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Dr. G. RAMATHIRTNAM, M.A., Ph.D.Reader, Department of SociologyDepartment of SociologyPondicherry UniversityPondicherry - 605 014This is to certify that the thesis entitled "A SOCIOLOGICALANALYSIS OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN RURALDEVELOPMENT" is a record of original research work done byFr. L. MICHAEL DOSS, S.J., in the Department of Sociology as a full time andpart time research scholar during the period of the study from October 1997 toOctober 2004 under my guidance and supervision for the award of the Degree ofDoctor of Philosophy in Sociology. I further testify that this research work has notbeenpreviously formed the basis for the award of any other degree, diploma,associateship, fellowship or other similar title to any candidate of this or any otherUniversity.Place: Pondicherry,Date: Oi- g?-(G. RAMATHIRTHAM)Supervisor.

L. MICHAEL DOSS, M.A., M.Phil.Department of Rural Development Science .Arul Anandar College ( Autonomous),Karumathur,Madurai District - 625 5 14.DECLARATIONI hereby state that the thesis entitled "A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OFNON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT"submitted to the Pondicherry C'niversitj, Pondicherry for the award of the Degree ofDoctor of Philosophy in Sociology is a record of original work independent researchwork done by me during the period from October 1997 to October 2004 under thesupervision and guidance of Dr.G. RAMATHIRTHAM and it has not previouslyformed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship orother similar title to any candidate of any university.Place: Karumathur,Date : 3sco~- ha7(L. MICHAEL DOSS)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTI am extremely grateful to my guide and supeniisorDr. 6. RAMATHIRTHAM, Reader. Department of Sociology. PondicherryUniversity, Pondicherry. He was a source of inspiration and encouragement throughout my research work. I feel fortunate and happy that I had an opportunity to learn alot from him. I once again thank my guide for his magnanimity and generosity inmaking pertinent observations and rendering timely corrections without whichcompletion of this thesis would have been impossible. With a great sense of prideand satisfaction I acknowledge my indebtedness to him and I feel happy about theassociation I have had with him.I am immensely thankful and obliged to Dr. S. GUNASEKARAN, Head andCo-ordinator, Department of Sociology, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry for hisvaluable encouragement throughout my career.My sincere thanks to the Members of the Doctoral Committee, PondichenyUniversity. Their valuable observations and timely corrections at every phase of myresearch has enriched my knowledge and experience in the filed of study.My grateful thanks are due to Mr. N. Rajkumar., and A.Murugan., OfficeManager of the Department of Sociology for their whole hearted cooperation duringthe study. My thanks to Mr.Venketasan., for his cheerful service.

1 thank Dr. Lucas Babu, Director, Rural Integrated Development Organisation(RIDO) . Mr. A. Stalin., Secretary, Society for Rural Development, (SRD), Mr. M.C.Parasuraman, Secretary, Village Association for Gainful Employment (VAGE), andMrs.M. Saroja, Secretary, Nellikkani Mahalir Mantram (NMM) for their cordial andgenerous cooperation in my research work. My sincere thanks to the officials and thebeneficiaries of the selected NGOs for their active co-operation in the study.I am grateful to the Registrars of the Office of Registration of Societies atKrishnagiri and Dharrnapuri for providing relevant resource materials for my study.I thank Ms. M. Arul Rani and Mr.1. Kennedy who guided me in the field visit to thearea of study. I am grateful to the Directors and the Librarians of the Xavier Instituteof Management, Bhubaneswar, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi, Institute of RuralManagement, Anand, National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, and theInstitute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore for permitting met to utilise thefacilities of the library for reference.I am thankful to Mrs. Ameli Ceciely and Mrs.Vimala Mathews for theirassistance in data entry.My sincere thanks to the members of the Jesuit Community at Arul AnandarCollege (Autonomous), Karumathur, for their constant encouragement and solidarity.I thank specially Fr. P.P. Xavier for providing accommodation at Pondicherry duringmy study.

I extend my special thanks to Mr. N. MURUGESAN, Sri Bala-ji Computers.Palkalai Nagar, Madurai, for his ceaseless efforts in the processing and the neatprinting of my thesis work.L. MICHAEL DOSS.

CONTENTSCHAPTERPAGEIINTRODUCTION1-39I1REVIEW OF LITERATURE40-83IIIRESEARCH METHODOLOGY84-98IVANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION99-2 14VSUMMARY AND CONCLUSION2 15-224BIBLIOGRAPHYi-xxviAPPENDIXxxvii-xxxvi

TABLE NO.4.14.24.34.44.54.64.74.8LIST OF TABLESTITLEDistribution of Respondents - NGO-wiseDistribution of Respondents - Village-wiseDistribution of Respondents - Women Group-wiseDistribution of Respondents by AgeDistribution of Respondents by Marital StatusDistribution of Respondents by Literacy StatusDistribution of Respondents by Educational StatusDistribution of Respondents by Reasons forDrop-outDistribution of Respondents by OccupationDistribution of Respondents by Type of HouseDistribution of Respondents by Ownership of LandDistribution of Respondents by Acreage ofLand OwnedSources of IrrigationDistribution of Respondents by IncoineFrom CropsDistribution of Respondents by Annual IncomeDistribution of Respondents by Annual SavingsPAGE

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGEDistribution of Respondents by Borrowing Status 122Distribution of Respondents by Reasons forBorrowing 123Distribution of Respondents by their Felt-Needs 124Distribution of Respondents by Felt-needs -Village-wise 126Distribution of Respondents by Year of JoiningNGOs' Programmes 127Distribution of Respondents by the StatedObjectives of NGOs 128Distribution of Respondents by Reasons forAccepting NGOs' Objectives 130Distribution of Respondents by Usefulness of NGOs'Programmes 131Distribution of Respondents by Status BeforeJoining NGOs' Programmes 132Distribution of Respondents by Status AfterJoining NGOs' Programmes 133Distribution of Respondents by Level ofParticipation in NGOs' Activities 135Distribution of Respondents by Awareness ofGovernment Programmes 137Distribution of Respondents by Level ofSatisfaction on the Functioning ofGovernment Officials 139

TABLE NO.TITLEPAGE4.304.3 14.32Distribution of Respondents by Assessment ofPerformance of Government Organisations 140Distribution of Respondents by Assessment ofPerformance of NGOs 141Level of Co-operation of Co-ordinators..Animators, Local Coml-nunity and Local LeadersWith the Beneficiary 142Distribution of Respondents by Perception ofFactors that Facilitated Effective Achievement ofGoals of Government Organisations 143Distribution of Respondents by Perception ofFactors that Facilitated Effective Achievement ofGoals of NGOs 145Distribution of Respondents by Perception ofFactors that Hindered Effective Achievement ofGoals of Government Organisations 146Distribution of Respondents by Factors thatHindered Effective Achievement of Goals ofNGOs 147Distribution of Respondents by Reason forPreference of NGOs 148Age and Perception of the Objectives of the NGOs 15 1Education and Perception of the ObjectivesOf the NGOs 152Annual Income and Perception of the ObjectivesOf the NGOs 154

TABLE NO.TITLEPAGE4.414.424.434.444.454.464.474.484.49Land Holding and Perception of the ObjectivesOf the NGOsAnnual Savings and Perception of the ObjectivesOf the NGOsAge and Reasons for Acceptance of the ObjectivesOf the NGOsEducation and Reasons for Acceptance of theObjectives of the NGOsAnnual Income and Reasons for AcceptanceOf the Objectives of the NGOsLand Holding and Reasons for Acceptance of theObjectives of the NGOsAnnual Savings and Reasons for Acceptance ofThe Objectives of the NGOsAge and the Status of Respondents before JoiningNGOs ' ProgrammesEducation and the Status of Respondents BeforeJoining NGOs' Progralnmes4.504.5 14.524.53Annual Income and the Status of Respondents beforeJoining NGOs' ProgrammesLand Holding and the Status of Respondents BeforeJoining NGOs' ProgrammesAnnual Savings and the Status of RespondentsBefore Joining NGOs' ProgrammesAge and the Status of Respondents after JoiningNGOs' Programmes 173

TABLE NO.TITLEPAGE4.544.554.564.57Education and the Status of Respondents afterJoining NGOs' ProgrammesAnnual Income and the Status of RespondentsAfter Joining NGOs' PrograrnmesLand Holding and the Status of Respondents afterJoining NGOs' PrograinmesAnnual Savings and the Status of RespondentsAfter Joining NGOs' Programmes4.584.594.604.614.624.634.644.654.66Age and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsEducation and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsAnnual Income and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsLand Holdings and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsAnnual Savings and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsAge and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of NGOsEducation and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of NGOsAnnual Income and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of NGOsLand Holding and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of NGOs 188

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGEAnnual Savings and Factors that Facilitated EffectiveAchievement of Goals of NGOsAge and Reasons for Preference of NGOsEducation and Reasons for Preference of NGOsAnnual Income and Reasons for Preference of NGOsLand Holdings and Reasons for Preference of NGOsAnnual Savings and Reasons for Preference of NGOsAge and Factors that Hindered EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsEducation and Factors that Hindered EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsAnnual Income and Factors that Hindered EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsLand Holding and Factors that Hindered EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsAnnual Savings and Factors that Hindered EffectiveAchievement of Goals of Government OrganisationsAge and Factors that Hindered EffectiveAchievement of Goals of NGOsEducation and Factors that Hindered EffectiveAchievement of Goals of NGOs 203

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGEAnnual Income and Factors that Hindered EffectiveAchievement of Goals of NGOsLand Holding and Factors that Hindered EffectikreAchievement of Goals of NGOsAnnual Savings and Factors that Hindered EffectiveAchievement of Goals of NGOsTransformation of Wornen through NCOs'ProgrammesParticipation of Women in Organisational ProcessChallenges of Women arising from InvolvementIn NGOs' ProgrammesWomen as Agents of Social ChangeDiscovering Wornen's Potentialities, Skills andQualitiesRecognition of the Status and Role of WomenBy Men

LIST OF FIGURESFIGURES NO.4.14.24.34.44.54.64.7TITLEDistribution of Respondents - NGO-wiseDistribution of Respondents by AgeDistribution of Respondents by Educational StatusDistribution of Respondents by Annual IncomeDistribution of Respondents by Annual SavingsDistribution of Respondents by their Felt-NeedsDistribution of Respondents by the StatedObjectives of NGOsDistribution of Respondents by Awareness ofGovernment ProgrammesPAGE101106110119121125Distribution of Respondents by Reasons forPreference of NGOs 150

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONThe Chapter on Introduction has triple important functions in the context ofthis study: first, it explains the main perspectives of the relevant themes in a logicalframework; second, it points out to the key theories of the world system, ruraldevelopment and decentralization that are related to the topic of the study; third, itfocuses on the relevance of the topic of study.1.1 Web of Integrated Rural PovertyThe stark reality of integrated rural poverty is the greatest challenge for thetwenty-first century, particularly for the Least Developed Countries. Poverty is acomplex phenomenon with multifarious dimensions and implications, involvingeconomic and non-economic factors. The web of poverty is vicious and insidious; ithas in-built resilience.' Meticulous analysis of poverty reveals that ultimately it is theinherent process of deprivation based on division into dichotomies as urban-rural,organised-unorganised, educated-uneducated and socially privileged and underprivileged.The poor are not poor but are deprived of the resources and opportunities. Theprocesses of deprivation are embedded in various forms - overt and covert, explicit

and implicit - and induced by forces at the economic, social, political. cultural andpsychological levels. As a result. the poor are caught up into the clutches of thedeprivation trap that has five major tentacles: physical weakness, poverty, isolation,vulnerability and powerlessness. Rural women, children and the landless are the mostvulnerable to the poverty ratchets.'Poverty can be classified into four categories: short-run poverty, long-runpoverty, short-run individual andlor family poverty and Iong-run individual and/orfamily poverty.'The poor are classified into three groups: the chronically poor, theborderline poor and the new poor.4 It is alarming to note that nearly one-fourth of theworld's population - around 1.3 billion people live in extreme and abject poverty,surviving on less than $ 1.0 a day for all their needs; about seventy percent of themare women.'It is more distressing to observe that nearly one-third of the totalnumber of the chronically poor lives in ~ndia.~ The strategy for eradication ofpoverty comprises: in the order of priority, of neutralising the deprivation processes,building up of the inner strength of the community and implementing economicprogrammes.The characteristics of the rural poor - landlessness, too little land, family toolarge, malnutrition, ill-health, illiteracy, high infant mortality rate, low lifeexpectancy, low income, irregular income, weak bargaining position, isolated owing

to poor communications. preoccupied with survival and indebtedness - do play avital role in understanding the 1 icious circle of rural poverty.'Immanuel wallerstein8 developed a theoretical framework to provide acomprehensive understanding of the modern world system that is essentiallycapitalist in nature through analytically sound comparisons between different parts ofthe world. All the regions of the world could be placed in the four different categoriesgrouped on the basis of its position within the world economy and certain internalpolitical and economic characteristics: core. semi-periphery, periphery and external.The core regions benefited the most from the capitalist world economy. Theydeveloped strong central governments, extensive bureaucracies and large mercenaryarmies that facilitated control over international commerce and return of capitalsurplus for their own profit.The peripheral zones located at the other extreme end of the scale werecontrolled by other states; they exported raw materials to the core and depended oncoercive labour practices. The core amassed the capital surplus generated by theperiphery through unequal trade relations. The semi-periphery zones lie betweenthese two extremes, representing core regions in decline or peripheries attempting toimprove their relative position in the world economic system. The external areasmaintained their own economic system, mostly with internal trade, and remainedoutside the modem world economy.

Wailerstein divided the history of the capitalist world economy of themedieval age which lasted for several centuries into four stages. starting from thefifteenth century and ending in the twentieth century. During this period. differentregions changed their relative position within the system through the processes ofbureaucratization. homogenization of the local population, militia expansion,absolutism and diversification of ecsnolnic activities. From the eighteenth centuryand beyond. it was an era of industrial capitalism that focused on active explorationfor the exploitation of new markets. During this phase. the core regions shiftedpurely to industrial capitalism and encouraged the rise of industries in peripheral andsemi-peripheral zones, solely for selling machines to these regions. Thus, the theoryof Wallerstein spelt out that the capitalist world economy was detrimental to theprogress of the vast majority of the world's population by bringing about a skeweddevelopment and widening the economic and social disparities between regions.1.2 Development: Concepts and PerspectivesThe concept of development is a multi-faceted and value-laden process; it isboth quantitative and qualitative in nature; it is people-centred and participation-~riented.~ Development is fbndamentally a process of change that involves thewhole society - its economic, socio-cultural, political and physical structures, as wellas the value system and the way of life of the people. It includes economiccharacteristics, welfare characteristics, sociological dimension and political

indicators, involving both improvement in human welfare and increase in income^.'^Genuine development is much more than a matter of economics and economicgrowth. Development is essential for all societies and not just a 'Third World'problem. If development is really to belong to people. it must be shared by them. It isnow a well-known maxim that true development can be achieved only by people andcannot be done to people."Development can be viewed from two opposing perspectives. One is theConsumerist view which regards the human being primarily as a consumer of goodsand services; the other is the Creativist view which regards the human race primarilyas a creative being. People's self- development can start even under extremeconditions of misery and poverty. Development is not the question of distribution ofincome or benefits but the basic question of equity. Most often, the ordinary peopleare more capable of social inquiry and analysis than the so-called elites. It is to benoted that one cannot develop oneself with somebody else's ideas but with aliberated mind.12Development is not mere increase in GNP or per capita income; it is also anincrease that enriches the total quality of life including wealth, health, education,culture, environment and value. The phenomenon of development is multidimensionaland value-laden comprising economic, social, political, cultural,environmental, psychological, material, spiritual, moral, legal and sociological

perspectives on which depend the integrated and total development of humanpersonality, dignity and justice.Development ought to be need-oriented,endogenous, self-reliant, ecologically sound and based on structural transformation.The discussion on development can be summarized in the best manner in thewords of Clark: "Develop~nent is not a commodity to be weighed or measured byGNP statistics. It is a process of change that enables people to take charge of theirown destinies and realize their full potential. It requires building up in people theconfidence, skills, assets and freedoms necessary to achieve this goal".'3 At the heartof development are the ingredients of equity, justice, sustainability. self-reliance andindependence.1.3 Indicators of DevelopmentSince development means different things to different people it can be viewedfrom various perspectives. Of this new generation of develop~nent indicators, theUnited Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) in 1961developed a set of social indicators including composite indices; the World Bank'sprogramme of social indicators of development currently has 94 indicators andUNDP's Human Development Index (HDI) has 253 human development indicators,ranging from infant mortality rate to population per passenger car.I4 An effective

indicator should be relevant, unique. sensitive. feasible and stable. There are gravedangers in a single prevailing developmental model.From the perspective of poverty alleviation. rural development refers not onlyto development of agriculture and industries. but also to the distinctive strategy ofintervention by states in reducing levels of inequality in income, employment, andaccess to public goods and services. Rural development has special reference toprocesses of change in rural communities initiated by the State, or NGOs, or othersources. The following four vital components have been identified in contemporaryextension practice of rural development: advice and information; skills andknowledge; farmer institutions; and confidence-building. Extension is a two-way linkthat works with people, not for them. Recent studies have underlined the tremendouscontribution of women in rural transformation.l61.4 Rural DevelopmentThe term 'rural area' is more than a mere geographical parameter; it is aneconomic and social entity which as such hlfils various public functions.I7 Sevenimportant characteristics of rural communities can be identified: (a) Primaryoccupation agriculture or allied activities to agriculture; (b) Closer together andcloser to the natural environment; (c) Personal, close interaction with the members ofthe community; (d) Smaller in size wherein each one knows everybody - mutual

knowledge; (e) Lesser densit); in population; (f) Greater homogeneity - commonoccupation, com~non traditions, common customs and common heritage; and(g) Very little social mobility."Rural development has been defined and understood by different people andorganizations in different ways. A comprehensive surnrnarq of rural development ispresented as "a strategy to enable a specific group of people. poor rural women andmen, to gain for themselves and their children more of what they want and need. Itinvolves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas todemand and control more of the benefits for rural development. The group includessmall scale farmers, tenants and the land~ess."'~Rural development is a democratic, dynamic and integrated process forimproving the quality of life of rural communities by breaking out of the straightjacket of dependency syndrome and initiating a process of self-reliance throughoptimum mobilization of natural and human resources. As Robert Chambers says,"Human Resources - not capital, nor income, nor material resources - constitute theultimate basis for the wealth of nations.Clearly, a countrq which is unable todevelop the skills and knowledge of its people and utilize them, will be unable todevelop anything else".20 He rightly cuts the myth that rural people are empty vesselswaiting to be filled and emphasizes on the need for the 'professionals' to learn fromrural people.

1.5 Rural Development TheoryRural development. being a multidisciplinary field of growing research, hasthe conceptual influence of established disciplines like Economics. Management,Sociology, Health Science, Political Science and Geography. An analysis of RuralDevelopment ~heory~~eveals its linkages with the concepts of political economyand public management, in particular. During the 1950s and 1960s. centralization andplanning were the core theories of development which asserted that once capital isaccumulated and reinvested, it would increase not only production and employment,but also raise the income generating capacity of the population. It also propagatedthat besides rapid capital accumulation, there must also be an entrepreneurial classwho are willing to invest and control accumulated capital in industrial activities. ButNeomarxism argued against the mainstream development theory thatunderdevelopment and undevelopment are two different concepts affirming thatunderdevelopment is not an endogenous condition.In the 1960s, the goal of rural development all over the world was based uponplanned economic growth which was influenced by the works of John Montgomery,R.S. Milne and H. Friedman. The argument of Inayatullah was that the ruraldevelopment has to be implemented with a heavy emphasis on planning bygovernment officials in order to attain socio-economic goals and nation-building.Development planners used this capital accumulation-based economic growth plan to

survey the current economic conditions and the current social situation, to evaluatepreceding pians. to state new objectives. estimates of growth, suggested measures toraise growth rate, and to produce a revised programme of government expenditures.Thus the predominant management system of strong centralized control andsupervision over all development endeavors through the state's bureaucracy had itsimpact on the development theories.Theoretical basis for the centralised systems sterns from Max Weber whoseworks were interpreted by Management experts as an attempt to create a centralizedbureaucracy to administer the needs of a given society. Woodrow Wilson, FrankGoodnow, Frederick Taylor were the others who contributed towards strengtheningbureaucratic administration for efficient functioning. Unfortunately, centrallyplanneddevelopment did not lead to the expected capital accumulation and rapideconomic growth in most of the less developed countries.As a solution to the dysfunction of a highly centralized administrative system,alternative theory was proposed by Dennis Rondinelli, a development expert. Hesummarizes a plethora of arguments for a more decentralized approach to planningand implementation, including,(1) it affords greater authority for development planning and management toofficials who are working in the field, closer to the problems;

(2)it cuts through the enormous amounts of red tape and the highly structuredprocedures characteristic;(3) it allows greater representation for various political. religious, ethnic, andtribal groups in development decision making;(4)it increases administrative capability and local governments and privateinstitutions in the regions and provinces; and(5)it institutionalizes the participation of the citizens in development planningand management.Development experts of the 1970s concentrated their decentralizationapproach on presenting ways and means aimed at reorienting the structure andknction of the governmental bureaucracy. However, by the late 1970s, Managementexperts in the developed countries learned that a social and behavioural modificationor process reorientation was necessary to complement the structural aspect ofdecentralization. In the 1980s, the Humanist School of Management presentedalternatives to the positivist-oriented approaches like management by objectives(MBO), linking pin, quality circles, job redesign, clarity of goals, motivationtechniques, organization development (OD), job enrichment and participativemanagement which go beyond the structural adjustments advocated by Rondinelliand others. Ideally, the process of decentralization should be used together with thestructural rearrangements and functional redescriptions.

A definition on rural development relevant to the topic of the study is asfollows: "Rural Development is a strategy to enable a specific group of people, poorrural women and men, to gain for themselves and their children more of what theywant and need. It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood inthe rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of rural development. Thegroup includes small scale farmers, tenants and the landless.""The ingredients ofrural development include utilization of natural and human resources, technologies,infrastructural facilities and organizations; and also government policies andprogrammes for accelerating economic growth and improving the quality of rural lifetowards sustainability and social justice.1.6 Rural Development In IndiaThe indefatigable reality that 'India lives in her villages' is reaffirmed by thefact that there are 696, 831 villages in India with about 80.0 per cent rural population.According to the Census of India 1901, the rural population was 243 million (89.2per cent) and the urban population 26 million (10.8 per cent). The Census 1991reaffirms that the percentage of rural and urban population was 74.3 per cent and25.7 per cent respectively. Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation, asserted theimportance of villages by saying, "Ihave believed and repeated times withoutnumber that India is to be found not in its few cities but in its 700,000 villages.I would say that if the village perishes, India will perish too".23

India is a ~~orld in itself containing colossal diversity of culture. language,race and religion. It is a land of bountiful plenty and miserable poverty as well. Therural-urban dichotomy is visible concretely in the susceptibility of rural people tosocio-economic and cultural exploitations for centuries.In general, negativeindicators of development such as poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, standard of lifebelow poverty line, and poor groivth of health conditions seem to be rampant in ruralIndia. Thus rural development is a sine qua non for India's development.Rural development programmes in India can be broadly classified into fourcategories such as beneficiaryltarget-group oriented programmes. area-orientedprogrammes, sectoral programmes and production-oriented programmes The originalstrategies of these programmes were focused to transform the rural economy, reshapethe political life of rural people, establish an extensive network of all-rounddevelopment of rural areas, and promote small-scale and cottage industries in ruralareas and change the associational pattern of rural society.1.7 Rural-Urban DichotomyWhile democracy can be termed as India's highest achievement, rampantstructural inequality and regional disparities are our gravest failures. The castesystem and colonialism have contributed their share in perpetuating disparities atvarious levels. Amidst a period of romantic patriotism and economic euphoria from

1947 to 1964. India had its harsh realities and new experiments from 1964 to 1977.From then onwards, a nem paradigm of development has emerged. All measures ofthe Central and State Governments to eradicate the social inequalities and regionaldisparities in India still remain a challenging task. The deep concern for the ruralpoor and distressed regions proved only an euphemism. Despite numerous peoplecentredand area-oriented programmes in full swing during the past decades, the gapsand disparities are widening at various levels, particularly in social structure andamong region^.^'The disparity between the rural and urban areas has taken many forms.According to statistics, the number of workers in agricultural sector has almostdoubled from 97.2 million in 1951 to 185.2 in 1991 and among them the number ofagricultural labourers had increased nearly threefold. Yet the resources areincreasingly diverted to non-agricultural sectors with a view to attain rapid economicIt is evident that agriculture in 1989-90 contributed only one-third to thenational income but supported nearly two-thirds of the population. Several studiesearlier had revealed the widening gap in income. It is distressing to note thatagricultural producers are the only category of producers who do not fix the price oftheir produce, rather fixed by traders.The disparity is hrther widened by the investment policies of the CentralGovernment that strengthen the industrial sector. Faster growth of urban income,

coupled iiitil stagnation in the income of the poor in rural areas. has acceleratedmigration to urban areas for livelihood. Since employment opportunities arediminishing in rural areas, the rural poor uiEl continue to flock to urbanagglomerations u it11 increasing proportions Ii\ ing in slums. Such policies will onlyaggravate the rural-urban dichotonq ."1.8 Rural Development Lwder Government AuspicesThe prima? function of the Planning Commission set up by the Governmentof India in March 1950 was to outline a national plan of development by eradicatingpoverty particiilarly the massive rural poverty. The First Fi1.e Year Plan - from April1951 to March 1956 - was envisaged in triple phases uith predominant emphasis onagriculture and rural community developinent. In the first phase, 15 pilot projectswere launched in Etanah (Uttar Pradesh) in April 1952. In the second phase,Community Development Programme was launched on 2"d October 1952 covering165 blocks in different states of the nation. In the third phase, National ExtensionService was launched on 2nd October 1953 in 55 blocks - altogether covering 220blocks, 21.5 million people living in 23,650 villages. It was stipulated that by theend of the First Five Year Plan in 1956, almost one-fourth of the entire ruralpopulation with a total of 74 million people living in 120,000 villages would benefitfrom these programmes.

%8'PI s~aylo%9'9I sa3rhxacj ~ ~ZIOS%D'L 1 luaurdo1a~aa ,Q!unururo3 pua arnllnq~8v%O'PZ uo~~'e~~~unruuxo=) pu'e ~ O~SUBJJ%Z'LZ ~ a ~ puc ~ ouo!lc3!u1d:a;pu~ JO luauruIaAo9ayl jo saurure~3o~d pu'e sa!3god ayl jo saypoy~d ayl il~~eap salap!3nla (9~61-~~41)UBI~ IBaA ai\!d $slid aql jo uo~l'e~~olla ayL 'slaiial luaJajJ!p l'e uorl'edp!p'ed s'a~doadput! iprds c~pv.nowap palalso3 ley1 luawdol[a~ap jo sassaao~d l'epos sv pa~aprsuo:,alaM Lay:, puv .aq~as uoysualxg 1auogaN lo aurrua~Bo~d luawdo~aiiaa Lqunuruo3Jayqa Lq pa.1a~o3 aq ]~!.\z iCr~uno3 aqua ayl 96 I iiq ley3 lauuaur snoln3yaur 'e y~~nsu! pauu'eld se.w 17 -,Q!unu1~03 l'e.~n~ ayi pup siuawura~o8 alqs puc -[allua3 ayl ~ JIMd!ys~aulr~d u! ]no pa!uzrs3 aJau agq3 SY.IO,M luaurdo.jazap ilrunurwos yl!~ papauuoasasuadxa JOJ sa~o~3 0.101-q JO retns E pap! zo~d u~fd Ir?a/i a,\!d 3 s aq.1 ~ ~

The c

manner, sSae)car1 make ere.rnewdou.i ccl)ntributior~s in bringing about people'sThe question nith regard to the poor ttas this: Can the poorest of the poorabsorb such hea\-) in\esrmrnts'.?And anorhcr iiitl? regard to the capacity of theeconom) - whether ir can absorb both the in\esinnt"nt and output!The way to getout these limitations and issues are reorganization of machineq. inter-sectoredlinkages at 1 slrious levels. irnolveii~enl of peopie through local institutions. voluntaryagencies and organization of the poor which can bring about Inore effective andsustainable results in rural deve~o~ment.'~1.9 Evaluation of Rural Development ProgrammesBalkvantrai Mehta Committee ( 1957) which evaluated CommunityDevelopment Programme and National Extension Service pointed out that top-downbureaucratic planning, lack of people's participation, improper selection andinadequate training of development personnel, lack of balanced programmescovering the entire community in several diverse aspects and ineffective channels ofcommunication were the key problems which led to the failure of the ruraldevelopment programmes. The Committee observed, "Today in the implementationof the various schemes of community development, more and more emphasis is to be

lad on non-gotem~nenliil agrncic.5 and .i%carLrrs and ultimate1 people's oun localorganiz;it,ions should take OL cr thc entire ~ork".'"Evaluation of IWDP 5: the Connpnroller and Auditor-General of India for theperiod 1985-1993 re\ taled that Inore than Rs. 140.0 biiIiorl n as disbursed duringthese eight tears. Irregular dE\ ersion of IIiDP funds :o other prqjrcts. misutilizationof about Rs. 150.000 crores. enonnous expendirure incurred on administrativeinfrastructure. inadequate and iner'iictice monirori~g both at 'she cenlre and in thestates, iack of systematic evaluation on the impact of HRDP in most states were themajor problems which obstructed the achievement of goals of IRDP. In short, ruraldevelopment programmes under the government auspices were like grass withoutAn evaluation of Action Research Project on IRDP conducted in early 1987pointed out the following drawbacks: wrongly identified beneficiaries, isolatedfunctioning in an otherwise disorganized market, inadequate maintenance supportand poor monitoring of the programmes at different leve~s.~'An assessment made by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1985) inseveral Asia-Pacific countries highlighted the fact that "despite three decades ofimpressive economic growth when food production doubled in this region, hunger,malnutrition and related cases claim several thousand lives every day." ''

An irlterrlational norkshop held in Ncn Delhi in 199 1 has categorically statedthat "the classical ~lrsthod of deheiopn~ent based on rhe industriali~ed worid has notalleb iaked po~ ert) . nor has it ensured >ocio-economic equalit). or fostered valuesconduci~e to peace and ham~onj". The modem dekelopment process - democracyof the -'ha\e's" of inner coionialisrn - has created tno nations within one--eveiywhere: a nation of minorit:, "ha; e's" and n nation of majorit:, "ha\ e-not~".'"Shri. Raji~ Gandhi (the late Prime ,Minister of India) pinpointed the flaw inimplementation of IRD programmes and said "Out of every 100 rupees spent by thecentres on this poverty-alleviation programme, only 15 rupees landed in the lap of thepoor; the rest were consuined in the pipeline".'JEvaluation of the rural development programmes were done at various levelsand a brief summary of the findings is presented below: income increase in varyingdegrees, increase in the period of employment, impact on occupational structures,additional family income were the positive features of the programmes. Wrongidentification of beneficiaries, insufficient and low level of assistance, high level ofcapital output ratio, overemphasis on milch cattle, non-adoption of householdapproach as planned, inadequacy of staff, lack of coordination, constraints inproductive absorption of the output in economy, poor staffing in banks, insistence onsecurity in banks, unrealistic short term loan repayment schedules, fixing uniformphysical targets, uniform outlays and allocation of resources, highly dependent

sjndron~i. on the gct\t.rnzl.nents. lack of actile and tosal participation of the ruralpeople, lack of coordination among the go\ ernmenc departments, conuption amongthe bureaucrats, too much adrninistratii e cost. and the rural elites bossing over thevulnerable rural poor \\ere identii>ed to be the \\eaknesses of theFrom the point of L ieii of efi'ectix es~ess. high!) centralized administrativebureaucratic structure. organizatioilal and managerial problcrns limiting the scope forreplicabilitj and for a \tide coverage of rural poor. lack of coordination at variouslekels, theoretical neakness of the IRD approach. inefficient financial managementof projects and conflict between the new multi-sectoral design with mono-sectoraldesign were the major factors which led to failure of the IRD programmes.36 Highlycentralized power hierarchy, the increasingly anti-people policies. the meticulousexclusion of the rural poor, marginalization of the rural communities from theprocess of development and the growing 'dependency syndrome' which are the graveobstacles to rural deve~o~ment.'~In summing up, it is obvious that the meticulously planned programmes forrural development under the government auspices have not made a significant denton either poverty or inequality. Failure is inherent in the approaches and methodsadopted for their removal. The core reason for such a patheticlmiserable state ofaffairs is that rural poor themselves have no place in rural development since everyavailable inch has been occupied by the bureaucracy. The best way to get out of such

a rut is that rural people and their represcntatiacs should replace the colonial patternof adaninistrntion-o.It mas realized that the NGOs had adlankage mrer the governmentalmachine0 on sel-era1 accounts: (i) Their srarail size rendered them manageable andflexible in response to the cxpcrience and local conditions: iii) ?The>\iorked in closecontact liith local people. so the) had better rapport iiit1.m the communities, and theyunderstood local felt needs and social conditionsiobstacPes better than governmentstaft (iii) 'The \;corkers of voluntary organizations, unlike government employees,were not subject to frequent transfers, hence maintained sustained contact with thecommunity they served: (iv) Such organizations had a degree of commitment anddevotion which \+as lacking in regular bureaucratic organizations: (v) NGOs werenot bound by rigid bureaucratic rules and procedures and operated with great deal offlexibility. Consequently they had greater scope for experiments and innovations andcould adopt their activities quickly and continuously on the basis of what they learntfrom their experience.j8The recommendations of Balwantrai Mehta Committee. Ashok MehtaCommittee and other Committees were incorporated in the Five Year Plans and RuralDevelopment Programmes. After learning many more lessons, the Sixth Five YearPlan opened the avenues for voluntary agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations inpeople's development. With rapid deterioration on the performance of Government

agencies. ;hi. sole of' ~~OII-~C)\CI~~~II~'~I~Z~ osgiil~tzati~ns has become significant as analternatix e sector \\ell equipped 10 handle rural iii.\t.!c~prnent.Despite the I.ia t. Year F"an5 10 dci clop rural areas. the 'disparit! s\ ndrome'and the -dcper.~denc~ sjndrome' are beconning rnore stable and subtle. Urban bias isob~ious in the Ie~rl and beha\ iour of industrial and urban iiages in contrast toagricilitursni \%ages L-quit? and justice are the rhl* in fkctors 21131 could bridge the gap toa large extent.'" Desplle its manifoid acizie\s~nenss in numeraus directions includingspace and nuclear technologies, de\.eloptnent is restricted to a srnall segment of thepopulation: it is fragmented: and it is not sufficiently broad based.'"The planned development through fon~ulated policies failed to reduce thelevel of poverty and inequality. On the one hand, the government-sponsored modelof development failed to deliver benefits to the poor: and on the other hand, non-governmental organizations started striking roots gradually due to shift ingovernment policies and international aid agencies to incorporate them in thedevelopmental scenario.1.10 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)The Public, Private and Voluntary Sectors - known as the Prince, theMerchant and the Citizen - and also known as Government Organizations (GOs),Business organizations (BOs), and Voluntary Organizations (VOs) - are the three

major sectors that ?la> cruciaa roles in people's de\elopn-nent.The governmentorganizations ha\ e legitimate posferc and rights on conamon resources I\ hiIe businessorgani~ations specia!ize in eeononiie poner in prcodi,lcing goods and services for salein the market in order to make protjts and ~oluntap organi~ations specialize inintegrative posier mobilizing 11erm:sn resources nith I alrie - cornmitn~ent. All thethree h3I.e distinctii I. charisma and compeiencies: the? pla? conaplementary roles inthe dynamic process of de.i elopment. ''Voiuntary organizations are also knonn as voluntaq. agencies, privatevoluntaq. organizations, private non-profit sector. voluntary developmentorganizations, people's organizations, developmental organizations, nongovernmentalorganizations, and non-governmental development organizations. Avoluntary organization should have a legal entity with goals and objectives to cater tothe needs of the community as a whole, particularly the weaker sections of society.Its activities should be transparent and open to all citizens irrespective of caste, class,creed, sex, religion or race incorporating constitutional and humanitarian measuresfor development. Voluntary organization is identified essentially from two aspects:first, people join because they want to join deliberately: second, all the membersenjoy, more or less, an equal status. Summarily, it is formal, private, non-profitdistributing, self-governing and voluntary.

Vo;ur;ltiy% organiz:ntirx-i, can he claisificd Into fii-re broader and o~erlappingcategories: sersice n~@ttO. research and ridxocaca. self-help groups, clubs andassociations. and intcwnediarl, organi~ations. It can be further classified into threetjpes of .t ainntaq acri~ it?: mrrtunl \upport. scrx ice deli\ eq . and ca~npnigning. Thedifference bea.i\een a learn and a coln:i~it,tct. is this: i:team ib \\Ilere >ou \\ant to be; acommittee is uhcri. o il hnac to 9auSir is ii~e difference bct'i~een the organizationsand .toiunisr> organizations. Poncr and riilc in organizations arc the crucial factorthat might facilitate or hinder achiekement of organizational goals. Voluntaryorganizations are characterized by trust and control in equilibrium.‘"'The tenn Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) enshrined in the UNCharter of 1945 refers to voluntary and service organizations at different levels. Thefive characteristic features of a non-governmental organization are the following:fonnal. private. non-profit distributing, self-governing and voluntary."The WorldBank defines NGO as "private organizations that pursue activities to relievesuffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment. provide basicsocial services or undertake community de~elo~rnent.''~~The organizational characteristics of NGOs are the following: first, they arenon-profit-making and voluntary bodies; second, they may be staffed, wholly orpartly, by volunteers; third, they are formed by individuals; fourth, their staff oftenjoin the organization for ideological reasons and have a strong commitment to social

de.~eioprncna: i3liiz.?;GO5 pride khc;nsrl.ies on being action-oriented, flexible,innolntise. rapid and cEobe to local ci~mmunities: and sixth. they often play aninsennacdia? role: an the one side. the) prolide psogramrnes and services to thecommuniQ and, on the uthcr side. the!ha\e to seck funding for their programmesfrom external sources.""1.11 Categories of' NGOsAlthough the spectrun: of non-go\emmentai organimtions is so very wideand overlapping. the) couid be categorized on the basis of certain perspectives suchas approach (welfare-oriented, deveioprnent-oriented and empomement-oriented),functions (relief, welfare, service, funding, coordination and development), roles(advocacy. netnorking, conscientization and mobilization), coverage and sources offunds (local, regional, national and international), generations (Relief and melfare -First generation NGOs;Community development - Second generation NGOs;Sustainable systems - Third generation NGOs; Development - Fourth generationNGOs; People's movements - Fifth generation NGOs).1.12 Strengths of NGOsA compendium of the strengths of non-governmental organizations can besummarized as follows: people-centred development strategies; more democratic anddecentralized approaches; more innovative and creative; closer to the grass root level;

v,orK \t ith the g~iaarrcbt of I!ICpoor: ITIOE~S ;YICcoln~~-iunit> to generate local resources;internal !ie\ibilit]i: elucidate. naore pal-iicipi~tioa-r: crcatins anareness arnong thepeeapie particularl> the poc~r: senhltii i l response to local contexts'needs; focus onli\eiihood enh;ir:ccment taanong. t1-x rural pour; mori\alrd and sociakl]i committedstaW more efficient in their 01\11 LE~Cof'rrs~urces: more ho;nogcnous clientele; workwith lo\\ cxiernai input."'1.13 Limitations of NCOsThe weaknesses of non-governmental organizations are: managerialinadequacy, mostly small scaleiIocalized efforts: lack of sustained effort to back upthe desire; development of vested interest; neak links uith NGOs working on similartechnologies; limited capacity for research and technical skills; bane on uniformity;limited financial and management expertise: limited institutional capacity, low levelsof self-sustainability; small scale interventions: lack of understanding of the broadersocial or economic context.1.14 Strengths of Government OrganizationsThe strengths of government organizations are: control over resources/power;systematic and hierarchical administration; links with wider sections at national/international levels; specialist skills in disciplines!research/experimentaldesigns;strong grassroots links; field-based development expertise; the ability to innovate and

adapt: parttcij.sarop :r-ic~fkoJnlo~ic~ and rocEs: icq-tcrm cornrnitment and emphasisen sustail?abiiir: : cnst-t.fFc,.cri\ c:?c--,s.1.15 Liniitatisns of (;overnmeret OrganizationsInappmpriarc programmes approachus: poor monitoring; inadequatecoordirratio~a aixlong gc>..crn~ncn! dep,iflrnenis: co~npit..i structure: serveht.trrogenea?ii:, ciieareic; non-pdflkciparor?, npprtsaches, liinitcci auareness about the\\oes of rhe poor; tendenc! to suprofl the ponerful: poor response lo meet the needsof the local poor.1.16 Non-Governmental Organizations and Rural DevelopmentThe private voluntarq sector. the non-profit sector, including non -governmental organizations, is the third sector as far as development is concerned.This sector is characterized by the compassionate nature of its involvement withdeveloplnent issues; its closeness to people actually living in poverty conditions; anability to work with the poor, which has not been developed to the same extent by theprivate for - profit sector or by the governmental sector, and an ability to deliverdevelopment services at a relatively low cost to a large number of people.47The last decade of the 201h century has posed big threats to humanity in theforms of dehumanizing poverty, collapsing ecological systems, and deeply stressed

siac~,iI i.trti;tijrl\s. f3ui antrbjlcr cc~ithreat ?ha: has xi.~;rben the .s%orld ail the more is thepolari~~ntion and dia iiion iri'sli 1h*,1 r)ec?pl,e the r)rEd into rich and poor. educatedan6 srncdeieatrd. Nor-lh and South. East aa;d !i rxt. The dann of the 21'' Century hasto bu different iait'ri a people-csr;tered\ision i$hich looks to\tards justice,sustainabiiit> and inclusi\enc>\ a: the defining principles ~ f - niilhentic ' development.It is the Sarsrr rnisaion of ilie \cBunta~ sec:or as a c4eseiopment force that willillilrnfne the path to'ia~irds prosperit!.4 i1.17 Decentralization and ParticipationPeople's participation is a sine qua non in every phase of rural development.PoveQ is not just a lack of physical resources for development; it also impliespowerlessness or the inability to exert influences upon the forces that shapes one'slivelihood. And in the same manner, development does not start with physical goalsbut with people and their education, organization and discipline; without these three,all resources remain latent. untapped potential.39Participation is not only a dynamic process but also a political process. It isimportant to question who participates, in whose terms and how (levels/fonns ofparticipation). There are four types of participation: Nominal, Instrumental,Representative and Transformative.. The interests in participation can be looked fromtwo perspectives: one is the 'top-down' that is, the interests that those who design

and i~npleanznrf Jet i"la)~l~?~ni prcyrai.nlnmt.\ h:i-\ t. ir.s rtrc prirzicipation of others. and theother i, 'hotlo~;l-up' that i,. Iro~t the ~ii~tl~~p:ltl~> ~la.c~nst"he"~ see their participalion,and mhal Ihep expect to per our of it,. h1)nnmicx ira pafiicipatioal includes the diversity. .of interests and fbr~n~ of P:I~I~C:;PL?::~PII fr'~~)~n t,sriou:, groups intolked in the process.Thus participdtion becctmrs a sire ~ , n cC~:~t?icr.'"Penpic's p;r~ti~ipilti~~l in rurdj de\ t.iespinent cdrs take di~ erse forms: (a)Responding to the programmes. accepting the process and adopting technology andinno~ations; (b) Extending morai support: (i) Participation in decisisn-making,cooperating in implementation; (df Contribution of monej. material and labour; (e)Taking initiatives, mobilizing people and resources: and (f) Assuming leadership andownership of projects/progra~nmes.S"Participatory development is a political. social and economic process. It isholistic rather than sectoral; it is more people-centred; and it is more a learningprocess. Participatory approaches have two essential components: first. a meticulousprocess of observation, analysis and consultation at various levels; second, the needfor flexibility in planning and organization of a programme or a project. It is theorganization of local cornlnunities that gives energy and life for the programmes.Highly centralized and authoritarian political regimes, lack of access to assets andrights, lack of knowledge and skills, poor or non-existent formal education,bureaucratic rigidities and conventional operating modes of aid agencies are

icfentiiicd be tl:,iiabr c>hl:,icie(, .,:{I pai~~?~~p;~:Et\;~ \~~b!~ii~~;lhilit> and replicabilit: arethe :a!4, side\ of gcnilinc pLirti~tpat(~ra LIP.eltspnlcn!. I"aflicipa:ion hiis to be a part andparcel csfec"l cr? pph;"isd. In d r elclpincsar ~ in% t b l \ins lhc indigentjris resources, I alues andcu~trrrcs.~'1.18 Strategic Dehelopnaeirnt lylanninqAs a :r.bponbt. :u the i~ct.,\?, criticialr~s orr p;i:~?cip,.ili)~:~ 'r:~t"ftPt~h in community-oriented rural deve8opmenl progmr~annes. the methasdolog> cat strategic debelopmentplanning for cornlnercial organizations has been modified for action at thecomrrnunity level. TLTO main criticisms on communil~ participatoq. planningmethods1 techniques are identified: the first, that community participatory planningremains peripheraland isolated from inainstream government and agencydevelopment policy: and the second, that community participatoq planning remainsa set of ad hoc techniques for information extraction, rather than a structured methodfor participatory project planning and empowerment. Although these criticisms havebeen analyzed, yet there is a growing interest from various circles such as donouragencies, NGOs, and governments.The modified community participative strategic development planning hasthe following components: [a] Community development objectives; [b] Externalappraisal; [c] Internal appraisal; [dl Participative analysis (SWOT); [el Decision-

making and [tl 'SIrLirc3ki. action :;an' . I)rit~~~er,:tic p,i,rticip,rrHo;.n is a si~e qua non t'orthe de\cletpn~ens of' 15s' yeizpic.. p,artic~!I::ri>tor tkcr\c ii110 are cbppresbed andd~~~n~roiidcn. I he e1clr.r:-pilascd n:i.;dsi Ilr ct~r7w?t?:1::\ p,::iicipatic>npro\ides thecore of dez elopineat ud' thc ~:i.ople. dr.i elop:ner,t b> :Erc peuplo 'lnd de\ elopn~ent forthe people. indicatura LSC t1:c Re\i.ls of y~ra13~ 0:' 1IIL inc\;idc the aspect of thebiological ioriable,. :lac eci~nul:s.ic .i ariables. socia; z aritiblos, environmentalvariables and humanisiic i ariahies.'"1.19 EmpowermentEmpowernlent is a process of strengthening capacities of the poor through fullparticipation. decentralization, open management of public institutions andstrengthening of the abilities and opportunities of civil society and localcommunities. It is a process of psychoIogica1 rnobilisation of removing social,economic, cultural and psychofogical barriers of the rural poor to transform themfrom being passive recipients to active participants and managers of their own affairs.It is a dynamic process with a combination of self-esteem and self-confidence,political and social influences. Ultimately empowerment refers to a process ofgaining control over self, ideology, and the resources which determine power.Empowerment in the NGO sector can be either structured or flexible. Goals,management attitudes, selection and recruitment, training and development,

\~rur"tr.lr~*&:id *\~C;IS\ arc" the I*;! ,irteLi\ &)! I;'P

-l.hi\ .;*.~d\ :> ~~\zac~'m,:c i3 :tjr ~:(:ki L~:l;~!:i~ i 5* " " .t\:l \~n-11%111 crnincntal Orgai'nisations,. .in arzaE iic\.~l~pi~cgt from :!~c ~~.~c~iiia~grali pc:.-i~c-"i"i" c. l'he ccra~ccpts and theoriesrelated to mroi dri,cic~pmcnt ar:J St~n-Cit>a emmenrai CB;sg;tnisations ha1.e enriched thecor~tcst and coelscnt ol':bii srej~B,.*.

1. Sh,irr-i~a. B.D. i 19891, Tdac k$cA oJ idoa'cr[l: \onla-%r.aseerin IIiIi Gniversity.Shi1Eca:ag. pp. 1-43.2. Chambers. PPober:. I To83 E. Riarirl dZe~~hidopt~z~tt6. IJ1ll!?:~g :he I ;ibt First. Longman.Nee! York. pp. I("-! 09.3. Jugaie. kr.R. and bradng~. R.5. '*xolprc. 1hs;it.y (1:" ∨ccpt ot' Po\ert> in India",:%f~n and IJevrlopttzenl. &'ol.i-:zc N't Iil. \~:r:.i~cr L J ~nc ELScbb. pp. ? 7-21.5. Department of Inrrrnahional Dee eiopmeni I Dk ID). ( l94" 1. EIii.ltiirating Fti)rIdPoverty: .4 Clzctllengefor tire 21'ventuql.. DI; ID, P.oaadon.6. United Nations Del eloprnent Programme (LTDP), Hutizcrn Developmerrt Report1999, Oxford L~nivessi~ Press, Delhi.7. Dison. Chris. ( 1990). Rcrrai Development i~z the Third World, Routledge,London, p.5 1.Wallerstein. Immanuei (197.1). T/ze ,Tforlern World $vslem: CapitalistAgricultrire ond the Origins oJtlie Eraropean World Econonty in the SixteenthCentury, Academic Press. Neu Vork.9. Bava, Noorjahan, (ed). ( 1997). fin-Governmerztnl Organizations inDevelopment - Theory and Practice. Kanishka, New Delhi, pp.3-9.lO.Alexander, K.C, (1994), Tile Process of Development of Societies, SagePublications, New Delhi, pg. 8-38.11. Slim, Hugo, "What is Development?", Development in Procz'ice, Vo1.5, No.2,May 1995, pp. 143-148.12.Rahman, Anisur Md, (1984), Grass-roots Participation and Self-Reliance:Experience in Soutfi and South East Asia, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.

13. Clark: John, ( 199 1 ), Democratizing Development: The Role of VoluntaryOrganizations, Kumarian, Connecticut.14. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report1993, Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 1 - 149.15.Rangacharyulu, S.V, "Composite Development Index of Rural Areas", Journalof Rural Development, Vol. 12, No. I, January 1993, pp.35-56.16. Gabriel, Tom, ( 199 1 ), Tfze Human Factor in Rural Development. Belhaven,London, pp. 52-64.17.0rganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (1991),What Future for Our Countryside? A Rural Developmerzt Policy, OECD, ParisCedex 16, France.18. Setty, E. Desingu, (1 994), Participatory Rural Development in Asia: A CriticalAnalysis, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi, pp. 49-55.19. World Bank (19751, Quoted in Dixon Chris (19931, Rural Development irz tlzeThird World, Routledge, London, p. 56.20.Chambers, Robert, (1993), Challenging the Professions: Frontiers for RuralDevelopment, Intermediate Technology, London.21. Gonzalez, Joaquin, L, "The Influence of Organization and Management Theoryon Rural Development Studies", Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 16, No.2,April-June 1997, pp. 34 1-358.22.Chambers, Robert, (1983), Rural Development: Putting the Last First,Longman, New York.23. Joshi, P.C., "Development Perspectives in Rural India", Yojanu, Vol. 29: No. 10,June 1-15, 1985, pp. 18-20 and 23.24.Dubey, K.N, "Public Policy, Structural Inequality and Regional Disparities inIndia", The Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol.XXXVI1, No.2, April-June 1991, pp. 199-207.25. Kunwar, Upendra (1 99 l), Science and Technology for Rural Development,Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi.

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39.Kunwar, Upendsa, (1991). Science and Technology for Rural Development,New Delhi, Deep and Deep Publications.40.Ghosh, Arun, "Why is India Poor?", Mnn and Development, Volume XVIII,Number 2, June 1996, pp. 8- 15.41. Korten, David, C, (1 992). Getting to the 21S' Century - Voluntary Action and theGlobalAgenda, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.42.Handy, Charles, (1990), Understanding Voluntary Organizations, Penguin,London.43.Smillie, Ian, (1995), The Alms Bazaar: Altruism under Fire - Non-ProfitOrganizations and International Development, Intermediate TechnologyPublications Ltd, London.44. World Bank, (1995), World Development Report 1995, Oxford University Press,New York.45. Burbidge, John, (ed.), (19881, Approaches that Work in Rural Development -Emerging trends, participatory methods and local initiatives, Institute ofCultural Affairs International.46. Clark, John, (1 99 1 ), Democratizing Development: The Role of VoluntaryOrganizations, Kumarian, Connecticut.47.Burbidge, John, (ed.), (1988), Approaches that Work in Rural Development -Emerging trends, participatory methods and local initiatives, Institute ofCultural Affairs International.48. Korten, David, C, (1 992), Getting to the 21S' Century - Voluntary Action and theGlobal Agenda, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.49. Oakley, Peter and David Marsden, (1 984), Approaches to Participation in RuralDevelopment, International Labour Organization, Geneva.5O.White, Sarah, C, "Depoliticising Development: the Uses and Abuses ofParticipation", Development in Practice, Vol. 6, No. 1, February 1996, pp.6- 15.5 1. Setty, E. Desingu, (1 994), Participatory Rural Development in Asia: A CriticalAnalysis, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi.

52. Schneider, Hartrnut tvith Marie-Helene Libercier. (ed.), (1995), ParticipatoryDevelopment - From Advocacy to Action. OECD, Paris.53. Warner, Michael, "Strategic Development Planning at the Community Level: AModification to Participatory Planning", Community Development Journal,Vol. 31. No. 4, October 1996, pp.330-342.54.Rehman, Kanta and M.M. Rehrnan, (19981, Participation for Development: AResource Book on Strategy, Programmes and Procedures, Manak Publications(P) Ltd, New Delhi.55. Ciutterbuck. David, and Susan Kernaghan, ( 1995), Tlae Power of Empowerment-Release the Hidden Talents ofyour Employees. Kogan Page Ltd. London.56.Verhagen, Koenraad, (1987), Self-Help Promotion: A Challenge to tlte NGOCommunity, CEBEMO, The Netherlands.

CHAPTER I1REVIEW OF LITERATURE2.0 IntroductionReview of literature has not only widened the horizon of understanding thethemes related to the study, but also has sharpened the method of arranging thecomponents in the framework of the study. This chapter is sub-divided into sixsections: section I deals with the studies on Indian rural realities. Studies on the vitalrole of Governmental Organisations (60s) and Non-Governmental Organisations(NGOs) in India are compiled in sections I1 and I11 respectively. The central part ofthe chapter - section IV - focuses on policy documents related to rural developmentand NGOs. The rural scenario at the asian level is presented in section V and finally,the programmes and strategies adopted by NGOs in other developing countries aresummarised in section VI of the chapter.2.1 The Indian Rural Reality2.1.1. A study on India's villages by M.N. ~rinivas' and other sociologists andanthropologists from India, the United Kingdom and the United States of Americawas an effort to understand the social life of the villages in different parts of India.The study included villages in Mysore, Orissa, Kerala, the Himalayas, the WesternUdaipur, Simla, Tamilnadu and Uttar Pradesh. It was observed that villages, even the

neighbourhood villages, differed considerably in economic, social, cultural, religiousand political dimensions. In spite of several differences seen in the study, there was athread of unity. The unity of the village through solidarity of caste was pointed out bymany of the authors. Unity in diversity, caste linkages and village self-sufficiencywere the dominant themes that fonned the core of these studies. The study alsorevealed the tendency of the indigenous scholars to take important social realities forgranted.2.1.2. In the context of rural- urban disparity, a compilation of studies on ruraland urban societies in India by M.S. ~hadave~ and others had a perfect blend ofconceptual contexts that are deeply rooted in the case studies from all over India,including such areas as family, caste, religion, occupation, education, industries,mobility, and migration. The case studies became significant in understanding thenuances of social realities and relationships in rural communities and urban societies.The thread that ran through these analyses highlighted the process of transformationof societies in India. The dilemma that still exists even today is that whether thechanges in economic, social, cultural, educational, political and other spheressucceeded in initiatinglestablishing structural changes or the changes in the aboverealms have been accommodated into the existing social structures. Anotherperspective that requires further research is that whether the changes have affectedthe core of the social fabric or just touched the periphery or there is no effect at all!

2.1.3. P.V. Paranjape and others; conducted a study on Shramik Sanghatana(Toilers' Association) in the Shahade region of the Dhule district with the objectivesof investigating the historical background and activities of Sanghatana with specialreference to the problems of grassroots self-reliance. A vast majority of thepopulation in the region were the landless and illiterate 'adivasis' (Tribals). Themethod employed in this study was participatory research. Nine villages - three eachfrom three types of area - were selected: four workshops were organized forinvestigating perspectives of self-reliance.The study revealed the fact that the tribals themselves had taken initiatives tostrengthen the Sanghatana in the locality. Direct democracy and human approachwere observed to be quite strong not only in the administration of Sanghatana butalso in their social relationships. Tensions between the urban external activists andthe local activists were fluctuating and it was accepted as a part of the process. Thestudy brought to light the fact that the tribal young women were so shy to come outof themselves that eliciting participation from them was a major obstacle in achievingself-reliance.2.2 Government Organisations (GOs) and Rural Development in India2.2.1 Nagendra ~mbedkar~ conducted a study on the process ofimplementation of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) in Jabera block

of Damoh district. Madhya Pradesh with the primary objective of finding out theimpact of IRDP on the target families. The study revealed the fact that contrary to thepolicies and guidelines of IRDP, the non-poor, i.e., whose income was above thepoverty line of Rupees 6,400 as annual income were assisted in the area. It alsorevealed the fact that 64.0 per cent of the beneficiaries were selected by grampanchayats, 24.0 per cent by officials and the remaining 15.0 per cent by nonofficialsincluding MLAs and MPs. Secondly, there was an overwhelming biastowards animal husbandry schemes, more particularly towards milch cattle. Thirdly,there had been undue delay in providing financial assistance. Fourthly, 81.0 per centof the beneficiaries had experienced a rise in their annual income after taking IRDPassistance. The increased income ranged from Rs.100 and Rs.1200 per month.Fifthly, 31.0 per cent of the beneficiaries had crossed the poverty line. Finally, thestudy revealed that monitoring of IRDP was very weak.2.2.2. A study by S. ~alab' examined the hnctioning of Rural EinploymentProgrammes in Anantapur district, a drought-prone and backward one in AndhraPradesh. According to the guidelines the communiQ works should be executed bythe local village agencies such as village panchayats, parental/school committees andvillage development council that would ensure the full benefits of wages to the localworkers and the quality of assets. This study revealed exploitation of labour by theprofessional contractors and the problems faced by the first generation contractors. It

ecommended that the inclusion of NGOs in the implementation of the programmeswouid ensure the flow of benefits to the deserving target groups in full;simultaneously, the process would motivate, organize and strengthen the grassrootslevel machinery. All the possible and required materials for the programmes could bemanufactured with the total participation and coordination of the beneficiaries.2.3 GOs, NGOs and Rural Development in India2.3.1. S.N. sangita6 made a comparative analysis of Government and Non-Governmental Organizations that implemented Self-Employment Programme forRural Youth in four districts of Karnataka. A distinct variation was observed in thephilosophy, strategies, and methods adopted by both the organizations. On the part ofthe NGOs, adoption of grassroots level planning, operation in a smaller area, activeparticipation of the people, and committed supervision of the staff contributed to theeffective implementation of the programme; on the other hand, top-down approach,uniform policy with inappropriate administrative structures and indifferent officialsin Government Organizations were mainly responsible for its ineffective functioning.Incompetence, indifference, individual benefits and profit maximization were themajor impediments to NGOs. One of the relevant conclusions of the study was thatNGOs could act as powerful instruments of development and control of diverse ruralgroups with greater efficiency, equality and empowerment at relatively low cost.

2.3.2 Niranjan Pant7 and others conducted a study on the role of Governmentbureaucracy and the Non-Governmental Organization, namely Indo CanadianAgricultural Extension Project (ICAEP) in Barabanki district of Uttar Pradesh. Theaim of the study was to bring out clearly the functioning of NGOs and Governmentin the context of Extension Promotion Activities, Community and Social Services,and Development of Rural Women. The study revealed the potentiality of the NGOsin the present and future development of rural India, particularly the developmentaimed at benefiting the economically and socially exploited sections of the ruralcommunity.2.3.3 A study on the contributions of NGOs to development by comparing theperformance of the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) and thegovernment in watershed management programme was undertaken by Anil C. Shahand Sudarshan ~~en~ar' in about 35 villages in Savarkundla taluk of Bhavnagardistrict, Gujarat. This case study identified the reality that NGOs, with appropriateand professional inputs and training, could contribute to rural development throughquality of work and their sustainable impact on the processes; in spite of resources,expertise and power, the government programme on watershed was not able to makemuch of an impact.

2.4 NGOs and Rural Development in India2.4.1. Jomon M.G. and Madhavi ~ehta,~ with the assistance of Academy ofHRD that is working on HRD for NGOs, conducted a study to find out the factorsresponsible for effective functioning of NGOs, particularly with reference to thevision and practice of the NGOs. The study revealed the fact that each and everyorganization had its own vision and mission and they had changed with successionand with the change of time. Better performance was observed in organizations thathad a shared vision among its staff and the people.2.4.2. A study by Swapan ~arain'' on the Rural Communes which had itsroots in the Graduate Volunteer Scheme (GVS) of the University of Bombayconfirmed that the village level workers' training programme employing amethodology of combining cognitive and attitudinal objectives had established itscredential for promoting voluntary action in the process of social transformation.Certainly the activities of the NGO in empowering the rural poor, along with itsprogrammes on documentation3 refresher courses on natural farming and watershedmanagement, promotion of dialogue between grassroots organizations andgovernment agencies would bring about sustainable results in rural communities.2.4.3. P. Ayodhya and K. papa1' analyzed the intervention of a NGO in twovillages in Andhra Pradesh in promoting people-centred development through adult

education programme. Qualitative research strategy was applied in this study. It wasfound that the degree of remoteness and interiority led to lesser availability ofalternative means of sustenance and accessibility to government resources and itapparently had an influence on the degree of success. Above all, the vital role of theNGO was considered to be an important factor in the success of the adult educationprogramme. The study also revealed the fact that the level of commitment, dedicationand personal integrity of the facilitators were directly responsible for thesuccess/failure of the programme.2.4.4. A study by Ajay S. ~ ehta'~ on the involvement of Seva Mandir, a non-governmental organization based in Udaipur described the efforts of the NGO tocountervail the debilitating aspects of development and democracy in two villages -Nayakheda and Shyampura. Transparency, credibility and team-building were themajor factors that accounted for their achievement of goals by empowering the localcommunity collectively. It was a success story asserting the vital role of the NGO inmobilizing the power of the poor.2.4.5. Ranjit ~u~ta" made a case study of two non-governmentalorganizations, namely the Association of Sarva Seva Farms (established in TamilNadu in 1969 and popularly known as ASSEFA) and the Mysore Resettlement andDevelopment Agency (originated in Karnataka in 1968 and known as MYRADA)with the objective of assessing their approaches, strategies and impact on rural

development programes. Both were well-known organizations committed to thecause of upliftment of the rural poor and the landless labourers. ASSEFA had a fourtier administrative structure: working committee at the national level, coordinatingcommittee at the state level, project committees. and the individual Sarva Seva fannat the village level. The MYRADA strategy of intervention consisted of fourconsecutive stages: preparatory stage, formative stage, consolidation stage andwithdrawal stage. ASSEFA and MYRADA proved successfui in motivating theyouth to work for the landless poor and the contributions of both the NGOs towardssustainable development of the rural poor were remarkable. Certain limitations werealso identified in the process of uplifting the rural poor.2.4.6. Mahesh chanderI4 undertook a study on farmers' participation in ruraldevelopment programmes to understand the modus operandi of three NGOs inCentral Himalayan Region of Uttar Pradesh. The Participatory Rural Appraisal(PRA) method was widely used in assessing participation and performance. This indepthstudy revealed the existence of closer interaction and better understanding ofNGOs with the farmers. The initiatives of NGOs in ensuring farmers' participation,particularly in planning and implementation were tremendous. The prospects werequite bright in witnessing continuous enlightenment of the farmers by the NGOs onthe issues related to rural development.

2.4.7. Ninnala ~urthy" conducted a comparative study of two different non-governmental organizations in two neighouring blocks - Dholka and Dhandhuka ofAhmedabad district, Gujarat. The Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) andMahiti were the two NGOs with different ideologies and approaches to ruraldevelopment. SEWA was well-known nationally and internationally for its exclusiveservices for rural women; whereas Mahiti worked for the development of an entirearea. Diagnosis of problems, approaches towards rural development, strategies ofintervention, and responses to situations as practised by SEWA and Mahiti weredifferent from each other considerably.SEWA's activities were centred on income-generation, skill-based training incarpentry, weaving, tailoring, dairy, agricultural training, vocational training, healtheducation, legal education, literacy programmes, dairy cooperatives, and villagewomen's associations. The Mahiti team was primarily working as a link between thegovernment and the rural poor by creating awareness about the various ruraldevelopment schemes of the government; providing drinking water by convertingsaline water, afforestation, and other developmental projects. The study revealed thefact that both the NGOs were able to improve the economic status of the targetgroups but their interventions in the social, cultural and political realms were stillchallenging. Self-reliance seemed to be a distant dream.

2.4.8. K.D. Gangradei6 conducted an empirical study of two sets of nongovernmentalorganizations - one with people-centred and democratic approach (theGandhian model) and the other with leader-centric, imposed from above approach.The components of development, such as external catalyst body, the State, localcommunity organizations. beneficiaies, rural elites and officials. and the process ofdevelopment in both models were the same. The conclusion of the study wasobvious: the first type of development followed the mutual and reciprocal approachesthat led to control of institutions by people; the role of the NGOs was realised inmotivating and lnobilising the resources; and the rural community had developed asense of self-sufficiency and self-reliance. Whereas in the other type, the NGOsremained estranged from people; it was a few intermediaries who controlled thepeople and institutions through some locai leaders; and the 'dependency syndrome'was dominant in the group.2.4.9. A study by Samuel C. ~athivaanan'~ on Voluntary Agencies and SocialChange was focussed on the criteria of voluntary organizations related to ruraldevelopment. A wide range of activities of voluntary organizations such as, charity,relief, services, welfare, rehabilitation, development of socio-economic,environmental, and human aspects were identified. The study also confirmed the fivecharacteristics of voluntary actions: people's participation, democratic approach,economic and social development, individual and group initiative and voluntary

welfare activity. It described the significant contributions of voluntary initiatives inpromoting an egalitarian and self-reliant pattern of social and economic change. Thisstudy not only enumerated distinctive features and notable achievements of theNGOs but also made an in-depth analysis of the methods, approaches and strategiesadopted by NGOs.2.4.10. A study on Co~nrnunity Participation and the Roles of NGOs bySurendra K. ~ettivel" analyzed three NGOs in Tamil Nadu. The central hypothesiswas that participation of the powerless groups in decision-making processes results inthe reduction of differences in political power between the more powerful and thepowerless groups. It confirmed the vital role of NGOs in empowering the powerless.The conclusion of the study was that the role of NGOs in empowering the poor hadbeen effective and proportionate to the level of participation by the poor. The majorlimitation was the exclusion of the cultural and sociological perspectives of people'sdevelopn~ent.2.4.11. Elizabeth W. ~oen's'~ analysis of thirty three Non-GovernmentalDevelopment Organizations (NGDOs) in Tamil Nadu was based on the assumptionthat development could come only from within the rural community, and not fromoutside. Genuine development should be a participatory, emancipatory, whole,sufficient, decentralized,democratic, non-violent, non-charitable, Indian andrevolutionary process. Children, youth and women in rural areas were the identified

target groups that needed special attention in the process. The conclusion of the studywas that equity and justice - the two sides of development - could be achieved onlythrough cooperation and unity at various levels of social interaction.2.4.12. K.A. Suresh and moll^^ ~ose~h~' conducted a study with a view toexamine the existing levels of participation of organizers in the developmentprogrammes of N60s and assess the perception and attitude of organizers towardsthe idea of participatory development. The rates of participation of the organizers atdifferent stages of development were satisfactory; but the attitudes of the majority ofthe organizers towards the participation of beneficiaries in the developmentalprogrammes were found to be low.2.4.13. A study on grassroots level organizations and rural development wasconducted by Yatish ~isra~' in Gaya district, Bihar with the primary objective ofanalyzing the existing system of decentralization and propose an all-rounddevelopment of rural areas. As the people's participation in local administration andrural development programmes was minimal, targets set by the government were notachieved at all. The study highlighted a high level of flexibility and dedicated humanapproach of NGOs that could accelerate the momentum of rural development.Panchayati Raj Institutions were capable of responding to the needs of peoplepromptly and implementing the rural development programmes efficiently but for theintervention of the politicians.

2.5 Policy Documents on Rural Development and NGOs2.5.1. Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development(ANGOC), an apex KG0 in the Asian Region, coordinated NGOs involved in ruraldevelopment from ten countries. Each county presented the importance, emergence,progress, characteristics, and role of NGOs in rural development in its own social,economic: poiitical and cultural contexts.This documentation provided acomprehensive overview on the status and role of NGOs in rural develop~nent andserved as a useful resource and guide to policy planners and decision-makers ingovernment organizations, EGO sector and those involved in intergovernmentalorganizations. The papers also highlighted the relationship between NGOs and theGovernment, and the trends, achievements and challenges of rural development.**2.5.2. The policy document of Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD) on "What Future for Our Countryside? A Rural DevelopmentPolicy" - the first of its kind - was a stepping-stone in the history of ruraldevelopment because it provided a broader overview of rural conditions in membercountries; and it enabled the evolution of a common international framework foranalysis of rural policies. Of the two parts of the document, the first dealt with thefindings and conclusions of the Group of the Council on Rural Development and theRural Development Challenge, while the second focused on Rural DevelopmentPolicy: Opportunities and Options.

Identifying different types of rural areas, the document analyzed rural assetsand potentialities, symptoms and causes of rural poverty. It elucidated the response tothe challenges by pinpointing the fact that rural development is a complex blend ofeconomic and social goals. The term 'rural area' was more than a mere geographicalparameter; it was an economic and social entity thar fulfilled various publicfunctions. The final chapter dealt with the institutional dimension of ruraldevelopment such as leadership, co-ordination and partnership^.^'2.5.3. The Regional Experts Meeting on the Review of Integrated RuralDevelopment Strategies held at Suweon, Republic of Korea, from 14'h to 17"' March1989 highlighted the policies and strategies on Integrated Rural Development. Theparticipant experts presented the evolution and experiences of IRD programmes inthe context of their countries. The presentation encompassed the strategies adopted,successes achieved, and problems encountered in the process of planning andimplementation of IRD programmes.The experts reiterated that NGOs had made valuable contributions in buildingup people's organizations, enhancing people's pal-ticipation in rural development,and developing appropriate technology for the benefit of the poor. They affirmed thesignificance of the NGO sector in its crucial, albeit limited role with respect toinnovativeness, creativity, information and education, consultation, training,flexibility in operation, rich experience in micro-level planning of development

activities. mobilization of resources for development and generating publicawareness. The experts asserted that rural poverty alleviation and participation of thepoor were inextricably linked to the success of the relevant programmes and decidedto sharpen more effective strategies in the future.242.5.4. The document on Working with NGOs compiled by Carmen ~ alena~~was another stepping-stone in the history of NGOs as it rightly flagged key issuesand elaborated on the World Bank - NGO interaction in practical terms. It explainedthe dual vital perspectives of the rationale and approaches of the World Bank to workwith NGOs in two separate sections.This document enlightened on the following nine key issues of the WorldBank in working with NGOs: identifjing an appropriate NGO partner; time issues;flexibility issues; financial issues; procurement and disbursement issues; NGO -Government relations; importance of clearly defined roles and responsibilities;contractual/legal issues; and capacity-building. It also had ten annexes on importanttopics such as the World Bank policies and procedures that refer to NGOs,informational resources on the NGO Unit, sample methodology for conducting anNGO sector study, sample NGO selection criteria, and sample criteria for assessingthe capacity of CBOs.

2.5.5. A compendium of the initiatives undertaken by the Government ofTarnilnadu in Rural Development Programmes deliberated in a seminar on "Socialand Economic Pianning for integrated Rural Development" organized by the StatePlanning Commission, Government of Tamil Nadu was presented byV. Shanmugasundaram and V. ~ankaran.'~ This was not only a precious treasure inthe historical process of Integrated Rural Development as it put the Government inthe right direction of social and economic development but also a policy documentthat shaped the planning and implementation of rural development programmes inthe State of Tamil Nadu. As the earlier social and economic institutions had notallowed the rural poor to get out of the vicious circle of poverty, IRD approaches andstrategies were expected to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor.The enriching aspect of this presentation was the vital role played by both thegovernment officials and the experts focusing on the key issues of IRD such as,Education, Agriculture, Village Industries, Health Services, Resources and Non-Governmental Organizations. What distinguished IRD was that it set out concretelines of action and programmes of development by opening up opportunities for abalanced and integrated pattern of resource mobilization. The challenge posed beforeus was to harmonize the potential of science and technology for the optimumutilization of all our natural assets for banishing poverty from our midst.

2.6 NGOs and Rural Development in Asia2.6.1. A study by John Farrington, Anthonj ~ebbington*' and other expertswas carried out on sustainable agricultural development in Asia focusing on intensivecollaboration between Government organizations, NGOs. and rural people. Theenriching part of the study was that it had drawn evidences of case studies fromcountries in Asia, including Bangladesh. India, Nepal, Indonesia, Thailand and thePhilippines on the institutional arrangements necessary to promote AgriculturalTechnical Development (ATD). The study gained primary importance as it focusedfor the enhancement of livelihoods among the poor. The truth brought out in thestudy was obvious that most research systems and most rural developmentprogrammes in developing countries catered to serve commercial farmers operatingin inore favourable and ho~nogenous agro-ecological conditions than those inresource-poor farming contexts. The study also revealed the fact that almost 50.0 percent of the rural poor who seek livelihoods in Bangladesh. India and the Philippineshad insecureho access to land.Above all, the study focused on the types of interactions initiated by NGOsand GOs respectively and the roles played by each; and it examined the reasons forfailure of interactions. NGOs' roles as field testers, as joint partners, as innovators, as'networkers', and as advocates were identified in the case studies. The studydistinguished between radical and non-radical NGOs. The study also proposed

and ownership of projects/programmes. The case studies also highlighted theenriching experiences and sustainable transformations in the lives of the rural poor byadopting relevant strategies and innovative methods and approaches.2.6.3. It was quite interesting to go through the study carried out by Gilbert~tienne~~ through meeting with peasants in rural Asia characterized by its diverseeconomic, social, cultural and political contexts, particularly in Afghanistan,Bangladesh, China, India and Pakistan. Data were collected in a span of about thimyears from people at various levels such as, farmers, government officials, policy-makers and political leaders through direct personal contacts with the only aim ofdesigning a theoretical framework for Asia. Just like Europe, Asia also had its ownups and downs in the annals of history. Reality had to be analyzed from the level ofrural peasants and political administrators. As for the general theoretical outline, itconcluded that political trends played a pivotal role in a nation's development, 'Nodevelopment without a strong and stable government'. Regarding the direct attack onpoverty, drastic land reforms were ruled out because of the political environment inthe countries of the subcontinent. As to projects, the future did not seem to be brightbecause the money intended for the poor had not reach them fully. Only the properpooling, maximization and distribution of physical and human resources by down-toearth approaches were expected to bring sustainable results to all, specially the ruralpoor.

2.6.4. The developing countries faced a gamut of problems; both thegovernmental and non-governmental agencies tackled most of them. The questionraised in this study was that some NGOs should go beyond the traditional path ofwelfare and development and get entangled with a new socio-economic order of theworld through entrepreneurship that implied initiative, innovativeness, risk-takingand other pursuits on creativity. The impressionistic analysis by Nagendra P. singh30pointed out that many studies and experiments in Asia had confirmed thatbeneficiaries continued to indulge in the perpetual dependency syndrome. ManyNGOs had plunged into self-employment and income generation programmes atindividual and group levels. The need of the hour was clarity in the definition,boundaries and methodology of entrepreneurship development - a step higher thanself-employment.2.6.5. An analytical study of the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee(BRAC) by Mick Howes and M.G. sattur3' identified various methods through whichBRAC managed to grow and increase its impact on various groups of people. Onemethod was through simple replication of projects through 'additive' strategies andanother was by intensification of its work with a particular or area through'multiplicative' strategies. The process of progress of BRAC was documented overtwenty years in five distinct phases: relief and community development; targeting thelandless; the outreach and rural credit and training approaches; the rural development

programme; and the rural credit project. The result of the analysis was that 'biggercan also be better', in the sense that wider replication of projects could be achievedby building organisational capacities without sacrificing quality of service to thepoor.2.6.6. An evaluation of 30 rural income generating projects was done byBishwapriya sanyal12 on the question whether or not the rural development projectswere replicable. The findings of the study made it clear that the institutional interestsplayed a more dominant role than comparative advantages between the various actorsin the project.2.7 NGOs and Rural Development: Global Perspectives2.7.1. A study on Approaches to Participation in Rural Development wascarried out by Peter Oakley and David ~arsden" at the request of the Panel onPeople's Participation of the Inter-Agency Task Force of the United Nations with theobjectives of clarifying the concepts and interpretations of participation, collating theexperiences of participatory approaches by different agencies, providing guidance forfuture analytical and operational works, and promoting strategies for genuineinvolvement of the rural poor, specially rural women. It was considered to be an ongoingsearch and not a definitive statement or policy on participation.

The context, concept, approaches, and obstacles to participation were analyzedfrom various perspectives with case studies from Brazil, India, Philippines, SriLanka, Mexico, Bangladesh and Senegal. This study was not only retrospective butalso prospective as it focused more on the emerging strategy leading toempowerment of the poor. The meticulous analysis of participation as means or end,Participation as contribution, as organization. as empowerment, operational, cultural,and structural obstacles to participation supported by case studies paved the way forelucidating bottom-up approaches and effective strategies for promoting self-relianceand control by the rural communities.2.7.2. The major results of the research project on "Promoting ParticipatoryDevelopment through Local Institutions" undertaken by the Development Centre andthe OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) were suminarized andpresented by Hartmut Schneider and Marie-Helene ~ibercier.~~ It containednumerous case studies from different countries that had emerged out of the personalexperiences of working with NGOs and grassroots organizations. Both concepts andpractices were blended in this presentation of research study.Participatory development was found to be a political, social and economicprocess. It was holistic rather than sectored; it was more people-centred and alearning process. Participatory approaches, as presented in this study, had twoessential components: first, a meticulous process of observation, analysis and

consultation at various levels; second, the need for flexibility in planning andorganization of a programme or a project. The organization of local communitiesgave energy and life for the programmes. Highly centralized and authoritarianpolitical regimes, lack of access to assets and rights, lack of knowledge and skills,poor or non-existent formal education, bureaucratic rigidities and conventionaloperating modes of aid agencies were observed to be the major obstacles inparticipation. Sustainability and replicability were the two sides of genuineparticipatory development. Participation ought to be a part and parcel of every phasein development involving the indigenous resources, values and cultures.2.7.3. Could NGOs really 'make a difference' in the process of improvinglocal situations at the bottom level and influencing the wider systems that aggravatedglobal massive poverty in the new millennium? The problems and the responses weredealt with well-supported case studies from the developing countries. The studiespresented by Michael Edwards and David ~ ulme~~ were based on the multi-sectoredapproaches and strategies adopted by NGOs in the Third World.Scaling-up the developmental impact of NGOs, Government - NGOcollaboration in developmental projects, Strategies for effective and sustainableimpact of the programmes of NGOs through organizational growth, and lobbying andadvocacy through the grassroots organizations were the major topics selected for thestudy from countries like Ethiopia, Uganda, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Philippines,

Itaparica, Peru and Africa. The systematic summary of each part with lessons andkey issues revealed the enriching aspect of the complex contexts and roles ofGovernment and Non-Governmental Organizations. The outcome of the study wasthat ultimately the strategic choices of the NGOs and the quality of their services forthe rural poor masses that would decide whether or not they 'inake a difference'.2.7.4. Roger C. Riddell, Mark Robinson" and others evaluated ruraldevelopment programmes organized by NGOs in developing countries and measuredthe impact and effectiveness of NGOs on the lives of the rural poor. An overview ofthe results of the case studies and the impact of NGO poverty alleviation projects -altogether sixteen projects in four countries - in Bangladesh and India (South Asia),in Uganda and Zimbabwe (the Sub-Saharan Africa) clearly indicated the following:Almost without exception, the poor benefited to a great extent than the poorest, andmen to a great extent than women, by virtue of heavy prior access to land and otherassets. All the sixteen case studies confirm that NGOs placed a high premium on theformation of new groups, or strengthening the existing ones, as a means of raisingawareness, empowering the poor, and promoting self-reliance. Only in six of thesixteen projects, women benefited to a significant extent; otherwise, theirinvolvement was very much limited. Nine of the sixteen projects contained sometrends that could be termed innovative. The Zimbabwe case study was the ideal onein terms of NGO innovation and project replicability. A short- term impact was found

in the NGO credit schemes but a durable and Inore wide-spread impact was missingin all the projects.The trained and motivated field staff played a vital role in meeting the projectobjectives by their commitment and empathy with the poor. Only four projects werefinancially self-sustaining and five were clearly not sustainable while seven projectsshowed limited potential for sustainability. Regarding the NGO impact and theexternal environment, mostly the impact was contingent on local and to some extent,on national and international factors. On cost-effectiveness, there were some majordifficulties because of subjectivity, absence of quantifiable base-line data and thelimited availability of project-specific cost data; in terms of resources allocated tothem, certainly all the sixteen projects appear to cost less than similar types ofgovernment interventions. The overall impact of the NGO effort was still marginalwhile compared to solving the wider problems.2.7.5. In the context of a number of case studies undertaken by ILO andUNDP~~ in Cameroon, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and South Africa and analysis ofevidences available from literature and documentation, this paper examined therelationship behveen participatory development and poverty alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa and drew some conclusions. The following case studies wereselected: (a) Poverty and participatory development in Cameroon: The impact ofcooperative reform in Cameroon on peasant organisations in the cocoa zone by Pierre

Njouyep; (b) Participation and urban poverty alleviation in Harare, Zimbabwe by G.Keyzer; (c) Participatory developinent and the struggle against poverty in Africa: Acase study of crossroads, a peasant movement by Mathias Bassene; (d) Povertyalleviation and participatory development in South Africa by Francie Lund; and (e)Poverty alleviation strategies and participatorydevelopment: The case ofMozambique by Keny Selvester.It was found that the political and economic reforms had tremendous impacton people's participation. Each case study was found to be unique and provided somemeasures undertaken by governments, NGOs, citizens' organizations and localcommunities to meet the challenges of poverty alleviation. Participatory approach topoverty alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa is still in initial stages and there is a longway to march. The critical issues to be tackled for meaningful participatorydevelopment in poverty alleviation in the context of Africa are the following: a)Proper linkage for collaboration between the trio, that is, the Government and thosewho hold economic and political power, and the poor with their representatives andorganizations; second, the initiatives of participatory approaches reaching the poorestof the poor; and finally, the key role of the NGOs in Africa.2.7.6. Although the concept of rural development meant different things todifferent people, a trend towards convergence is emerging gradually at the macro andmicro levels. R.E. arme en^^ analyzed various studies on rural development focusing

on rural underdevelopment from the perspectives of the Third World, and Africa inparticular. The results of this study were summarized towards the dual aspects ofpeople-centred development explained in terms of human resource development andintegrated rural development as a participatory learning process in terms ofempowerment. The conclusion of the study was that the primacy of education at allphases of developlnent that would empower people towards sustainable development.2.7.7. Ernest ~ r~eete~'~ studied various programmes introduced in Ghana forcommunity development since 1975 and found that most of them failed miserablybecause of two factors: bureaucratic inflexibility and lack of clarity in the objectives.Upper Regional Agricultural Development Programme (URADEP) was one suchprogramme. It was established with dual objective of increasing agriculturalproduction and farm incomes; and establishing permanent farm support services.Decentralization through a semi-autonomous unit facilitated the followingadvantages: greater sense of direction towards goal attainment, measurableinstitutional goals, more freedom, greater coordination, shorter chain of command,more availability of financial resources, and additional administrative incentives andhigher salaries.This study revealed the following exogenous factors affecting the operationsof the decentralized programme units: effects of national and regional politicalstructures; effects of local power structure; effects of socio-cultural factors on

URADEP; effects of the inadequate organization on programme beneficiaries;physical environmental conditions and their effects on UMDEP. The final part dealtwith the impact of the programme at various levels.2.7.8. So much of literature had come out on 'development' in the last feurdecades from scholars and institutions that it would require one's life-time to digestall these materials. And yet we are far from achieving development of the wholeperson and every person. Experts claim that absolute poverty is on the increase. Ofthe 1.2 billion of the absolute poor, approximately two-thirds are children under 15years. Today disenchantment is widespread. Peter C.W. ~utkind" conducted a studyin Accra, (Ghana) and Nairobi, (Kenya) to find out the perceptions of ordinary menand women on development that had not been taken into account at all by theplanners, policy makers and bureaucrats.The responses elicited from an unemployed petrol tank driver, a womanhairdresser, a fisherman, a taxi driver, an electrician apprentice, and a woman traderwere amazing. The responses of ordinary people expressed in this study revealedmuch pessimism and absence of consensus on the meaning of development. It alsobrought out a bewildering array of perceptions rooted so much in the cultural andclass background faced by common men and women. The conclusion of the studywas that little or nothing had been done to collect, analyse, and respond to a

multitude of perceptions that provides volume of reasons for the failure of so manydevelopment programmes.2.7.9. The International Exposition of Rural Development (IERD) decided tofacilitate a program to document thousands of successful strategies of locallyinitiated projects in rural development. The objectives of the research were toidentify successful rural and local neighbourhood pro-jects, discover the commonapproaches that work in grassroots development, begin building a network ofprojects, and establish a data base for assisting local development efforts. David 6.~lanchard~' analyzed the data and synthesized it into seven strategies for bottom-updevelopment in three phases.Phase I included the first 18 months of the exposition and involved identifyinglocal development projects and research on successful development strategies in 16countries. From about thirty symposia reports, over one hundred and fifty trendswere identified and only the following eighteen trends were regrouped: reneweddevelopment emphasis; greater local participation; implementing industrialdevelopment; strengthening financial linkage; organizing cluster infrastructures;networking across sectors; emphasising improved agriculture; improvingenvironmental sanitation; involving rural women: utilising local resources; expandingsingle-focus development; increasing education process; augmenting communicationmeans; rural information exchange; co-operative international interchange; training

underdeveloped groups community finance management; and comprehensivecommunity development.Further, twelve comprehensive keystones - vital and critical activities andstrategies necessary for bottom-up development successful - were identified. Theywere: total community participation; comprehensive pilot demonstration; committedgrassroots planning; cohesive community identity; project leadership cores;motivation implementing mode; inclusive resource management; viable localeconomics; community structural approaches; education and skills training;supportive multi-sector coalitions; and improved interchange networks.In Phase 11, out of this process, projects were selected to participate in aplenary Central International Event organized in New Delhi, India, during Februaryof 1984. The theme of the ten-day conference was "Sharing Approaches That Work".It involved three days of sharing development experiences, four days of visiting localprojects in India, and three days of reporting and planning next steps for acceleratinglocal development.The trends and keystones from the RD Symposia were reported to theInternational Exposition. The delegates working in thirty sub-groups, compared thetrends and the keystones to their own experience and to the experience of the other300 projects as demonstrated in displays at the conference. Out of the first three days

of workshops came the following list of fifteen priorities for RD: local control withcommitted interchange; developing appropriate education; functional education andskills training; participative and balanced planning; involvement of women in theprocess; management and i~nplernentation skills; appropriate financial mechanisms;maximizing resources and productivity; community motivation and leadership;effective communication and interchange; holistic or integrated approach; sustainableagricultural advances; partnership with existing agencies: community self-help andreliance; and upgrading community health.Phase 111 involved the process of identifying and expanding the strategies ofhuman development. Finally, the eighteen trends and the twelve keystones identifiedin the RD Symposia and the fifteen priorities from the Central International Eventwere regrouped into seven clusters or strategies of local human development. Theywere: comprehensive community participation; motivating local communities;expanding learning opportunities; improving local resource management; localizingfinancial access; replicating human development; and increasing communicationsand inter change.The conclusion of the research was that the responsibility for change restswith those living in the local community, and not with government. Just as thegreenhouse turned out to be a complex ecology, so was the environment of humandevelopment. Motivation of local community was identified as the key to initiating

and sustaining bottom-up development through broad-based participation incomprehensive planning for solving community needs.2.7.10. A study on Non-Governmental Organizations and Poverty Alleviationin Bolivia conducted by Sonia Arellano Lopez and James F. ~ etras~~ highlighted thefact that NGOs in Bolivia had not only increased in number in the 1980s but alsoplayed vital role in poverty alleviation programmes. It was not clear from the studywhether NGOs were more successful than the state agencies! But one thing wasobvious that the combination of state reorganization through structural adjustmentprogrammes and the increasing number of NGOs as implernenters of developmentassistance had put up tremendous obstacles to the growth of grassroots organizationsrepresenting the interests of the poor masses.Many initiatives had been implemented during the 1980s for promotingdialogue between various players in development field. Some were done on a grandscale at the inacro level and some others were organized in a simple manner at themicro level. The starting point of dialogue could be at three levels: cooperation wasfounded on an attitude or a stance; collaboration implied an actual workingrelationship; and coordination suggested a process of defining parameters for action.Sandra powel14' analyzed three case studies - The Enabling Environment Conference(Kenya, 1986), Practical Modes of Cooperation (West Germany, 1986)' and TheExperts' Consultation on 'Promotion of Autonomous Development' (The

Netherlands, 1987) - with a view to shape the thinking and practice of theinternational development community. Each study, although described in terms ofcontext, objectives, process, output, and significance, it explained the significantimpact in a systematic manner. This study not only enabled to identify themultifarious parties in development but also paved the way for initiating dialogue atvarious levels.2.7.1 1 Michael ~arner~~ conducted a case study with the community of St.Margaret's village in Cayo District, Belize, Central America with the objective ofdesigning a medium-term village development strategy that would offer maximumbenefits to the entire community. This study resulted in a modified communityparticipative strategic development planning with six vital components - communitydevelopment objectives, external appraisal, internal appraisal, participative analysis(SWOT), decision-making, and Strategic action plan. The case study faced twolimitations: one, proper importance to the homogenous and heterogeneousenvironments of each local community; and the presence of external members alongwith the representatives of the project team and the local community at the externalappraisal. The potentiality of this approach for empowerment was proved to be moreeffective.2.7.12. An analysis of Mario ~adron," in the context of working with differentcategories of NGOs at various levels, revealed distinctive characteristics between

three types of NGOs - Non-Governmental Development Organisations, GrassrootsOrganisations and International NGOs. The multifarious levels of relationshipsamong these actors were characterised by numerous ways of relationship of interestsand activities. The role taken by NGOs in each type was different - in the first typeas recipient, in the second type as intermediary, and in the third as partner. Theconclusion of the study was relevant to the global situation as it envisaged a modelfor NGOs and their contribution to development through processes ofdemocratisation.2.7.13. Rural development strategies could be grouped into three categories:Technocratic, Reformist and Radical. Most of the developing countries had adoptedpolicies related to the first category that left the exploitative structures in tact. Theradical strategies had focused on removal of the processes that perpetrated inequalityand poverty. The reformist approaches were a comprolnise between the twocategories. A Mexican case study on rural development revealed three contrastingviews: first, the pro-peasant group (campesinistas) believed that rural poverty was theresult of the way in which the peasant farmer had been treated by the government andthe local bosses; second, the leftists attributed rural poverty to international economicrelations; and finally, the most common view of people was the over-population andthe politicians had reduced rural poverty to agricultural inefficiency. Chris ~ i x o n ~ ~concluded the analysis by asserting that there was greater need for clarity of

concepts, adoption of innovative strategies and co~nmitted service to the challengingtask of rural development.2.7.14. For several decades, development was seen only as economicdevelopment and measured simply as an increase of the gross national income. Afteranalyzing numerous rural development projects in the Third World: Dirk B.W.M.~usse~dor~~' clearly pointed out the economic, social, cultural, organizational,managerial and technical environments of projects emphasizing uniqueness of projectsituation. Elaborate analysis of rural development projects revealed the fact that eachproject should, in reality, adopt a project cycle and methodology that would suit thelocal environment and fulfill the local needs of the local community. The tripleadvantages of NGOs elucidated in the studies were: more effective service delivery,popular participation in development processes, and representing interests of thedeprived masses; and the perceived disadvantages of NGOs were: creating separatesupport organizations, quality versus quantity, availability of funds, and managementproblems. The role of Governments and NGOs in rural developn~ent was consideredto be equally vital as one cannot ignore the other.2.7.15. An analysis on the role of self-help promotion by NGOs wasconducted by by Koenraad ~erha~en.~' he following eight instruments wereidentified for self-help promotion: identification of target population and targetgroups, participatory planning and research, education and mutual training, resource

mobilization and resource provision, management consultancy, linkage building withthird parties, process extension and movement building, and, monitoring and ongoingself-evaluation.2-8 From Self-Help Groups Towards a Social MovementHn the context of this study, a social movement can be defined as a sustained,deliberate, conscious and collective enterprise towards promoting rapidtransformation of society through committed participation of masses of people.49The concept of social movement - particularly after the 1980s - has been enrichedfurther by: (i) the linear theories of Social Movement by J. Habermas (1981) andClaus Offe (1984 and 1985); (ii) the Cyclical theory by Alan Touraine (1981); and(iii) the Resource Mobilisation theory by David Korten (1990).~'Since the inception of the concept of NGOs, voluntarism and non-profitmaking processes have constituted the core of the reality. And in today's context ofNGO phenomenon, the Explanatory Theories of Voluntary Action by HelmutAnheier (1998) enlighten on the most relevant and appropriate theoretical perspectiverelated to the study. The above theories have affirmed the four key roles of NGOs asservice provider, value guardian, advocate and vanguard. Thus, the Self-Help Groupswhich are of recent origin have the potentials of blosso~ning into a 'Self-HelpMovement' - a democratic organization of women, by women and for ~ornen.~'

2.9. Thus, the review of literature has run through Inany related themes of thetopic of study, such as the process of rural development, the role of governmentorganisations in rural development: the role of non-governmental organisations inrural development. It has traversed through various parts of the world wherein ruraldevelopment programmes were initiated by organisations at different levels. Thereview of literature has also highlighted the multidi~nensional approaches andstrategies that were adopted by government and non-governmental organisations atdifferent times. Above all, the policy documents evolved by the internationaldevelopment organisations have emphasised the thrust of the process ruraldevelopment, particularly in the developing countries of the world.Two main trends emerge after going through such an extensive exposure ofthe topic of study: first, it reveals that the topic of study is not only vast, but alsocomplex, as many more aspects of rural development and NGOs are still to beunearthed for scientific inquiry; second, it affirms the relevance of the topic in thecontext of the developing countries, particularly in India that has more than one thirdof the poor of the world are living in the villages.

REFERENCESSrinivas, M.N., (ed.), (1993), India's Villages, Media Promoters & Publishers,Bombay, Second Revised Edition, Reprinted.Dhadave, M.S., (ed.), (19961, Rural and Urban Studies in India, RawatPublications, Jaipur.Paranjape, P.V., (1984). Grass-Roots Self-Reliance in Shramik Sanghatana,Dulia District, India, in Md. Anisur Rahman, (Ed), Grass-Roots Participationand Self-reliance: Experiences in South and South-East Asia - A studyprepared for the International Labour Office within the framework of the WorldEmployment Programme, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co, in collaboration withSociety for Participatorq. Research in Asia, New DelhiAmbedkar S. Nagendra, (1994), Integrated Rural Development Programme -Implementation Process, Rawat Publications, Jaipur.Galab, S.: "Rural Einployment Programmes - Case for Involving VoluntaryOrganizations", Economic and Political Weekly, Volume 28, Number 10,March 6, 1993, pp.409-4 13.Sangita, S.N., "Self-Employment Programme for Rural Youth - The Role ofNon-Governmental Organisations", NMB Management Review, Volume 5,Number 2, July-December 1990, pp. 1-30.Pant, Niranjan, Lalita Pant and Norio Kondo, (1994), Role ofthe GovernmentBureaucracy and the Nun-Governmental Organization in the RuralDevelopment of India? Joint Research Programme Series No.105, Institute ofDeveloping Economies, Tokyo, Japan.Shah, Anil C, and Sudarshan Iyengar, (19981, The Contribution of NGOs toDevelopment: Some issues and a Ccrse Study, in M.L. Dantwala, et a1 (ed),Social Change Through Voluntary Action, Sage Publications, New Delhipp.92-112.Jomon M.G. and Madhavi Mehta, "Vision and Practice", Renewal, June 1996,pp.27-34.

Swapan Carain, "Training Grassroots level Workers in Empowering the RuralPoor: The Case of an Indian NGO", The Ittdian Journal of Social Work,Vo1.54, NO. 3, July 1993, pp.3 8 1-392.Ayodhya, P. and K. Papa, "People-Centred Development through EducationalIntervention", Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 12, No. 6, 1993, pp.617-632.Mehta, Ajay S., "Micro Politics of Voluntary Action: An Anatomy of Change inTwo Villages", Renewal, Volume 3, Number 2, November 1996, pp.3 1-39.Gupta, Ranjit, (1988), Similar Concern but Varying Approaches: A Case Studyof ASSEFA and MYRADA, in M.L. Dantwala, et al, (ed), Asian Seminar onRural Development - The Bnclian Experience, Oxford & IBH Publishing Go.Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, pp, 3 11-337.Chander, Mahesh, "Farmers' Participation in Rural Development Programmes:Case Studies of some local NGOs in Central Himalayan Region", Journal ofRural Development, Volume 15, Number 3, July - September 1996, pp.393-408.Murthy, Nirmala, (1988), Two Approaches to Rural Development: Case Studyof Sewa and Mahiti, in M.L. Danhvala, et al, (ed), Asian Seminar on RuralDevelopment - The Indian Experience, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt.Ltd,New Delhi, 1988, pp.283-309.Gangrade, K.D., (1997), "Two Models of NGOs in Development at Work", inNoorjahan Bava, (ed), Non-Governmental Organizations in Development -Theory and Practice, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 1997, pp.101-124.Mathivaanan, Samuel C., (1 99 I), Voluntary Agencies and Social Change,Manas Publications, Delhi.Vettivel, Surendra K., (1992), Community Participation - Empowering thepoorest - Roles of NGOs, Vetri Publishers, New Delhi.Moen, Elizabeth W., "Grass roots development in South India: Definition,Metatheory, Strategy", Social Change, Vol. 20, No. 4, December 1990,pp.30-44.

20. Suresh, K.A. and Molly Joseph, "NGOs as organizers in fighting rural poverty:A Study", Kurukshetra, May 199 1, pp. 17-2 1 & 35.21. Misra, Yatish, (2002), Empowering People - Grassroots Organizations andRurnl Development, Kanishka Publishers, Distributors, New Delhi, 2002.22. Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian refom and Rural Development (ANGOC),(1984), Status Papers on NGO Involvement in Rural Development - APerspective of Ten Countries in Asia, Angol, Philippines.23. OECD (1991), What Future for our Countryside? A Rural DevelopmentPolicy, OECD, Paris.24. UNICIRD (1989), Integrated Rural Development in Asia and the Pacific - AFramework for Action for tlze 1990s, United Nations Interagency Committeeon Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific: Bangkok.25. Malena, Carmen, (1995), Working with NGOs - A Practical Guide toOperational Collaboration Between the World Bank and the NGOs, WorldBank, Washington.26. Shanmugasundaram, V. and V. Sankaran, (ed), (1985), Socinl and EconomicPlanning for Integrated Rural Developmeizt - Seminar Papers andProceedings, State Planning Commission, Government of Tamil Nadu.27. Farrington, John, Anthony Bebbington, (1993), Non-GovernmentalOrganizations and the State in Asia - Rethinking Roles in SustainableAgricultural Development, Routledge, London.28. Setty, E. Desingu, (1994), Participatory Rural Development in Asia, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi.29. Etienne, Gilbert, (1985), Rural Development in Asia -Meeting with Peasants,Sage Publications, New Delhi.30. Singh, Nagendra, P., "NGOs Fire Play: Towards Developing Entrepreneurshipin Asia", Asian Entrepreneur, Vol. 2, No. 2, Autumn 1992, pp.14-19.

Howes, Mick and M.G, Sattur, (1993), Bigger and Better? Scaling-upStrategies pursued by BRAC 1972 - 1991, in Michael Edwards and DavidHulme (ed.), Making a difference - NGOs and Development in a ChangingWorld, Earthsan, London, pp. 99-1 10).Sanyal, Bishwapriya, (1991), "Antagonistic Cooperation: A Case Study of Non-Governmental Organisations, Government and Donours' Relationships inIncome-Generating Projects in Bangladesh", World Development, Volume 19,1991, pp.1367-1379.Oakley, Peter and David Marsden, (1990), Approaches to Participation inRural Development, International Labour Office. Geneva, 1990.Schneider, Hartmut with Marie-Helene Libercier, (ed.), (1995): ParticipatoryDevelopment - From Advocacy to Action, Organisation for Economic Cooperationand Development, Paris Cedex.Edwards, Michael and David Hulme, (ed.), (1993), Making n Difference -NGOs and Development in a Changing World, Earthscan Publications Ltd,London, 1993.Riddell, Roger C. and Mark Robinson, (1995), Non-GovernmentalOrganizations and Rural Poverty Alleviation, Oxford University Press Inc.,New York, 1995.UNDP and ILO, (1997), Participation and Poverty Alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa -A Review of Literature and Practice, ILO.Carmen, R.E, People-Centred Integrated Rural Development: The Primacy ofEducation, Occasional Paper No. 20, University of Manchester, ,Aryeetey, Ernest, "Decentralization for Rural Development: Exogenous Factorsand Semi-Autonomous Programme Units in Ghana", Community DevelopmentJournal, Volume 25, Number 3, 1990, pp.206-2 13.40. Gutkind, Peter C.W. "The Language of Development: Underclass Perspective",The Indian Journal of Social Science, 3:3, July- September 1990, pp.383-393.

Blanchard, David G., (1988), Empirical Strategies of Bottom-up Development,in John Burbidge, (ed.), Approaches that work in Rural Development -Emerging Trends, Participatory Methods and Local initiatives, Institute ofCultural Affairs International, KG. Saur, Munchen, 1988, pp.3 18-338.Lopez, Sonia Arellano and James F. Petras, ( 1994), "Non-GovernmentalOrganizations and Poverty Alleviation in Bolivia", Development and Change,Vo1.25, 1994, pp.555-568.Powell, Sandra, Partners in Dialogue, in John Burbidge, (ed.), (1988),Approackzes that work in Rural Development - Emerging Trends,Participatory Methods and Local Initiatives, Institute of Cultural AffairsInternational, K.G. Saur, Munchen, 1988, pp.5 1-66.Warner, Michael, (1996), "Strategic Development Planning at the CommunityLevel: A Modification to Participatory Planning". Community DevelopmentJournal, Volume 3 1, Number 4, October 1996, pp.330-342.Padron, Mario, (1 987), "Non-Governmental Development Organisations; FromDevelopment Aid to Development Cooperation", World Development, No. 15,Supplement, 1987, pp.69-77.Dixon, Chris, (1993), Rural Development in the Third World, Routledge,London.Van Dusseldorp, Dirk B.W.M., (1 992), Projects for Rural Development in theThird World: Preparation and Implementation, Wegeningen AgriculturalUniversity.Verhagen, Koenraad, (1 987), Self-Help Promotion: A Challenge to the AGOCommunity, CEBEMO, The NetherlandsThe New Encyclopaedia Britannica (in 30 Volumes), Macropaedia - Volume16, (1978), Social Movements, William Benton, Publisher, Chicago,pp.974-980.

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CHAPTER 111RESEARCH METHODOLOGYEvery human experience provides raw materials for sociological thinking. Itunearths complex network of dependencies and interconnections through bothquantitative and qualitative uses of knowledge. The manifold webs of humaninterdependency are analyzed, explaining the motives and effects of activation.Sociology opens up not only our common sense to understand persons andenvironments around us but also promotes novel interpretation of familiar aspects oflife. Sociological inquiry is believed to possess reliable, trustworthy, correctinformation about how things truly are - inducing to go on searching newer realmsand predicting how things will turn out under controlled/non-controlled situations.'A Sociologist is a person intensively, endlessly, shamelessly interested in thedoings of persons; he keeps on searching for relevance by moving from present to thepast and the future. The centre of Sociology is a human person seen through facadesof social structure and it 'sees with new eyes' in the triple perspectives which are:'looking behind','looking forward' and 'looking beyond'. Sociology, as ahumanistic discipline, sharpens and analyses the roots of experiences. Objectivity insocial research is enabled by the unlimited openness on the part of the investigator to

comprehend the multiple dimensions and dynamics of social reality. Validity insocial research is achieved by the ability to repeat.3.1 Scope of the StudyIndia has been a land of villages and the Government of India has beenimplementing numerous rural development programmes for the upliftment of ruralcommunities. A number of NGOs have been playing a vital role in rural communitydevelopment, besides government interventions. This study focuses on the process ofrural development in India and analyzes the role of NGOs in the lives of ruralcommunities. In spite of planned development programmes, particularly through theFive Year Plans that were almost exclusively initiated and implemented byGovernment organizations from 1947 onwards, the benefits did not land on the lap ofthe poor target groups for whom they were intended.Realizing that the government alone was not able to meet the challenges of themassive1 enormous tasks in the process of rural development, the nonprofit,voluntary and non-governmental organizations had to be involved in different phasesand activities at the global, regional and local levels. Thus, in later phases, both theGOs and NGOs have been actively involved in transforming the lives of the ruralpoor. Taking into consideration the achievements of government organizationsearlier, it was perceived by the researcher that the programmes and strategies of

NGOs in rural development have more sustainable impact on rural communities. Inthe search for analyzing the factors that made the difference in achieving the goals setby NGOs in the process of rural development, the role of GOs also was considered tobe equally important in the study.3.2 Objectives of the StudyIn the context of the study, the following relevant objectives were formulatedin order to achieve the best results by making use of reliable and valid tools:1. To analyze the objectives of NGOs involved in rural development.2. To diagnose the strategies adopted in the implementation of programmesorganized by NGOs in rural development.3. To analyze the factors that facilitate effective achievement of the goals set byNGOs.4. To analyze the factors that hinder the achievement of the goals set by NGOs.5. To measure the impact of rural development programmes on the beneficiariesorganized by NGOs.6. To find out the facilitative and hindering factors in achievement of goals setby GOs.7. To suggest suitable measures for effective achievement of goals set by NGOsand GOs for rural development.

3.3 HypothesesThe hypotheses of the study are the following: GOs alone are not able toachieve the goals and reach the target groups of rural development programmeseffectively, in spite of planned development strategies. It could be attributed to thedecentralized centralization of approaches and methods, rigid and bureaucraticadministrative structures. and uniform, universal and project-centred strategies. Onthe other hand, NGOs are perceived to be more capable of transforming the lives ofrural poor by adopting decentralized and flexible methods and approaches combinedwith people-centred strategies that elucidate direct, dynamic and collectiveparticipation of the rural community. The decentralized structure of NGOs that placesrural people at the core, induces the process of empowerment and sustainability fromwithin the rural community. As a result of this, the rural people themselves bringabout the overall development in and around their community and locality.3.4 Method of the StudyThe nature of this study is such that it calls for a mixed methodology ofcombing both quantitative and qualitative methods for strengthening the validity ofdata collected from various groups of people who are directly related to the study.The topic is quite sensitive as it deals with assessing the performance of the GOs andthe NGOs by analyzing those factors that facilitate achievement of their goals and

those that hinder them. Starting from the criteria for selection of NGOs, traversingthrough selection of samples and collection of primary and secondary data, andconcluding with analysis and interpretation of data, emphasis is given on the qualityand quantity as well.The present study was carried out using a descriptive design and a crosssectional analysis to bring out the different dimensions on NGOs and ruraldevelopment.3.5 Area of the StudyDharmapuri district is rife with hills, plateaus, valleys and forests. It is rich inforest wealth; home medicinal plants are abundant. The extent of reserved forests inthe district is 3,26,367 hectares. Moreover, 38,938 hectares of reserved land is alsoavailable in the district. The percentage of forest area to the geographical area is31.36 in the district. In general, the district has a dry climate with the average annualrainfall of 844 mm. As the district is mostly dependent on seasonal rains, only drycrops like of Cholam, Kambu, Samai and Ragi are cultivated.' A vast majority of thepeople are engaged in agricultural and allied occupations. According to the Census1991, the literate population in the district was 5,79,163. The percentage of literatepopulation in the district is only 28.99 as against the state average of 46.76 percent.4

Dharmapuri district was selected as the area of study for three reasons: first,the Government of India at the Centre and the Government of Tamil Nadu at theState levels had focused on Dhannapuri district for implementing numerous ruraldevelopment programmes as it fell under the category of a backward district.Secondly, many NGOs emerged in the district, particularly in the 1980s forcollaborating in the implementation of rural development programmes initiated bythe Governments. Thirdly, Dharmapuri district has a dominant rural population of90.6 per cent; out of a total population of 19,97,060 in Dhamapuri district, 18,09,876persons live in rural areas.5 And hence, the selection of Dharmapuri district wasconsidered to be the most suitable one for the study.3.6 Selection of NGOsDharmapuri district was bifurcated from Salem district and established as anindependent one on 2nd October 1965 with three revenue divisions, viz., Dharmapuri,Krishnagiri and Hosur, and eight taluks. The offices of the Registrar of Societieswere set up in Krishnagiri (1966) and Dharmapuri (1982); it was in those offices thatsocieties, trusts and other organizations for social welfare and rural development hadto be registered.Most of the NGOs in Tamil Nadu are registered either under the SocietiesRegistration Act, 1860 or the Indian Trusts Act, 1882 and a few under the Public

Company Act. Only those NGOs registered under the Societies Registration Act(1860) and the Tamil Nadu Societies Registration Act, 1975 are taken for this study.In the first phase, the researcher collected a complete list of all theorganizations registered at the offices of the Registrar in Krishnagiri and Dharmapurifrom their inception to 1993, the cut-off year. The number of organizations registeredin Krishnagiri from 1966 to 1993 was 23 16; and in Dharmapuri from 1982 to 1993was 1234. The total number of registered organizations in Dharmapuri districtwas 3550.In the second phase, NGOs that had renewed the registration regularly fromthe date of registration till 1998 were culled out so that they could have a ~ninilnumof five years of experience in implementing programmes. There were 34 NGOs inKrishnagiri and 41 in Dharmapuri; of these 75 NGOs, the researcher culled out theNGOs involved in rural development programmes by analyzing their objectives,activities, target groups and location. 16 NGOs and 26 NGOs were identified to beworking on programmes related to rural development in Krishnagiri and Dharmapurirespectively.In the third phase, the researcher contacted the officials of the 42 NGOsinvolved in rural developtnent through self-addressed stamped envelope to find outtheir willingness and enthusiasm to collaborate in the study; and, if willing, they were

equested to suggest a convenient date for a preliminary meeting with the researcher.Only 17 NGOs responded to the letter and a reminder to the other 25 NGOs was senton 15~"9ul~ 1999 to which another 6 NGOs replied. Thus, the number of NGOsresponded to the letter was 23 while 19 others did not respond at all. The finalposition for selection of NGOs was as follows:Number of NGOs interested in the study --------- 19Number of NGOs not interested in the study ----- 2NGO transferred to Namakkal district ------------- 1Letter redirected to the researcher ------------------- 1Number of NGOs that did not respond -------------19Total number of NGOs in rural develop~nent ----- 42In the fourth phase, the researcher made personal visits to the 19 NGOs andmet the official in-charge of the NGO with a view to explain the purpose and contentof the study, build rapport with them, and finalize the modus operandi of the study.Some expressed unwillingness while some others dropped out and a few hesitated.Ultimately, even among the 9 NGOs that were willing to participate in the study,only four NGOs were finalized - as they were found to be functioning effectively bymaintaining proper records and reports. The four NGOs selected for the study wereas follows:

1. Rural Integrated Development Organization (RIDO);2. Society for Rural Development (SRD);3. Village Association for Gainful Employment (VAGE); and4. Nellikkani Mahalir Mantram (NMM).3.7 Profiles of the Selected NGOsRural Integrated Development Organization (RIDO) was established in 1981at Sevagram, Morappur, Harur Taluk, Dharmapuri District by Dr. Lucas Babu as theDirector with a vision to uplift the socio-economic status of the people below thepoverty line. The primary objectives of RIDO were to create social awareness amongthe rural poor; to form rural women into self-help groups and organize them intofederation, to provide HRD training to the beneficiaries of rural developmentprogrammes, and to reach the unreached. Earlier, RIDO was involved in tribal andrural development programmes and at present, the major thrust is promotion of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) for women through whom Community Savings and Credit,Rural Development, Non-Fonnal Education and Training programmes are promoted.Navajana Sakthi Death Relief Fund was one of the pioneering programmes initiatedby RIDO in the area.Society for Rural Development (SRD) was started at Virupakshipuram,Dharmapuri in 1988 by A. Stalin, Secretary of SRD for the development of the rural

poor in Dharmapuri district. In the early 1990s, SRD was primarily involved in IFADprogrammes; in the Iater years, programmes related to women development werefocused. Savings and Credit, dairy farming, sheep rearing, basket making, cultivatingmedicinal herbal plants, weaving, and stone-cutting were the major activitiesimplemented through the Self-Help Groups for women.Village Agency for Gainful Employment (VAGE) was founded by M.C.Parasuraman at Harur, Dharmapuri district in 1989 and registered in 1991. Theactivities of VAGE started with relief services to the rural poor in the area andgradually rabbit rearing and women development programmes were included;working with gypsies was another pioneering activity of VAGE.Nellikkani Mahalir Mantram (NMM) was established in 1989 atAthiyamankottai, Dharmapuri district with the exclusive objective of working forwomen welfare with M. Govindammal as president and M. Saroja as secretary of theorganization. Women's health was given top priority; free medical camps wereconducted frequently for women, accompanied with health education. Milkcooperative society, toylpot making, tailoring and basket making were the inajoractivities promoted by the organization.

3.8 Pilot StudyA pilot study was conducted with four self-help groups of women in twoorganizations, i.e., RID0 and SRD with the interview schedule prepared forcollection of primary data from the beneficiaries of rural development programmes.Questions elucidating ambiguous responses were sharpened and the irrelevant ones,deleted; some questions1 topics were added for getting proper data from therespondents.3.9 SamplingThe objectives of this study are related explicitly to the analysis of thestrategies adopted by NGOs, the impact of the programmes organized by NGOs, andthe facilitative and hindering factors that are responsible for achieving the goals ofNGOs and GOs. An effective sampling has to bring out the implications of the abovetopics both in terms of quantity and quality. In the context of selection of the NGOsand the beneficiaries, it was identified that rural development programmes in theseNGOs were primarily implemented through the women self-help groups. A closerscrutiny of the present self-help groups organized by the NGOs revealed the fact thatsome of the groups had benefited the fruits of rural development programmes undergovernment programmes. These groups were considered to be the best respondents inthis study as they had the experience of working with both GOs and NGOs.

Thus. 38 groups of RIDO, 30 groups of SRD, 14 groups of VAGE, and 2groups of NMM were identified to have been the beneficiaries of rural developmentprogrammes under the auspices of both GOs and NGOs. Fifty per cent of the groupsfrom each organization were selected on the basis of stratified random samplingrepresenting region: occupation, education, religion, and social groups. The numberof groups and beneficiaries selected from the four NGOs were as follows:1. RIDO ----------- 19 Groups -------------- 265 Beneficiaries2. Sm ------------- 1 j Groups -------------- 225 Beneficiaries3. VAGE ----------- 7 Groups -------------- 113 Beneficiaries4. NMM ------------ 1 Group -------------- 3 BeneficiariesTotal number of beneficiaries = 6343.10 Collection of Primary DataAs most of the beneficiaries of the NGOs were illiterate, interview schedulewas considered to be the most appropriate tool for collecting primary data from them.In consultation with the officials of NGO and the local leader of the group, theresearcher visited the group on the day when all the members gathered for the weeklymeeting for collecting qualitative data through focus group discussion. The richnessof the discussion was proved not only by the active participation of all the membersbut also by their increasing level of awareness on social realities. Formal and

informal group discussions with the office bearers and the identified resourcefulmembers at the village, federation and regional levels contributed further instrengthening the quality of data. The occasion of the annual celebrations of the selfhelpgroups organized by RID0 and VAGE provided the opportunity for confirmingthe collected data qualitatively. Participant observation in the other activities of thegroups and rural life facilitated the researcher to witness the involvement of thebeneficiaries in rural development programmes in person.Structured interview was used by the researcher for collecting qualitative datafrom the officials and staff of NGOs on topics related to the process of organization,the level of impact of programmes, and the facilitative and hindering factors inachieving their goals. Thus, multiple methods of data collection have been used inthe study.3.11 Secondary DataDocuments, reports, and articles published in journals and magazines were themajor sources of collecting secondary data. The annual reports and otherdocumentation of the NGOs also provided ample materials for the study. The officialregisters and other related documents have enabled in using secondary dataqualitatively.

3.62 Tools of AnalysisBoth quantitative and qualitative data were collected in the context of theobjectives of the study. Focus group discussion was conducted for collecting datarelated to the study. Qualitative assessment of the data was carried out afterdemarcation of the data into several parts according to identified themes.3.13 LimitationsI. Of the many NGOs involved in rural development, only a few were foundto be functioning regularly and effectively. This restricted the number ofchoices of NGOs for the study.2. Originally, the study was intended to include a wider spectrum ofprogrammes in the field of rural development; as the process progressed, itzeroed in women development programmes implemented by NGOs inrural areas.3. Very few NGOs had maintained records and documents in proper orderand hence those that did not maintain records in order, had to be left out.4. Of the programmes organized by NGOs, only self-help groups for womenwere in full swing among the activities of NGOs at the time of datacollection.

REFERENCES1. Baurnan, Zygmunt, (1 9931, Thinking Sociologically, Blackwell publishers,Oxford.2. Berger, Peter L. (1 986), Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective,Penguin Books Ltd, Hannondsworth.3. Senji, P. Pulney Andy (ed.), (1995), Tamil Nadu District Gazetteers,Dhannapuri, Government of Tamil Nadu, pp. 15-3 1.4. The Census India 1991, Published by the Government of India.5. Senji, P. Pulney Andy (ed.), (1995), Tamil Nadu District Gazetteers,Dhannapuri, Government of Tainil Nadu, p. 1.

CHAPTER IVANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONThis chapter deals with analysis and interpretation of the quantitative and thequalitative data collected from the respondents of the programmes organised by theNGOs. It includes percentage and cross-table analyses. It contains four parts. Thefirst part contains the analysis of the socio-economic background of the respondents.The second part deals with the analysis of the objectives of the NGOs selected for thestudy. The third part focusses on the factors that facilitated the effective achievementof goals of GOs and NGOs: It also includes analysis of the factors that hindered theeffective achievement of goals of GOs and NGOs.The final part includes theanalysis on the impact of the programmes organised by the NGOs from variousperspectives.Table 4.1 presents NGO-wise distribution of the respondents.

ISI.No.TABLE 4.1DISTREBUTION OF RESPONDENTS - NGO-WISEName of the NGORes No' ondents OfPercentage ;' 4. ~NMM i 3 114.9I Total I 634 j 100.0The above table shows the list of the selected NGOs and the total number ofselected respondents from each NGO. RID0 was given priority for two reasons: one,the pioneering task in the area was initiated by the NGO; the other, the increasingnumber of women groups in the area gradually. Among the selected NGOs, SRD wasalso found to be organizing rural development programmes in the backward areasquite efficiently. VAGE was known for its innovating thrusts like rabbit rearing, anddairy farm schemes among the gypsy women in the area. Finally, Nellikkani MahalirMantram (NMM), although small in number with five women groups, it wasmanaged exclusively by women themselves in a sustainable manner for quite long.Only these four NGOs extended a wholehearted and cordial welcome for undertakingthe study in the area. It was arranged in such a way that only those beneficiaries whohad benefited earlier from the rural development programmes organized by thegovernment organizations were selected so that their experiences in both Governmentand NGO programmes will add more validity to the data.

Table 4.2 shows village-wise distribution of the respondents.TABLE 4.2DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS - VILLAGE-WISEI SI.No. Name of the Village of I Percentage '1.2.3.4.5.KulianurHosahallipudurKorappalliPacheriankottaiE.K.Pudur// 7. Lingampatti8. Visuvasam~atti9. Marampatti10. 1 Singarapettai11. Nathahalli12. Keelanur13. Kalladippatti14. M.Mottoor15. Marudhampattipudur16. Thinnur17. / Adiyamankottai (NMM)- 18.19. Katteri20.21.22.23.SompattiVahuthanoorChennampattiR.GopinathampattiPompattiTotal 634Women 1II27 1 4.3345.419 3 .O203.2325 .O20193.23 .O1150 7.9467.340 1 6.3233.618 2.825 3.92 1 3.3335.23 1 4.9--20 3.216 2.516 2.592 1111.43.31.7

The above table shows the list of villages selected for the study and thenumber of respondents from each village. Sufficient attention was given to representregion, religion, caste, aredlocality and the year of starting the women group. 50.0percent of the respondents were selected on the basis of stratified random samplingtaking into consideration the region, religion, caste, aredlocality, and social groups.During the process of data collection, it was observed that rural developmentprogrammes organized by the selected NGOs were implemented only through thewomen self-help groups. The selected NGOs had organized programmes earlier forfarmers, landless labourers, but those programmes were not in full swing as thegovernment had withdrawn the privileges attached to those target groups.Each village even in the nearest neighbourhood was found to be not onlyunique but also different in inany aspects. This reality is affinned by many studies aswell, specially the study of M.N. Srinivas and others in India.Table 4.3 presents women group-wise distribution of the respondents.

TABLE 4.3DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS - WOMEN GROUP-WISE1 Sl. 1 Name sf the Women Group No. of / PercentageNo.I.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.27.28.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.Draupadhi Mahalir MandramHosahalli Pudur Saraswathi Mahalir MandramLakshmi Mahalir MandramKora~oalli Lakshmi Mahalir MandramRespondents272 1134.33.32.119 3 .OA.Sembaruthi Mahalir Mandram I 20 3.2Tulasi Mahalir MandramE.K. Pudur Annai Theresa Mahalir MandramVisuvasampatti Saraswathi Mahalir MandramKalaivani Mahalir MandramElakkiampatti Kaliammal Mahalir MandramPechiammal Mahalir MandrarnLourdu Annai Mahalir MandramMariammal Mahalir MandramMottoor Indira Mahalir Mandram2 111141019142024103.31.72.21.63 .O2.23.23.81.6Shakthi Mahalir MandramSamandhi Mahalir MandramMagilampoo Mahalir MandramRoja Mahalir MandramMarudhani Mahalir MandramNathahalli Kaliammal Mahalir MandramMahalir Munnetra MandramKalladippatti Annai Theresa Mahalir MandramMottoor Annai Therasa Mahalir MandramMarudhapatti Mahalir Munnetra MandramThinnur Saraswathi Mahalir MandramKarur Mariamman Vivasaya Mahalir MandramNellikkani Mahalir MandramAyyappaswamy Mahalir MandramKatteri Thamarai Mahalir MandramSingaravelan Mahalir MandramJathimullai Mahalir MandramGopinathampatti Indira Mahalir MandramPoompatti Annai Therasa Mahalir MandramMakkal Munnetra SangarnSree Amman Mahalir MandramTotal152 0172 92 02 02 3182 52 12 0133 12 0161692 1118186342.43.22.74.63.23.23.62.83.93.33.22.14.93.22.52.51.43.31.71 1.32.8100.0

The above table shows the number of respondents women group-wise. It wasnoteworthy that out of 35 groups, 16 were named after the goddesses; 8 were namedafter flowers; 6 groups were named after great personalities like Mother Theresa,Indira Candhi; only 5 groups were named in general. The names of the groups revealthe religious fervour and attachment to nature and environment; it also reveals thegreat respect women have for social leaders.Age-wise distribution of the respondents is presented in Table 4.4.TABLE 4.4DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY AGE7.Above 49243.8Total634100.0From the distribution of the respondents by age, it can be seen that theproportion in the older age group (above 49 years of age) is small (3.8 per cent).Similarly, the proportion of women in the younger age group (below 25 years of age)is also small (7.7 per cent). It is noted that women in the age groups of 25-39 yearsconstitute 59.4 per cent. The proportions of women in 40-44 years and 45-49 years ofage are notable.

Table 4.5 depicts marital status of the respondents.TABLE 4.5DISTRPBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY MARITAL STATUSNo' OfSI.No. Marital StatusPercentage 1RespondentsI 1. 1 Married 1 592 1 93.4 !2.3.DivorcedSeparated1 4. / Deserted 1 1 1 0.2 1/ 5. 1 Widowed 1 2 5 1 3.9 1/ 6. / Unmarried ~ 11 1 1.7 /Total 634410.60.2100.0The table on the marital status of the respondents pinpoints the fact that almostall women members (93.4 per cent) were married and the proportion of the unmarriedwomen was only 1.7 per cent. Two observations are worth mentioning in this table:widowed women do not remany and they are considered to be 'outcasts' in the areaof study; second, unmarried women are not preferred to be admitted into the womengroups for sociological reasons. It was also noted that the divorced, separated, anddeserted women were all of them barren.

Table 4.6 illustrates literacy level of the respondents.TABLE 4.6DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY LITERACY STATUSSI.No.'Literacy Status1No. ofRespondentsPercentageI/ 1. I Literate ! 286 ! 45.1 !1 2. Illiterate 1 348 1 54.9 i! 1 Total 1 634 / 100.0 IThe table on literacy status of the respondents reveals that 54.9 percent of therespondents were illiterate. Dharmapuri district is one of the most backward and ruraldistricts in the State of Tamil Nadu and so it is in the expected pattern. Twoimportant factors are implicit in the table: first, although illiterate, women had suchtremendous awareness about their dignity and rights only after joining theprogrammes of the NGOs; secondly, they acquired some knowledge to read andwrite. For example, the illiterate women were proud to sign their names in theregisters.

Educational status of the respondents is shown in Table 4.7.TABLE 4.7DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY EDUCATIONAL STATUSSI.No.Educational StatusI1 1. 1 Primary 1 214 1 33.8 1iI2. / Secondary3.4.Higher SecondaryIlliterateTotalNo- OfRespondents4 92 3348634Percentage7.73.654.9100.0The data show that most of the literate wolnen (74.8 per cent) are found to beonly primary educated (below standard V) and a small proportion of the respondents(8.0 percent) were noticed to be higher secondary educated (till standard XII).However 17.0 percent of the women were educated up to secondaq~ education (aboveprimary but below higher secondary). It was observed that only woinen who hadstudied at the secondary or higher secondary level, were selected as secretaries ortreasurers of the group; whereas illiterate w-omen headed some groups as presidents.Table 4.8 explains the reasons for drop-out of the respondents.

TABLE 4.8DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY REASONS FOR DROP-OUTS1.No.IReasonsNo. ofRespondentsPercentagei 1. / Not interested I 64 1 10.1 11 2. 1 Household work 1 45 1 7.1 11 3. / Take care of siblings 1 44 6.9 11 4. 1 arm work 1 38 1 6.0 1/ 5. / School far away I 37 1 5.8 16.7.8.Negligence by parentsScared of teacherEconomic constraints/ 9. 1 No education 1 348 1 54.9 1I I Total 1 634 i 100.0 12 92 27- -4.63.51.1In an effort to understand the low level of literacy among the respondents,they were asked about the reasons for the dropping out of schools. The reasons givenare interesting and give a genuine picture of the role and status of girls in ruralcommunity. Some of them recalled the days when they were beaten and punished byteachers while some others regretted for the past neglect of education. Some of themcasually mentioned that they did not realize the value of education in their earlychildhood. Among the respondents, the reasons for drop-out from school in the orderof priority was noted to be 'not interested in going to school' (10.1 per cent). Amongthe many reasons mentioned, two of them deserve attention - almost one-third ofthem (30.9 percent) had dropped out for reasons of household works and to take care

of siblings: Farm works and schools far away were also reported to be notablereasons for drop-out (13.7 and 12.9 per cent respectively) from school.The details of occupation of the respondents are presented in Table 4.9.TABLE 4.9DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY OCCUPATIONPercentageI 1. ; Agricultural labourer 376 / 59.3 // 2. 1 Landless labourer / 240 1 37.9 13.4.IArtisan 12Others 61.90.9Agriculture and allied activities were noted to be the primary occupation ofthe respondents (59.3 per cent). Landless labourers constitute the other majorcategory (37.9 per cent). Being a dry district, agricultural activities in the area ofstudy were dependent on the lnonsoon rains. Most often, even those women involvedin agricultural activities were pushed to resort to works other than agriculture.

Table 4.10 shows the type of house ofthe respondents.TABLE 4.10DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY TYPE OF HOUSESI.No.Type of HouseI1 No. ofRespondentsPercentage1. I-Iut33853.32. Tiled23236.63. Terraced538.4 ~4. Thatched111.71 I Total 1 634 1 100.0 1Data on the type of house show that a vast majority of the respondents lived inhuts (53.3 per cent) followed by tiled houses (36.6 per cent). A low but sizeableproportion of the respondents were living in pacca (terraced) houses and a negligibleproportion of the respondents lived in thatched houses (1.7 per cent).The details of ownership of the land are presented in Table 4.1 1

TABLE 4.11DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY OWNERSHIP OF LANDSI.No. i1 Land OwnedINo. ofRespondents1.I 1 Dry land 128 1 20.2112. i Wet landI3. Dq & wet land4. I Landless1 TotaliPercentage38 6.0210 1 33125863440.7100.0 1The above table shows the land holding pattern in the region. A sizeablemajority of the respondents reported to be having some kind of cultivable lands(59.3 percent) and the remaining women (40.7 per cent) did not own any land. It isremarkable to note the social reality that 'land is power'. Whether wet land or dryland - all land are registered only in the name of men (husbands); even after death ofhusband, a close male kith and kin in the family takes charge of the land. Registrationand possession of land in the name of women is a rare eventlincident.Table 4.12 presents acreage of land owned by the respondents.

TABLE 4.12DlSTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY ACREAGE OF LAND OWNED1 SI.No. / Acreage 1 No. of Respondents 1 Percentage 16. Above 5.001 7. I Landless 1 258II 1 Total 1 634 I 100.0 1The above table shows that 18.3 per cent of respondents owned land between1.01 to 2.00 acres follo~ed by 14.8 per cent of the respondents who owned between0.01 to 1.00 acres. On the other extent those who own land between 4.01 to 5.00acres is 2.7 per cent and above 5.00 acres is owned by 4.6 per cent. The overallimpression is that the size of land is small and fragmented.The sources of irrigation are shown in Table 4.13

1 ~1.~0.iTABLE 4.13SOURCES OF IRRIGATIONSourceI1 I. / open well2.3.Rain-fedLandlessNo. ofRespondentsIPercentage248 ' 39.112825 8I120.240.7Total634100.0 IThe table on the sources of irrigation revealed the fact that among the landowners a large proportion of the respondents reported to be having open well (66.0percent) and the reinaining were depending on rain-fed irrigation. Agricultutalactivities in Dhamapuri district had been dependent on monsoon to a large extent. Asensitive observation made by the researcher at the time of collecting dara was thatcanals were passing adjacent to the lands that belonged to the respondents but theycould not use the canals for irrigating their lands, as canal irrigation was used for the'elite' fanners.The distribution of income from crops of the respondents is givenin Table 4.14.

TABLE 4.14DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY INCOME FROM CROPSI 1. I Below 2000 I 7 0 I 11.0 !I 7. I Above 12000 I 40 1 6.3 11 8. / No income (Landless) 1 25 8 1 40.7 1Total634 100.0 IData on the income from crops show that a large proportion of the respondentsare in the income range of Rs. 1001-6000 (13.4 per cent) followed by the incomerange of below Rs.2000 (11.0 per cent). On the other extreme, the respondents withhigh income level of Rs. 10001-12000 are only 3.0 per cent. Respondents in theincome levels of Rs. 8001-10000 and Rs. 12000 and above are 6.0 percent and6.3 per cent respectively.The general observation is that the income froin crops is meagre anddependent on the monsoon. (The average income of the respondents from crops isRs.4044).Table 4.15 depicts the annual income of the respondents.

TABLE 4.15DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY ANNUAL INCOMEI 1. ) Below 2000 1 17I2.7 1I7. 10001 - 12000203.28.Above 12000 I 421 1 Total 1 634 100.0 /6.6The total annual income of the respondents shows that 56.0 per cent of themwere in the income range of Rs. 2001-4000. The second categoq of respondents withhigh income fell in the income range of Rs.4001-6000 (15.1 per cent) followed by theincome range of Rs. 6001-8000 (9.9 per cent). Of the total number of respondents,9.8 per cent of them had the annual income above Rs. 10001.

The distribution of respondents according to their annual savings is given inTable 4.16.TABLE 4.16DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY ANNUAL SAVINGSS1.No.Current SavingNo. ofPercentage300 and below9. Above 1000156 24.6Total 634 1 100.0IThe above table shows that a large proportion of the respondents (37.4 per cent)are in the category of saving Rs.501-600 per year followed by those who save aboveRs.1001 (24.6 per cent). Those with the annual savings of Rs.401-500 are low(1.3 per cent) and those in the range of Rs. 901-1000 is 2.4 per cent. It was observedthat those women who did not have any habit of savings earlier, have started savingmoney after joining the programmes of the NGO.

The borrowing status of the respondents is stated in Table 4.17.TABLE 4.17DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY BORROWING STATUSSI.No.!BorrowingNo. of1 PercentageRespondents ,I1 1. Yes 1 361 1 56.9 1,TotalThe table on the borrowing status of the respondents reveals the fact that56.9 per cent of them take loan from the women groups while others (43.1 per cent)manage with the income they earn from land and or occupation.Table 4.18 gives the reasons for borrowing of the respondents.

TABLE 4.18DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY REASONS FOR BORROWING, Respondents1 No. ofSI.No. Purposes / Percentage1 1. / Basic Needs I 145 1 22.9 /12.5.6.7.8.IAgriculture 70 ' 11.0 )I6.8-4. Medical expenses 20 3.2Ceremonies 17 1 2.7Repay loans,6 1 9.6Others50.8No borrowingTotal27343.1634 I 100.0From the above table it is observed that 22.9 per cent of the respondents havetaken loans for hlfilling the basic needs, such as food and clothing while 11.0 per centof them have taken loans for agricultural activities. 9.6 per cent of the respondents havetaken loans for repaying the previous loails obtained from the groups or from others.Those who have taken loans for the purpose of purchasing cattle or other livestock are6.8 per cent. A small proportion of the respondents (3.2 per cent) has taken loans formedical treatment.Table 4.19 depicts the felt-needs of the respondents.

TABLE 4.19DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY THEIR FELT-NEEDSI ~elh:fents Percentage1 SI.No. 1 Needs/ 1. / Drinking water I 98 1 15.5 13.Housing1 4. / Hospital and Medical facility 1 70 1 11.0 1I 11i 5. / Irrigation 56i18.8 11 6. / cattle loan I 48 7.6 1I-8.9.ElectricitySkill training and self-employment/ 10. / Cresche and basic education 1 37 1 5.8 1502 3607.9 13.69.512. 1 Community hall13. Ration cardTotal552 06348.73.2100.0The above table on the felt-needs of the respondents shows that the primary needis drinking water (15.5 per cent) followed by medical facility (11.0 per cent) andtransport facility (10.6 per cent). The other felt-needs expressed by the respondents arepresented in the order of priority: skill training for self-employment (9.5 per cent),irrigation (8.8 per cent), community hall (8.7 per cent), housing (7.9 per cent), cattleloan (7.6 per cent), cresche and kinder garden (5.8 per cent), loan for agriculture(5.0 per cent), electricity (3.6 per cent), ration card (3.2), and sanitation (2.8 per cent).

i=-J 3pj..:&jng '&erg#j 0.4: a~4-G-s;-;tmt:

I HDLC 4.LUDISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY FELT-NEEDS - VILLAGE-WISE

The table on the village-wise distribution of the respondents on the felt-needsshows that their needs are many and varied. Those villages in the still most backwardareas represented their need for drinking water and hospital facilities. Those respondentswho were economically better represented the need for community hall. Therespondents involved in agriculture represented the need for cattle and agriculture loans.The overall impression of the felt-needs of the respondents is that they are takinginitiatives through the women groups to fulfilling their needs.Table 4.21 presents the year of joining of the respondents in NGO programme.TABLE 4.21DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY YEAR OF JOINING NGOs'PROGRAMMESSI.No.YearFrequency Percentage1.19893 14.911 I Total 1 634 I 100.0 1

With a view to know the number of years of experience in working with theprogrammes of the NGOs: the respondents were asked about the year of joining theNGOs' activities. It was notable that a large proportion of the respondents joined theNGOs' programmes during the years 1998 and 1999 (24.8 per cent and 24.3 per centrespectively). 17.8 per cent of the respondents joined the programmes organized byNGOs in 1992. The table indicates the trend that the activities of NGOs throughformation of the women self-help groups was accelerated in the late 1990s.Table 4.22 presents the stated objectives of NGOs.TABLE 4.22DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY THE STATED OBJECTIVES OF NGOsSI.No.Stated ObjectivesNo' Of Percentage 1Respondents1. Social au7areness through training and education2./ 3. 1 Savings and Credit / 139 1 21.9 1! 4.Women developmentVillage developmentTotalIt is evident from the responses expressed by women in the self-help groupsorganized by the NGOs that all the respondents were aware of the objectives of theNGOs. Of the stated objectives, a large proportion of them (32.3 per cent) mentionedthat facilitating social awareness among women through training and education was theprimary objective of the NGOs , followed by women development (27.4 per cent), andsavings and credit (21.9 per cent). 18.3 per cent of the respondents expressed villagedevelopment was also one of the notable objectives.174 27.411663418.3100.0

El Social Awareness through training and educationGa Women developmentII D Savings and Credit1t3i Village developmentIJ

The reasons for accepting NGOs objectives are given in Table 4.23.TABLE 4.23DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY REASONS FOR ACCEPTING NGOs'OBJECTIVESS1.Ns.Reasons1 1. Service for the welfare of poor1 2. Sustainable strategies1 3. 1 Savings and creditI1 4 / Awareness through trainingNo. of !/ PercentageRespondents ,TotalThe main reason stated by a large proportion of the respondents for accepting theobjectives of the NGOs was the services rendered by the NGOs for the welfare of thepoor in rural areas. Imparting awareness to the women on social issues and women'srights through training was perceived by 25.6 per cent of the respondents. Savings andcredit was expressed as one of the important reasons for the respondents to accept theobjectives of the NGOs (23.6 per cent) followed by the sustainable strategies of theNGOs that had changed the standard of life of women (17.1 per cent).

The usefulness of NGOs programmes is given in Table 4.24.TABLE 4.24DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY USEFULNESS OF NGOs'PROGRAMMESSI.No. /UsefulnessIAwareness and use of herbal medicinal1 plantsNo. ofRespondentsPercentage (t 128.3~2. Savings and credit14322.51 1Knowledge about women's rights anddignity 150 23.64.Skills in income generating activitiesIITotal 1 634 100.0 116225.6When the respondents were asked about the usefulness of the NGOs'programmes, 28.3 per cent of them responded in favour of the savings and creditfollowed by skills in income-generating skills (25.6 per cent). Knowledge aboutwomen's rights and dignity was mentioned by 23.6 per cent of the respondents andawareness and use of herbal medicinal plants by 22.5 per cent of the respondents. Thepoint to be noted here is that the same women who were beneficiaries of theprogrammes organised by the government realized these benefits after joining theprogrammes of the NGOs.

Table 4.25 illustrates the status of the respondents before joining NGOs'programmes.TABLE 4.25DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY STATUS BEFORE JOINING NGOs'PROGRAMMESSL.No.1.' 2.Status before joining the 1 No. of Percentageprogramme 1 RespondentsIgnorance of home management 182 / 28.7' No contact with other womeniwornenorganisations2 74.3 13.Fear of meeting government officials2 74.3Illiterate (No knowledge of readingand writing)1 5. No respect in family and society 1 136 21.5 1I6. No habit of savings15224.0Total634100.0It was perceived that knowledge about the status of the respondents before andafter joining the programmes of the NGOs would give a clear picture about thetransformation that had occurred in their lives. It was amazing to listen to the followingresponses related to the status of the respondents before joining the programmes of theNGOs. 28.7 per cent of the respondents expressed the position that they were ignorantof home management, followed by 24.0 per cent of respondents who had no habit of

savings at all. The view that the women were not respected in the family and societywas expressed by 21.5 per cent of the respondents; the view that they were illiterate(17.4 per cent) without knowledge in reading and writing and that they were afraid tomeet1 face government officials (4.3 percent) was expressed the respondents.programmes.Table 4.26 illustrates the status of the respondents after joining NGOs'TABLE 4.26DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY STATUS AFTER JOINING NGOs'PROGRAMMESSL.No.I.Status After joining theProgrammeNo. ofRespondentsPercentageIKnowledge about home management i 111 17.5 /Courage to meet government I bank1officials3. Contact with \vomenIi27 4.3 14.Literate (some knowledge of reading 1 110and writing) !17.45.Respect in family, society and 1 207government officials32.66.Acquired Habit of savingsTotal15263424.0100.0 1All the respondents were taken up by the tremendous changes that they hadexperienced in their lives on account of the programmes of the NGOs for the progress

of women. Even within a short span of time, the women were able to sense the changesthat had occurred in their lives. A notable proportion of women (32.6 per cent) affirmedthat the women who had joined the programmes of the NGOs were respected by familymembers, government officials and others in society. 24.0 per cent of the respondentsexpressed the view that they had acquired the habit of savings only after joining theNGOs' programmes. Acquisition of skills in home management and literacy wasexpressed by 17.5 and 17.4 per cent of the respondents respectively. 4.3 percent of therespondents acknovr7ledged that they developed skills to meet government officials withcourage and another 4.3 per cent affirmed that they had come into contaxct with otherwomen and women's organizations as a result ofjoining NGOs' programmes.Many studies revealed the fact that personal care and attention on the targetgroups, flexible and human approaches of the NGOs have worked wonders in the livesof the beneficiaries.activities.Table 4.27 shows the level of participation of the respondents in NGOs'

S1.No.1.2'3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.1 1.12.TABLE 11.27DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY LEVEL OF PARTICIPATIONIN N6OsY ACTIVITIESActivities 1 Level of Participation-I Information Consultation Decision-making63400Framing NGO's objectives1 (100.0) (0.0) (0.0)/ 554 80 0Framing programmei (87.4) 1 (12.6) 1 (0.0)Framing rulesSelection of programmeSelection of coordinatorsSelection of animatorsSelection of local leadersPlanning programinePlanning strategyProgrammeimplementationDecision-makingEvaluation of performanceNote: Figures in parentheses are percentage.1I55408o I(87.4) 1 (12.6) (0.0)472 82 80'1 (74.4) (12.9) (12.6)554O I 80(87.4) (0.0) i (12.6)4649080(73.2) (14.2) (12.6)322 23280(50.8) (36.6) (12.6)322 23280(50.8) (36.6) (12.6)322 232I 80(50.8) (36.6) (12.6)178 37680(28.1) (59.3) (12.6) 1178 37680(28.1) (59.3) (12.6)268 3660(42.7) (53.3) (0.0)With the intention of knowing the level of participation of the beneficiaries invarious activities of the NGOs, a three-point scale consisting of the levels ofinformation, consultation and decision-making mias used by the researcher. Data on the

above topic indicate the trend that the respondents were only informed with mattersrelated to framing the objectives of the NGOs (that was exclusively done by the NGOs),and they were consulted to some extent in framing the programmes (12.6 per cent). Ahigh proportion of respondents participated at the consultation and decision-makinglevels on activities such as, programme implementation and decision-making onprocesses related to the programmes (59.3 per cent and 12.6 per cent). In selecting localleaders, programme and strategy planning, 36.6 per cent of the respondents wereconsulted and 12.6 per cent participated in decision-making. It was noted that 53.3 percent of the respondents were consulted on the evaluation of programmes. Twoimportant observations were notified in the above table: first, unlike the programmes ofthe government which treated beneficiaries as passive recipients, the strategies adoptedby the NGOs had initiated the process of consultation and decision-making on certainmatters; second, the NGOs had to go a long way to the level of decision-making by thebeneficiaries in all its activities.Diverse fonns of people's participation in rural development programmes havebeen also identified by studies on participation at various levels - regional, national andinternational.Table 4.28.The awareness of government programmes by the respondents is presented in

SI.No.1.I 2.3.1 4.5.TABLE 4.28DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY AWARENESSOF GOVERNMENT PROGRAMMESName of the ProgrammesWomen developmentMother and child health prograinmeSelf-employment programmeI 6. / Agricultural developmentNO. ofRespondents144 1 22.7142 i 22.4i190 I 14.2898914.042 6.6 1386.0Percentage ICommunity Literacy programme 14.0Programmes for the disabled7. / Community development1 1 Total 1 634 1 100.0 1As the respondents were involved in rural development prograinmes organisedby government, a question was asked to assess their knowledge and awareness aboutthem. It was encouraging to note the trend that 22.7 per cent of the respondents knewabout women development programmes and 22.4 per cent of them were about themother and child health programmes. Programines on self-employinent were realised by14.2 per cent of the respondents programmes for community literacy and the disabledwere known by 14.0 per cent each. The above table reveals the fact that all the womenbeneficiaries of the NGOs had knowledge about the programmes of the government aswell.The results of studies carried out in the developing countries affirm the fact thatprimacy of awareness and education of the people play a vital role in the success ofrural development programmes.

IC@imnun~$y Development.-I

Table 4.29 illustrates the level of satisfaction of the respondents on thefunctioning of government officials.TABLE 4.29DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY LEVEL OF SATISFACTION ONTHE FUNCTIONING OF GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS-1.2.PositiveNegativeTotal492(77.6)142(22.4)634259(40.9)375(59.1)634Level23 1(36.4)403(63.6)634 1The above table shows the degree of satisfaction of the respondents with regardto the functioning of government officials at the district, taluk and panchayat levels. Thepositive trend was high at the district level (77.6 per cent) and gradually decreasingtrend was observed at the taluk (40.9 per cent) and panchayat levels (36.4 per cent). Thenegative level of satisfaction is lower at the district level (22.4 per cent) and at the taluklevel (59.1 per cent) and at the panchayat level (63.6 per cent). In general, therespondents had positive opinion about the officials at the higher level of administrationand negative opinion about the officials at the lower level.

pppThe distribution of the respondents by assessment of performance of GovernmentOrganisations is given in Table 4.30.TABLE 4.30DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY ASSESSMENT OF PERFORMANCEOF GOVERNEMNT ORGANISATIONSISI.No. Variables 1 High Medium LOW j Total1.Bureaucracy2. l ReadinessI3.4.5.6.CorruptionQualityTimelinessApproachability5 74(90.5)Note: Figures in brackets indicate percentage.--482(76.0)82(12.9)------554(87.4)6 0(9.5)80(12.6)152 i --(24.0)I 634634634472 1 80 6342(74.4)---11 634 634(100)--634: (100)634In the above table, six variables were selected and measured in a three-pointscale to assess the performance of government organisations. The results of theobservation revealed the following trends: 90.5 per cent of the respondents expressedthe opinion that bureaucracy was high; 76.0 per cent felt corruption was high, and12.9 per cent of the respondents realised that the quality of senlice was high. Whereas,

all the respondents were of unanimous opinion that timeliness and approachability waslow in government organisations.Studies revealed the fact that, in spite of heavy investments of finance andresources, the government programmes failed miserablydue to bureaucracycharacterised by impersonal ways of dealing with people, delay and insistence on statusand prestige symbols.The distribution of the respondents by assessment of performance of NGOs isgiven in Table 4.3 1TABLE 4.31DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY ASSESSMENTOF PERFORMANCE OF NGOsSl.No. 1 Variables High I Medium I Low 1 Total 11.2.3.BureaucracyReadinessCorruption149(23.5)634(100) 1--4.5.6.QualityTimelinessApproachability634(100)634(100)634(100) 1Note: Figures in brackets indicate percentage.179(28.2)--179(28.2)------306(48.3)--455(71.8)------I634 1634634634 I634 1634 1The above table indicates clearly that all the respondents expressed the view thatthe NGOs selected for the study scored high on readiness to serve people, quality and

timeliness of services rendered to the beneficiaries. Approachability was noted to behigh by the respondents. While compared to the government organisations, bureaucracyand corruption were low in the NGOs (58.3 per cent and 71.8 per cent respectively).The level of co-operation of co-ordinators, animators, local community and localleaders with beneficiary is explained in Table 4.32.TABLE 4.32LEVEL OF COOPERATION OF COORDINATORS, ANIMATORS, LOCALCOMMUNITY AND LOCAL LEADERS WITH THE BENEFICIARY1Categories High Medium Lor TotalCoordinatorsAnimatorsLocal CommunityLocal Leaders464(73.2)634(100.0)259(40.9)80(12.6)170(26.8)0(0.0)233(36.8)179(28.2)0(0.0)0634(100.0)634(0.0) , (100.0)142 1 634(22.4) (100.0)375 634(59.1) (100.0)Note: Figures in brackets indicate percentage.The table on the level of cooperation of the officials of the NGOs and the localleaders with the respondents indicates that the animators were cordial and close to thebeneficiaries (100.0 per cent). About the coordinator at the regional level, 73.2 per centand 26.8 per cent of the respondents estimated to be at high and medium levels

espectively. The cooperation of the local community was expressed to be high by40.9 per cent of the respondents. It was notified that 59.1 per cent of the respondents feltthat the level of cooperation by local leaders was low. The previous tables (4.30, 4.3 1and 4.32) reveal the reality of the administrative and sociological problems that theNGOs and the respondents had to face in organising and implementing ruraldevelopment programmes.Table 4.33 analyses the perception of factors that facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of Government Organisations.TABLE 4.33DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY PERCEPTION OF FACTORSTHAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENT OFGOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSS1.No.Facilitating factorsRespondents1 1. 1 Powerful administrative structure 1 2031 2. 1 Enriched resources and finances 1 2473.Professionally trained officials' 1Percentage!I 32.0 1I184 '! 29.0Total634 1 100.0The above table shows the factor that facilitated effective achievement of goalsof government organizations. Here the enriched resources and finances contributedmuch for the achievement. The corresponding figure is 247 respondents, which

constitute 39.0 per cent. Powerful administrative structure follows this. The relatedvalues are 203 respondents, which constitute 32.0 per cent. The least facilitated factorsin the view of 184 respondents is professionally trained staff. The correspondingpercentage is 29.0.Most of the docu~nents and policies on rural development programmesformulated by Government/international organisations have brought about tremendousresults in favour of the rural poor.Table 4.34 shows the perception of factors that facilitated effective achievementof goals of NGOs.

TABLE 4.34DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY PERCEPTION OF FACTORSTHAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENT OFGOALS OF NGOs1 SI.No. 1PFacilitating factors/ Resr1. LJY J1.I2.poor peoplePeople centered, decentralized andsustainable strategies1 2333. Sincere and committed staff--Total, 36.7' 162 1 25.6The above table 4.34 vividly shows the perception of factors that facilitatedeffective achievement of goals of NGOs. The facilitating factors with the number ofrespondents have been arranged in descending order. 239 respondents (37.7 per cent)out of 634 have expressed that service motto and concern for the welfare of the poorpeople as the most propelling facilitating factor for the effective achievement of goalsof NGOs.The second impressive factor that facilitated effective achievement of thegoals of NGOs is people centered, decentralized and sustainable strategies. Therelated value is 233 respondents, which is 36.7 per cent. The last position is obtainedby factor as sincere and committed staff (25.6 per cent).

The staff are an asset to the NGOs. Many studies have revealed the realitythat the level of cominitillent of the staff has a sustainable and effective impact on thepeople, programmes and performance.Table 4.35 presents the perception of factors that hindered effectiveachievement of goals of Government Organisations.TABLE 4.35DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY PERCEPTION OFFACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENTOF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSS1.No.1.Hindering FactorsRigid, bureaucratic and uniformstructures/ programme modalitiesNo. ofRespondents250Percentage39.5I1 3. 1 Lack of committed service to the poor 1 132 1 20.8 11 1 Total1 634 1 100.0 1IThe above table 4.35 lists out the respondents' views regarding the factors thathindered effective achievement of goals of Government organizations. A majornumber, that is 252 respondents (39.7 per cent) considered corruption as thedominant and crucial factor. For 250 respondents (39.5 per cent ) the relativelyimportant factors is rigid, bureaucratic and uniform structures/ programmemodalities. Lack of committed service to the poor is the factor hindering effective

achievelnent of the goals of government organisation as per the view of 132respondents (20.8 per cent $Table 4.36 indicates the perception of factors that hindered effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs.TABLE 4.36DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY FACTORS THATHINDERED EFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OFNGOsS1.No. Hindering FactorsNo. ofPercentageRes~ondentsI ILack of sufficientresources2,CompetitiodConflictamong NGOS114222.53'People'signorancelindifference23336.7Total634100.0The table 4.36 depicts the factor that hindered effective achievement of goalsof NGOs. Fixing goals are relatively easy compared to its achievements. From thisstudy the researcher has found that 259 respondents, that is, 40.8 per cent pointed outlack of sufficient resources as the prime constraint that affect the effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs. 233 respondents, that is, 36.7 per cent opined thatpeople's ignorance is another dominant constraint. The least of 142 respondents

which constitute 22.5 per cent considered competition among the NGOs as theprincipal reason.Studies prove that competition ainong the NGOs has been detrimental topeople's progress in a few cases. At times, the NGOs also fail in achieving the targetdue to the people's ignorance.The reasons for preference of NGOs are given in Table 4.37TABLE 4.37DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY REASONS FOR PREFERENCE OFNGOsSI.No.1.Savings and creditReasonsNo' of I PercentageRespondents i143 1 22.62'Trust and confidence in womenbeneficiaries179\i28.33'Promoting social awareness andwomen's rights23.5!4'Motivating women for sustainabledevelopmentTotal162634I25.6100.0 j,1

It was noteworthy that all the respondents (100.0 per cent) had preferred toparticipate in programmes organised by the NGOs. When asked about reasons fortheir preference, 28.3 per cent mentioned that the NGOs had so much trust andconfidence in the women beneficiaries, followed by 25.6 per cent of the respondentswho attributed to the factor of the strategies implemented by the NGOs in motivatingwomen for sustainable development. Promotion of social awareness and women'srights was expressed by 23.5 per cent of the respondents. and finally savings andcredit by 22.6 per cent of the respondents.The results of the most of the studies on GOs and NGOs affirm the fact thatthe NGOs not only performed better but also reached the poor effectively.

Table 4.38 analyses the age and perception of the objectives of the NGOs.TABLE 4.38AGE AND PERCEPTION OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THE NGOsSl.No.1.Agein YearsBelow 25SocialAwareness12(24.5)WomenDevelopment13(26.5)Savings andCredit17(34.7)VillageDevelopment7(14.3)Total4 9(100.0)2.25 -2946(32.9)3 9(27.8)2 7(19.3)28(20.0)140(100.0)3.30-344 3(36.8)2 9(24.7)25(2 1.4)20 117(17.1) 1 (100.0)4.35-3936(30.3)3 1(26.1)29(24.4)23 1 119(19.2) (100.0) 15.40-44I30 1 23 19(34.1) (26.1) 1 (21.6)16(18.2)88(100.0)6.45 -4932(33.0)30 ' 17I(30.9) (17.5)18(18.6)97(100.0)7.Above 496(25.0)9(37.5)5(20.8)4(16.7)24(100.0)Total205(32.3)174(27.4)139(21-9) ,116(1 8.3)634(100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.From the table 4.38, it is inferred that out of 634 respondents, 32 per cent ofthem are for social awareness, 27 per cent are for women development and theremaining are for savings and credit and village development. When it is analysed

on the basis of age, majority of the respondents coming under the age group of 30-49They perceive the objectives of the NGOs through social awareness. It is also givento understand that the respondents coming under the same age group have alsoperceived the objectives of the NGOs through women development and villagedevelopment.Most of the studies depict the fact that non-material benefits iike creatingawareness among the beneficiaries have lead to more effective and sustained resultsthan material benefits. The above table affirms that NGOs are inore competent in thenon-material aspect while most of the 60s are concerned with material benefitsNGOs.Table 4.39 shows the literacy level and perception of the objectives of theTABLE 4.39EDUCATION AND PERCEPTION OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THE NGOsSl.No.1.2.3.4.EducationalStatusPrimarySecondaryHigherSecondaryIlliterateTotalSocialAwareness67(31.3)13(26.5)9(39.1)116(33.3)205Women, Development58(27.1)18(36.8)7(30.4)91(26.2)174Savingsand Credit50(23.4)7(14.3)4(17.5)78(22.4)VillageDevelopment39(18.2)11(22.4)3(13.0)63(18.1)Total ,214(100.0)49 j(100.0)23(100.0)348(100.0)/ (32.3) 1 (27.5) / (21.9) 1 (18.3) / (100.0) 1Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.139116634 !

It is given to understand from the Table 4.39, that out of 634 respondents, 348respondents are illiterates, 214 are primary educators and only 23 of them are highersecondary educators. Nearly 39 per cent of the higher secondary qualifiedrespondents have perceived the objectives of NGOs through social awareness and 37per cent of the respondents of the secondary level through women development.Only 23 per cent of them have perceived the objectives through savings and creditand 22 per cent of them through village development.The meticulous analysis of the above table revealed the fact that not only theliterate but also the illiterate were capable of expressing the objectives of the NGOssystematically.Table 4.40.The annual income and perception of the objectives of the NGOs is given in

S1.No., 1.TABLE 4.40ANNUAL INCOME AND PERCEPTION OF THE OBJECTIVESOF THE NGOsAnnualIncomeIn Rs.Below 2000SocialAwarenessWomenDevelopmentSavingsand Credit2 5 5 17- -1 2. 2001- 4000 40 355Ii (100.0) 1IVillageDevelopmentI------ITotal5.8001- 1000014(34.1)' 7(17.0)12(29.3)8 ! 41(19.6) 1 (100.0)I6.10001-120008(40.0)7(35.0)(1 0.0)13(15.0)2o(100.0)I7.Above 1200016(38.1)12(28.6)6(14.3)8(1 9.0)42 1(100.0) /Total 205(32.3)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.From table 4.40 the researcher has analysed the perception of the objectivesthrough annual income of the respondents. Out of 634 respondents, 40 per cent ofthem have perceived through social awareness that falls in the income group of

Rs. 10001 - 12000 and nearly 29 per cent of them who fall in the income group ofRs.8001- 10000, through savings and credit and only 2 1 per cent fall in the incomebrackets of Rs.6001-8000 through village development.The pattern of responses of those in the annual income group of Rs.2001-4000, 4001-6000 and 6001-8000 in prioritising the objectives of the NGOs is foundto be uniform, i.e., in the descending order.Land holdings and perception of the objectives of the NGOs is givenin Table 4.4 1.TABLE 4.41LAND HOLDING AND PERCEPTION OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THENGOsSocialS1. Land HoldingI 1 Total 205No.1. Land OwnerAwareness121(32.2)2. Non-Land 84Owner(32.3)-------WomenDevelopment106(28.2)6 8(26.5)174 139 116 6341 (32.3) 1 (2'7.4) 1 (21.9) 1 (18.4) 1 (100.0) 1Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.Savingsand Credit82(2 1.8)5 7(22.2)Village, Development' 67(17.8)49(19.0)Total376(100.0)258(1 00.0)The table 4.41 reveals, that out of 634 respondents, 376 are landowners andthe remaining 258 are non-land owners. Nearly 32 per cent of both landowners and

non-landowners have perceived the objectives of the NGOs through socialawareness. 26 per cent of the non-land owners have perceived through womendevelopment and nearly 19 per cent through village development.The pattern of prioritising the objectives of the NGOs by those who own landand those who do not own land is found to be in the descending order, giving priorityto social awareness.The annual savings and perception of the objectives of the NGOs is presentedin Table 4.42.

TABLE 4.42ANNUAL SAVINGS AND PERCEPTION OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THENGOsIn Rs.9. Above 61 38 25 32 1561000 (39.1) (24.4) (16.0) (20.5)Total 205 174(32.3) (27.5) (100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.Annual savings and perception of the objectives of the NGOs are analysedfrom the Table 4.42. Majority of the respondents (37.5 per cent), who respond to

social awareness, are coming under the savings brackets of Rs.401-500. As far aswomen development is concerned only 29 per cent opted, whose saving brackets isbetween Rs.801-900 and 47 per cent of the total respondents have perceived savingsand credits on the saving bracket of Rs.90 1 - 1000.Table 4.43.Age and reasons for acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs is given in

TABLE 4.43AGE AND REASONS FOR ACCEPTANCE OF THE OBJECTIVESOF THE NGOsAgein YearsBelow 25Service forthe Welfareof the Poor18(3 6.8),SustainableStrategies4(8.1)Savings andCredit14(28.6)Awarenessthroughtraining13(26.5)ITotal4 9(1 00.0)25 - 2950(35.8)26(1 8.5)3 0(2 1.4)34(24.3)140(1 00.0)30 - 344 1(35 .O)20(17.2)2 8(23.9)2 8(23.9)117(1 00.0)35 - 393 5(29.4)20(16.8)3 3(27.7)3 1(26.1)119(1 00.0)40 - 442 8(3 1 .8)12(13.7)2 0(22.7)28 1 88(31.8)(100.0)45 - 493 5(36.2)2 1(2 1.6)2 1(2 1.6)20 97(20.6) i (100.0)1Total 214 108 150 162 1 634(33.7) (17.I) (23.6) (21.6) (100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.It is inferred from the Table 4.43, that service for the welfare of the poor,sustainable strategies, savings and credit and awareness through training are the mainreasons for the acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs. It is also learnt from thetable that nearly 36 per cent of the respondents, who fall in the age group of 45-49,

are of the opinion that the reason for the acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs isservice for the welfare of the poor. The same age group respondents' also expresssustainable strategy is the reason for the acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs.Nearly 28 per cent of them whose age group is 35-39 express saving and credit is thereason for the acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs.As far as awarenessthrough training is concerned that nearly 33 per cent of the respondents whose agegroup is 50 and above express it. Another 32 per cent who come under 40-44 agegroup also express that the awareness through training is the reason for acceptance ofthe objectives of the NGOs.All the age groups (except above 49) have given the top priority to theobjective of providing services for the welfare of the rural poor by the NGOs. Thisfactor has facilitated the process of building rapport with the NGOs.Education and reasons for acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs ispresented in Table 4.44.

TABLE 4.44EDUCATION AND REASONS FOR ACCEPTANCE OF THEOBJECTIVES OF THE NGOsS1.No.1.2.3.EducationalStatusPrimarySecondaryHigherSecondarySewice forthe Welfareof the PoorSustainableStrategiesSavings andCredit74 3654 50 214(34.5) (16.8) (25.3) I (23.4) (100.0)16(32.6)9(39.1)8(16.3)5(21.7)AwarenessthroughtrainingTotal-49(100.0)12 13(24.6) (26.5)I6 3(26.2) (13.0) (100.0) 23 i4.IlliterateTotal115(33.1)214(33.7)5 9(16.8)108(17.1)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.78 96 1 348(22.5) (2'7.6) (100.0)150(23.6)I162 634(25.6) (100.0)When reasons for the acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs are analysedon the basis of the educational status of the respondents, Table 4.44 reveals thatnearly 348 respondents are illiterates and the remaining are literates.Thepercentages 33.1 per cent and 27.6 per cent froin the illiterates cite the reason ofsocial service for the welfare of the poor and awareness through training. Out of 634,39 per cent of the higher secondary level respondents express the service for thewelfare of the poor, 22 per cent for sustainable strategies and the remaining forsavings and awareness.

The annual income and reasons for acceptance of the objectives of the NGOsis analysed in Table 4.45.TABLE 4.45ANNUAL INCOME AND REASONS FOR ACCEPTANCE OF THEOBJECTIVES OF THE NGOsService for Sustainable Savings and Awareness Totaltraining1. Below 2000 4 17--(23.5) 1 (100.0)2. 2001- 4000 98 355(32.4) (17.7) (22.3) , (27.6) (100.0)3.4.5.6.7.4001 - 60006001 - 80008001- 1000010001-12000Above 1200031(32.4)25(39.7)15(36.7)6(30.0)14(33.3)Total 1 2141 (33.7)15(15.6)9(14.3)5(12.2)3(15.0)12(28.6)108(17.1)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.25 1 25(26.0) 1 (26.0)16 13(25.4) I (20.6)13(31.7)6(30.0)8(19.4)5(25.0)96(100.0)63(100.0)4 1(100.0)20(100.0)7 9 42(16.7) (21.4) / (100.0)150 162 634 1(23.6) (25.6) (100.0) 1The reasons for the acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs are analysed onthe basis of annual income of the respondents. Out of 634 respondents 34 per cent ofthem have expressed sewice for the welfare of the poor is the reason and 17.1 percent as sustainable strategies and 24 per cent for savings and credit and 26 per cent

for awareness through training as reason for their acceptance. When one looks at thereasons deeply on the basis of annuai income, major percentage (47 per cent) of therespondents cite sewice for the welfare of the poor whose income falls on belowRs.2000 category followed by (36.7 per cent) of Rs.6001-8000. Nearly 29 per centof the respondents whose income brackets fall in between above Rs. 12000 expresssustainable strategies and 31.7 per cent of the respondents who come under Rs.8001-12000 cite savings and credit as their reason and nearly 28 per cent of them who fallunder Rs.2001-4000 category breath their wish, awareness through training as thereason for the acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs.Land holding and reasons for acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs isdepicted in Table 4.46.s,,No.1.2.Non-LandOwnerTABLE 4.46/LAND HOLDING AND REASONS FOR ACCEPTANCE OF THEOBJECTIVES OF THE NGOsLand Holding Service for Sustainable Savings and Awarenessthe Welfare Strategies Credit throughof the PoortrainingLand Owner 1316088 , 97(34.8) (15.9)1 (23.5) (25.8)8 3(32.2)4 8(18.6)Total 214 108(33.7) (17.1)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.62(24.0)65(25.2)Total376(100.0)25 8(100.0)150 162 634(23.6) 1 (25.6) (100.0)

The researcher analyses the reasons for the acceptance of the objectives of theNGOs on the basis of land holdings from the table 4.46, in which 376 are thelandowners and remaining 258 are non-landowners out of 634 respondents. Out of376 landowners, 34.8 per cent cite service for the welfare of the poor, 15.9 per centexpress sustainable strategies, 23.4 per cent are of the opinion of saving and creditand the remaining 25.8 per cent cite awareness through training as reasons for theacceptance of the objectives of the NGOs.As far as Non-landowners are concerned, out of 258 respondents, 32.3 percent express service for the welfare of the poor, whereas 18.6 per cent of them forsustainable strategies. Saving and credit is the reason for 24 per cent of the nonlandownersand the remaining 25.2 per cent of the non-landowning respondents arefor awareness through training.The pattern of responses in expressing the reasons for accepting the objectivesof the NGOs is the same for both land owners and non-land owners.of the NGOs.Table 4.47 shows annual savings and reasons for acceptance of the objectives

TABLE 4.47ANNUAL SAVINGS AND REASONS FOR ACCEPTANCE OF THEOBJECTIVES OF THE NGOsSI.No.AnnualSavingsIn Rs.Service forthe Welfareof the PoorSustainableStrategiesSavings andCreditAwarenessthroughtrainingITotalI.Below 3005(I 5 .7)10(3 1.2)8(25 .O)9(28.1)32(100.0)-8.--9.901-1000Above10003 1 36315(20.0) (20.0) (40.0) (20.0) (100.0)----40 363842 156(25.7) (23.1) (24.3) (26.9) 1 (100.0)Total2 14(33.7)108(17.1)150(23.6)162(25.6)634(1 00.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.

When the reasons for the acceptance of the objectives of the NGOs areanalysed on the basis of annual savings amount, it is very interesting to note that 32respondents fall under below Rs.300, saving group, that is, followed by 44 in Rs.301-400. There are 237 respondents fall on the saving group of Rs 501-600: which isfollowed by 156 respondents whose saving group is above Rs.1000. Out of 634respondents, nearly 34 per cent of them cite service for the welfare of the poor, 17per cent for sustainable strategies, 23.6 per cent for savings and credit and theremaining 25.6 per cent for awareness through training as their reasons foracceptance of the objectives of the NGOs.Age and the status of the respondents before joining NGOs' programme isillustrated in Table 4.48.

----p-pp-pppppS1.Xo.I.2.3.4.5.6.7.TABLE 4.48AGE AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS BEFORE JOININGNGOs' PROGPIAh$MESAgein YearsBelow 2525 -2930-3435 - 3940-4445 -49Above 49Ignoranceof HomeManagement10(20.4)j2INo SocialRelationships2(4.1 )6(37.2) (4.3)30 1 3(25.6) ' (2.6)3 0(25.2)25(28.4)27(27.8)8(33.3)7(5.9)4(4.5)5(5.2)__ 1FearofGovf.Officials- 7(4.1)6(4.3)7(6.0)6(5.0)1(1.1)5(5.2)__1 NotrespectedIlliterate in familyandsocieQ9(18.4)19(1 3.5)20(17 1)2 5(21 .O)19(21.7)15(15.5)3(12 5)12(24.5)2 6(1 8.6)Nohabit ofsavings14(28.6)Total4931 140(22.1) (100.0)2532 117(21.4) 1 (27.3) (100.0) '24(20.2)2022(22.7)7(29.2)27(22.7)1923(23.6)119(100.0)' 8897(100.0)I6 24(25.0) (100.0)Total1822 727(4.3)110 136 152 1 634(17.3) (21.5) (24.0) 1 (100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.This table shows the age and the status of the respondents before joiningNGOs programme. In this study majority of the respondents are in the age group 25-29. The least number of respondents are in the age group 50 and above (24 personsOut of 634). An interesting aspect is to note that on the whole 182 were ignorance of

ppppp-home management before joining NGOs programme.Similarly 136 were notrespected in family and society.152 respondents had no habit of saving. It isinteresting to note that the status of respondents varied from age group to age group.In the below 25 years age group, the issue which dominated before joining NGOsprogramme was absence of saving habits, in the age group 25-29 it was ignorance ofhome management in the age group 30-40 it was absence of savings. For the agegroup 35-39,40-49 and 50 and above it was ignorance of home management.Educational and the status of the respondents before joining NGOs'programme is presented in Table 4.49.TABLE 4.49EDUCATION AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS BEFORE JOININGNGOs' PROGRAMMESIgnorance No FearNot NoEduca- of Home Social ofrespected habit ofSI.tional Manage- Relation Govt. Illiterate in family savings TotalNo'status ment -ships Officialsandsociety1.--2. Secondary3.4.PrimaryHigherSecondaryIlliterateTotal5 7(26.6)15(30.6)7(30.4)103(29.6)182(28i)10(4.7)2(4.1)1(4.3)14(4.0)27(4.3)14(6.5)2(4.1)1(4.3)10(2.9)27(4.3)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.37(17.3)15(30.6)4(17.4)5 4(15.5)110(17.3)4 0(18.7)8(16.3)5(21.8)8 3(23.9)56(26.2)7(14.3)136 152(21.4) 1 (24.0)214(100.0)49 I (100.0) ,5 I 23(21.8) (100.0)8 4(24.1)348(100.0)634(100.0)

Table 4.49 depicts education and the status of respondents before joining findthat, among primary level educated respondents, the main issue was absence ofsaving habits (56 out of 2 14 respondents). For secondary level educated respondentsthe problem was both ignorance of home management and illiteracy, for highersecondary respondents it was no respect in the family and society and absence ofsa1;ing habits. For illiterate respondents their main handicap was ignorance of homemanagement followed by absence of saving and no respect in family and society.All the categories of respondents have given priority to the status that theywere ignorant of home management before joining the progammes of the NGOs.Table 4.50 shows annual income and the status of respondents before joiningNGOs' programme.

TABLE 4.50ANNUAL INCOME AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS BEFORE JOININGNGOs' PROGRAMMESNo*1. Below- - - -2000- - -2. 2001-I 40003.4.5.AnnualIncome~n %.-----4001-60006001-80008001--6. 10001-12000Ignoranceof HomeManagement7(41.2)NoSocialRelationships--96 16(27.0) (4.5)FearofGort.OfficialsIlliterate1 3(6.0) 1 (17.6)15 61(17.2)(4.2) (22(100.0)3271 13 , 18 ' 25 96(33.3) (7.3) (1.0) (13.5) (18.8) (26.0) (100.0)13 1 2 20 14 13 63(20.6) (1.6) (3.2) (31.7) (22.3) (20.6) (100.0)15 2 4 4 10 6 4 1(36.6) (4.9) (9.8) (9.8) (24.3) (14.6) (100.0)4 1 2(20.0) (5.0) (10.0)7. Above 15 -- 212000 (35.7)(4.8)Total 182 27 1 27(28.7) (4.3) i (4.3)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.2(10.0)7(16.7)110(17.4)Notrespectedin familyandsocieo32(10.0)10(23.8)136(21.5)Nohabit of/ savingsTotal3l7(17.6) (17.6) ' I(100.0)79 88 3559(45.0)8(19.0)152(24.0)-120(100.0)42(100.0)634(100.0)The above table presents the analysis on the status of respondents beforejoining NGOs' programme and their annual income.Those in the range of annualincome Rs.2001-4000 are the maximum number of persons and their status beforejoining NGOs programmes was that they had no habit of savings (24.8 per cent) andthey had no respect in family and society (22.3 per cent). The other significant

impression from the table is that those in the range of Rs.8001 - 10000 mentioned(36.6 per cent) that they were ignorant of home management.It is remarkable to note that 45.0 per cent of the respondents in the annualincome group of Rs. 1000 1 - 12000 did not have the habit of the savings before joiningthe NGOs' programmes.Table 4.5 1 shows land holding and the status of respondents before joiningNGOs programme.'I'No.TABLE 4.51LAND HOLDING AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS BEFOREJOINING NGOs' PROGRAMMESIgnorance 1 No Fearof Home ' Social ofLandManage- Relation Govt. Illiterate in family savings Total 1Holdingment and 11.2.-LandOwnerNon-landOwnerTotal115(29.3)67(26.0)182(28.7)11(2.7)16(6.2)2 7(4.3)13(3.5)14 43(5.4) i (16.7)27 110(4.3) 1 (17.4)67 73 97 376(17.8) (19.4) (25.8) (100.0)63 '(24.4)136(21.5)55(21.3)258(100.0)152(24.0) 1 (100.0)634 1Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.Table 4.5 1 depicts the landholding and the status of respondents before joiningthe programmes organised by the NGOs.Those respondents who owned landexpressed the view that they were ignorant of home management (28.7 per cent) and

-PPP----they had no habit of savings (25.8 per cent). Among those who did not own land, thesignificant impression was that they were ignorant of home management (26.0 percent) and they were not respect in the family (24.4 per cent).The details of annual savings and the status of respondents before joiningNGOs' programme are given in Table 4.52No'1.2.I 3,I4.' 5.6.7.8.9.Note:TABLE 4.52ANNUAL SAVINGS AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS BEFOREJOINING NGOs' PROGRAMMESIgnorance No FearNot NoAnnual of Home Social ofSavings Manage- Relation Govt. IlliterateIn Rs. ment ships OfficialsandBelow300301-400401-500501- 600601-7008(25.1)9(20.5)2(6.2)4(9.1)1 --10(4.2)1(6.8)2(25.0)11(4.6)--(12.5)67(28.2)7(31.8)(4.5)701 - 800801 - 900901-100025(36.2)19(37.3)52(2.9)--1 --Above(33.3) (6.7)417 61000 (26.3) (4.6) (3.8)Total 182 27 27(28.7) (4.3) (4.3)Figures in parentheses are percentages.respected habit of ,in family 1 savings Total//2----society6 7 7 32(6.2) (18.7) 1 (21.9) (21.9) (100.0)3 5 10 13 I 4 4(11.4)(22.7) (29.5) j (100.0) 11 3 I(12.5) (37.5) (12.5) i (100.0)843 49 57237(18.1)4(20.7)4(24.2)6(100.0)22(18.2) (18.2) (27.3) (100.0),3 11 14 14 69(4.4) l(15.9) (20.3) (20.3) ,(lOO.O)-- 12 511 1 119(17.6) (23.5) (21.6) (100 0)3 3 3 15(20.0) (20.0) 1 (20.0) (100.0)2834 1 40 156(17.9) (21.8) (25.6) (100.0)110 136 152 634(17.4) (21.5) (24.0) (100.0)Table 4.52 deals with annual savings and the status of respondents beforejoining NGOs programme. For those whose annual savings below Rs.300, eight out

of 32 inferred that their status was ignorance of home management. For the savingsgroup of Rs.301-400, it was absence of habit of savings. On the whole for majorityrespondents (182 out of 634) the dominant status was ignorance of homemanagement followed by absence of saving habits and no respect in the family.programme.No.Table 4.53 depicts age and the status of respondents after joining NGOs'TABLE 4.53AGE AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS AFTER JOININGNGOs' PROGRAMMES3. j 30-34IIAgein YearsI1. Below 252.4.5.6.7.II25-29' 35 - 3940-4445 -49Above 49Skills inHomeManagement5(10.2)Skills insocialrelation-32(22.9)21(17.9)6(4.3)3(2.6)18 7(15.1)(5.9)14I4(15.9) ' (4.5)16(16.5)5(20.8)Skills tomeetGovt.ships 1 officials2 2(4.1) ' (4.1)5(5.2)--Total 111 27 27(17.5) (4.3) (4.3)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.6 19 46 31140(4.3) (13.6) ( (32.8) (22.1) (100.0)7 32 '1176(5.0)1(1.1)5(5.2)--Literate9(18.4)25(21.0)19(21.6)15(15.5)3(12.5)110(17.3)36(30.3)It explains the age and the status of respondents after joining NGOsprogramme. For respondents below 25 years of age, the main gain was (17 out of 49)ISpecialStatus infamilyandsociety17(34.6)31' (35.3)33(34.0)10(41.7)207(32.6)AcquiredHabit ofSavings14(28.6)27, (22.7)1 19(21.6)23(23.6)6(25.0)152(24.0)Total49(100.0)119(100.0)88(100.0)97(100.0)24(100.0)634(100.0)

special status in family and society. This is reflected as endorsed by all other groupsalso. Thus 207 respondents out of 634 (32.6 per cent) confirmed that their status infamily and society has considerably improved after joining the NGOs programme.Respondents from all the age groups expressed the unanimous opinion thattheir status in family and society was raised to a higher level after joining the NGOs'programmes. They did not enjoy such a status even when they were inembers of theSHGs organised by GOs.Table 4.54 presents the education and the status of respondents after joiningNGOs programme.S1.No'1.2.3.4.TABLE 4.54EDUCATION AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS AFTER JOININGNGOs' PROGRAMMESSkills in Slulls in Skills toSpecial AcquiredEduca- Home social meet ,Status in Habit oftional Manage- relation- Govt. I Literate family Savings Totalstatus ment ships officials Iand1IsocietyPrimarySecondaryHigherSecondaryIlliterateTotal37(17.3)10(20.4)4(17.4)60(17.2)11 1(17.5)10(4.7)2(4.1)1(4.3)14(4.0)27(4.3)14(6.5)2(4.1)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.37(17.3)60(28.0)15 13(30.6) 1 (26.5)1 4 1 8(4.3) 1 (17.5) (34.8)10(3.0)2 7(4.3)54(15.5)110(17.4)56(26.2)7(14.3)5(21 7)126 I 84(36.2) (24.1)207(32.5)152(24.0)214 '(100 0)49(100.0)23(100.0)348(100.0)' 634 1(100.0)

Table 4.54 shows education and the status of respondents after joining NGOsprogramme. For primary level educated respondents the main gain was special statusin the family and society. For secondary level educated respondents the main gainwas skills in home management. For respondents in the higher secondary level andilliterates the main gain seemed to be their special status in family and society.Table 4.55 analyses annual income and the status of respondents after joiningNGOs programme.No.1.2.3.4.5.6.TABLE 4.55ANNUAL INCOME AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS AFTERJOINING NGOs' PROGRAMMESAnnualIncomeIn Rs.Skills inHomeManagementBelow 12000 (5.9)2001- 604000 (16.9)4001- 226000 (23.0)6001 - 98000 (14.3)8001- 610000 (14.6)10001- 3--12000Skills insocialrelationshipsSkills tomeetGovt.officials-- 1(5.9)16 15(4.5) (4.2)7 1(7.4) (1.0)1 2(1.6)2(4.9)1(3.2)4(9.8)2Literate1(15.0) (50)----(10.0) (10.0) (15.0) 1 (45.0) (100.0)7. Above 10 -- 2 7 15 8 42/ 12000 1 (23.8) 1 1 (4.8) 1 (16.6) 1 (35.7) 1 (19.0) (100.0) /I Total I 111 27 27 / 110 / 207 152 / 634 ,1 (17.5) 1 (4.3) / (4.3) 1 (17.4) 1 (32.6) / (24.0) 1(100.0) 1Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.I3(17.6)61(17.2)13(13.5)20(31.7)4(9.7)2SpecialStatus infamilyandsociety9(53.0)115(32.4)28(29.1)18(28.6)19(46.3)AcquiredHabit ofSavings3(17.6)88(24.8)25(26.0) 113(20.6)6(14.6)3 ; 9Total17(100.0)355(100.0)96 I (100.0)63(100.0)4 1(100.0) 120 1

ppIt illustrates the annual income and the status of respondents after joining theNGOs programme. For sample respondents with annual income of below Rs. 2000,the status after joining NGOs prograrnme was special status in the family and society.This is true of other income groups of Rs. 2001-4000, 4001-6000, 6001-8000 andTable 4.56 shows land holding and the status of the respondents after joiningNGOs' programmeTABLE 4.56LAND HOLDING AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS AFTER JOININGNGOs' PROGRAMMESNo.LandHolding1. LandOwner-2. Non-landOwner---I Total-!Skills inHomeManagementSkills insocialrelationshipsSkills tomeetGovt.officialsLiterate---70 11 13 67(18.6) (2.9) (3.5) (17.8)----41(15.9)16 14(5.4)43(16.7)111(17.5)11:)27 27 110(4.3) , (4.3) (17.4)INote: Figures in parentheses are percentages.SpecialStatus infamilyand118(31.4)207(32.5)AcquiredHabit ofSavings97(25.8)152(24.0)Total89 55 ' 258 134.5) (21.3) (lOO.0)----376(100.0)634(100.0)Table 4.56 explains land holding and the status of respondents after joiningNGOs programme. Both landowners and non-landowners (1 18 and 89 respectively)

confirmed that their status in family and society impressively gained currency afterjoining NGOs programmeThe distribution of respondents on the basis of annual savings and the status ofrespondents after joining NGOs' programme is given Table 4.57TABLE 4.57ANNUAL SAVINGS AND THE STATUS OF RESPONDENTS AFTERJOINING NGOs' PROGRAMMESINo.1.2.3.4.5.6.-7.--8.9.AnnualSavingsIn Rs.Skills inHomeManagementSkills insocialrelationshipsSkills tomeetGovt.officialsLiterateSpecialStatus infamilyandsocietyAcquiredHabit ofSavings TotalBelow300 6 2 2 6 9 7 32(18.7) (6.3) (6.3) (18.7) (28.1) (21.9) (100.0)301-400 I 4 4 3 5 15 13 44i (9.1) (9.1) (6.8) (1 1.4) (34.1) (29.5) (100.0)401-500 1 -- 2 1 3 1 8(12.5)(25.0) (12.5) (37.5) (12.5) (100.0)501- 600 43 10 11 43 73 57237(18.1) (4.2) (4.7) (18.1) (30.8) (24.1) (100.0)601-700 4 1 -- 46 22I(18.2) (4.5)(18.2) (31.8)(27.3) (100.0)701 - 800 13 2 3 11 261469(2.9) (4.3) (16.0) (37 (20.3) (100.0)801 - 900 10 -- -- 9 2111 51(19.6)~~-~(17.6) (41.2) (21.6) (100.0) 1901-1000 3 1 -- 3 5 3 151(20.0) (6.7)(20.0) (33.3) (20.0) (100.0)Above 27 7 I 6 284840 1561000 (17.3) (4.5) / (3.8) (18.0) (30.8) (25.6) (100.0)Total I 111 I 27 1 27 I 110 207 I 152 I 634 IINote: Figures in parentheses are percentages.

Table 4.57 explains annual savings and the status of respondents after joiningNGOs programme. For all saving groups the much-acclaimed gain was their specialstatus in family and society.The least benefited advantage was skills in homemanagement.Table 4.58 illustrates age and factors that facilitated effective achievement ofgoals of Government Organisation.TABLE 4.58AGE AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENTOF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSSI.No.1.Agein YearsBelow 25PowerfulAdministrativeStructure16Enriched / Professionally 1 TotalResourcesand Finance22TrainedOfficials 111 4911 7.Above 49Total(31.9) (46.1)9 I 8(37.5)203(33.3)247(32.0)7(29.2)184(100.0)24(100.0)634Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.

This table reveals age and factors that facilitated effective achievement ofgoals of government organisations. Finance is the lifeblood of any organisation. Thisis true for the government organisation also. For the respondents whose age arebelow 25, enriched resources and finance was the prime successive factor (22 out of49), followed by powerful administrative structure (16 out of 49) followed byprofessionally trained officials (11 out of 49). Except the age group 25-29 all the agegroups confirmed this patterns of reasoning. For the age group 25-29, the dominantcontributory factor was powerful administrative structure followed by enrichedresources and professionally trained officials.The level of education and factors that facilitated effective achievement ofgoals of Government Organisations is given in Table 4.59.

TABLE 4.59EDUCATION AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS$1.No.1 1.--EducationalStatusPrimaryIPowerfulAdministrativeStructureEnrichedResources andFinance6 9 1 81(32.3) ! (37.8)ProfessionallyTrainedOfficialsTotal64 1 214(29.9) (100.0)2.3.SecondaryHigherSecondary17(34.7)6(26.0)22(44.9)8(34.8)10 49(20.4) (100.0)9 23 - 1(39.2) 1 (100.0) ,4. Illiterate 1 111 1 136 1 1011 (31.8) (39.1) (29.1)Total203(32.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.247(39.0)184 1 634(29.0) 1 (100.0)Table 4.59 explains education and factors that facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of government organisations. Among all educated groups anunanimous pattern was stated. If they are arranged in descending order of priority, itwas enriched resources followed by powerfil administrative structure andprofessionally trained officials.The distribution of annual income of the respondents and factors thatfacilitated effective achievement of goals of Government Organisation is given inTable 4.60.

TABLE 4.60ANNUAL INCOME AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSS1.No.--1.Annual IncomeIn Rs.Below 2000PowerfulAdministrativeStructureEnrichedResources andProfessionallyTrainedTotal9 1 617(53.0) (35.3) 1 (11.7) (100.0)i1 Total(28.6)203(35.7)247(3 5.7) 1 (100.0)184 634Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.It shows the annual income and factors that facilitated effective achievementof goals of government organisations. For the people whose annual income wasbelow Rs.2000, the main contributory factor was powerful administrative structure.For the income group between Rs.2001-4000, it was enriched resources and financefollowed by powerful administrative structure and professionally trained officials.

People in the income group of Rs.4001-6000, 6001-8000, 8001- 10000, stated thisalso. For the income group Rs. 10001 - 12000, it was professionally trained officials.For the people whose income was above Rs.12000, both enriched resources andfinance and professionally trained officials shared it equally.Table 4.61 shows land holdings and factors that facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of Government Organisations.TABLE 4.61LAND HOLDING AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSElNo.Land HoldingPowerfulAdministrativeStructureEnrichedResources andFinanceProfessionallyTrainedOfficials1. Land Owner I 129 i 138109Total376Owner(28.6)(42.3)(29.1(100.0)Total203(32.0)247(39.0)184(29.0)634(100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.Table 4.61 is based on land holding and factor that facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of government organisations. Landowners are of the view thatenriched resources and finances are responsible for the achievement of goals of

government organisations. Non-landowners also accepted the view held by thelandowners.The details of annual savings and factors that facilitated effective achievementof goals of Government Organisations are given in Table 4.62.TABLE 4.62ANNUAL SAVINGS AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSAnnual SavingsI 1n RS.Yo. 11.2.Below 300301-400PowerfulAdministrativeStructure8(25.0)EnrichedResources andFinance13(40.6)13 17(29.6) i (38.7)--53. 401- 500(62.5)76904. 501- 600(32.0) (38.0)895. 601-700(36.4) (40.9)6. 701 - 8007. 801 - 9008.47901-1000(26.6) (46.6)9. Above 1000 4662(29.6) (39.7)Total203247(32.0) (39.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.28, (34.8)24(40.6)2020(39.3) (39.2)ProfessionallyTrainedOfficials 111(34.4)14(31.7)3(37.5)71(30.0)5(22.7)17(24.6)11(21.5)4(26.8)48(30.7)184(29.0)Total32(100.0)44(100.0)8(100.0)237(100.0)22(100.0)69(100.0)51(100.0)15(100.0)156(100.0)634(100.0)

Table 4.62 explains annual savings and factors that facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of government organisations.For the respondents whoseincome was below Rs.300, enriched resources and finance has development thegovernment organisation to realise the goals. Saving groups Rs.301-400 and 401-500 further support this. For the saving group Rs.501-600 powerful administrativemachinery, (76 out of 237) followed by professionally trained persons (71 out of 237)are responsible for the achievement of goals.Other groups views are widelydispersed.Age-wise distribution of the respondents and factors that facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs is given Table 4.63.

TABLE 4.63AGE AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENTOF GOALS OF NGOs'S1.No.1.1Agein YearsBelow 25Service for thewelfare of thepoor18Peoplecentered and 1sustainablestrategies I16Sincere andCommittedStaff15Total49I(41.2)(31.1)5. 40 - 443 135(35 -2) (39.8)6. 45 - 493635(37.1) 1 (36.1)7. Above 499 I 11(37.5) I (45.9)Total239 233(37.7) (36.7)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.(27.7)22(25.0)26(26.8)4(16.6)162(25.6)(100.0)88(100.0)97(100.0)24(100.0)634(100.0)Table 4.63 vividly shows the age and factors that have facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs. Regarding NGOs respondents whose age was below25 maintained (18 out of 49) that service for the welfare of the poor was the mainreason for the success of NGOs programme. People in the age group of 25-29mentioned similar view. For people in the age group of 30-34, it was people centredand sustainable strategies. Again a respondent in the age of 35-39, it was service forthe welfare of the poor. For 40-45 age group it was again people centred and

sustainable strategies. On the whole 239 out of 634, credited service for the welfareof the poor was the main contributory factors followed by the people centred andsustainable strategies (233 out of 634).Table 4.64 presents educational status and factors that facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs.TABLE 4.64EDUCATION AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF NGOswelfare of the centered and Committedsustainable Staff1 strategies Iw1. Primary 57 2141 (35.5) (37.9) 1 (26.6) (100.0)2. 1 Secondary 18 25 6 49(36.7) (51.0) (12.3) (100.0)3. Higher 8 7 8 23Secondary (34.7) 1 (30.5) 1 (34.8) (100.0)4. Illiterate1I 137 120 1 91 348(39.4) (34.5) (26.1) (100.0)Total 239 233 162 634(37.7) (36.7) (25.6) (100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.This explains education and factors that have facilitated effective achievementof goals of NGOs. Regarding primary level educated respondents 81 out of 214opined that people centred and sustainable strategies was the primary successive

ppppfactor. Secondary level educated respondents supported this also. For the illiteraterespondents it was service for the welfare of the poor contributed much. In sumservice for the welfare of the poor (239 out of 634) and people centred andsustainable strategies (233 out of 634) helped the NGOs to achieve the goals.The distribution of annual income of the respondents and factors thatfacilitated effective achievement of goals of NGOs is illustrated in Table 4.65.S1.NO.TABLE 4.65ANNUAL INCOME AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF NGOsAnnual IncomeIn Rs.1. Below 2000-2. 2001- 40003.4.5.-6.7.4001 - 60006001 - 80008001- 1000010001-12000Above 12000TotalService for thewelfare of thepoorPeoplecentered andsustainablestrategies8(46.9)6(35.3)134135(37.7)(38.0)3836(39.6) (37.4)1725(26.9) (39.7)1813--(43.9) (31.7)I6(30.0)18(42.6)239(37.7)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.7(35.0)11(26.0)233(36.7)Sincere andCommittedStaff3(17.8)86(24.3)22(23.O)2 1(33.4)10(24.4)7(35.O)13(31.4)162(25.6)Total17(100.0)355(100.0)96(100.0)63(100.0)I 41(100.0)20(100.0)42(100.0)634, (100.0) ,

Table 4.65 analysed annual income and factors that have facilitated effectivegoals of NGOs.For the respondents whose income below Rs.2000, consideredservice for the welfare of the poor is the basic reason that have facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs. For the income group Rs.2001-4000, both servicefor the welfare of the poor and people centred and sustainable strategies are the basiccauses. On the whole service for the welfare of the poor and people centred andsustainable strategies are equally important.The details of land holdings and factors that facilitated effective achievementof goals of NGOs are presented in Table 4.66.1.Land OwnerTABLE 4.66LAND HOLDING AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF NGOsS1,Land Holding Service for the People centered Sincere and Totalwelfare of the and sustainable CommittedNo.poor strategies Staff146(38.8)8 9(37.5) (23.7)3 76(100.0)2.Non-LandOwner93(35.9)92(35.7)73(28.4)258(100.0)Total239(37.7)233(36.7)162(25.6)I 634(100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.Table 4.66 explains land holdings and factors that have facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs. Landowner respondents are of the view that service

for the welfare of the poor (146 out of 376) and people centred and sustainablestrategies (141 out of 376) are the basic reasons for the success of effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs.Regarding the factors facilitating the effectiveachievement of goals of the NGOs, non-landowners also held the same view.Table 4.67 portrays the annual savings and factors that facilitated effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs.TABLE 4.67ANNUAL SAVINGS AND FACTORS THAT FACILITATED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF NGOsS1.NO.Annual SavingsIn Rs.Sewice for thewelfare of thepoorPeople centeredand sustainablestrategiesSincere andCommittedstaff 1Total5.6.601- 700701 - 8007. 801 - 900----8. 901-10008(36.3)30(43.4)25(49.1)7(46.6)9. Above 1000 54(34.7) (36.6)Total239233(37.7) (36.7)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.90 60 237(37.9) (25.4) (100.0)10(45.4)25(36.3)I 15(29.1)6(40.0)4 I(1 8.3)14(20.3)11(2 1.5)22(100.0)69 I(100.0) 15 1(100.0)57 45 156(28.7)162(25.6)(100.0)634(100.0)'

Table 4.67 shows the annual savings and factors that have facilitated effectiveachievement of the goals of NGOs. For the respondents whose income was belowRs.300, service for the welfare of the poor and sincere and committed staff are theimportant factors that helped much. On the whole 239 out of 634 considered servicefor the welfare of the poor as the primary reason followed by people centred andsustainable strategies.Table 4.68 shows age and reasons for preference of NGOs.TABLE 4.58AGE AND REASONS FOR PREFERENCE OF NGOs(24.5)'Age Savings and Trust and Promoting Motivating TotalSI.No.in Years credit confidence inwomensocialawarenesswomen forsustainabledevelopment1. Below 25 10 12 14 13 49I(20.5)(28.5) (26.5) (100.0)7. Above49 5748 24I--- (20.8) (100.0) ,Total 143 179 150 162 6342. 25 -29 354 1 3034140(25.0) (29.3) (21.4)(24.3) (100.0)TTpcZ- 24 37 28 28117i(20.6) (31.6)(23.9) (23.9) (100.0)14. 35 - 39 2332 3331119(19.3) (26.9) (27.7) (26.1) (100.0)I 5. 40-44 2 1 19 20 28 88 1(23.9) (2 1.6) (22.7) 1 (31.8) (100.0) i6. 45 -49 25 3121 1 20 97(25.9) (3 1.9) (21.5)(20.7) (100.0)(22.6) (28.3) (23.5) (25.6) (100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.It shows age and reasons for preference of NGOs. For the respondents below25 considered promoting social awareness as the main reason for preference of

NGOs. For the age group 25-29, it was trust and confidence in women; and for theage group 30-34, it was trust and confidence in women. On the whole 179 out of 634considered trust and confidence in women: and 162 out of 634 considered motivatingwomen for sustainable development as the prime cause for preference of NGOs.It is noteworthy that the trust and confidence of the NGOs in women gainedthe first preference from respondents in all the age groups. This factor facilitated aconducive atmosphere for cordial and mutual interactions between the NGOs andbeneficiaries.The literacy level of the respondents and reasons for preference of NGOs ispresented in Table 4.69.S1.NO.TABLE 4.69EDUCATION AND REASONS FOR PREFERENCE OF NGOsEducational Savings andStatus credit/1. Primary 37(17.2)2. i Secondary 12Trust andconfidence inwomen73(34.2)12Promotingsocialawareness54(25.2)12Motivatingwomen forsustainabledevelopment50(23.4)13Total214(100.0)494.secondaryIlliterate---143 1 179Total(34.7) (26.1) (26.1) (13.1) / (100.0)8688 7896 1 348(24.7) 1 (25.3)(100.0)150 j 162 634Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.

Table 4.69 shows education and reasons for preference of NGOs. Among theprimary level respondents, trust and confidence in women are the reasons forpreference of NGBs.For secondary level educated respondents all the fourcharacteristics are equally important. On the whole 179 out of 634 confinned trustand confidence in women is the main reason followed by motivating women forsustainable development (162 out of 634).Table 4.70 analyses the annual income of the respondents and reasons forpreference of NGOs.TABLE 4.70ANNUAL INCOME AND REASONS FOR PREFERENCE OF NGOss1.No.AnnualIncomeIn Rs.Savings andcreditTrust andconfidence inwomen1. Below 2000 4(23.5)I 5(29.4)2. 2001- 4000 83(23.4)95(26.7)3. 4001 - 6000 16(16.7)30(31.2)4. 6001 - 8000 8(12.4)26(41.4)I 5. 8001-10000 11 9(26.9) (21.9)6. 10001-12000 6(30.0)3(15.0)7. Above 12000 15(35.7)11(26.2)Total 143 179(22.6) (28.3)Note: Figures in ~arentheses are percentages.Promotingsocialawareness4(23.6)79(22.3)25(26.1)16(25.5)13(3 1.7)6(30.0)7(16.7)150(23.5)Motivatingwomen forsustainabledevelopment4(23.5)98(27.6)2 5(26.0) 113 1(20.7) /8 1(19.5) 15 1(25.0)9(2 1.4)162(25.6)Total17(100.0)355(1 00.0)96(100.0)63(100.0)41(100.0)20(100.0)42(100.0)63 4(100.0)I

This table shows annual income and reasons for preference of NGOs. Here,179 out of 634 considered trust and confidence in women is the main reason. This isin all the major income groups except Rs.800 1 - 10000 and 1000 1 - 12000.The distribution of land holdings of the respondents and reasons forpreference of NGOs is given Table 4.71TABLE 4.71LAND HOLDINGS AND REASONS FOR PREFERENCE OF NGOsS1.No.1.Land HoldingLand OwnerSavings andcredit84(22.3)Trust andconfidence inwomen107(28.4)Promotingsocialawareness88(23.4)MotivatingIwomen forsustainable11development97(25.9)I Total376(100.0)2.I /Non-LandOwner59(22.9)72(27.9)1 d;) 1 ) 1 (23.5) , (25.6) 1 (100.0) 1Total 150 1 162 634 1Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.62(24.0)6 5(25.2)258(100.0) /Table 4.71 shows land holdings and reasons for preference of NGOs.Regarding the landowners, trust and confidence in women and motivating women forsustainable development are the prime reasons for preference of NGOs. For the nonlandownersalso, they attributed the same reasons for preference of the NGOs.

Table 4.72 presents annual savings and reasons for preference of NGOs.TABLE 4.72ANNUAL SAVINGS AND REASONS FOR PREFERENCE OF NGOsS1.No.AnnualSavingsIn Rs.,Savings and Trust and / Promotingcredit confidence in 1 social1 women 1 awarenessIMotivatingwomen forsustainabledevelopment ITotal9. Above 40 36 3 81000 (25.7) 1 (23.1) 1 (24.3) 1 (26.9)Total143(22.6)179(28.3)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.150(23.5)162(25.6)634(100.0)

It has been observed that trust and confidence in women made that annualsavings group of Rs.401-500 (62.5 per cent) to prefer NGOs, which is followed bythe role of NGOs in promoting social awareness among the annual saving group ofRs.901-1000 (40 per cent). In the saving group of Rs.301-400, the respondents arehighly satisfied with the role of NGOs in motivating women for sustainabledevelopment and the annual savings group of Rs.901-1000 (33.3 per cent) preferNGOs for the purpose of savings and credit.Table 4.73 presents the distribution of age and factors that hindered effectiveachievement of goals of Government Organisations.TABLE 4.73AGE AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENT OFGOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSAge 1 Bureaucratic 1 Corruption / Lackof 1 Total 1I committed !in yearsand rigidstructures1. Below 2521(42.8)2. 25 - 2961(43.7)3. 30 - 3449(41.9)4. 35 - 3936(30.2)5. 40 - 4434(38.6)6. 45 - 4939(40.2)7. Above 4910(41.7)Total250(39.5)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.20(40.8)5 1(36.3)45(38.4) 15 3(44.5)3 9(44.3)3 6(37.1)8(33.3)252(39.7)1 service to the /poor8(16.4)28(20.0)49(1 00.0)140 1(100.0)123 117(19.7) (100.0)30 119(25.3) (100.0)1588(17.1) (100.0)22 97(22.7) 1 (100.0)624(25.O)(100.0)132 634(20.8) (100.0)

It has been inferred from the table 4.73 that bureaucratic and rigid structureshinder the effective goal achievement of government organisations towards the agegroup of 25-29 years (43.7 per cent); and the respondents between the age group of40-44 years are affected by corruption in government organisations and 25.3 per centof the respondents in the age group of 35-39 years are not effectively reached by thegovernment organisations due to their lack of committed service to the poor.The level of educational status of the respondents and factors that hinderedeffective achievement of goals of Government Organisations.TABLE 4.74EDUCATION AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSEducational Bureaucratic Corruption Lack ofs1. Status and rigid committedNO. ~ 1 structures service to the2.3.4.-SecondaryHigherSecondaryIlliterateTotal818 2 1(20.5)10(36.7)9(39.1)139(39.9)250(39.5)(42.9)11(47.8)134(38.5)252(39.7)(20.4)3(13.1)75(21.6)132(20.8)(100.0)4 9(100.0) 123 1(100.0) j348(100.0)634(100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.

Corruption, bureaucracy and lack of committed service to the poor stand inthat respective order in hindering the effective achievement of goals. It is inferredfrom the table that 39 per cent of the higher secondary educated respondentsattributed to bureaucracy. 47.8 per cent of higher secondary qualified attributed tocorruption and 40.2 per cent of the primary educated respondents are aware ofcorruption and bureaucracy as the hindering factors in achieving the goals of thegovernment organisations. People who are illiterates also attribute to bureaucracyand corruption as factors hindering the achievement of goals. Respondents withsecondary education expressed the opinion that corruption and bureaucracy are thefactors in hindering the achievement of goals of government organisations.Table 4.75 illustrates the distribution of annual income that hindered effectiveachievement of goals of Government Organisations.

p-pTABLE 4.75ANNUAL INCOME AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS1a.No.1.Annual IncomeIn Rs.' Below 2000Bureaucraticand rigidstructures10(58.8)CorruptioniLack ofcommittedservice to thepoor6 1(35.3) 1 (5.9)Total17(100.0)2.2001- 4000143 136 1 76355(40.3) (38.3) (21.4) (100.0)4. 6001 - 8000I181 (28.6)5. 8001-10000 18(43.9)6. 10001-12000 8(40.0)) 7. Above 12000 1 13I1 (30.9)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.It is obvious from the table that people in the category of Rs.2001-4000 feelthat 40.3 per cent attributed to bureaucratic and rigid structures followed by 38.3 percent to corruption and 21.4 per cent to lack of committed service to the poor as the

major hindrances in effective achievement of goals of government organisations.Similarly respondents whose annual income is Rs. 10001 - 12000, expressed the viewthat bureaucracy and corruption are the major hindrances to the achievement of goalsof government organisations. Totally all income groups opined that corruption andbureaucratic and rigid structures and lack of committed service to the poor arehindering effective achievement of goals of government organisations.The details of land holdings and factors that hindered effective achievement ofgoals of Government Organisations.TABLE 4.76LAND HOLDING AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSS1.No.1.Land HoldingLand OwnerBureaucraticand rigidstructures154(40.9)Corruption142(37.8)Lack ofcommittedsenrice to thepoor80(2 1.3)ITotal376(100.0)2.Non-LandOwner96(3 7.2)110(42.6)(20.2) j2(lz80)Total250(39.5)252132(39.7) , (20.8)634(1 00.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.This table explains that 40.9 per cent of landowners feel that bureaucracyfollowed by 37.8 per cent of conuption as the major hindrances in effective

achievement of goals with 21.3 per cent lack of committed service to the poor. Non-landlowners that form 42.3 per cent endorsed corruption and bureaucracy ashindering factors.IThe distribution of annual savings and factors that hindered effectiveachievement of goals of Government OrganisationsTABLE 4.77ANNUAL SAVINGS AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONSAnnual Savings Bureaucratic Corruption Lack ofSI. In Rs.and rigidcommitted1 No.structuresservice to thepoor1.2.3.Below 300301-400401- 5001018115174793(31.2)(40.9)(12.5)(46.9)(38.7)(50.0)(2 1.9)(20.4)(37.5)2 1 127. 801 - 900---(41.2) (23.5)8.55 5901-1000--9. Above 10001 (37.2) (42.3) (20.5)4.959547501- 600(40.1) (40.1) (19.8)5.6.601- 700701 - 8001131725413(50.0)(44.9)(31.8)(36.2)(18.2)(18.9)1Total250(39.5)252(39.7)132Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.Total32(100.0)44(100.0)8(100.0)237(100.0)22(100.0)69(100.0)51(100.0)15(100.0)634(20.8) / (100.0) 1'

The above table clearly indicates that bureaucracy was considered to be thedoininant factor in hindering effective achievement of goals of GOs by 50 per cent ofthe respondents.And another 50 per cent from the annual savings category ofRs.601-700 expressed the view that the corruption was the most hindering factor.From the above table, it is obvious that the GOs are not able to achieve the target ofthe prograinines effectively because of corruption and bureaucracy.Table 4.78 depicts age-wise distribution of the respondents and factors thathindered effective achievement of goals of NGOs.

TABLE 4.78AGE AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVE ACHIEVEMENT OFGOALS OF NGOsSI.No.1.2.3.1 4.5.6.,Agein YearsBelow 2525 - 2930 - 3435 - 3940 - 4445 - 49Lack ofsufficientresources20(40.8)63(45.0)42(35.9)52(43.7)35(39.8)38(39.2)9(37.6)259(40.8)Competition /Conflictamong NGOs7. Above 494I(16.6)Total142(22.5)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.1316(26.5) (32.7)I29 48(20.7) 1 (34.3)24 I 5 1(20.5) (43.6)30(25.2) (31.1)18(20.4)24(24.7)People'signorance andindifferenceTotal49(100.0)140(100.0)117(100.0)37 ' 119 135(39.8)35(36.1)11(45.8)(100.0)88(100.0)97(100.0)24(100.0)233 1 634(36.7) 1 (100.0)From the above table it has been inferred that 45.8 per cent of the people whobelong to the age group of 50 years and above rated ignorance and indifference ofpeople as the major hurdle in achieving the goals of the NGOs; and it has beenobserved that 45 per cent of the respondents who belong to the age group of25-29 years considered the fact of lack in sufficient resources of the NGOs to be thedominant factor. And 26.5 per cent of the respondents who are below 25 years

attributed the factor of competition among the NGOs to be the major factor inachieving the goals of NGOs effectively.The distribution of respondents on the basis of educational status and factorsthat hindered effective achievement of goals of NGOs is shown in Table 4.79.TABLE NO. 4.79EDUCATION AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF NGOsS1.No.r1 I.EducationalStatusPrimaryLack ofsufficientresources88(41.1)Competition /Conflictamong NGOs4 5(21.1)People'signorance andindifference81(37.8)Total214(1 00.0)2.Secondary17(34.7)7(14.3)2 5(5 1 .O)49(1 00.0)3.HigherSecondary12(52.1)4(17.4)7(30.5)2 3(100.0)I4.IIlliterateTotal1421 (40.8) 1 (24.7) (34.5)259(40.8)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.86142(22.5)12023 3(36.7)I348(100.0) 1-634(1 00.0)From the data it is inferred that 52.1 per cent with higher secondary educationand 34.7 per cent of secondary education with 41.1 per cent of primary education feelthat lack of sufficient resources of the NGOs is the major factor of hindrance in

achieving the goals of the NGOs. The data, which consists of more than fifty percent illiterates express the opinion that lack of resources, and people's ignorance andindifference are the major factors. It is only through education that the illiterates andpeople with primary education can participate effectively in achieving the goals ofthe NGOs.Table 4.80 analyses the annual income of the respondents and factors thathindered effective achievement of goals of NGOs.TABLE 4.80ANNUAL INCOME AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF NGOs1. Below 20002.--3.2001- 40004001 - 6000Competition / People's Totalsufficient Conflict ignorance andresources among NGOs indifference83(47.0) 1 (17.6)140 806(35.4)13517(100.0)3554. 6001 - 8000(34.9) (25.4)5. 8001- 10000 19(46.3)9(22.0)6. 10001-12000 12I(60.0) (5.0)7. Above 12000 2011------ (47.6) (26.2)Total259142(40.8) (22.5)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.(39.7)13(3 1.7)7(35.O) 111(26.2)233(100.0)4 1(100.0)20(100.0)42(100.0)634(36.7) / (100.0) 1

It has been observed that lack of sufficient resources prevents the NGOs tohnction effectively as expressed by the respondents from the income group of~s.10001-12000 (60 per cent) and it also has been felt by the income group of aboveRs.12000 that competition and conflict among NGOs have not helped in theirdevelopment. It has been noted that 39.7 per cent of the respondents who comeunder the income group of Rs.6001-8000 endorsed the view that people are ignorantand indifferent towards the goals of the NGOs.Table 4.81 presents the details of land holding and factors that hinderedeffective achievement of goals of NGOs.TABLE 4.81LAND HOLDING AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF NGOs~1,No.1.Land HoldingLand OwnerLack ofsufficientresources156(41.5)Competition 1Conflict amongNGOs7 9(21 .O), People'signorance andindifference14 1(37.5)Total376(100.0)2.Non-LandOwner103(39.9)63(24.5)92(35.6)258 1(100.0)Total259(40.8)142(22.5)233(36.7)634(100.0)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.

The above table clearly indicates that lack of sufficient resources havehindered the effective goal achievement of NGOs with regard to landowners (41.5per cent) and it has been observed that non-landowners (24.5 per cent) do not receivethe effective assistance of NGOs due to competition, conflict among the NGOs. Ithas also been found that landowners (37.5 per cent) affirmed the fact of ignoranceand indifference of people towards the various goals of the NGOs as the importantobstacle in achieving the goals of the NGOs.The annual savings of the respondents and factors that hindered effectiveachievement of goals of NGOs.

TABLE 4.82ANNUAL SAVINGS AND FACTORS THAT HINDERED EFFECTIVEACHIEVEMENT OF GOALS OF KGOsI , I Annual Savings / Lack of I Competition / / Peoole's I Total /31.No.1.2.3.4.56.1 7.8.1 9.In Rs.Below 300301-400401-500501-600sufficientresources14(43.7)16(36.4)3(37.5)968601-700(36.4)30701 - 800(43.5)23801 - 900(45.1)5901- 1000(33.3)Above 1000 1 645190171 \--.-I 6) (77 \- ' "91 /,10(45.5)25(36.3)15(29.4)6(26.7) (40.0)1 (41.0) (22.5) (36.5) 1 (100.0) /1 Total 1233 634(22.5) (36.7) / (100.0) 11 (40.8)Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.conflict amongNGOs8(25.0)10(22.7)3(37.5)4(1 8.1)14(20.2)I13(25.5)4ignoraice andindifference10(31.3)I8(40.9)2(25.0)35 I 5732(100.0)44(I 00.0)8(100.0)237(innnl,-v".-22(100.0)69(100.0)51(100.0)15(100.0)156From the above table it is understood that all respondents feel that lack ofsufficient resources is one of the factors that affects the achievement of goals ofNGOs. All the groups except the saving group of Rs.401-500 suggested that thecompetition, conflict among NGOs is not the major factor that affects theachievement of NGOs goals.People's ignorance and indifference got secondimportance in respect to achievement of goals of NGOs. Over all, lack of sufficientresources is the important factor that hindered effective achievement of goals ofNGOs, rather than the other two factors.

IMPACT OF NGOs' PROGIRAMMESIn the context of the objectives of the study, data were collected from the respondentson the impact of the programmes of NGOs on the respondents. Data collected on theimpact of the programmes of the NGOs are grouped under six parts:part I - Transformation of women through NGOs' Programmes;Part I1 - Participation of women in Organisational Process;Part 111 - Challenges of women Arising from Involvement in NGOs' Programmes;Part IV - Woman as agents of social change;Part V - Discovering Women's Potentialities, Skills and Qualities; andPart VI - Recognition of the status and role of Women by Men4.83 Transformation of Women through NGOs' Programmes1- SI. Statements 1 Don't I -Agree / Disagree /No. 1 I Know /I1. / As a result of the programmes of the NGOs I!there is attitudinal and behavioural change in j 22 577 ' 35 1women regarding their identi" and role in- society.2. The women who have gone through the NGOI 563 40programmes are conscious of their rights as(88.8)women.(4.9)(6.3)3. As a result of the NGO programmes, the33 545 56target group women have regained their(5.2) I (86.0) (8.8)identity in society.4. As a result of the NGO programmes. women20 582 32are conscious of their own dignity andimportance.(3.2) (91.8) (5.0)5. Through the self-help groups of different595 21villages, women have achieved a specialstatus in society.(2.8) (93.9) ' (3.3)16. Thanks to the training programmes of NGO,41 538 55women have become conscious of their(6.5) (84.9) (8.6)decisive role in society.The above table shows the fact that, as a result of the rural developmentprogrammes organised by the NGOs, there was attitudinal and behavioural change in

women regarding their role and identity in society (91.0 per cent). It is remarkable tonote that 93.9 per cent of the respondents gained special status in society and theywere conscious of their own dignity and importance (91.8 per cent). In general, thetable brings out the transformation that had taken place in the lives of therespondents, on account of joining the programmes of the NGOs./4.84 Participation of Women in Organisational Process1 S1. I Statements I Don't 1 Agree 1 Disagree 1'No.1.2.3.4.5.6.1 7.1KnowThe target group women participate actively 19in planning.(3.0)The target group women participate actively 20in implementing the plan. 1 (3.2)The target group women participate activelyin resolving difficultiesThe target group women participate activelyin responding to specific issues.Only those who are educated among thetarget group women need to participate in thedecision-making and implementationprocesses because of their ability to contributequalitatively.Men are more active than women in planningprogrammes for rural developmentMen are more involved in implementing ruraldevelopment programmes than women18(2.9)35(5.5)12(1.9)/579 36(91.3) (5.7)58628(92.4) (4.4)600 16(94.6) (2.5)558 4 1(88.0) (6.5)3 1(4.9)591(93.2)24 36574(3.8) (5.7) (90.5)32 205 82(5.0) (3.2) (91.8)The table on participation of women in organisational processes of the NGOspoints out the reality that 94.6 percent of the respondents participated actively inresolving difficulties that arise in the families and groups. They took part actively in

the various processes, such as planning (91.3 per cent), implementing the plan (92.4per cent), responding to specific issues (88.0 per cent).It has to be noted that they considered themselves to be superior to men inplanning rural development programmes (90.5 per cent) and implementingprogrammes for rural development (9 1.8 per cent).4.85 Challenges of Women Arising from Involvement in NGOs' ProgrammesS1.Nn.1 11I1I2.3.4.5.StatementsThe women who have gone through the NGOprogrammes are ready to face challenges frommen in their own families.The women who have gone through the NGOprogrammes are ready to face challenges frommen in the village community.Because of the awakening created in women,they are burdened with additionalresponsibilities.The workload of women have increasedbecause of the NGO programmes (affectingtheir family responsibilities)The NGO programmes have affectedadversely the unity of the family life.Don'tKnow45(7.1)5 2(8.2)Agree533(84.1)497(78.4)63 50(9.9) i (7.9)13(2.0)29(4.6)19(3.0)DisagreeI(8.8)5685(13.4)52 1(82.2)602(95.0)35 I 570 'I(5.5) / (89.9) 1The above table indicates the trend that those women who had gone throughthe rural development programmes organised by the NGOs were prepared to face thechallenging situations that arose in their families (84.1 per cent) and villagecommunity (78.4 per cent). It is interesting to note that their involvement in the groupactivities of the NGOs did not affect their family life adversely (89.9 per cent).

Women as Agents of Social ChangeStatements 1 Don't1 KnowWomen play an effective role in eliminating 45the practice child-labour. (7.1)Women who have undergone training inNGOs' programmes, take more responsibility /11in inanaging the families than before. 1 (1.7)1to developmental or empowerment~programmes, women are able to change the 15entire attitude of the village/community I (2.4)regarding their earlier perceptions of women IAgree-Tz+-KDisagreehave contributed to the economicsustainability of their family. (1.7)Thanks to the NGOs' programmes, the target ,, VLgroup women are able to change theiroppressive rural customs and traditions. (9.8)The target group women make use of theq- - -different developmental schemes of the 1 'government effectivelv. 1 (1.1)The NGOs' programmes have made a39commendable impact in eradication ofalcoholism.(6.2)Women have been empowered to eliminatethe prevalent negative cultural practices17regarding girl-childbirth, girl-child education,dowry, women employment, and participation(2.6)in politics.Women have learned the habit of saving. --The moneylenders have lost their hold on the29people at least to a considerable extent, due to(4.6)women's role in savings and credit schemes.Women are able to respond more forcefully39than men in situations of injustice and(6.1)exploitation.Men are more effective than women in 41bringing about social change. (6.2)I I

The above table of women as agents of social change explains elaborately theimpact of the programmes organised by the NGOs at various levels. The respondentshad played an effective role in elimination of the practice of child labour (82.5 percent), and eradication of alcoholism (88.9 per cent). All the respondents acquired thehabit of savings only after joining the NGOs' programmes. As a result of theirrealisation of the dignity and importance of women in society, they were able torespond to social issues against women as a collective body.The respondents were not only aware of the programmes of the governmenton rural development but also made use of the development schemes effectively(95.7 per cent).4.87 Discovering Women's Potentialities, Skills and QualitiesS1.No.1.2.3.4.5.StatementsThe women who have gone through theNGOs' programmes have acquired leadershipqualities.As a result of NGOs' programmes, there is avery strong awareness among women abouteducation.As a result of NGOs' programmes, there is avery strong awareness among women abouthealth.The target group women have increased theirmanagement skills of the family.The target group women are becomingcapable of planning the family budgetsystematically.Don'tKnow33 1 563(52) (88.8)2 9(4.6)23(3.6)10(1.5)25(3.9)Agree ' Disagree (I38 1(6.0)5 86(92.4)l9(3.0)582 1 29(91.8), (4.6)602(95.0)592(93.4)22(3.5)17(2.7)1I

6. Due to the NGOs' programmes, women --acquired Itnowledge about different // developmental schemes of the government.7. 1 The women who have gone through the NCO 15I programmes have acquired self-confidence, (2.4)In spite of the NFOs' programmes, women1 18.still depend on NGOs to approach the ; 33I1 Government departments for developmenti scheme.634 --,, nn n\ ,(1VU.U)I595 1 24 IOne of the strategies of the programmes organised by the NGOs was tofacilitate the discovery of the potentials, skills and qualities of wloillen beneficiaries.The above table presents the acquisition of skills on leadership (88.8 per cent), skillson family management (95.0 per cent), knowledge about health (91.8 per cent) anddevelopmental schemes of the government (100.0 per cent). Above all, 93.8 per centof the respondents acquired self-confidence.4.88. Recognition of the Status and Role of Women by MenS1. / Statements ( Don't / Agree -1 Disagree 1I1 KnowiNO.1.2.3.4.5.The male members of the local bodies respect 1 20 603 1 11the opinion of the women members./ (3.1) (95.1) / (1.8)Thanks to the efforts and struggles of the 126 563 45(4.1) i (88.8)attitude towards women.IWomen have become more aware of their27 ' 594 13gender equality, thanks to the NGOs'(4.3) (93.7) (2.0)programmes.The Government officers respect the views 26target group women, men have changed their / (7.1) ,and opinions of women. 1 (4.1)60 1(94.8)Women chairpersons or members of the local ' I 36 I 558self-government bodies contribute ( (5.7) 1 (88.0)commendably to rural welfare.7(1.1)4 0(6.3)

6.7.Women have become active bread earners ofthe family through different incomegenerating schemes.Men are better administrators than women.8(1.3)4 5(7.1)27(;I.:) (4.2)26 I 563(4.1) i (88.8)The table on recognition of the status and role of women by men was includedwith the intention of getting data from the respondents about the views and opinionsof men on the women beneficiaries. Qualitative data collected on the above topicrevealed that husbands at home resisted women from joining the self-help group;later on, realising the impact and the positive effects on the individual vvoman, in thefamily, and the society, men started encouraging women to attend the activities of thegroup with enthusiasm. Another notable impression from the above table was therecognition given to women of the self-help groups by the officials of thegovernment and bank. Those officers who despised women before joining the groupsorganised by the NGOs, received them with dignity and respect after the w-omen hadjoined the programmes of the NGOs.

CHAPTER VSUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONAfter analysing the quantitative and qualitative data collected for the study,this chapter presents the conclusions of the study. While doing so, it also summarisesthe key points in the data presented in the previous chapters. This chapter itself isdivided into seven parts:Part IPart I1Part 111Part IVPart VPart VIPart VII- Socio-economic aspects of the respondents;- Objectives of the NGOs;- Strategies and approaches adopted by the NGOs in implementingrural development programmes;- The impact of the programmes;- Factors facilitating the effective achievement of goals set byGovernment organisations and NGOs;- Factors hindering the effective achievement of goals set byGovernment organisations and NGOs;- Suggestions are presented for the effective functioning of NGOs.5.1 Socio-economic aspects of the respondentsThe respondents selected for the study were all of them women; among therwomen between the age groups of 25 - 34 constitute 40.6 per cent of threspondents. Almost all of them (93.4 per cent) were married women. Membership c

the unmarried young women in the self-help groups organised by NGO s was at thelowest ebb (1.7 per cent). About 55.0 per cent of them were illiterate while theremaining 45.0 per cent were literate. Among the literate women, most of them were~rirnary educated. The highest educational qualification of the respondents washigher secondary level.Agriculture and allied activities were noted to be the primary occupation ofthe women respondents (59.3 per cent) and the 37.9 per cent of them were landlesslabourers. Regarding the type of house, 55.0 per cent of them live in huts andthatched houses. Data on the pattern of landholding revealed that the lands owned bythem were small and fragmented. Open well was found to be the source of irrigationfor cultivation of crops. 11.0 per cent of the respondents had an annual income belowRs.2000 from crops. 56.0 per cent of the respondents had an annual income in therange of Rs.2001-4000. All the respondents had acquired the habit of savings afterjoining the programmes of the NGOs.In the order of priority, drinking water, hospital and medical facility, andtransport were the immediate felt-needs expressed by the respondents. Skill trainingfor self-employment (9.5 per cent), irrigation (8.8 per cent), and community hall (8.7per cent) were the other needs expressed by them.

5.2 Objectives of the NGOsAs for the membership of the respondents joining the NGOs' programmes, theyears 1998 and 1999 recorded the maximum. Regarding the objectives of the NGOs,social awareness through training and education (32.3 per cent), women development(27.4 per cent), savings and credit (21.9 per cent), and village development 18.3 percent) were the stated objectives by the respondents and all of them accepted theabove objectives of the NGOs. The reasons for accepting the NGOs' objectives wereexpressed as the service for the welfare of the poor (33.7 per cent), awarenessthrough training (25.6 per cent), savings and credit (23.6 per cent): and sustainablestrategies (17.1 per cent).The perception of the usefulness of NGOs' programmes expressed by them isarranged in the order of priority: awareness and use of herbal medicine (28.3 percent); skills in income generating activities (25.6 per cent); knowledge aboutwomen's rights and dignity (23.6 per cent) and savings and credit (22.5 per cent).5.3 Strategies and approaches adopted by the NGOsAll the respondents affirmed the preference for the NGOs and they attributedthe cause to the strategies and approaches adopted by the NGOs.The NGOs had trust and confidence in the beneficiaries (28.3 per cent);motivating women for sustainable development (25.6 per cent); promoting social

awareness and women's rights (23.5 per cent) facilitating savings and credit (22.6 percent).Regarding their participation in the activities of the NGOs. they were activelyinvolved in the decision-making process (71.9 per cent) and 28.1 per cent ofrespondents expressed that they were only informed.49.2 per cent of the beneficiaries expressed the opinion that they were activelyinvolved in planning strategies and programmes, while 50.8 per cent expressed theview that they were only informed. The variation in the opinion of the respondentswas attributed to the initiatives of the local animator.In the selection of animators and prograinines about 25.0 per cent of therespondents had played a vital role while the others caine to know about it throughinformation.Regarding the level of cooperation between the animators and respondents, allof them affirmed that it was total.Among the respondents, 73.2 per cent had experienced total cooperation and26.8 per cent expressed a high level of cooperation with co-ordinators.

At the local coinmunity level, 22.4 per cent of the respondents mentioned asufficient level of cooperation; and 77.6 per cent were totally satisfied with the levelof cooperation.The level of cooperation at the level of local leaders was at a lower ebb (59.2per cent) compared to the cooperation extended by the animators, coordinators andlocal community.Regarding the strategies of approachability to beneficiaries, timeliness andquality of services rendered to the beneficiaries, and readiness to meet the needs ofthe beneficiaries, the responses were 100.0 per cent in favour of the NGOs.Among the respondents, 23.5 per cent expressed the opinion that bureaucracywas high in the NGOs while 48.3 per cent said that it was low; the other 28.2 per centopined that it was at the medium level.On corrupt practices in NGOs, the response was at a low level (71.8 per cent)and medium (28.2 per cent).Compared to the government organisations, corrupt practices were total (100.0per cent) and bureaucracy was estimated to be high (90.5 per cent); approachabilityto the beneficiaries and timeliness of service was low (100.0 per cent).

As far as the level of satisfaction with the functioning of the governmentofficials was concerned, a descending note was observed froin the district to thevillage level. While 77.6 per cent of the respondents expressed a positive note at thedistrict level, 63.6 per cent opined negatively at the village level.5.4 Impact of the ProgrammesStatus before joining the NGOs' Program~nes28.7 per cent of the respondents said that they were ignorant ofhome/health/environlnent management24.0 per cent of the respondents expressed the response that they did not havethe habit of savings.21.5 per cent of the respondents mentioned that they did not have respect infamily and society and 17.4 per cent opined that they were illiterate and they did nothave knowledge in reading and writing.Status after joining the NGOs' Programmes32.6 per cent of the respondents felt their status and dignity in family andcommunity/society increased considerably.The respondents acquired the habit of savings and credit (24.0 per cent) andalso acquired skills to meet other women and women organisations (4.3 per cent).

36.2 per cent from the illiterate were proud to express the opinion that theyhad acquired special status in family and society.The fact that the wornen who were afraid of meeting government officialsearlier, have now acquired skills to meet them boldly and express their demands forwelfare of the village community (4.3 per cent)..5.5. Factors that facilitated effective achievement of goals set by GovernmentOrganisationsThe following were the factors that facilitated effective achievement of goalsset by Government Organisations: enriched resources and finances (39.0 per cent);powerful administrative structure (32.0 per cent); and professionally trained officials(29.0 per cent)The following factors were analysed as factors facilitating effectiveachievement of goals set by NGOs: service motto for the welfare of the poor people(37.7 per cent); people centered, decentralized and sustainable strategies (36.7 percent); sincere and committed staff (25.6 per cent).5.6 Factors that hindered effective achievement of goals set by GovernmentOrganisationsThe following were the factors that hindered effective achievement of goalsset by government organisations: corruption (39.7 per cent); rigid and bureaucratic

structures and uniform programme modalities (39.5 per cent) and lack of committedservices to the poor (20.8 per cent).The following were the factors that hindered effective achievement of goalsset by NGOs: lack of sufficient resources (40.8 per cent); people's ignorance (36.7per cent); and competition among NGOs (22.5 per cent).Reasons for preference of NGOs:trust and confidence in womenbeneficiaries (28.3 per cent); motivating women for sustainable development (25.6per cent); promoting social awareness and women's rights (23.5 per cent) andfacilitating savings and credit (22.6 per cent).SUGGESTIONSNon-Governmental OrganisationsNGOs could initiate processes and strategies wherein the self-help groupsgradually become independent and self-reliant in the long run.Knowledge is power and so NGOs could encourage woinen groups to take upa literacy programme for the uneducated women in their neighbourhood.

Training programmes related to the nature and dynamics of women'smovements, skills in leadership, communication and management could be promotedthrough self-help groups.Government OrgansiationsGovernment officials need to be more sympathetic to the rural poor and renderprompt services to the rural communities.Based on the immediate needs of the rural communities, relevant programmescould be chalked out to alleviate integrated rural poverty and misery.Decentralized and democratic administration is the need of the hour.Drastic measures are to be taken for eradicating corruption at all levels.Policies should be worked out to include NGOs as partners in the process ofrural development.CONCLUSIONThis study has pinpointed the crucial role of government and nongovernmentalorganisations in rural development. It asserts that NGOs are capableof achieving targets more effectively in favour of the rural poor. Most of the womenbeneficiaries had been members of the same self-help groups under government

auspices; but the difference and the impact of the rural development programmes asorganized by non-governmental organizations are remarkable because of thetremendous changes that had transformed the lives of rural women. And now it isobvious that the Governments cannot go alone in the challenging task of ruraldevelopment; rather it is only through mutual partnership between Government andNon-governmental organisations - wherein they complement each other - that ruralcommunity development will blossom with the rural poor as the axis of development.The conclusion of the study is that the axis of sen~ices to the needs of the rural poorand NGO-GO interaction should be directed principally towards this axis over thecoming decades.

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APPENDIXINTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATAFROM THE BENEFICIARY OF THE NGOGENERAL INFORMATIONName of the Respondent :Sex:1.2.1. Male1.2.2. FemaleAge:Marital status1.4.1 Unmarried1.4.3 Divorced1.4.5 Deserted1.4.2. Married1.4.4. Separated1.4.5. WidowedMother Tongue :Postal AddressLiteracy1.7.1. LiterateEducational Qualification:1.8.1. Primary1.8.5. Post graduateOccupation:1.9.1. Farmer19.3. LandlessLabourerAnnual IncomeType of House1.11.1 Hut1.1 1.3. TiledRs.1.7.2. Illiterate1.8.2. Secondary13.4. Undergraduate1.8.6. Others(speci@)1.9.2. Artisan1.9.4. Others1.11.2 Thatched1.11.4 Terrace

xxviii

pp1.13.3 CROPS CULTIVATEDS1.No.CropSeasonIncomeRemarksi 01.1.14 Number of days employed in a yearS1.No.01.02.03.Sources of Income (Annual)ItemsAmountRemarks 111.16 Items of expenditure (Annual) :/ I S1. ItemsNo.01.02.03.04.05.06.07.AmountRemarks1

XXX1.17 Do you save money?1.17.1. Yes1.18 Wow much do you save annually:1.19 Where do you deposit your savings?1.19.1 Bank1.17.. No.Rs.1.19.2. Post Office1.19.3 Private1.19.4. Others1.20 Do you borrow money?1.20.1 Yes 1.20.2 No.1.2 1 Details about loans/ S1. No. / Purpose Amount 1 Source 1 Rate of 1 Remarks ]/ InterestI1.22 What are your needs? (in the order of priority).1.22.11.22.21.22.31.22.41.22.52.0 BENEFICIARY AND THE NGO2.1 Name of the NGO of the beneficiary:

2.2 Are you aware of the objectives of the NGO? :2.2.1 Yes 2.2.2 No.2.3 What are the objectives of the NGO?2.4 Are the Objectives acceptable to you?2.4.1 Yes 2.4.2 No.2.5 Reasons for the above:2.6 How did you come to know about the NGO?2.6.1. From the NGO 2.6.2. From other NGOs2.6.3. No~i-Beneficiaries 2.6.4. Beneficiaries2.6.5 Advertisement 2.6.6. Others2.7 In what ways these programmes of the NGO are useful to you?

2.8 Details about the programmes and the beneficiary:~ 1 . 1 I Year of 1 Status 1 Status AfterNo Programme Joining before Materials Non-mat.I gains Values01.02.03.Remarks2.9 Your level of participation / Involvement :No.,01.S1. 1 Functions 1 Information 1 Consultation I Decision I Self I Remarks 1Framing NGOsobjectives02. Framing Prog.Objectives03. Framing rules04. Selection ofProgrammes05. / Selection of Co-1 ordinators06. Selection ofanimators07. Selection oflocal leaders08. PlanningProgrammes09. / Planning1 Strategies10. Programme---- Implementation1 I.12.13.14.Decision makingprocessEvaluationProcessOthersIIIIMakingMobilisation---IIIIII

2.10 Your Participation in training Progra~nmes Organised by the NGOS1. Programme Duration Frequency Methods ' ResourcesNoUsed 1 PersonsRemarks01.02.03.04.2.1 1 Are you aware of the programmes run by Government Agencies?2.11.1.Yes 2.11.2 No.2.12 If Yes enumerate the programmes:S1.No01.2.12.12.12.22.12.32.12.42.12.5Level of satisfaction with the functioning of the Government officials.TopLevelCordialSmoothIndifferentHostileRemarks I1I

2.13 Your assessment of Performance:Sl.No0 1.02. Readiness-----1 03. Corruption04. , Quality--05. TimelinessI06. Approachability07.1 08.UnitsBureaucracyOthers (SpecifSi)HighIINGOMediumLowGovernment AgenciesHigh Medium LowFkmarks~~~~~~II112.14 Level of Co-operation with the beneficiary:S1. / Units I TotalI*No.01. Animators02. Coordinator03. LocalCommunityLeaders*1 Leaders IHigh Medium Low 1 Not at allI iI I Remarks I

2.15 Which do you prefer?2.15.1 NGO 2.15.2. Government Agencies2.16 Reasons for your preference:2.16.12.16.22.16.32.16.42.16.52.16.63.1 Factors that have facilitated achievement of goals:(in the order of priority)3.1.1.1NGOs

3.2 Factors that have hindered achievements to goals : (in the order of priority)3.3 Your role in the process of achievement3.3.13.3.23.3.33.3.43.3.53.4 Any other relevant information:DATE OF INVESTIGATION:SIGNATURE OF THE INVESTIGATOR.