Presentation Gender Equality B

Welfare regimes and gender regimes in Europeduring the post-war eraTHE MALE BREADWINNER MODELColin Creighton (1999): „The rise of the MaleBreadwinner family produced a ‘compact’ covering thesexual division of labour, the economic support of familymembers, the distribution of time and the regulation ofmarriage and parenthood.“Jane Lewis (2006): „twentieth-century Western Europeanwelfare states /…/ built their systems of socialprotection around the relationship between the maleworker and the labour market“Hirdman (1994): “gender contract”

DECLINE OF THE MALE BREADWINNERMODELDevelopment towards a 1,5 breadwinner model? 4 drivingforces:Economy: from industrialism to post- industrialism;classical male occupations relatively diminishingIdeology: neoliberalism, “workfare” and the Thirdway (Lewis 2001)Households: family change towards moreindividualism, less marriages, more divorces(Daly 2005)European Union: European Employment Strategy(Adnett and Hardy 2005, Commission 2006)

1. STRUCTURAL CHANGES INTHE ECONOMY:Esping-Andersen (1999): At this time, the greatest number of jobs are beingcreated in the service industry. (Adnett and Hardy 2005: 90 per cent ofrecent job creation in the EU has been in services.) The dual-breadwinnermodel favors job growth in services since a family with two workers hasnot got much time, and hence creates demand for household servicesthrough the market.Part-time jobs, the most obvious example is the Netherlands where 75 % of theemployed women are working part-time (Commission report on genderequality 2006 p 15); NL had extreme growth of female employment duringthe 1980s.Growth of care services, the most obvious example is Sweden with its publicsector; 80 % of the members of the Swedish Municipal Workers’ Union arewomen (www.kommunal.se) The public sector grew rapidly in the 1970s.OECD (2006): Ireland needs to increase its female labour participation, to dothis daycare provision must be improved

2. IDEOLOGICAL CHANGESUK: from Beveridge to Thatcher, it was implied thatwomen’s primary role was motherhood. Blair’s ThirdWay has changed this (Pascall and Lewis 2006) Thischange isn’t primarily because of feminism, but concernfor state finances.Germany: „The [pension] reform [of 2001] explicitlypromotes the one-and-a-half or one-and-three-quarterbreadwinner family model“ (Ostner 2003)The Swedish gender contract has for a couple of decadesbeen changing in an individualist direction, whichcorresponds well with the EU’s policy ambitions in thisarea since at least the 1980s. Therefore the EU hasn’tmeant any significant changes in the Swedish genderregime. (Hobson 2003 p 75)

3. FAMILY CHANGESSmaller households, more people living alone: In 1961 the EU-15 had92 million households with an average of 3.3 persons perhousehold; by 1995 the figure had risen to 148 million with theaverage per household at 2.5 persons (Daly 2005)Between 1980 and 2003 the total fertility rate in the EU-25 fell from1.88 to 1.48. Duncan 2002: „Germany, Italy and Spain show thelowest ever recorded completed fertility rates while, in‚women-friendly‘ Sweden and Denmark, birth rates are amongthe highest in western Europe“For the EU-25 the crude marriage rate fell from 6.7 to 4.8 between1980 and 2003The crude divorce rate per 1,000 population increased from 1.5 in1980 to 2.0 in 2001.

4. THE EUThe Segregated Labour MarketOne important part of the European Employment Strategy and theLisbon process is to increase the female employment rate inEU. 2004: 55,7%. The Lisbon process’ target for 2010: 60%.(Commission report on gender equality 2006 p 5)The gender employment gap in EU member states varies betweenca 3 % in Denmark to ca 40 % in Malta. (Commission report ongender equality 2006 p 13) The average is 15,2 %.Labour force participation rate of women between 15 and 64 years76,6 per cent in Sweden and 50,4 per cent in Italy (OECD,Employment 2005, p.240)In the latest yearly report from the European Commission ongender equality in the union, the Commission (2006 p 3) writesthat „gender policies contribute to employment and growth“,and that „gender equality as essential in meeting the labourmarket challenges“

EQUALITY BETWEEN WOMENAND MEN AND THE EU(oneof the EU´s fundamental principles )Development 1957,The Treaty of Rome 1982,1st Action Programme forPromotingEqual Oportunity 1997,Amsterdam Treaty→ Equal Treatment→ Positive Action→ Mainstreaming

EQUALITY BETWEEN WOMENAND MEN AND THE EU→ covered by variousfundamental treaties (as seen on previous page)programmes and directives (+recommendations, resolutions,declarations)institutions and funds:- Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and EqualOpportunities- European Women´s Lobby- European Institute for Gender Equality- European Social Fund and its EQUAL programme

CASE STUDY - SWEDENIntroductionSwedish welfare state policies encourage femalelabour force participation and the dualbreadwinnermodel.All able-bodied adults are treated as citizenworkersand permission to exit the labourmarket in order to care is granted via programssuch as parental leave with generous wagereplacement, and formal care services areprovided.

CASE STUDY - SWEDENGrowth of the Swedish Welfare StateThe position of women in the growth of the Swedish welfarestate can be described as forming a type of alliance with theState. A women’s position has been strengthened bycreating circumstances necessary for her to achieveeconomic rights. (Hernes 1987: “the women friendly state”)A key characteristic of the dual-breadwinner model is theavailability of high-quality public child care. The 1970swas a decisive decade in building up public childcare.There are two "daddy months" in the parental leaveinsurance; months that either the father uses or they are lostto the family. But women still take 85% of parental leave;2005: government investigation on more equal sharing ofpaternal leave. Big discussion.

CASE STUDY - SWEDENSweden versus European UnionWhen entering EU, there was scepticism regardingEuropean gender regimes, and a fear that EUmembership would worsen the Swedish inequalities.This fear was not realized.Sweden has also had some influence on the EU’s genderpolicy; notably with the Council Framework Agreementon „father months“ in the paternal leave, 1996. Liebert(2002) claims that Sweden had influence on the inclusionof gender mainstreaming in the Amsterdam Treaty of1997.

CASE STUDY - SWEDENThe Segregated Labour MarketThe Segregated Labour MarketThe base of the Swedish welfare state is in fullemployment.In the beginning of the 1970s, tax laws concerningtaxing families and the tax independence ofwomen was changed, as was the rights ofwomen to early pensions. Women becomeindependent taxable subjects.The expansion of day care for children and care ofthe elderly provided a new labour market formany women from 1970s. New conflict betweenmale workers in private sector and femaleworkers in public sector (1980s).

The labour market is segregated both in terms ofhours worked (full or part-time employment)and also in terms of the contract ofemployment (permanent or temporary). Menare more often employed 35 hours or more perweek and more often contracted as apermanently employed worker.When women do obtain a higher position in thejob market, their wages are less than men.The women’s chances to reach higher position ina work organization are worse than men’s, andwomen are more often in dead end jobswithout development or advancementpossibilities.

• TheCASE STUDY - SWEDENSegregated UniversityIn 1977, the New Higher education reform intended toincrease equality in access to higher education based ongender and other factors.Men from higher social class groups almost withoutexception still enroll in the traditional universityeducational programs and courses, after the 1977 reform.The newer educational programs designed to increaseequality were filled by women and primarily womenfrom the middle and working classes.The reform did make some headway in recruiting from themiddle and working class, but at the expense of furthersegregating education.

CASE STUDY - SWEDENNew Patterns of Segregation?Review of both the labour market and changes inhigher education suggest that what wasdesigned to create equality has continued toreproduce patterns of male domination.Although women increased their number bothin paid employment and within highereducation, they are strongly segregated in bothfields.

CASE STUDY - SWEDENCRITICISMThere is a lack of functioning control mechanism on thegovernmental and department level.The existing bodies dispose of very low competency andfinancial and human resources.Legal assurance of equality between women and men isnarrowed only to the changes within particular laws andmisses conceptual arrangements.There is an insufficient amount of research about themechanisms of reproduction of gender inequality.The cooperation between government and the “women’s”non-for-profit organisations does not reach the EU level.The endowments to support the equality are notsufficient.

CASE STUDY - THE CZECHREPUBLICIntroductionDuring the Communist Era in Czechoslovakia, the question ofgender equality was not relevant.This has changed since the Velvet Revolution in 1989, especiallyafter entering EU in 2004.The Czech government has vowed to respect the principle oftreating women and men equally, namely by participating inthe EU Amsterdam treaty or Community Framework Strategyon Gender Equality and the UN Convention on Eliminationof All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.Every year, the Czech government releases a document entitledGovernment Priorities and Procedures for the Enforcement ofthe Equality of Men and Women in which the assignments tosupport equal opportunities in the Czech society are set. InReports on the Fulfilment of the Government Priorities andProcedures for the Enforcement of the Equality of Men andWomen is the fulfilment of such assignments evaluated.

CASE STUDY - THE CZECHREPUBLICSTATE BODIES The Government Council for EqualOpportunities for Women and Men Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs Department for Equal Opportunities forWomen and Men Focal points in each Ministry Government of the CR Council forHuman Rights The Committee for Eliminating all formsof Discrimination Against Women

CASE STUDY - THE CZECHREPUBLICTHE POSITION OF WOMENGraph 1: Women and Men in Decision-making Positions(Graph 23; CNB = Czech National Bank, SAO = Supreme Audit Office;source: Czech Statistical Office)

CASE STUDY - THE CZECHREPUBLICEMPLOYMENT AND WAGESThe Segregated Labour MarketAverage earnings by Education attainment for 2002

CASE STUDY – THE CZECHREPUBLICCRITICISMThe government activities do not fulfil expectations. Someissues are not touched at all (unequal wages, proportionof women and men in leading positions, the field ofscience and research)Contribution to improve the current situation may be madeby legislators, government members and members ofdepartments, NGOs, journalists etc.The government priorities are not based on in-depthanalyses.The Reports on the Fulfilment of the Government Priorities andProcedures for the Enforcement of the Equality of Men andWomen fail to offer some of the key information, such asthe level of the state financial support towards equalopportunities and the institutional and personalassurance of the policy of treating women and menequally.

CASE STUDY: ITALYIntroduction Traditionally low female representationin both the political arena and theworkforce Welfare state does little to providesupport for families, women withchildren, and working women Conservative labor regulations hamperfemale entry into the labor market The Catholic Church has a great deal ofinfluence on women’s issues, especiallythose concerning abortion, birth control,and traditional family values

EU: National Attainment of LisbonStrategy Goals

National Action Plan: EqualOpportunity Promotion of women to electoral anddecision making positions Promoting female entrepreneurship andemployment Gender conscious policies on time use,working time, and work organization The National Plan for Kindergartens Coordination and reform of institutionalaction and equal opportunities bodies Eliminating discrimination International cooperation

National Action Plan: Ministries andCommissions 1992: The Commission for FemaleEntrepreneurship 1996: The Ministry of EqualOpportunities 1997: The Equal OpportunitiesDepartment 1990: The National Commission forEqual Opportunities 1999: An Equal OpportunitiesCommission

Ministry for Equal Opportunities Established 1996 2002 Program for women’s rights: Political representation Human trafficking Pedophilia Reforming equal opportunities bodies National plan for kindergartens Elimination of discrimination Focus on facilitating the work/ familybalance by: Increasing availability of childcare Increasing part-time employment

Equal Rights ProgressSource: OECD Employment Outlook 2002

Political Representation: Theory andPractice Article 51 of the Constitution ensures equalaccess to political office and “equalopportunities for men and women by means ofappropriate provisions” When asked to comment upon femalerepresentation in government, Berlusconiremarked that "It's not easy to get women toleave their husbands to move to Rome." Prior to the last election, women held only 11.4%of Parliamentary positions although theycomprise over half of the electorate. However,Prodi is expected to promote female politicalrepresentation, as well as other gender issues.

Challenges: Fertility and the FemaleWorkforce Total Fertility Rate Italy: 1.28 children per woman, 212globally EU average: 1.47 children per woman 2.1 children per woman recommendedto maintain population levelsFemale Employment In 2003, 42% of women 14-64 wereunemployed

Causes of Low Fertility: Lack ofGovernment SupportCountries in which the state activelysupports female employment have higherfertility rates: France: 1.84 Total Fertility rate UK: 1.66 Total Fertility rate Sweden: 1.66 Total Fertility rateGreatest Areas of Non-support: Child care Labor market

Government Support: ChildcareLack of Market Substitutes for aMother’s Care Low availability Inflexible hours 6% of Italian children under 3 use formalchildcare, compared to 64% of Danishchildren and 29% of French children Only 10% of childcare is provided by thestate

Government Support: ChildcareLack of Non-market Substitutes Unequal division of household labor Southern European Paradox: Traditional reliance on families andsupport for family values, yet lessfinancial and legislative support forfamilies Families are overburdened

Government Support: Labor Market Rigid Labor Market: Hiring/ firing regulations High entry wage Lack of Part-time employment High Level of YouthUnemployment High cost of supporting children Childrearing entails a longer commitment

Causes of Female Unemployment andLow Fertility: Sociocultural Beliefs andAttitudes Cultural attitudes towards femaleemployment Traditional family structures Central role of the mother Catholic Influence Often indicates the absence of family-friendlypolicies Unequal division of household labor

Causes of Female Unemployment andLow Fertility: Sociocultural AttitudesTowards Female Employment

SOURCESCommission of the European Communities (2006): Report from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, theEuropean Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on equality between women and men – 2006.Brussels: Commission of the European CommunitiesCreighton, Colin (1999): „The rise and decline of the ‘male breadwinner family’ in Britain“, Cambridge Journal ofEconomics Vol. 23 pp 519-541Duncan, Simon (2002): „Policy Discourses on ‚Reconciling Work and Life‘ in the EU“, Social Policy & Society Vol. 1 No. 4pp 305-314Esping-Andersen, Gosta (1999): The Social Foundations of Post-Industrial Economies. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPressGottschall, Karen and Katherine Bird (2004): „Family Leave Policies and Labor Market Segregation in Germany:Reinvention or Reform of the Male Breadwinner Model?“, Review of Policy Research Vol. 20 No. 1 pp 115-134Hobson, Barbara (2003): „The Individualised Worker, the Gender Participatory and the Gender Equity Models inSweden“, Social Policy & Society Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 75-83Lewis, Jane (1992): „Gender Development and Welfare Regimes“, Journal of European Social Policy Vol. 2 No. 3 pp. 159-173Lewis, Jane (1997): “Gender and welfare regimes: Further thoughts”, Social Politics Vol. 4 no 2 pp. 160-177Lewis, Jane (2001): „The Decline of the Male Breadwinner Model: Implications for Work and Care“, Social Politics:International Studies in Gender, State & Society 8: 152-169Lewis, Jane (2002): „Gender and Welfare State Change“, European Societies; Dec 2002, Vol. 4 Issue 4, p331-357Lewis, Jane (2006): „Work/family reconciliation, equal opportunities and social policies: the interpretation of policytrajectories at the EU level and the meaning of gender equality“, Journal of European Public Policy; Apr 2006, Vol. 13 Issue3, p 420-437OECD (2006): Policy Brief Ireland. Paris: OECDOstner, Ilona (2003): „‘Individualisation‘ – the Origins of the Concept and Its Impact on German Social Policies“, SocialPolicy & Society Vol. 3 No. 1 pp 47-56Pascall, Gillan and Jane Lewis (2004): „Emerging Gender Regimes and Policies for Gender Equality in a Wider Europe“,Journal of Social Policy, 33, 3, 373–394Stratigaki, Maria (2004): „The Cooptation of Gender Concepts in EU Policies: The Case of "Reconciliation of Work andFamily“ Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society Vol. 11: 30-56

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