe applications 

are a small market fraction of the 

composite manufacturing industry, materials 

and processes dominated by other market 

applications must be used to ensure lower 

costs and reduced risk. • 

Andrew Facciano 




Mission Systems Integration 

Dynamic Ontology Creation Techniques 

Distill Actionable Knowledge from Massive Data Streams: 

Weapon Smuggling Example 

The Need 

In today’s digital world, a tsunami of information 

exists; information that could be 

potentially critical to an analyst or warfighter. 

Because the amount of such critical information 

can double weekly, evaluating this 

data using traditional methods will become 

an overwhelming challenge. No single 

human — or group — can “manually” 

ingest and understand this vast quantity 

of ever-increasing information. Moreover, 

even if this data could be contained and 

comprehended, analysts often find it hard to 

identify, in any domain of interest, the critical 

information nuggets in this data ocean. 

What, then, can be done? Part of an answer 

is found in a process that dynamically creates 

ontologies. An ontology is a formal 

representation of knowledge as concepts 

and relationships in a specific domain. 

Ontologies are used to analyze data and 

derive knowledge that is current, relevant, 

actionable and contextually appropriate to a 

mission need. 

A Solution 

The process of dynamic ontology creation 

using Bayesian-networks (B-Nets) is intended 

for eventual use as an automated information 

discovery process by humans and 

autonomous systems. The goal of the 

process is to help a human user — or a 

digital agent representing a human user — 

to quickly discover relevant knowledge 

that could not be found by human effort 

alone from extremely large data sets and 

knowledge stores. 

The process was developed by Raytheon’s 

Computational Analytics. Using this process, 

the team created a prototype implementation 

based on a weapon smuggling 

scenario. By examining existing open source 

information, the prototype system successfully 

revealed the probable existence of 

weapon smuggling in the Iraq theater 

of operations. 

The Process 

The process uses existing domain ontology 

models that may seem unrelated, such as 

ontology models of different events. The key 

to binding these models in a context is the 

use of a B-Net computational model; in this 

example, a weapon smuggling model. The 

B-Net model is used to form conditional relationships 

between the militia training and 

civilian convoy ontology models (separate 

events) to evaluate these models in the 

context of weapon smuggling. 

Using an implementation of the Raytheon 

Visualization Toolkit (VTK) as the visual 

interface, an analyst can choose available 

models for analysis from a library. The VTK 

is also used to display newly created ontologies 

based on B-Net evaluations. In the 

prototype, the militia training and civilian 

convoy ontology models and the weapon 

smuggling computational model are selected 

by the user. The militia training and 

civilian convoy ontology models are used by 

the system to quickly sift through data, information 

and knowledge in digital formats, 

such as knowledge bases, documents, Web 

pages and audio, to find and extract current, 

relevant and contextually appropriate 

content. The extracted content is known as 

instance data for the concepts contained 

in these two models. Based on the models 

selected, the instance data extracted could 

include the names of those who conduct 

militia training, dates of the training and 

convoy occurrence, organizations involved in 

training and convoy events, and locations of 

training events and convoy routes. 

Extracted instance data are used as B-Net 

conditional probability table (CPT) inputs 

for computing the possible occurrence of a 

weapon smuggling event. When B-Net CPT 

conditions are met, then the CPT resolves a 

“true” state associated with a high percent 

confidence that a weapon smuggling event 

exists. Based on this high percent confidence, 

the B-Net output variable weapon 

smuggling is used by the system to create 

a node labeled weapon smuggling, and to 

specify conditional relationships linking this 

node with the appropriate nodes of the militia 

training event and civilian convoy event 

models. As shown in Figure 1, the inserted 

node and conditional relationships linking 

the militia training and civilian convoy models 

represent a new, dynamically created 

ontology model named weapon smuggling. 

The newly created weapon smuggling ontology, 

along with instance data, are displayed 

to the analyst through the VTK interface. 

This weapon smuggling ontology model is 

a new type of ontology, referred to as an 

instance ontology, that contains not only 

the concepts of the militia training and 

civilian convoy ontology models, but also 

specific concept instance data extracted 

from data sources. The user can use detailed 

instance data to perform further analysis 

or to provide newly discovered actionable 

knowledge related to weapon smuggling 

to a community of interest. For example, 

besides detecting a probable weapon smuggling 

event, the prototype discovered that 

the organization conducting the militia 

training event also sponsored the civilian 

convoy event. Additionally, when concept 

nodes in the models have no instance data, 

this might be used as an input to a data 

collection plan. 

As a future enhancement to the prototype, 

any node in the displayed graph model 

could be selected to display sub-graphs of 

a concept. For example, the location node 

Najaf could be clicked on to display additional 

graphs containing information on 

Najaf. The dynamically created instance 

ontology and related instance data could 

be saved for later use, such as by a casebased 

reasoner to determine other weapon 

smuggling events, or by other analysts or 

analytical functions. 

Conclusion 

Using existing technologies such as the 

process of dynamic ontology creation and 

the Raytheon VTK, a working prototype has

8/10/2004 

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Use 

Militia 

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Conduct 

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Consisting 

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6/24/2004 

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Figure 1. Weapon smuggling ontology 

formed by creating conditional relationships 

between militia training event and convoy 

event ontologies. Note: illustration is 

fictional information. 

been developed to dynamically create 

an instance ontology. In essence, the 

Raytheon Advanced Analytics team has 

developed a new way to create knowledge 

based on an information need in a context. 

The prototype can be used for any activity 

requiring fusion of seemingly unrelated 

data and information found in large 

knowledge stores. • 

Bruce E. Peoples 

Contributor: Robert J. Cole 


In a crowded, complex and quickly 

changing battlespace, allies must be 

protected and enemies defeated. To do 

this, Raytheon’s Ka-band millimeter wave 

(mmW) Cooperative Target Identification 

(CTI) technology — an identification friend 

or foe (IFF)-like capability — helps the 

warfighter to quickly identify allies at 

extended range in all battlefield conditions. 

This reduces the risk of fratricide. 

Raytheon’s mmW CTI technology is an 

electronic cooperative “question and 

answer” system that operates in the Ka 

frequency band. It complements existing 

target acquisition systems by reliably 

identifying friendly targets in less than one 

second at long range, well within the operator’s 

normal target engagement cycle. 

To ensure covert operation over the full 

spectrum of modern warfare, the system 

is highly directional, operates at very low 

transmit power and employs encryption. 

To ensure interoperability with NATO and 

Coalition partners, the system is compatible 

with networked operations and is 

designed to an international standard. 

mmW CTI Technology Capabilities 

and Functions 

The mmW CTI technology provides three 

primary capabilities: 

• Interrogation 

• Transpond 

• Data 

The interrogation capability is used by 

a platform/vehicle to identify a target 

before engaging it with deadly force. 

The identification range extends beyond 

effective weapon ranges and is achieved 

by waveforms that sensor systems find difficult 

to detect. In addition, interrogation 

Multifunction RF Systems 

Ka-band Cooperative Target ID 

for the Current Force 

Figure 1. Ka-band mmW CTI Technology 

(circled) integrated with the Long Range 

Advanced Scout Surveillance System (LRAS3) 

provides improved target identification at 

extended range in all battlefield conditions. 

can aid in force sorting and surveillance, 

especially when operating in its data 

modes, as explained below. The interrogation 

capability works in conjunction with 

the transpond capability on a friendly vehicle 

to prevent fratricide by declaring either 

“friend” or “unknown” to the shooter. 

When the targeted platform replies to an 

interrogation, it is declared a “friend”; 

otherwise, it is declared “unknown.” The 

interrogation results are displayed in the 

operator’s primary sight. 

The transpond capability is used on 

all platforms to declare themselves as 

“friends” when interrogated by a shooter 

platform. Non-shooter platforms may 

only have transponder equipment, while 

shooter platforms will be equipped 

for both interrogation and transpond 

functions. 





In addition to the primary interrogation 

capability, the mmW CTI technology can 

operate in two different secure data modes: 

the digital data link (DDL) mode and the 

data exchange mode (DEM). DDL provides a 

short-range data network to allow platforms 

in close proximity to exchange information, 

including text, digital voice and positional 

data. This greatly enhances the tactical 

communications and situational awareness 

(SA) capability of the warfighter. Individual 

members of the team can communicate 

covertly and determine where their friends 

are located on the battlefield. The effective 

range of DDL can be greatly extended 

when a shooter platform trains its highgain 

interrogator antenna in the area of 

transponder-equipped platforms, vehicles or 

dismounted soldiers. The DDL network operates 

autonomously from the interrogation 

and transpond capabilities. 

The DEM mode is used between vehicles 

separated by longer distances beyond what 

the local DDL network connectivity provides. 

DEM enables an interrogating platform to 

request information from a data-capable 

friendly transponder and works in a manner 

similar to the DDL mode. The DEM is 

normally used after identification is performed, 

can operate at ranges equal to the 

identification mode, and requires no extra 

intervention by the operator. 

Current Status 

A recent demonstration featured Raytheon’s 

mmW CTI technology integrated with a 

Long Range Advanced Scout Surveillance 

System (LRAS3), also developed by 

Raytheon, to provide improved target 

identification at extended-range battlefield 

conditions. (See figures 1 and 2.) This was 

part of a U.S. Army-sponsored event that 

was held at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, 

Md., May 2009. 


Raytheon’s mmW CTI technology is designed 

for ease of use and complements the 

LRAS3 and other tactical standoff surveillance 

and targeting systems. CTI can identify 

friendly platforms obscured by tree lines and 

under adverse conditions such as fog and 

smoke at long ranges commensurate with 

LRAS3 and other tactical target acquisition 

system capabilities. 

Raytheon is working parallel efforts to validate 

mmW CTI capability for light vehicle, 

airborne and joint applications to support 

irregular warfare situations such as in 

Afghanistan. For example, in the Army’s 

Joint Cooperative Target Identification – 

Ground (JCTI-G) risk reduction program, 

Raytheon analyzed its technology to reduce 

size, weight, power and cost for military 

tactical system applications. Under the 

Army’s Light Vehicle Demonstration (LVD) 

program, the system was integrated with 

an M2 .50 caliber heavy machine gun on a 

high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle 

(HMMWV) to validate operation under live 

fire conditions. Raytheon’s mmW CTI system 

demonstrated full performance capabilities 

with heavy machine gun live fire. 

Raytheon has also integrated mmW CTI 

technology on an F/A-18 Super Hornet for 

air-to-ground applications in support of 

the U.S. Joint Forces Command (USJFCOM) 

sponsored Operation Bold Quest. One of the 

exercise objectives was to evaluate the utility 

of target identification technologies for use 

in air-to-ground operations, and Raytheon’s 

technology was rated as one of the best. 

Ka-band Cooporative Target ID 

Figure 2. Raytheon’s mmW CTI equipment 

mounted on the Long Range Advanced 

Scout Surveillance System (LRAS3) target 

acquisition system 

Into the Future 

Raytheon is currently advancing the mmW 

CTI technology into the dismounted soldier 

domain with the development of the 

Dismounted Combat Identification Device 

(DCID). Numerous methods are being 

investigated to reduce size, weight and 

power (SWAP); implementation risk and life 

cycle costs; resulting in low SWAP transceiver 

architectures, waveform processing, 

cryptography and electronics packaging approaches. 

This development will provide the 

needed technology to implement effective 

dismounted soldier, vehicular and airborne 

target identification solutions for the 

U.S. military. • 

Grayden L. Obenour, 

Dr. Gregory S. White, William J. Mitchell

RF MEMS Development at Raytheon 

In a small, yellow-lit clean room, an 

engineer patiently etches a sacrificial 

photoresist in an oxygen plasma. After 

moving the last wafer from the vacuum 

chamber to the wafer boat and hooking up 

radio frequency (RF) and direct current (DC) 

probes in the environmental chamber, the 

engineer tries to coax the device into operation. 

Ten volts — nothing; 20 volts — a 

twitch; 25 volts — definite movement. At 

30 volts, the membrane snaps down and 

the RF MEMS switch comes to life! RF and 

microwave engineers take note: The age 

of micro-machines is upon us, and they are 

coming to a system near you. 

Micromachining processes and the devices 

they create, microelectromechanical systems 

(MEMS), have been intensively developed 

during the past two decades. MEMS do not 

operate on electron flow, but are mechanical 

structures that use motion to sense or 

actuation to control their environments or 

their electrical properties. 

Micromachining includes a diverse set of 

deposition and etching processes that 

supplement the traditional semiconductor 

manufacturing toolset. These techniques 

include many unique processes such as bulk 

and surface micromachining; wafer bonding; 

deep reactive ion etching; lithography, 

electroplating and molding (LIGA) 1 ; and micromolding. 

Whatever process is used, the 

result is the same: Micromachining creates 

three-dimensional structures on the surface 

of the integrated circuit (IC) — in essence, a 

micro-sized machine. 

The emergence of MEMS for RF applications 

(RF MEMS) is a recent application of 

micromachining, and components built 

with MEMS and micromachining are significantly 

better than traditional microwave 

electronics in several ways. MEMS switches 

show ultra-low loss, besting any available 

silicon or gallium arsenide (GaAs) transistor 

technology for analog switching. This 

makes RF signal routing possible with much 

lower loss, giving RF systems better noise 

figure and sensitivity. Most MEMS devices 

are electrostatically operated, consuming 

essentially no DC power. This makes them 

excellent for battery or hand-held devices, 

as well as satellite and space systems. RF 

MEMS devices also have extremely high 

linearity, meaning that they create no harmonics 

or intermodulation products. This 

feature makes them an excellent choice for 

broadband communications systems, especially 

those requiring high dynamic range. 

These devices have proven very effective at 

frequencies as high as 100+ GHz. The ability 

of RF MEMS to be tuned can significantly 

reduce the number of passive components 

on a circuit board by combining numerous 

switched parts into one tunable chip. All of 

these performance advantages can be had 

with the cost benefits afforded by semiconductor 

batch processing. Collectively, these 

advantages significantly affect RF systems, 

especially in system-on-chip (SOC) applications 

where improved functionality can be 

used to reduce overall cost. 

RF MEMS Switches 

Much of the RF MEMS research has been 

done in micromechanical switches. For more 

than a decade, researchers have worked to 

perfect the development of micro-miniature 

relays via micromachining techniques. With 

the boom in wireless communications, 

research has intensified in the quest to 

develop low-cost, reliable, ultra-low-loss 

switches and tuners. 

The goal is to have 

these switches replace 

traditional transistors 

for reduced loss and 

improved linearity in key 

components. 

RF MEMS are not unique 

to Raytheon, and the list 

of other companies working 

on RF MEMS switches 

is extensive. Builders 

of RF handset applications 

(such as WiSpry ®SM , 

RFMD ® , Fujitsu SM , and 

Toshiba ®SM ), automated 

test equipment (such 

as XCOMM, OMRON ® , 

Advantest ®SM , Panasonic ® 

and Maxim ® ), and 

defense applications 


(such as Radant MEMS and MEMTronics) 

also have a stake in this technology. 

Two basic types of switch-contact mechanisms 

exist: ohmic contact and capacitive 

contact. In ohmic switches, two metal 

electrodes are brought into contact to 

create a low-resistance connection. In 

capacitive switches, a metal membrane is 

pulled down onto a dielectric layer, usually 

by electrostatic means, to form a capacitive 

sandwich. At high frequencies, the 

capacitive susceptance of this sandwich acts 

like a shunt capacitor with a 100:1 ratio 

(unactuated:actuated). In either case, the 

mechanical action of the switch causes the 

switch to efficiently change from a high impedance 

to a low impedance. 

In 1995, Raytheon pioneered RF MEMS 

technology for microwave and millimeterwave 

applications by developing the first 

capacitive RF switch (Figure 1). Since then, 

Raytheon has become a world leader in 

designing and developing high-performance 

RF MEMS for advanced phased-array 

applications. Figure 2 highlights our improvements 

in switch performance over the 


Figure 1. Operation of Raytheon’s capacitive membrane 

RF MEMS switch 

Drumhead 

Capacitive 

Switch 

10 GHz 

0.4 dB loss 

15 dB Isolation 

Improved 

Improved Switch 

Switch 

Electrode 

Micromachining 

35 GHz 

0.25 dB loss 

35 dB Isolation 

40+ GHz 

0.07 dB loss 

> 35 dB Isolation 

+20°C to +40°C 

Figure 2. Progress of RF MEMS development at Raytheon 

Improved Switch 

Reliability 

40+ GHz 

0.07 dB loss 

> 35 dB Isolation 

> 300 billion cycles 

-55°C to +125°C 


Special Interest RF MEMs 


last decade-plus. Raytheon has developed 

an RF MEMS switch that is optimized for 

low RF insertion loss, high switching speed, 

high-power handling, excellent temperature 

stability and long-cycle lifetime. With support 

from the Army, the Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the 

Office of Naval Research (ONR), and the 

Air Force Research Lab (AFRL), Raytheon 

has demonstrated low-loss, multi-bit phase 

shifters, routers and digitally tunable filters 

across the entire 0.1 to 50 GHz frequency 

range. Raytheon has also developed a 

wafer-level bonding process for RF MEMS 

circuit packaging that provides a 10X cost 

reduction in RF MEMS packaging technology. 

Raytheon’s latest switch design 

achieves over 300 billion operating cycles 

without failure, with a switching speed 

under 10 microseconds and negligible DC 

power consumption. Innovations in switch 

membrane materials and device structure 

now provide much greater thermal stability, 

and designs specifically optimized for highpower 

handling have hot-switched more 

than 4 watts of RF power at 10 GHz. 

RF MEMS switches have broad applications, 

from pre-selector filters for broadband 

receivers to electronic phase shifters that 

control modern radar and satellite antennas. 

Raytheon has demonstrated packaged 

4-bit phase shifters with average losses 

of -1.7 dB at 15 GHz, -1.8 dB at 21 GHz, 

-2.1 dB at 30 GHz and -2.6 dB at 35 GHz, 

including some very low-loss phase shifters 

at 10 GHz. When this phase shifter is used 

in, for example, a transmit phased array, 

cost can be significantly reduced by moving 

the power amplifier (PA) back one or two 

power divider levels away from the radiating 

element because of the low insertion loss, 

thus reducing the PA part count by a factor 

of 2-4X. 

Raytheon has also demonstrated very high 

rejection tunable bandwidth and/or tunable 

center frequency filters from 6–18 GHz. 

An example of an X-band tunable filter is 

shown in Figure 3. These agile filters are 

used in a variety of applications such as 

digital receiver/exciters or communication 

systems. By replacing several fixed filters 


dB 

Figure 3. Measured data and photo of 

high-rejection X-band tunable filter 

and switches with one tunable filter, significant 

size and weight can be saved while 

consuming negligible DC power and providing 

extremely linear operation. 

Furthermore, Raytheon has successfully 

integrated RF MEMS technology with GaAs 

field effect transistor (FET) technology 

to create unique circuits. Figure 4 shows 

a photograph of an RF MEMS tunable 

impedance-matching network hooked up 

directly to a one-stage power amplifier. In 

this case, RF MEMS switches provide a tunable 

input- and output-matching network 

to a simple one-stage power amplifier. By 

adjusting the impedance presented to the 

FET, similar to a load-pull test, world-record 

power added efficiency (PAE) was achieved 

from 2–18 GHz. 

Figure 4. RF MEMS and FET integration 

on a high PAE 2–18 GHz amplifier 

The two most intensively focused areas of 

RF MEMS switch development have been 

in reliability and low-cost packaging. An 

extremely dry atmosphere is required to 

ensure RF MEMS device reliability. Moisture 

enhances an effect known as dielectric 

charging, wherein a trapped charge in the 

switch dielectric causes the membrane to 

latch down and not release. Raytheon has 

developed a liquid-crystal polymer (LCP) 

based packaging technique that features 

a glass lid with an etched cavity attached 

to the alumina MEMS substrate by a 

patterned layer of LCP. While LCP is 

not hermetic, it is very hydrophobic 

and does an excellent job of keeping 

moisture out of the package. Recent 

results have shown survivability in an 

85-degree, 85 percent relative humidity 

environment for more than seven 

weeks. Current development is focused 

on improving the packaging yield and 

optimizing the process for production. 

Switch reliability has been very good when 

the switch is properly packaged. Raytheon 

has demonstrated over 300 billion actuations 

on sample devices, and more testing 

is underway. Dielectric charging, the main 

failure mode, can be reduced by selectively 

removing areas of dielectric under the 

switch, effectively replacing them with air. 

Mechanical simulations of membrane fatigue 

or failure have shown that operation 

into the trillions of actuations is possible 

as long as dielectric charging is mitigated. 

Currently, dielectric deposition conditions 

are being optimized to reduce the maximum 

amount of charge that is stored. 

Summary 

Like previous MEMS technologies, RF MEMS 

will establish a new paradigm for building 

components. As with any developing 

technology, the emphasis is initially on 

performance, then on reliability and packaging, 

and eventually on cost. Over the 

last few years, Raytheon has demonstrated 

technology readiness level (TRL) 4 (laboratory 

demonstrations) with the current parts. 

The emphasis now is on demonstrating 

performance in a relevant system environment 

and getting to TRL 8 (tested/qualified 

in a system). The challenge is in scaling 

up production from tens of wafer lots per 

year to tens of wafer lots per month, while 

improving yield and reducing costs. MMICs 

made this same transition in the 1980s, and 

gallium nitride (GaN) is beginning the final 

phase of its transition. There will be highs 

and lows in the coming years, but the “rise 

of the micro-machines” is coming. • 

Brandon Pillans 

1 Translated from the German Lithographie, 

Galvanoformung, Abformung.

The concept of a single atomic layer of 

crystalline material is easy enough to 

grasp, yet creating such a layer was 

not achieved until 2004, when two scientists, 

Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoslov, 

demonstrated the existence of a single 

atomic layer of carbon called graphene. 

This discovery was followed by a flurry of 

research activities, with the proposal of 

several applications for defense and commercial 

products. Through its support of 

several multidisciplinary research initiatives 

and DARPA-funded programs during the 

past three years, the U.S. Dept. of Defense 

has also indicated the importance of 

graphene for its military applications. 

The theoretically predicted and experimentally 

verified values of graphene properties 

have provided the impetus for a vast area 

of opportunity, from nano-scale devices to 

system-level advances. The implication of a 

single crystalline layer of pure carbon has 

spun many new startup businesses, which 

is likely to continue. Each is based on a 

unique finding aimed at anticipated and 

emerging markets. Among the technologies 

that can benefit from graphene in the near 

future are: 

Ultracapacitors. While batteries are high 

energy density power sources, they cannot 

deliver the energy to the load in short 

time, due to the natural process of ionic 

movement through an electrolyte between 

the battery electrodes. On the other hand, 

capacitors can release all their energy to 

the load in a very short time; however, they 

can store only a relatively small amount of 

energy. Replacement of the carbon charcoal 

with crumpled sheets of graphene 

provides several orders of magnitude higher 

charge storage capacity as in a battery, 

while allowing for faster charge/discharge 

time as in a capacitor — thus merging and 

improving the two power storage technologies. 

Ultracapacitor technology has 

the potential to significantly improve many 

Raytheon products such as radar front-end 

electronics, which we are considering as the 

first insertion point. 

Thermal management. In power electronics, 

heat removal from the active part of 

the device is a substantial challenge. The 

measured thermal conductivity (TC) of 

single layer graphene is reported to be 

nearly three times that of bulk diamond at 

55 W/cm-K. This is mainly attributed to the 

ability of phonons to propagate through the 

crystalline layer without suffering from any 

scattering processes. Engineering schemes 

need to be developed to exploit such high 

TC values successfully. Any method that 

can harvest the superior TC of graphene for 

thermal management in electronics circuitry 

can have extensive implications in all areas 

of digital, RF and optoelectronics. 

Transparent conductors. Due to its high 

sheet electronic charge density of 10 13 cm -2 , 

and high electron mobility, graphene is a 

near perfect conductor. Furthermore, with 

its single atomic layer nature, graphene 

absorbs little visible light, making it an excellent 

transparent conductor. Commercial 

applications of this technology are already 

underway for use on touch-screen monitors, 

where large square-meter areas are being 

processed at one time. Such a low sheet 

resistance, low absorption layer is an ideal 

material for many Raytheon electro-optics 

applications, some of which currently 

use indium oxide. The same low sheet 

resistivity property of graphene can be 

exploited in interconnect technologies 

where material and fabrication cost 

can be a significant factor. 

THz Electronics. The superb material and 

electrical properties of this unique material 

system provide the potential for improved 

performance in the terahertz (THz) frequency 

range — performance that has been 

difficult to attain in conventional gallium 

arsenide (GaAs)- and gallium nitride (GaN)based 

material. A single atomic layer of 

crystalline carbon has been reported to have 


Carbon-Based Electronic Devices Open a New Window 

to Electronics 

a room temperature electron mobility of 

greater than 200,000 cm 2 /(V-s), two and 

half times that of the best semiconductor. 

Such high electron mobility allows for ballistic 

electron transport in today’s transistors 

with state of the art geometries, hence 

making THz device fabrication highly feasible. 

This attribute is shown graphically in 

Figure 1. Recently, experimental field effect 

transistor (FET) devices have validated this 

figure by demonstrating the first such devices 

with a cutoff frequency (f t ) of 300 GHz. 

Fmax, Ft (GHz) 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

Carbon-Based Electronics 

10 mW, 80% PAE, 20 dB Gain 

130 nm CMOS 

InP HEMT 

InGaAs PHEMT 

NextGen GaN 

GaN HEMT 

10 

Power W/mm 

Figure 1. Power-frequency space showing the 

niche for carbon-based RF devices 

-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 

A truly two-dimensional (2D) crystal of graphene 

has a number of unusual properties, 

which can be exploited in new ways. One 

such property is its ambipolar conductivity, 

which produces a positive current whether 

the device is forward or reverse biased. This 

property arises from the unusual symmetry 

in the band structure of 2D graphene with 

zero bandgap energy and nearly symmetrical 

behavior of electrons and holes in 

the material. 

The ambipolar property is illustrated in 

Figure 2, which shows the operation of a 

graphene-based FET (GFET) as a frequency 

doubler, as demonstrated by Professor 

Palacios at MIT [1] and more recently by 

J.S. Moon at HRL [2]. In this configuration, 

the gate bias of the FET is centered at zero, 



Special Interest People 


and its oscillation produces a positive current 

in each half cycle, thus producing twice 

the gate frequency in the drain current. 

Figure 2. With appropriate biasing of the gate 

terminal, a GFET may be used as a frequency 

doubler. The inset shows the source drain 

current as a function of gate bias, which is 

positive regardless of gate bias direction. 

The simplicity of this circuit and the GFET 

for frequency doubling has further advantages. 

The reported conversion efficiency 

for this device is greater than 94 percent, 

which allows multistage frequency multiplication 

without a significant loss in 

the output power. Furthermore, the low 

frequency noise in a bilayer graphene FET 

has been measured and reported [3] to be 

unusually low compared with other semiconductors, 

which translates to low phase 

noise at operating frequencies [2]. 

Raytheon has numerous applications for 

frequency multipliers as well as other RF 

devices such as amplifiers, mixers, rectifiers 

and detectors that operate efficiently across 

the entire frequency spectrum. Carbonbased 

GFETs have the potential to support 

advanced systems concepts, by opening 

up the frequency-power window into the 

THz region. • 

Abbas Torabi 

References: 

1. H. Wang, D. Nezich, J. Kong and T. Palacios, IEEE 

Electron Device Letters, Vol. 30, No. 5, May 2009. 

2. J.S. Moon, D. Curtis, D. Zehnder,S. Kim, D.K. Gaskill, 

G.G. Jernigan, R.L. Myers-Ward, C.R. Eddy, Jr., P.M. 

Campbell, K.-M. Lee, and P. Asbeck, IEEE Electron 

Device Letters, Early Access, Jan 2011. 

3. Yu-Ming and Phaedon Avouris, Nano Lett., Vol. 8 No. 

8, 2008. 


Raytheon Certified Architects 

The Raytheon Certified Architect Program (RCAP) is a companywide certification program to ensure 

a continuing pipeline of outstanding systems and enterprise architects. RCAP was launched in 2004 

and includes requirements for architecture standards-based training, external architect certifications, 

leadership and communication skills, architecture practitioner experience, system life-cycle 

experience, mentoring, and contributions to the architecture discipline. In 2009, Raytheon received 

accreditation from The Open Group, a vendor- and technology-neutral consortium focused on open 

standards and global interoperability within and between enterprises. 

Ron Williamson 

Sr. Engineering 

Fellow 


Systems 

An early introduction 

to math, science 

and technology 

in high school led 

Ron Williamson 

to a lifetime interest in applying new technical 

ideas to solving interesting problems. He 

recently applied that interest as Raytheon’s 

chief architect and common services integrated 

product team lead on the Energy Surety and 

Environment Enterprise Campaign. 

Williamson has worked in several domains 

during his 30-year career, including enterprise 

architecture, distributed systems integration, 

information and knowledge exploitation, 

sensor processing, intelligence systems, modeling 

and simulation, model-based systems 

and software engineering. He has supported 

analysis and development efforts for several 

Raytheon customers, including NASA, the 

U.S. Department of Defense and the Defense 

Advanced Research Projects Agency. 

He has performed several roles within Raytheon, 

including Mission Systems Integration technology 

area director and Energy Surety chief 

architect. He has also taken leadership roles in 

several standards efforts related to enterprise 

and systems modeling for infrastructure related 

systems, complex distributed C4I systems, and 

large-scale systems integration. 

Williamson’s advice to others reflects his own 

successful approach to his career. “Take on a 

proactive leadership role at whatever level you 

are at in the organization,” he said. “Continue 

learning and stay abreast of the state-of-theart 

technologies in your discipline, and find 

innovative ways of applying the technologies to 

solving your customers’ problems.” 

Bob Gerard 

Engineering Fellow 


Systems 

From growing 

up on a farm to 

working on small 

project teams at the 

start of his career, 

Bob Gerard learned early on the importance 

of “owning” a project. His focus on making 

his assigned work successful, and proactively 

addressing issues that arise in other parts of 

a project led to his chosen career working in 

system integration, enterprise architecture, 

command and control, interoperability and 

communications. 

As interoperable, internetworked systems 

have become the norm — with command and 

control systems often serving a key integration 

role — he has applied his experience to create 

innovative solutions for many cross-company 

projects and investments. A 32-year Raytheon 

veteran, Gerard recently served as microgrid 

team lead for Raytheon’s Energy Surety and 

Environment Enterprise Campaign, where he 

was responsible for coordinating cross-company 

research and development in integrated 

energy systems and models. 

According to Gerard, the microgrid team’s 

work made important contributions not only 

to Raytheon, but also to customers’ missions. 

Microgrid technology improves assurance of 

required power when and where it’s needed; 

decreases energy costs; and reduces the logistics 

burden in a battlefield environment, where 

warfighters risk their lives to make fuel deliveries. 

“Contributing my vision and unique talent 

to support customers’ missions is exciting to 

me,” Gerard said. 

Gerard advises new employees to take a proactive 

approach to the success of Raytheon and its 

customers. “Develop skills and take initiative 

in areas that will contribute most, and go the 

extra mile when it’s needed.”

The latest revision of Raytheon's 

Integrated Product Development 

System — version 3.4 — became 

available in June 2010. Key changes to 

IPDS improve program planning and the 

early design process. They provide a better 

understanding of the program’s design 

technology and its manufacturing processes 

prior to a customer making a decision on 

the program award. These changes result in 

programs that can be completed within the 

U.S. government’s budget and schedule. 

IPDS integrates best-practice processes and 

lessons learned for capturing and managing 

programs, as well as for developing 

and producing products. IPDS contains 

the standard Raytheon integrated product 

development process (IPDP) along with supporting 

enablers used to provide proven 

methodology and process steps to assure 

the integrity of Raytheon’s products. IPDS 

maintains compliance with ISO (AS9100), 

Capability Maturity Model ® Integration 

(CMMI ® ), Raytheon Mission Assurance 

provisions, Department of Defense 

Instruction (DoDI) 5000.02, and other 

military standards. 

Focus on Business Planning 

The early program development and capture 

activities of IPDS, known as Stage 1, 

is owned by Business Development (BD). 

Stage 1 focuses on strategy and technology 

development planning, customer-focused 

marketing, opportunity validation, capture 

planning and win strategy development. It 

includes proposal planning and development, 

proposal submittal, clarifications, and 

contract awards. 

Through Stage 1, Raytheon capture teams 

develop the following: 

• Win strategy package. 

• Decision packages for Gates -1 through 

Gate 4. 

• Key trade-offs. 

• Technical approaches. 

• Comprehensive proposal volumes. 

Stage 1 is key to business planning in both 

strategy and execution. 

An Increased Emphasis on Engineering 

in Stage 1 

With the release of the most recent DoDI 

5000.02, the DoD requires more government 

engineering work prior to Milestone A. 

The DoD found that too many of its major 

programs have failed to be executable, and 

this is being attributed to a mismatch 

between the technical solutions necessary 

to meet requirements and the funding/ 

schedule profiles. In the past, virtually all 

activities during Stage 1 were performed by 

BD with very little engineering participation. 

These recent changes have engineering involved 

from the very beginning of business 

planning and execution. 

Raytheon now provides engineering analysis 

support very early in the evaluation phase, 

even before a program decision is made. 

To facilitate this, IPDS Version 3.4, which 

was officially released in June, and the newest 

revision of BD’s Winning New Business 

Guide from October 2010, define the 

engineering participation and product 

outputs for Stage 1. 

Technology assessments are now part of 

Stage 1. This is done so the maturity of a 

design technology can be assessed and 

the maturity of the planned manufacturing 

processes can be evaluated before cost and 

schedule are fully defined and committed 

to. This provides greater assurance that 

programs are completed within the government’s 

budget and schedule because fewer 

unknowns are encountered. 

Resources 

IPDS 3.4 for Engineers: The Right Way to Start a Program 

Integrated Product Development Process 

Stage 1: Business Planning 

Strategy/Execution 

-1 00 01 02 03 04 

05 Stage 2: Program Leadership, Management and Control 

11 

Stage 3: Requirements and 

Architecture Development 

06 

Stage 4: Design and 

In IPDS 3.4, there is a greater 

emphasis on Engineering 

involvement early in program 

Development 07 08 

Stage 5: Integration 

Verification & Validation 

09 

Stage 6: Production and 

Deployment 

10 

development. 

Stage 7: Operations and Support 

Principal Changes to IPDS 

The principal changes to IPDS with the release 

of Version 3.4 include the following: 

• New technology and manufacturing 

readiness assessments: In response to 

changes in DoDI 5000.02, programs must 

evaluate the maturity of the technology 

used in the product and the maturity of 

the manufacturing processes used in production 

for developing actions in order to 

advance the maturity and improve the life 

cycle (from proposal to execution). 

• Improved alignment to DoD customers’ 

mission needs: Creating engineering 

work products earlier in the process. 

• New requirement to review relevant 

lessons learned before gate reviews. 

• New connection between IPDS and the 

Raytheon Lessons Learned Solution tool. 

• Enhanced access to business-specific assets. 

• Improved usability for each of the 

Engineering disciplines. 

• Additional early work products developed 

by the customer (now required by DoD 

directive) used as inputs to Stage 1. 

• Engineering outputs/activities added to 

capture/proposal efforts (Stage 1) in order 

to improve bidding and to better tie 

proposal efforts to start-up efforts. 

• A new performance-based logistics thread. 

• Reorganized DoD customer reviews. 

This new release reflects improvements to 

enhance connectivity, alignment, protection 

and usability of the IPDS system. • 

Corey Daniels 


Events 

Raytheon Principal Fellows Called Upon to Identify 

Disruptive Technologies 


Raytheon’s Technology Leadership 

Council held its annual Fellows 

Workshop in September. Principal 

engineering fellows were invited to address 

three main objectives: 

1) Provide an independent assessment of 

Raytheon’s technical status and competitive 

position in the various technology 

focus areas identified as key to 

Raytheon’s continued business success. 

2) Identify potentially disruptive technologies 

that might have a profound impact 

on Raytheon’s customers and future 

business. 

3) Discuss the role of the principal fellow 

within Raytheon. 

In addition, this forum provided a unique 

opportunity for principal fellows from the 

various Raytheon businesses to interact and 

form cross-business relationships. 

This was the second meeting held to tap the 

unique knowledge and perspective of the 140 

principal fellows (within the top 0.5 percent 

of engineers). These engineers have distinguished 

themselves as national experts in a 

broad set of technical disciplines. The depth 

of their knowledge and their external industry 

relationships provide special insight. 

During the meeting, the fellows nominated 

those technologies that they thought 

disruptive. Using “mind mapping” they 

filled eight walls — covering 250 feet 

— with ideas of the most disruptive technologies 

that may happen over the next five 

to 10 years. The identified technologies will 

be used in planning to ensure that Raytheon 

remains a thought leader positioned to 

provide advanced technology solutions. 

The fellows also completed the Innovation 

Strengths Preference Indicator (ISPI), 

which measures a person’s innovation and 

interaction styles. 

We found that 31 percent of the engineering 

fellows are “pingers.“ Pingers have high 

scores on ideation and risk. They also freely 

connect ideas in different domains, finding 

relationships that may remain invisible to 

others. These attributes were exemplified as 

the fellows worked to identify the top 10 

most disruptive technologies. The groups 

with pingers described potential uses of 

technologies that were not apparent to 

other groups. 

The results of this workshop are being used 

to shape Raytheon’s technical strategy and 

have spawned numerous new research 

projects across the company. • 

Michael Vahey

Raytheon’s Engineering Technology 

Networks symposia have again provided 

one of the most successful 

sources of technology knowledge exchange 

and employee networking available to the 

engineering communities at the company. 

Mission Systems Integration (MSI) is the 

process of creating an integrated solution 

that meets a customer need. The Mission 

Systems Integration Technology Network 

hosted its 2010 symposium, in August 

2010 at the Marriott Long Wharf in Boston, 

Mass. to collaborate on technologies that 

enable and support MSI. More than 350 

Raytheon employees attended the event 

themed, “Successful MSI Pursuit, Capture 

and Execution.” The symposium addressed 

Events 

Mission Systems Integration 

Technology Network Symposium 

the questions: “What has been done, what’s 

being done, and how can I help the company 

become a more successful Mission Systems 

Integrator?” Keynote speakers were William 

Kiczuk, Raytheon vice president and chief 

technology officer, and Brian Wells, Raytheon 

vice president, corporate Engineering. 

Four days were filled with events consisting 

of 150 presentations in five technical tracks 

(customer focus, mission assurance, mission 

support, innovation and technologies, and 

essential practices), several panel sessions, 

and numerous workshops, tutorials, engaging 

technology displays and exhibits. Being 

a truly global technical collaboration, the 

symposium included the participation of 

Raytheon’s international employees. 

Last year’s warfighter panel proved such a 

success, the planning committee repeated 

it. A six-member panel of Raytheon employees 

who had retired from their military 

careers answered questions to help the 

audience understand the warfighter’s world 

and the importance of Raytheon’s products 

and support. • 


U.S. Patents 

Issued to Raytheon 

At Raytheon, we encourage people to work on 

technological challenges that keep America 

strong and develop innovative commercial 

products. Part of that process is identifying and 

protecting our intellectual property. Once again, 

the U.S. Patent Office has recognized our 

engineers and technologists for their contributions 

in their fields of interest. We compliment 

our inventors who were awarded patents 

from July through December 2010. 

MIChAEL J hIRSCh 

7653513 sensor registration by global optimization procedures 

GARY A FRAzIER 

7839226 method and apparatus for effecting stable operation of 

resonant tunneling diodes 

JAY OChTERbECK, bYRON E ShORT JR 

7841392 method and apparatus for controlling temperature 

gradients within a structure being cooled 

YuRI OWEChKO, DAVID Shu 

7826870 system and method for separating signals received by an 

overloaded antenna array 

PREMJEET ChAhAL, FRANCIS J MORRIS 

7859658 thin micropolarizing filter, and a method for making it 

bORIS S JACObSON, JACquELINE M bOuRGEOIS 

7825536 intelligent power system 

ShARON A ELSWORTh, MARVIN I FREDbERG, 

ThAD FREDERICKSON, WILLIAM h FOSSEY JR, 

STuART PRESS 

7767296 high strength, long durability strutural fabric/seam 

system 

JAMES SMALL 

7801448 wireless communication system with high efficiency/high 

power optical source 

ANDY Chu, ELENA ShERMAN, ThOMAS STANFORD, 

WELDON WILLIAMSON 

7849524 apparatus and method for controlling temperature with 

a multimode heat pipe element 

RANDY C bARNhART, CRAIG S KLOOSTERMAN, 

MELINDA C MILANI, DONALD V SChNAIDT, 

STEVEN TALCOTT 

7773551 data handling in a distributed communication network 

bORIS S JACObSON 

7839201 integrated smart power switch 

ChuNGTE ChEN, LACY G COOK 

7813644 optical device with a steerable light path 

MARY ONEILL, GREGORY PIERCE, 

WILLIAM h WELLMAN 

7807951 imaging sensor system with staggered arrangement of 

imaging detector subelements, and method for locating a position 

of a feature in a scene 

ANThONY O LEE, ChRISTOPhER ROTh, 

PhILIP C ThERIAuLT 

7760449 adjustable optical mounting 

DAVID J CANICh, DAVID D CROuCh, 

KENNETh A NICOLES, ALAN RATTRAY 

7800538 power combining and energy radiating system 

and method 

ALFRED SORVINO, hILARIO A TEJEDA, 

RANDY J ThOMPSON 

7779529 method of coupling a device to a mating part 

DAVID LAND 

7814833 detonator system having linear actuator 

TROY ROCKWOOD 

7849185 system and method for attacker attribution in a network 

security system 

PREMJEET ChAhAL 

7825005 multiple substrate electrical circuit device 

TERRY ChACON, ALLAN R TOPP 

7761317 optimized component selection for project completion 


ROGER W GRAhAM, JOhN CAuLFIELD 

7800672 unit cell compression circuit and method 

ALExANDER A bETIN, KALIN SPARIOSu 

7760789 high energy solid-state laser with offset pump and 

extraction geometry 

DEEPAK KhOSLA, ThOMAS SCOTT NIChOLS 

7757595 method and apparatus for optimal resource allocation 

ALbERT EzEKIEL, NADER KhATIb 

7787657 SAR ATR tree line extended operating condition 

ThEODORE b bAILEY 

7777207 methods and apparatus for presenting images 

ARThuR SChNEIDER 

7795567 guided kinetic penetrator 

ERIK A FJERSTAD 

7765885 gear drive system and method 

ELAINE E SEASLY, zAChARIAh A SEASLY 

7784477 system and method for automated non-contacting 

cleaning 

ALExANDER A bETIN, VLADIMIR V ShKuNOV 

7800819 laser amplifier power extraction enhancement system 

and method 

DAVID D hESTON, JON MOONEY 

7755222 method system for high power switching 

STANLEY J POREDA, PETER TINKER 

7818120 route planning interaction navigation system 

RONALD RIChARDSON, KuANG-Yuh Wu 

7817099 broadband ballistic resistant radome 

RONALDO bAJuYO, bENJAMIN GALANTI, 

ARMANDO GuERRERO, DAVID hOWARD, 

JuSTIN STuEhRENbERG 

7850123 methods and apparatus for a cable retractor 

GEORGE WEbER 

7765356 data modifying bus buffer 

KAIChIANG ChANG, JEFFREY R hOLLEY, 

LANDON L ROWLAND, DANIEL F RYPYSC, 

MIChAEL G SARCIONE 

7808427 method and apparatus for dual band polarization 

versatile active electronically scanned lens array 

MIChAEL R JOhNSON, bRuCE E PEOPLES 

7853555 enhancing multilingual data querying 

WILLIAM E hOKE, ThEODORE KENNEDY 

7776152 method for continuous, in situ evaluation of entire wafers 

for macroscopic features during epitaxial growth 

JOSEPh C PERKINSON 

7751212 methods and apparatus for three-phase rectifier with 

lower voltage switches 

MIChAEL C bARR, RObERT C hON, 

MIChAEL h KIEFFER, KENNETh PRICE, 

MIChAEL J RAMIREz, JuLIAN A ShRAGO 

7779640 low vibration cryocooler 

ANDREW b FACCIANO, GREGG J hLAVACEK, 

RObERT T MOORE 

7819048 separable structure material 

ALExANDER A bETIN, KALIN SPARIOSu 

7860142 laser with spectral converter 

ChRIS E GESWENDER 

7851733 methods and apparatus for missile air inlet 

GEOFF hARRIS, DANIEL MITChELL, bOb SCOTT 

7768708 light source having spatially interleaved light beams 

ERIC C FEST, REx M KREMER 

7777188 sensor system and support structure 

WILLIAM D FARWELL 

7795927 digital circuits with adaptive resistance to single 

event upset 

TIMOThY D KEESEY, KENNETh M WEbb 

7795927 array antenna with embedded subapertures 

CAROLYN b bOETTChER, MARK ChAVIRA, 

hAMID KARIMI 

7756631 method for realtime scaling of vehicle routing problem 

ThOMAS R bLACKbuRN 

7872215 methods and apparatus for guiding a projectile 

DARIN S WILLIAMS 

7762683 optical device with tilt and power microlenses 

RObERT S bRINKERhOFF, JAMES M COOK, 

RIChARD D LOEhR, MIChAEL J MAhNKEN 

7851732 system and method for attitude control of a flight vehicle 

using pitch-over thrusters 

JONAThAN LYNCh 

7773292 variable cross-coupling partial reflector and method 

JOhN A COGLIANDRO, hENRY FITzSIMMONS 

7780060 methods and apparatus for efficiently generating profiles 

for circuit board work/rework 

JAMES GuILLOChON, DEEPAK KhOSLA 

7792598 a sparse sampling planner for sensor 

resource management 

TIMOThY G bRAuER, KENNETh COLSON 

7755050 explosive device detection system and method 

JAMES MASON, JAMES S WILSON 

7768453 dynamically correcting the calibration of a phased array 

antenna system in real time to compensate for changes of array 

temperature 

ThOMAS E WOOD 

7796082 methods and apparatus for log-FTC radar receivers 

having enhanced sea clutter model 

JOhN bEDINGER, RObERT b hALLOCK, 

ThOMAS E KAzIOR, MIChAEL A MOORE, 

KAMAL TAbATAbAIE 

7767589 passivation layer for a circuit device and method 

of manufacture 

PATRIC M MCGuIRE 

7782246 methods and apparatus for selecting a target from radar 

tracking data 

EVGENY N hOLMANSKY, bORIS S JACObSON 

7839023 methods and apparatus for high frequency three-phase 

inverter with reduced energy storage 

RObERT M FRIES, STEPhEN R PECK, 

PETER D ShLOSS, ShuWu Wu 

7768451 methods and apparatus for geometry extra-redundant 

almost fixed solutions 

MIChAEL F JANIK, IAN KERFOOT, 

ARNOLD W NOVICK 

7773458 systems and methods for detection and analysis of 

amplitude modulation of underwater sound 

MIChAEL J FEMAL 

7853850 testing hardware components to detect hardware 

failures 

RObERT F CROMP, JAMES WREN 

7783782 dynamic runtime service oriented architecture 

TONY ChAN, MARK GERECKE 

7773028 method and system for concatenation of radar pulses 

DAVID PAYTON 

7809630 method and system for prioritizing a bidder in an auction 

DANIEL ChASMAN, STEPhEN D hAIGhT 

7856806 propulsion system with canted multinozzle grid 

CONRAD STENTON 

7768686 light-beam-scanning system utilizing counter-rotating 

prism wheels 

ANDREW b FACCIANO, RIChARD A MCCLAIN JR, 

RObERT T MOORE,CRAIG SEASLY, 

RAYMOND J SPALL 

7800032 detachable aerodynamic missile stabilizing system 

IVAN S AShCRAFT, DONALD P bRuYERE, 

JOhN b TREECE 

7830300 radar imaging system and method using directional 

gradient magnitude second moment spatial variance detection 

DANIEL CRAWFORD, bRuCE E MORGAN 

7775147 dual redundant electro explosive device latch mechanism 

ANDREW b FACCIANO, GREGG J hLAVACEK, 

RObERT T MOORE, CRAIG SEASLY 

7767944 piezoelectric fiber, active damped, composite electronic 

housings 

SVELTLANA GOuROVA 

7751697 glass window for deep underwater exploration 

FREDERICK A AhRENS, KENNETh W bROWN 

7791536 high power phased array antenna system and method 

with low power switching 

DELMAR L bARKER, WILLIAM RIChARD OWENS, 

AbRAM YOuNG 

7825366 methods and systems for extracting energy from a heat 

source using photonic crystals with defect cavities 

FREDERICK T DAVIDSON, CARLOS E GARCIA, 

JAMES SMALL 

7798449 method and apparatus for inflight refueling of unmanned 

aerial vehicles 

LACY G COOK 

7763857 infrared imaging optical system with varying focal length 

across the field of view

KENNETH W BROWN, DAVID D CROUCH, 

VINCENT GIANCOLA 

7812263 combined environmental-electromagnetic rotary seal 

CLARENCE C ANDRESSEN 

7842908 sensor for eye-safe and body-fixed semi-active 

laser guidance 

BLAISE ROBITAILLE 

7821708 method and apparatus for illuminating a reticle 

THOMAS E WOOD, PAUL R WORK 

7750840 method and apparatus for assessing contact clusters 

GRAHAM C DOOLEY 

7755532 methods and apparatus for assignment and maintenance 

of unique aircraft address for TIS-B service 

DOUGLAS BROWN, GEOFF HARRIS, 

DANIEL MITCHELL 

7800756 method and apparatus for analyzing coatings on 

curved surfaces 

CHUL J LEE, AXEL R VILLANUEVA 

7750842 parallel processing to generate radar signatures for 

multiple objects 

ANTHONY GALAITSIS 

7767301 heterogeneous lyophobic system for accumulation, 

retrieval and dissipation of energy 

CRAIG BRADFORD, MARC A BROWN, FRANK HITZKE, 

WILLIAM E KOMM, MICHAEL W LITTLE, 

DOMENIC F NAPOLITANO, DAVID A SHARP, 

DOUGLAS VEILLEUX II 

7837525 autonomous data relay buoy 

K. BUELL, JIYUN C IMHOLT, MATTHEW A MORTON 

7773033 multilayer metamaterial isolator 

JOSEPH R ELLSWORTH, JOSEPH LICCIARDELLO, 

STEPHEN J PEREIRA, ANGELO M PUZELLA 

7859835 method and apparatus for thermal management of a 

radio frequency system 

STEPHEN JACOBSEN, MICHAEL MORRISON, 

SHANE OLSEN 

7779863 pressure control valve having an assymetric 

valving structure 

STEPHEN JACOBSEN 

7845440 serpentine robotic crawler 

MIRON CATOIU, RICK MCKERRACHER 

7791413 linearizing technique for power amplifiers 

JOHN P BETTENCOURT 

7852136 bias network 


7821695 method and apparatus for positioning a focused beam 

DOUGLAS BROWN, GERARD DESROCHES, 

GEOFF HARRIS, DANIEL MITCHELL, 


7796338 method and apparatus for optical bandpass filtering, and 

varying the filter bandwith 

DAVID G JENKINS, BYRON B TAYLOR 

7786418 multimode seeker system with rf transparent stray 

light baffles 

MICHAEL GUBALA, KAPRIEL V KRIKORIAN, 

ROBERT A ROSEN 

7821619 rapid scan ladar 3-d imaging with compact digital 

beam formation 

STEPHEN E BENNETT, CHRIS E GESWENDER, 

CESAR SANCHEZ, MATTHEW A ZAMORA 

7819061 smart fuze guidance system with replaceable 

fuze module 

DONALD R HOUSER, ROBERT J SCHALLER, 

WILLIAM J SCHMITT, MICHAEL SNYDER, 

ANTHONY K TYREE 

7773027 all-digital line-of-sight (LOS) processor architecture 

PATRICK HOGAN, RALPH KORENSTEIN, 

JOHN MCCLOY, CHARLES WILLINGHAM JR 

7790072 treatment method for optically transmissive bodies 

EDWARD H CAMPBELL 

7802048 smart translator box for agm-65 aircraft maverick analog 

interface to mil-std-1760 store digital interface 

DELMAR L BARKER, MEAD MASON JORDAN, 

W. HOWARD POISL 

7837905 reinforced filament with doubly-embedded nanotubes 

and method of manufacture 

STEPHEN E BENNETT, CHRIS E GESWENDER, CESAR 

SANCHEZ, MATTHEW A ZAMORA 

7849797 projectile with telemetry communication and 

proximity sensing 

DARIN S WILLIAMS 

7767945 absolute time encoded semi-active laser designation 

KENTON VEEDER, JOHN L VAMPOLA 

7812755 signal processor with analog residue 

RAYMOND SAMANIEGO 

7764220 synthetic aperture radar incorporating height filtering for 

use with land 

JOHN P BETTENCOURT, MICHAEL S DAVIS, 

VALERY S KAPER, JEFFREY R LAROCHE, 

KAMAL TABATABAIE 

7834456 electrical contacts for CMOS devices and III-V devices 

formed on a silicon substrate 

ANDREW K BROWN, KENNETH W BROWN 

7843273 millimeter wave monolithic integrated circuits and 

methods of forming such integrated circuits 

DELMAR L BARKER, WILLIAM RICHARD OWENS 

7837813 stimulated emission release of chemical energy stored in 

stone-wales defect pairs in carbon nanostructures 

DAVID A ROCKWELL, VLADIMIR V SHKUNOV 

7860360 monolithic signal coupler for high-aspect ratio 

solid-state gain media 

MICHAEL BRENNAN, EDWARD DEZELICK, 

LUIS GIRALDO, BRETT GOLDSTEIN, MICHAEL 

MILLSPAUGH, JOHN RYAN, MICHAEL W RYAN, 

ROBERT WALLACE 

7814822 device and method for controlled breaching of 

reinforced concrete 

International 

Patents Issued to Raytheon 

Titles are those on the U.S.-filed patents; actual titles on 

foreign counterparts are sometimes modified and not 

recorded. While we strive to list current international 

patents, many foreign patents issue much later than 

corresponding U.S. patents and may not yet be reflected. 

AUSTRALIA 

RICHARD LAPALME 

2003238262 method and apparatus for intelligent information 

retrieval 

EDWARD I HOLMES, PRISCO TAMMARO 

2006323213 radiation limiting opening for a structure 

BARBARA E PAUPLIS 

2006344710 calibration method for receive only phased array 

radar antenna 

PHILLIP ROSENGARD 

2005322096 system and method for adaptive query identification 

and acceleration 

ARTHUR SCHNEIDER 

2006232995 guided kinetic penetrator 

JAMES H ROONEY III, JESSE GRATKE, 

RYAN LEWIS, MICHAEL F JANIK, JAMES MILLER, 

THOMAS B PEDERSON, WILLIAM C ZURAWSKI 

2006306650 sonar system and method providing low probability 

of impact on marine mammals 

JOHN A COGLIANDRO, JOHN MOSES 

2007250001 method and apparatus for capture and sequester 

of carbon dioxide and extraction of energy from large land masses 

during and after extraction of hydrocarbon fuels or contaminants 

using energy and critical fluids 

PATRICK M KILGORE 

2007345299 system and method for adaptive non-uniformity 

compensation for a focal plane array 

AUSTRALIA, FRANCE, GERMANY, UK 

ANDREW B FACCIANO, GREGG J HLAVACEK, 

ROBERT T MOORE, CRAIG SEASLY 

2007307309 composite missile nose cone 

AUSTRALIA, TAIWAN 

THOMAS E WOOD 

2007259418 hostile intention assessment system and method 

CANADA 

JOSEPH M CROWDER, PATRICIA S DUPUIS, 

GARY P KINGSTON, KENNETH S KOMISAREK, 

ANGELO M PUZELLA 

2481438 embedded planar circulator 

STANLEY J POREDA 

2483013 multiple approach time domain spacing aid display 

system and related techniques 

KAPRIEL V KRIKORIAN, ROBERT A ROSEN 

2605976 technique for compensation of transmit leakage in 

radar receiver 

REZA TAYRANI, JONATHAN D GORDON 

2577791 broadband microwave amplifier 

RICHARD O’SHEA 

2606892 flexible optical rf receiver 

TIMOTHY CLAUSNER, PHILLIP KELLMAN, 

EVAN PALMER 

2474831 system and method for representation of aircraft altitude 

using spatial size and other natural perceptual cues 

CANADA, ISREAL 

DAVID A CORDER, JEFFREY H KOESSLER, 

GEORGE R WEBB 

2581212 air-launchable aircraft and method of use 

CANADA, JAPAN 

RICHARD M LLOYD 

4588769 warhead with aligned projectiles 

RICHARD M LLOYD 

2588779 munition 

CHINA 

JOHN P BETTENCOURT 

ZL200680044799.8 thermoelectric bias voltage generator 

CHINA, JAPAN 

JAMES BALLEW, GARY R EARLY 

ZL200510087806.X high performance computing system 

and method 

DENMARK, FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY, 

NETHERLANDS, SWEDEN 

LOUIS LUH, KEH-CHUNG WANG 

1941613 comparator with resonant tunneling diodes 

DENMARK, FRANCE, GERMANY, JAPAN, 

NETHERLANDS, SPAIN, SWEDEN 

KAPRIEL V KRIKORIAN, JAR J LEE, 

IRWIN NEWBERG, ROBERT A ROSEN, 

STEVEN R WILKINSON 

1561259 optically frequency generated scanned active array 

FRANCE, GERMANY, GREECE, ITALY, 

NETHERLANDS, UK 

JOSEPH M CROWDER, PATRICIA S DUPUIS, 

MICHAEL C FALLICA, JOHN B FRANCIS, 

JOSEPH LICCIARDELLO, ANGELO M PUZELLA 

2070159 tile sub-array and related circuits and techniques 

BORIS S JACOBSON 

1782525 method and apparatus for converting power 

FRANCE, GERMANY, HONG KONG, UK 

SHANNON DAVIDSON, ROBERT J PETERSON 

1594057 system and method for computer cluster virtualization 

using dynamic boot images and virtual disk 

FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY, SPAIN, SWEDEN, UK 

HAROLD FENGER, MARK S HAUHE, 

CLIFTON QUAN, KEVIN C ROLSTON, TSE E WONG 

1704618 circuit board assembly and method of attaching a chip to 

a circuit board with a fillet bond not covering RF traces 

FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY, SPAIN, TURKEY, UK 

STEPHEN JACOBSEN, TOMASZ J PETELENZ 

2156197 digital wound detection system 

FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY, SPAIN, UK 

JON N LEONARD, JAMES SMALL 

1673622 mass spectrometer for entrained particles, and method 

for measuring masses of the particles 

DONALD PRICE, GARY SCHWARTZ, 

WILLIAM G WYATT 

1610077 a method and system for cooling 

FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY, SWEDEN, UK 

ALDON L BREGANTE, RAO RAVURI, 

WILLIAM H WELLMAN 

1618357 sensor system and method for sensing in an 

elevated-temperature environment, with protection against 

external heating 

FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY, UK 

JAMES SMALL 

1449229 phased array source of electromagnetic radiation 

FRANCE, GERMANY, SPAIN, SWEDEN, UK 

CLIFTON QUAN, STEPHEN SCHILLER, 

YANMIN ZHANG 

1920494 power divider having unequal power division and 

antenna array feed network using such unequal power dividers 


frAnce, germAny, sweden 

TAMRAT AKALE, ALLEN WANG 

1831954 bandpass filter 

frAnce, germAny, sweden, uk 

SCOTT T JOhNSON, MIChAEL D RuNYAN, 

DAVID T WINSLOW 

1492397 heat exchanger 

ROMuLO J bROAS, WILLIAM hENDERSON, 

RObERT T LEWIS, RALSTON S RObERTSON 

1831958 transverse device array radiator ESA 

CLIFTON quAN, STEPhEN SChILLER, 

YANMIN zhANG 

1886376 attenuator circuit comprising a plurality of quarter wave 

transformers and lump element resistors 

frAnce, germAny, turkey, uk 

ThEODORE b bAILEY 

1877996 methods and apparatus for presenting images 

frAnce, germAny, uk 

TERESA R RObINSON, GORDON R SCOTT 

1476916 device for directing energy, and a method of 

making same 

DELMAR L bARKER, hARRY SChMITT, 

NITESh N ShAh 

1652194 high density storage of excited positronium using 

photonic bandgap traps 

ChRISTOPhER FLETChER, DAVID GuLbRANSEN 

1595119 multi-mode high capacity dual integration direct 

injection detector input circuit 

JOhN S ANDERSON, ChuNGTE ChEN 

1618423 compact wide-field-of-view imaging optical system 

RObERT E LEONI 

1829249 optical link 

ERIK A FJERSTAD 

1999004 gear drive system and method 

JAVIER GARAY, qING JIANG, JON N LEONARD, 

CENGIz OzKAN, hAO xIN 

1991724 particle encapsulated nanoswitch 

JAMES bALLEW, ShANNON DAVIDSON 

2100224 computer storage system 

STEPhEN JACObSEN 

2086821 versatile endless track for lightweight mobile robots 

hOWARD S NuSSbAuM, WILLIAM P POSEY 

1314049 DDS spur mitigation in a high performance radar exciter 

WILLIAM E hOKE, KATERINA huR, 

REbECCA A MCTAGGART 

1210736 double-recessed transistor 

frAnce, itAly, sweden, uk 

KWANG ChO 

1503223 estimation and correction of phase for focusing search 

mode SAR images formed by range migration algorithm 

germAny, netherlAnds, uk 

JOhN P SChAEFER 

1597614 high precision mirror, and a method of making it 

isrAel 

PhILLIP ROSENGARD 

162867 satellite link ATM cell header compression 

DELMAR L bARKER, DENNIS bRAuNREITER, 

DAVID J KNAPP, ALPhONSO A SAMuEL, 

hARRY SChMITT, STEPhEN SChuLTz 

161127 far field emulator for antenna calibration 

KuRT S KETOLA, ALAN L KOVACS, 

JACquES LINDER, MATThEW PETER 

166111 dielectric interconnect frame incorporating emi shield and 

hydrogen absorber for tile T/R modules 

JEFF G CAPARA, LAWRENCE D SObEL 

157123 microelectronic system with integral cyrocooler, and its 

fabrication and use 

MARK KuSbEL, GARY SALVAIL, ChAD WANGSVICK 

159987 isolating signal divider/combiner and method of 

combining signals of first and second frequencies 

LACY G COOK 

161179 compact four-mirror anastigmat telescope 

quENTEN E DuDEN, JAMES h GOTTLIEb, 

WAYNE L SuNNE 

166915 form factored compliant metallic transition element for 

attaching a ceramic element to a metallic element 


ALExANDER A bETIN, RObERT W bYREN, 

WILLIAM GRIFFIN 

162782 laser cooling apparatus and method 

LARRY G KRAuSE 

165419 system and method for detection of image edges using a 

polar algorithm process 

MILTON bIRNbAuM, KALIN SPARIOSu 

172235 gain boost with synchronized multiple wavelength 

pumping in a solid-state laser 

ANDREW K bROWN, KENNETh W bROWN, 

JAMES R GALLIVAN, PhILIP STARbuCK 

174727 millimeter-wave area-protection system and method 

KEITh MYERS, EDWARD J WARKOMSKI 

173570 system and method with adaptive angle-of-attack 

autopilot 

JOSEPh MIYAMOTO, JOE A ORTIz, 

FRANK h WANG 

172874 method for input current regulation and active-power 

filter with input voltage feedforward and output load feedforward 

GARY A FRAzIER 

176516 method and apparatus for effecting high-frequency 

amplification or oscillation 

LARRY DAYhuFF, GEORGE OLLOS III 

165658 sigma delta modulator 

WILLIAM JENNINGS, ALbERT PAYTON 

148488 heat conducting device for providing a thermal path 

between a circuit board and an airframe 

isrAel, jApAn 

GEORGE A bLAhA, RIChARD DRYER, 

ChRIS E GESWENDER, ANDREW J hINSDALE 

176611 2-D projectile trajectory correction system and method 

jApAn 

RObERT ALLISON, JAR J LEE, RObERT LOO, 

CLIFTON quAN, bRIAN PIERCE, JAMES SChAFFNER 

4564000 low cost 2-D electronically scanned array with compact 

CTS feed and MEMS phase shifters 

RObERT ALLISON, JAR J LEE, CLIFTON quAN, 

bRIAN PIERCE 

4563996 wideband 2-D electronically scanned array with compact 

CTS feed and MEMS phase shifters 

KAIChIANG ChANG, ShARON A ELSWORTh, 

MARVIN I FREDbERG, PETER h ShEAhAN 

4620664 radome with polyester-polyarylate fibers and a method 

of making same 

JAMES FLORENCE, PAuL KLOCEK 

4607595 method and apparatus for switching optical signals with 

a photon band gap device 

JOSEPh F bORChARD, CRAIG bROOKS, 

JOhN P SChAEFER, ChARLES STALLARD, 

DEuARD V WORThEN 

4563681 precisely aligned lens structure and a method for its 

fabrication 

STEPhEN KERNER, CLIFTON quAN, 

RAquEL z ROKOSKY 

4571638 Embedded RF vertical interconnect for flexible conformal 

antenna 

ShARON A ELSWORTh, MARVIN I FREDbERG, ThAD 

FREDERICKSON, WILLIAM h FOSSEY JR, 

STuART PRESS 

4571638 high strength, long durability strutural fabric/seam 

system 

DARYL ELAM 

4540483 method for locating and tracking communication units in 

a synchronous wireless communication system 

DOuGLAS ANDERSON, JOSEPh F bORChARD, 

WILLIAM h WELLMAN 

4589309 monolithic lens/reflector optical component 

ALExANDER A bETIN, RObERT W bYREN, 

RObIN A REEDER 

4620122 phase conjugate laser and method with improved fidelity 

FREDERICK DINAPOLI 

4629727 method and system for swimmer denial 

RIChARD M LLOYD 

4585006 kinetic energy rod warhead with projectile spacing 

PRASAD AKKAPEDDI, ChARLES MCGLYNN 

4536986 method and apparatus for performing cell analysis based 

on simultaneous multiple marker emissions from neoplasia 

JOhN C COChRAN, JAMES W FLOOR, 

JOhN G hANLEY, WILLIAM POzzO 

4582915 systems and methods for passive pressure-compensation 

for acoustic transducers 

JAMES L LANGSTON, JAMES MARTIN 

4582908 wireless communication using an airborne 

switching node 

WILLIAM CROASDALE 

4563410 photonic buoy 

FRITz STEuDEL 

4545320 radar system having spoofer, blanker and canceller 

JAMES SMALL 

4567292 sparse-frequency waveform radar system and method 

JOhN J ANAGNOST, P KIuNKE 

4550347 system and method for controlling the attitude of 

a spacecraft 

jApAn, singApore 

JAMES FLORENCE, CLAY E TOWERY 

4550817 electronic firearm sight, and method of operating same 

netherlAnds 

STACY E DAVIS, TIMOThY R hEbERT, 

RObERT WELSh 

2003074 rotary connector providing electromagnetic interference 

shielding features 

new zeAlAnd 

MIChAEL bRENNAN, bENJAMIN DOLGIN, 

LuIS GIRALDO, JOhN hILL III, DAVID KOCh, 

MARK LOMbARDO, JORAM ShENhAR 

546045 drilling apparatus, method, and system 

russiAn federAtion 

GEORGE A bLAhA, ChRIS E GESWENDER, 

ShAWN b hARLINE 

2395783 missile with odd symmetry tail fins 

singApore 

JuSTIN STuEhRENbERG 

152712 methods and apparatus for a cable retractor to prevent 

cable damage after connector release 

south koreA 

MIChAEL J DELChECCOLO, MARK E RuSSELL, 

LuIS VIANA, WALTER G WOODINGTON 

10-0981267 back-up aid indicator 

KWANG ChO, LEO h huI 

10-0989005 efficient autofocus method for swath SAR 

ELSA K TONG, COLIN S WhELAN 

10-0985214 method of forming a self-aligned, selectively etched, 

double recess high electron mobility transistor 

tAiwAn 

ELI bROOKNER, DAVID MANOOGIAN, 

FRITz STEuDEL 

I331225 multiple radar combining for increased range, radar 

sensitivity and angle accuracy 

PhILLIP A COx, JAMES FLORENCE 

I325951 electronic sight for firearm, and method of 

operating same 

turkey 

bLAKE CROWThER, DEAN MCKENNEY, 

JAMES P MILLS, SCOTT SPARROLD, 


RObERT WELSh 

199901890b optical system with a window having a conicoidal 

inner surface, and testing of the optical system 

united kingdom 


RObERT WELSh 

2461161 improvements in antenna pedestals 


RObERT WELSh 

2461162 a portal structure providing electromagnetic interference 

shielding features 

Raytheon’s Intellectual Property is valuable. If you become 

aware of any entity that may be using any of Raytheon’s 

proprietary inventions, patents, trademarks, software, data or 

designs, or would like to license any of the foregoing, please 

contact your Raytheon IP counsel: David Rikkers (IDS), 

John J. Snyder (IIS), John Horn (MS), Robin R. Loporchio (NCS 

and Corporate), Charles Thomasian (SAS) and Horace St. Julian 

(RTSC and NCS).

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Raytheon Technology Today 2011 Issue 1

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