History of Latvia: a Brief Survey

In the AD 900s, the ancient Balts began to establish definabletribal realms. Gradually, four individual Baltic tribal culturesdeveloped: Couronians, Latgallians, Selonians, Semigallians(kurši, latgaļi, sēļi, and zemgaļi). The largest of them was theLatgallian tribe, which had the most advanced socio-politicaldevelopment.In the 1100s and 1200s, the Couronians were aggressive people,engaged in raiding, looting and pillaging. Located on the westcoast of the Baltic, they became known as the ‘Baltic Vikings’.Their contemporaries, the inland Latgallians, Selonians andSemigallians, were known as peace-loving and prosperousfarmers. The Latgallians had the most advanced state-likeformations (civitates in medieval Latin chronicles): Atzele, Jersika,Koknese and Tālava.4Ancient Latgallians and their clothing, 11-13th centuries.

Āraiši – a reconstructed lake-dwellingsettlement of ancient Balts, 9th century.Jewellery of the ancient Balts, 6-11thcenturies: crossbow brooches, bracelet.dēli (Sons of God), Laima (Fate or Fortune) and other deities, mainly maternal figures —female patronesses of some specific activities or places (Mother of the Sea, Mother of theForests etc.). One of the most important gods was the god of thunder and storms, Pērkons,who fertilised the earth and cleared it of the power of evil. Pērkons was imagined as a stern,bearded and powerfully built man who traversed the sky in a fiery chariot drawn by swifthorses, or as riding a fiery horse. His head was crowned with a wreath of flames. In one handhe held lightning bolts, and in the other, a heavy stone axe. Historical records and Balticfolklore have preserved the names and functions of about 200 Baltic gods and goddesses.A Namejs ring, named after thelegendary 13th century Semigallianleader, Namejs. Historical informationsuggests that this identifying symbolwas worn by ancient Semigalliannobility. Today it is worn as an assertionof Latvian identity.6Written sources of the 13th century list the names of some of the greatest leaders or kingsof the Baltic and Finno-Ugrian tribes: Lamekins among the Couronians, Tālivaldis among theLatgallians, Namejs (Nameisis) and Viestarts amongthe Semigallians, and Ako and Kaupo among the Livs.The most renowned leader was Semigallian Namejs,almost a mythical figure in modern Latvian literature.He is believed to have attempted a significant militarycampaign in 1286, of allied Baltic tribes against theinvading German military contingent known asthe Livonian Order (Latin: Fratres militiae Christi deLivonia).

12th century-1914The Age ofGerman, Polish,Swedish, and RussianRule in LatviaBecause of its strategic geographic location, the Latvian territory was frequentlyinvaded by neighbouring nations, largely defining the fate of Latvia and its people.By the late 12th century, Latvia was increasingly visited by traders from WesternEurope who used Latvia’s longest river, the Daugava, as a trade route to Russia.Compared with other countries around Europe, Christianity arrived in the territory ofLatvia relatively late. German traders appeared at the close of the 12th century, bringingwith them missionaries who attempted to convert the pagan Baltic and Finno-Ugriantribes to the Christian faith. Out of loyalty to their ancient pantheistic beliefs, the Baltsresisted the imposition of a foreign religion, especially the ritual of christening.In 1198 Pope Innocent III proclaimed a crusade against the Baltic peoples, without anysignificant results. In 1199 Albert of Buxhoeveden (c.1165-1229) was named as a Bishopof Ikšķile — also where the first western church in the territory of Latvia was located. Heconvinced Innocent III to proclaim a second Baltic crusade. In the spring of 1200, twenty-three8A fragment of the Latin text of the‘Heinricus’ Livonian Chronicle’ (HeinriciChronicon Livoniae), which depictedevents in the territory of Latvia between1180 and 1227. In this fragment, from a17th century copy of the chronicle, thefoundation of Rīga in 1201 is described.The emblem of the Livonian Brothersof the Sword, later called the LivonianOrder.The seal of Bishop Albert, the founderof Rīga, 1225.

A battle between the Couronians and the German crusaders nearthe coast of Gotland in the Baltic Sea, 18 April 1210. It was thegreatest victory of the ancient Latvians over the crusaders in theBaltic Sea.The stamp of Rīga city in 1225.ships and five hundred armed German soldierswere hired to assist the Christian missionaries ina campaign to forcibly convert the people of theregion. In 1201 Bishop Albert began building thecity of Rīga near the mouth of the river Daugava,where Liv villages were located on the RīdzeneRiver. Rīga became the largest and most powerfulcity on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. Thefounding of Rīga was the beginning of urban historyin the whole Baltic area.An image of Pope Innocent III (whowas Pope 1198-1216) from a medievaldocument. A papal bull issued byInnocent III began the second crusade inthe Baltic territory.Structure of the Holy Roman Empire.Illustrations from the NurembergChronicle (Die Schedelsche Weltchronik),by Hartmann Schedel (1440-1514).As the German soldiers of the Livonian Order seized control of the region, the developmentof separate tribal realms and state-like formations in ancient Latvia came to an end.Among religious orders, Cistercians and Dominicans played the most important role inLivonia. The Cistercians established the first monastery in Daugavgrīva (German: Dünamünde)in 1205-1207 which became a sort of Western diplomatic centre in the Baltics. In the1200s,a confederation of feudal nations was developed under German rule and named Livonia.The territory included today’s Latvia and Estonia. The confederation of Livonia remainedan important factor in the politics of Northern Europe until the second half of the 16thcentury. Livonia was the part of a mainly Germanic conglomeration of lands of the HolyRoman Empire.9

Walter von Plettenberg (c.1450-1535),Master of the Livonian Order (1494–1535) and one of the greatest leaders ofthe Livonian knights.The coat of arms of Rīga 1349.In 1282, Rīga and later Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese, Kuldīga, and Valmiera were included in thenorthern German trading organisation, the Hanseatic League (Hansa). Rīga subsequentlybecame an important centre not only for east-west trade, but for the entire eastern Balticregion, developing close cultural contacts with Western Europe.The stamp of Rīga city in 1368.A map of Hansa cities from 1539 (Cartamarina et Descriptio septemtrionaliumterrarum ac mirabilium rerum in eiscontentarum, diligentissime elaborataAnno Domini 1539 Veneciis liberalitateReverendissimi Domini Ieronimi Quirini).10The 16th century was a time of great change for the inhabitants of Latvia, notable for theReformation and the collapse of the Livonian nation.In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, relations with Russia became strained. In 1501Walter von Plettenberg (c.1450-1535), the Master of the Livonian Order, managed to gatherthe forces of Livonia to successfully fight the invading Russians. He captured several Russianstrongholds, including Pskov, Ostrov, Izborsk and Ivangorod, and besieged Novgorod, butfailed to protect Livonia against devastating Russian raids. Plettenberg made an alliance withthe Lithuanian Grand Prince Alexander against the Russians. He even tried to convince the

Pope Alexander VI to issue a crusading bull against the Russians. Finally he made peace withGrand Prince Ivan III of Muscovy in Pskov in 1503, but with no territorial changes. Plettenbergcan be considered one of the most gifted political leaders of Livonia.After Martin Luther posted his theses in 1517, Lutheran ideas began to emerge in Livonia. Inthe early 1520s Rīga became an important centre of Reformation ideas in Northern Europe.By the mid-16th century Lutheranism had become dominant among ruling elites.After the so-called Livonian War (1558-1583) — a lengthy military conflict between Russiaand its western neighbours for control of present-day Latvia and Estonia — Latvian territorycame under Polish-Lithuanian rule. The confederation of Livonia ceased to exist. The ones tobenefit most from the new political situation were the knights of the of the Livonian Order. In1562 the Order was secularised, and its last master Gotthard Kettler (1517-1587) became theduke of a new province called Courland-Semigallia (abbreviated Courland, today Kurzeme-Zemgale).Free city of Rīga 1 Schilling, 1570.An old map of Livonia, firstpublished in 1573.An old map of Livonia, firstpublished in 1573.The coat of arms of Rīga, 1586.11

Luther’s Small Catechism (Enchiridion),published in Latvian in 1586 — oneof the first books to be published inLatvian.12The Lutheran Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation in Livonia stimulated the consolidationof the Latvian nation and emergence of the writtenLatvian language. The first books in the Latvianlanguage were published. The two churches competedfor membership by publishing texts in Latvian.Following the Catholics’ printing of the CathechismusCatholicorum in 1585, the Lutheran church printed itsown catechism, the Enchiridion, in 1586. The Lutheranfaith was accepted in Kurzeme (Courland), Zemgale(Semigallia) and Vidzeme (Livland), but the RomanCatholic faith maintained its dominance in the easternterritory of Latvia — Latgale (Inflanty or Polish Latgale,Latgallia). It remains so to this day.In the 1600s, the Duchy of Courland, once a part of

The economy of Courland flourished,especially in ship-building andmetallurgy, under the rule of JacobKettler in the mid-1600s.Jacob Kettler (1610-1682), the Duke ofCourland (Kurzeme).A map of James Island in the GambiaRiver estuary and Tobago Island —colonies of Courland in the 17thcentury.The naval flag of the Duchy of Courlandwith the Duchy’s symbol — a lobster.Livonia experienced a notable economic boom. The most successful ruler in the Duchy was Duke Jacob Kettler (1610-1682). Duringthe period of his rule (1642-1682) Kurzeme became a regional power to be reckoned with. He established two colonies: an islandin the estuary of the Gambia River in Africa and Tobago Island in the Caribbean Sea. Both were successful ventures until the end ofJacob’s reign, when the Duchy’s navy fell apart, but the Couronian place names from this period are still evident there today.13

Rīga in 1612.However, during this time, the Duchy of Courland remained an object of interest for bothSweden and Poland. In 1621, during the Polish-Swedish war (1600-1629), Latgale remainedunder Polish control, but Vidzeme and Rīga came under Swedish rule, overshadowingStockholm as the largest and most developed city in the Swedish kingdom. Rīga waseconomically and culturally part of a growing urban network linking the major states andcultures of Western, Eastern and Northern Europe. During this period the region of Vidzemewas known as the ‘Swedish bread basket’ because it supplied the larger part of the Swedishkingdom with wheat.Awareness of the Latvian identity began in the 17th century. The Couronians, Latgallians,Selonians, Semigallians and part of the Livs began to identify as a culturally unified nation —the Latvians (latvieši). Most of the Latvian population were farmers and by the second half ofthe 17th century, most of them were serfs.In the early 18th century, the Great Northern War broke out, largely as a result of the RussianEmpire’s desire to expand its territorial claims to the strategically important territory of Latvia.One of its key goals was to secure and control the wealthy and prestigious city of Rīga.14

The Port of Rīga in 1650 — loading ofherring.The Great Northern War in the territoryof Latvia. The King of Sweden, Karl XII,and his army fording the Daugava Rivernear Rīga, July 1701.15

Dome Cathedral in Rīga, 1780s.In 1710, the Russian Tsar, Peter I, conquered Vidzeme. The combination of Vidzeme andRīga provided Russia with a clear passage to Europe via the Baltic Sea. In 1772 the RussianEmpire as a result of First Polish partition gained Latgale. In reorganising its new territories,the Russian government abolished Latgale as a separate unit and divided it into separatedistricts in the Russian-dominated Polotsk province. After the Great Northern War the Russianimperial influence steadily grew in the Duchy of Courland. By the end of the 18th century, allof Latvia’s territory was under Russian rule — Courland became part of the Russian Empirein 1795.The first Bible in the Latvianlanguage (New and Old Testaments)was translated by Johann Ernst Glück(1654-1705), a Lutheran priest ofGerman origin, and was published inRīga in 1689.16

Latvian celebration of wedding (18th century drawing),which since ancient times has been associated with anabundance of food and drink. It is hard to imagine aLatvian wedding without the ancient festive dishes —pīrāgi (bacon rolls), sweet platter breads and beer.17

Krišjānis Valdemārs (1825-1891), main ideologue ofthe New Latvian movement and the most prominentsocial and political figure of the time; publicist,editor of the Peterburgas Awizes. Valdemārs’ ideashave been very influential in the development ofnational romanticism and the history of Latvianpublic opinion. He also played a large role in the thedevelopment of Latvian seafaring.Barquentine Anna Wictoria, built in 1878 in Ainaži. The firsttwo Latvian peasant-built ships were built in 1857: the PeterSofia in Mangaļi and the Victoria in Pabaži.The first newspapers printed in theLatvian language from the 1800s:Latweeschu Awizes (‘Latvian Newspaper’,est. 1824), Peterburgas Awizes(‘St Petersburg Newspaper’, est. 1862) andliterary magazine Austrums (est. 1885).Industry spread quickly in the late 1700s, bringing with it a major population growth. Vidzemeand Kurzeme became Russia’s most developed provinces, but conditions for peasantsbecame worse: they were poor, and noblemen’s power was unlimited after the annexationto the Russian Empire. Despite this, however, political preconditions and the developingeconomy caused serfdom to be abolished in Vidzeme in 1817, in Kurzeme in 1819, and inLatgale in 1861.Krišjānis Barons (1835-1923), promoterof the Latvian national awakening of the19th century; collector, compiler andresearcher of Latvian folksongs (dainas)— some dating back hundreds of years;editor of the newspaper PeterburgasAwizes.18In the mid-19th century, with the rise of national consciousness throughout Europe, ethnicLatvians experienced a powerful ‘awakening’ of national identity. The first newspapers in theLatvian language were printed, and active cultural development took place. The first LatvianNational Song Festival was held in 1873 — the beginning of a long-standing tradition withstrong national overtones.The latter half of the 19th century marked a period of national rebirth — the most activemembers of Latvian social and cultural life, the so-called New-Latvians (jaunlatvieši),demanded the same rights long-enjoyed by other nations. Starting from 1862, the weeklyLatvian language newspaper Peterburgas Awizes parodied and criticised Baltic German claimsto cultural and political superiority.

At the end of the 19th century, Riga’s appearance was dominated by the expressive,colourful and imaginative flourishes of Jugendstil (Art Noveau) architecture. Many of Rīga’smost impressive Jugendstil buildings can be found in the city centre. Today, Rīga is lookedupon as Europe’s distinctive Jugendstil metropolis.Rīga — the most modern city of the Russian Empire. Industryin the Latvian territory flourished rapidly at the turn of the20th century.19

New political undercurrents penetrated Latvian society in the late 19thcentury and became increasingly distinct at the beginning of the 20thcentury. Latvia was introduced to Marxism in the 1890s, which waspropagated by the socialist movement New Current (Jaunā strāva). TheNew Current is considered the predecessor of the Latvian Social Democrats.The movement’s political activities were associated with protests against‘capitalistic exploitation’, general demands for democratisation of the politicalestablishment and belief in the victory of the working class, which would leadto general prosperity for the people. The first Latvian political party, the LatvianSocial Democratic Workers’ Party (Latvijas Sociāldemokrātiskā strādnieku partijaor LSDSP), was founded in Rīga in 1904. The newly founded party began todemand improvements in workers’ social conditions and turned against theexisting social order in the Baltic provinces of the Russian Empire. At that time,rights for the people were still embedded in a range of duties and rules whichwere rigidly structured by social class.The constant curtailment of civic rights and freedoms in Russia, the landlesscondition of the peasants, the privileges of the landed gentry and attemptsto Russify the local population all led Latvians to be dissatisfied with theRainis (real name Jānis Pliekšāns,1865-1929) and his wife Aspazija (realname Elza Rozenberga, 1865-1943).Rainis was New Current activist andthe most prominent Latvian SocialDemocrat. Rainis is considered the mostdistinguished Latvian writer and poet ofthe 20th century. Aspazija is consideredone of the most popular female writersin Latvia.20

A monument dedicated tothe 1905 Revolution.A rally in Dundaga (western Latvia) in October 1905.social and political situation. On 13 January 1905, the LSDSP declared a general strike. About20,000 factory workers participated in a demonstration on the streets of Rīga. A widespreadmovement took hold, and demands were made for improved social conditions and morepolitical rights. In rural areas the movement was aimed against the local aristocrats — theGerman landed gentry — who owned most of the land and who had usurped local power.In the eyes of many Latvians the 1905 Revolution was largely directed against the BalticGerman aristocracy, and many manors in the countryside were destroyed, prompting thegovernment authorities to send punitive expeditions to Baltic provinces.Later, in history books, these events of 1905 were called the ‘Latvian Revolution’. During thisrevolution several nationally oriented Latvian Social Democrats publicly voiced, for the firsttime, the necessity to unite all Latvian-inhabited regions into an autonomous state — Latvia.This idea was especially popularised by Miķelis Valters (1874-1968), the nationally orientedleading ideologue of the Social Democratic Union, who opposed the lack of rights andundemocratic socio-political order of the Russian Empire.The decade after the 1905 Revolution displayed a mix of old and new political realities. TheBaltic German aristocracy agreed to a modest reform of their self-government, but it wasalready too late. Many Latvians now called for democratisation and the idea of nationalautonomy arose.Miķelis Valters (1874-1968), originatorof the idea of independent Latvianstatehood and one of the founders ofthe Republic of Latvia.21

1914-1939The Fight forIndependence andthe Republic of LatviaIn the early 20th century and up until the First WorldWar (1914-1918), the conditions were not favourablefor Latvians to establish their own independentcountry. Latvians were also not convinced that this waspossible. The territory of present-day Latvia was dividedinto a number of provinces that belonged to the RussianEmpire. The Latvian people lived in the Russian provinces(gubernia in Russian) of Kurzeme (Courland), Vidzeme(Livonia) and Vitebsk. The Baltic German aristocracy hadtraditionally made up the political and economic ruling classin this region. Latvian participation in the political process wasrestricted.The First World War caused significant events with far-reachingconsequences in Baltic area. As the First World War spread to theLatvian territory in the spring of 1915 and directly affected theentire Latvian population, a powerful pro-autonomy movementdeveloped. The Latvian intelligentsia supported the Russian wareffort, grouping local Baltic Germans with Germany, as enemies ofthe Empire.22

Courageous Latvian Riflemen (latviešu strēlnieki) fought on theTsarist Russian side during the war, and earned recognition for theirbravery across Europe. The notion that the Latvian Riflemen wouldbe fighting in the name of the Latvian people and for their futurefreedom had become widespread. The biggest and bloodiestbattles of the Latvian Riflemen took place on the outskirts of Rīgaon 23 December 1916 (Old Style calendar). The battles beganshortly before Christmas, and have thus entered history as the‘Christmas Battles’. During these battles the Latvian Riflemendisplayed tremendous courage, which was widely reflected in theforeign press.The First World War in Latvia. The LatvianRiflemen positioned in Latvian and Russianterritory, 1915-1916.23

German army in Rīga, autumn 1917.In September 1917 in German-occupied Rīga, Latvian political parties formed a coalition,the Democratic Bloc (Demokrātiskais bloks). At the beginning of December in Valka, northernLatvia, Latvian organisations finished forming the Latvian Provisional National Council(Latviešu pagaidu nacionālā padome), which at that time became the most extensiverepresentative institution of the Latvian people. At a session on 30 January 1918, theLatvian Provisional National Council decided to establish a sovereign and democratic Latviathat would encompass all Latvian-inhabited regions. Post-war confusion enabled proindependenceforces to consolidate their efforts and pursue their dream.The Act of the Proclamation ofIndependence, Rīga, 18 November1918.24

The first Cabinet of Ministers ofindependent Latvia headed by KārlisUlmanis, November 1918.The national coat of arms of the Republic of Latviawas affirmed in this format on June 15, 1921. Thenational coat of arms combines symbols of Latviannational statehood as well as symbols of ancienthistorical districts. The sun in the upper part of thecoat of arms symbolises Latvian national statehood.A stylised depiction of the sun was used as a symbolof distinction and national identity by LatvianRiflemen recruited into the Russian imperial armyduring the First World War. The three stars above thecoat of arms embody the idea of the inclusion ofhistorical districts (Vidzeme, Latgale and combinedKurzeme-Zemgale) into a united Latvia.Jānis Čakste, President of theConstitutional Assembly (1920-1922)and first President of Latvia (1922-1927).Kārlis Ulmanis, the Prime Minister ofLatvia (1918-1921; 1931; 1934-1940),and the President of Latvia (1936-1940)before the Soviet occupation.On 17 November 1918, the Latvian Provisional National Council and the Democratic Blocagreed to jointly form a provisional parliament, the Latvian People’s Council (Tautas padome),which resolved to found an independent and democratic republic. On the following day, 18November 1918, on the basis of the previous day’s resolutions, the independent Republic ofLatvia was proclaimed at a ceremonious meeting at the National Theatre in Rīga. The lawyerJānis Čakste (1859-1927) was elected chairman of the Latvian People’s Council, and theagronomist Kārlis Ulmanis (1877-1942) became leader of the government.Article announcing the Proclamationof Independence on the front page ofthe largest Latvian daily newspaperJaunākās Ziņas, 19 November 1918.25

Article on the front page of the Latviandaily newspaper Brīvā Zeme ('FreeLand') announcing the victory over theBermont-Avalov’s troops, 11 November1919.A unit of Latvian independence fightersin mid-1919.Unfortunately, the end of the war did not bring long-awaited peace for Latvia. At the endof 1918 the existence of the newly established government of independent Latvia wasthreatened with attack by the Russian Red Army, which also included conscripted LatvianRiflemen. Within a short span of time, the Bolsheviks succeeded in conquering almost theentire territory of Latvia, thereby leaving only a small area around Liepāja under the control ofthe Ulmanis government. The Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Pēteris Stučka (1865-1932),declared Soviet rule in the occupied territory of Latvia.The government, headed by Ulmanis, rushed to form a national army in order to recapturethe lost territory. Meanwhile, the position held by the Latvian government in Liepājawas threatened by remaining German militarists and the local Baltic Germans, who hadestablished their own armed formation (Landeswehr in German). They deposed the Ulmanisgovernment, which they considered anti-German, and created a cabinet under the leadershipof the pastor Andrievs Niedra (1872-1942). Headed by local Germans and volunteers fromthe German army, this government recaptured Rīga from the Bolsheviks on 22 May 1919.After capturing Rīga, the German military and political leadership saw an opportunity toestablish a more German-oriented political regime in Latvia, and they turned their weaponsagainst the Latvian national armed forces. Nevertheless, Estonian national armed forcestogether with Latvians gained victory over the Germans on 23 June 1919, near by Cēsis,and the Latvian-founded Ulmanis government was able to return to Rīga. However, Germanambitions in the Baltics did not diminish. In the autumn, volunteers from the German armyunited under the leadership of the Russian adventurer Pavel Bermont-Avalov, whose intentwas to renew the Russian Empire. Independent Latvia was their first object of attack. In early26A fragment of the Freedom Monumentin Rīga, which depicts IndependenceWar in Latvia (1918-1920). The FreedomMonument, or Brīvības piemineklis, inthe capital city Rīga has become anundisputed symbol of independence.It was built from 1931 until 1935 fromdonated funds.

The Independence Battles. A unit ofthe Latvian National Army in Rīga’s OldTown, autumn 1919.October 1919 Bermont-Avalov’s troops attacked Rīga. The Latvians thwarted this intrusionon the banks of the Daugava River, and by 11 November the Bermontians were driven out ofRīga. By the end of November they had been expelled from the Latvian territory altogether.At the beginning of 1920, Bolshevik armed forces were forced from the area around Latvia’seastern border. On 11 August 1920, Latvia signed a peace treaty with Soviet Russia, in whichRussia acknowledged Latvia’s sovereignty and willingly gave up claims to the Latvian territoryfor all time. Soviet Russia was the first to recognise Latvia’s independence. However, futureactions proved that these had been empty promises.Peace, for which Latvia had waited so long, had finally arrived, and the work of building anew nation could begin. Deeply disillusioned by the Bolshevik totalitarian regime, Latvianrefugees who had fled to Russia during the First World War continued to return to Latvia until1927. Repatriates included Latvian Riflemen and former opponents of Latvian independence— more than 200,000 people overall.On 26 January 1921, the victors of the First World War (Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan,collectively known as the Allies) officially recognised Latvia’s independence. This was alsoa signal to other countries to recognise Latvia’s sovereignty. On 22 September 1921, Latviaand the other two Baltic countries were admitted to the most prominent internationalorganisation of that time — the League of Nations. In the period between the world warsLatvia endeavoured to pursue a neutral foreign policy which was oriented toward closemutual co-operation between the Baltic countries and the League of Nations.The Lāčplēsis Military Order(established in 1919) is the first andhighest military award in the Republicof Latvia. The military award wasconferred on soldiers of Latvia’s Armyand the former Latvian RiflemenRegiments for merit in military actionas well as on foreigners who hadtaken part in the struggle for theliberation of Latvia or given other typeof contribution to the founding anddevelopment of the state of Latvia. Overnine years (since 1919) 2146 LāčplēsisMilitary Orders of all three classes wereawarded.27

A scene from the film ‘Latvian Wedding in Nīca’ (Latviešu kāzas Nīcā), produced in 1931.The Latvian national currency, a twentylat bill, 1925.Once the situation stabilised and the country was liberated from foreign troops, theConstitutional Assembly (Satversmes Sapulce) convened and on 15 February 1922, adoptedthe Constitution of the Republic of Latvia. From here on the Constitution accorded thehighest power in Latvia to the parliament, the Saeima, which was to elect the presidentand approve the Cabinet of Ministers. Jānis Čakste was elected first President of Latvia. Themost influential political parties in Latvia after the war were the LSDSP and the civic-orientedLatvian Farmers’ Union (Latviešu Zemnieku savienība). National minorities in Latvia (Germans,Jews and Russians) were also actively involved in the political process.28One of the most important tasks now was the revival of the economy, which had sufferedtremendously during the war. The Latvian national monetary unit, the lat, was issuedin 1922. That same year the state began to implement agrarian reform, which calledfor the distribution of state property and land that had once been held by the BalticGerman landed gentry. Agrarian changes averted social tension in the country bymaking land available to former landless peasants and small farmers. This was areturn to historic justice, as now the land belonged to those who actually livedand farmed on it. Latvian agriculture was fully able to supply the country with food, andalso introduced wide possibilities for the export of agricultural products (butter, bacon, flax,etc.) Agriculture was the largest sector of the economy, and it employed about two-thirdsof the work force.

Latvian production in the late 1930s — theVEF Minox photo camera, the smallestphoto camera in the world at that time; aLatvian-produced aeroplanes, cars, and aradio receiver.Latvian industry rapidly revived andwas oriented chiefly towards foodproduction, textile manufacturingand timber processing. Theelectronics sector developed in the1930s. Latvia’s largest electronicsfactory, VEF, manufactured modernradios, photo cameras and evenaeroplanes. In the second half ofthe 1930s Latvia began to produceautomobiles and trucks. With thehelp of foreign investment, Latviabuilt a modern high-voltagehydroelectric power plant.29

In the 1930s Latvia achieved one of the highest standards of living in Europe. The countryadopted a progressive social insurance system. Already in the 1920s, Latvia became knownthroughout the world as a country that took special care of the rights of national minorities.With financial support from the government, Latvia’s national minorities created their ownautonomous school system. Latvia was often mentioned abroad as an example to othercountries of the protection of minority rights.The worldwide economic crisis of the early 1930s did not leave Latvia unscathed. Theglobal crisis created political and economic tension in Latvian society. More radicallyinclined political circles thought that under these circumstances, the constitutionallydefined party system was not sufficiently effective. The Latvian Farmers’ Union begandrafting a bill to amend the Constitution, although the changes received no supportfrom the other political parties. A coup d’etat took place on 15 May 1934. Parliamentwas dismissed and the activities of the political parties were suspended. Power wasseized by the Prime Minister and member of the Latvian Farmers’ Union, Kārlis Ulmanis(who had also been leader of Latvia’s first government). By then, similar coups hadalready taken place in the majority of European countries, including the other twoBaltic countries — Lithuania (December 1926) and Estonia (March 1934).30

The colour photo of the President ofLatvia Kārlis Ulmanis during the LatvianSong Festival in 1938 (the German Agfabecame the first company to market inLatvia colour film since 1937).Virsaitis, flagship of the Latvian Navyand submarines Spīdola and Ronis (early1930s). During the Second World War, allwarships of independent Latvia that weretaken over by Soviet occupation forceswere destroyed.The opening ceremony of the Brothers'Cemetery (Military Cemetery) in Rīgain 1936. The Brothers' Cemetery (Brāļukapi) is a memorial to and burial groundfor thousands of Latvian soldierswho were killed between 1915 and1920 in the First World War and theIndependence War.Due to increased prosperity during the second half of the 1930s, there was little publicopposition to the authoritarian rule of Kārlis Ulmanis, although the political parties thathad gone underground were devising plans to bring back a parliamentary republic. Duringthis time, international tension increased, and Latvia’s national security was weakening. TheLeague of Nations demonstrated its inability to prevent international conflicts, and Germanywas becoming more powerful. The leader of the German National Socialists, Adolph Hitler,had been plotting vague plans to annex the Baltic territory to the Third Reich. The USSRand its communist dictator, Stalin (Josif Dzhugashvili), were also scheming to get the Balticcountries under their control. The interests of Moscow and Berlin intersected in the BalticStates and momentarily united these ideological opponents.Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics (1887-1925) —first Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairssince proclamation of independenceuntil 1925. He had to overcome westerngovernment’s desires that Russia shouldremain undivided and originated ideaof the Union of the Baltic States.31

1939-1980sThe Loss of Independence,Second World War andSoviet Era in LatviaLoss of IndependenceOn 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union and the German Third Reichsigned a treaty of non-aggression, which contained a secretprotocol concerning the division of Eastern Europe into spheresof influence. This treaty is usually referred to as the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’ after the two statesmen who signed it. As aresult of this criminal treaty and other documents that were latersigned between Moscow and Berlin, Latvia and the other Balticcountries became part of the Soviet sphere of influence. The 23August treaty provided Germany with a chance to commenceaggression against Poland on 1 September, which triggered theSecond World War, while the Soviet Union found an opportunityto subdue the Baltic States.German Minister of Foreign Affairs,Joachim von Ribbentrop, Soviet leaderJoseph Stalin and Soviet Commissar forForeign Affairs Vyacheslav Molotov afterthe signing of the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop’pact in Moscow on 23 August 1939.32On 5 October Moscow presented Latvia with an ultimatum, thereby forcing Latvian statesmento sign the so-called treaty of ‘mutual assistance’, which called for the deployment of Sovietmilitary bases in Latvia (a treaty of this nature had already been signed by Estonia on 28September and would be signed by Lithuania on 10 October). Approximately 30 000 RedArmy soldiers were garrisoned in ten army bases in Latvia, which was equivalent to the totalnumber of troops in the Latvian Army at the time. In addition, ships from the Russian fleetwere stationed in the ports of Ventspils and Liepāja. As a result, the total number of foreigntroops in Latvia exceeded the number of soldiers in the Latvian Armed Forces. Latvia founditself in a very difficult situation. The government’s freedom to act was severely restricted,and Latvia’s independence was threatened.

In response to an incentive from the German Third Reich, about 80% of Latvia’s Germanminority (the Baltic Germans) moved to German territory in late 1939 and early 1940. At thatpoint in time, Germans constituted the third-largest national minority in Latvia, after Russiansand Jews, and made up more than 3% of the total population.The Latvian government discerned a threat to its independence and empowered the Latvianambassador in London with special authority to represent the country in case Latvia’ssovereignty was lost.In May 1940 the Soviet press in Russia began to voice regular unsubstantiated accusationsagainst the Baltic countries regarding alleged activities against Moscow. On 16 June 1940, anofficial memorandum was issued to Latvia by the Soviet Union, in which Moscow demandedthe formation of a new government and the stationing of additional Soviet military units.The memorandum was a continuation of the Soviet Union’s illegal actions against theBaltic countries, which began on 23 August 1939. This was an act of blatant interferencein the internal affairs of a sovereign country, and its goal was the dissolution of Latvia’sindependence.Unfortunately, Western countries showed no desire to assist the Baltic countries in avertingtheir dismal fate. Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were left under the domination of the USSR’saggressive tendencies. In an attempt to avoid bloodshed (war against the USSR), the Latviangovernment decided to fulfil Moscow’s peremptory demands. As a result, 100 000 SovietArmy troops occupied Latvia on 17 June 1940. Red Army units immediately seized control ofall strategically important positions, thereby taking control of the entire country.The secret protocol of the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’, which determined thetragic fate of the Baltic countries.33

Occupation of Latvia by the Soviet forces —Russian tanks in Rīga on 17 June 1940.Soviet government headed by Augusts Kirhenšteinsled Latvia into the USSR. The annexation wasformalized on 5 August 1940.The Soviet occupation regime regularlyused a variety of propaganda techniquesto influence society. Depicted hereis a Soviet poster that was producedimmediately after the occupation in 1941– ‘Proletariat of the world unite! Standproud beneath the international flags ofMarx-Engels and Lenin-Stalin!’.With the help of various agents and the Red Army, Moscow introduced political changesthat were favourable to the Soviet regime immediately after Latvia’s occupation. Theformation of a new government was announced on 20 June. A government wasassembled of social and political activists who were favourably inclined towardMoscow, led by Professor Augusts Kirhenšteins (1872-1963). A political charade wasorganised on 14 and 15 July 1940 — elections were held for the new parliament(the so-called ‘people’s parliament’), in which the Soviet regime allowedonly pro-communist candidates to run for office. As a result, on 21 Julythe newly elected Soviet puppet parliament voted to make Latvia apart of the USSR.Soviet repressions against Latviancitizens — deportation of a Latvianfamily. Large-scale deportations werecarried out in all three Baltic Statessimultaneously on 13-17 June 1941.34The Sovietisation of Latvia began rapidly. Unlawful resolutions wereadopted regarding the nationalisation (confiscation from its owners)of land, buildings, banks, and various types of commercial andindustrial enterprises. Moscow began to terrorise those Latvian socialstrata that it considered threatening to Soviet power. Thus, the period from thesummer of 1940 until June 1941 has entered history as the ‘Year of Terror’. On 14 June 1941,over 15 000 Latvians were deported in cattle cars to Siberia, where most of them perished.Those deported constituted Latvia’s elite: teachers, scientists, the intelligentsia, businessmen,politicians, and army officers.

The Second World War in LatviaSoviet subjugation of Latvia was interrupted by the beginning of the German-Soviet War andthe rapid invasion of the Latvian territory by Nazi Germany’s armed forces. By 10 July 1941,German armed forces had occupied all of Latvia’s territory. Latvia became a part of Germany’sReichskomissariat Ostland — the Province General of Latvia. Just as during the year underSoviet rule, Latvia was again an occupied territory. Anyone who disobeyed the Germanoccupation regime, as well as those who had cooperated with the Soviet regime, were killedor sent to concentration camps. German authorities did not permit Latvia’ssovereignty or even the possibility of autonomy.The German occupation forces enterRīga on 1 July 1941. A painting fromthat period accurately depicts themarch of German troops through adevastated Rīga (in the background,St Peter’s church in flames).In violation of international rights, both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Unionunlawfully conscripted Latvians into their armed forces. During the SecondWorld War more than 200 000 Latvian soldiers ended up in the rank and fileof both occupation forces; approximately half of them were killed on thebattlefield.The Soviet Union included in its army some former military units ofindependent Latvia, as well as those Latvians who had ended up in Russia asa result of warfare or those who had formerly lived there. The authorities of Nazi Germanyalso mobilised former soldiers of the independent Latvian army. Initially, German authoritiesorganised volunteer recruitment campaigns, but when the desired results were not obtained,soldiers were forcefully conscripted into the so-called ‘Latvian SS Volunteer Legion’from 1943.After the withdrawal of Russian troops— a destroyed Russian BT-7 tank in Rīga,1 July 1941.35

The first 1000 Latvian men conscripted for military service in the German army (Latvian Legion) on29 March 1943.Latvia’s population perished not only on the battlefield. During the years of Nazi occupation,special campaigns exterminated approximately 70 000 Jews, 18 000 Latvians and 2 000 Roma— in total about 90 000 people. In the case of the Latvians, these were mostly civilians whosepolitical convictions were unacceptable to the German occupation force. Jewish and Romacivilians were eliminated as a result of the inhuman Nazi theory of racial purity. A majorityof Latvian Jewry had been murdered by late 1941, when it is estimated that there were onlyaround 6000 Jews remaining in Latvia.A draft order into the so-called ‘LatvianSS Volunteer Legion’, summer of 1943.Many Latvians were actively involved in a resistance movement against the persecutions ofthe German occupation regime. For instance, Žanis Lipke (1900-1987) risked his life to savemore than 50 Jews. Civic circles in Latvia were also dissatisfied with the German occupationregime and secretly plotted to reinstate a democracy. In order to carry out the plan forindependence, an underground organisation was established, the Latvian Central Council,which published the outlawed publication Brīvā Latvija (‘Free Latvia’). This notably democraticperiodical propagated the idea of renewing democracy in Latvia after the war.36Žanis Lipke (1900-1987)Nazi Germany began to suffer regular defeats on the eastern front and was pushed backto the west. In mid-July 1944, the Soviet Army once again crossed Latvia’s pre-war easternborder, and by 13 October had already invaded Rīga. In mid-October the German army, whichpartly also included former soldiers from the Latvian Legion, was besieged in Kurzeme. Atthat time, Kurzeme was flooded with refugees from eastern Latvia who were fleeing Sovietrule, the Red Army and persecution. With no other reprieve in sight, many fled in fishermen’sboats and ships to Sweden and Germany, from where they drifted to various parts of theWestern world (mainly North America and Australia). Approximately 150 000 Latvians endedup in exile in the West.

According to estimates, the population of Latvia decreased byhalf a million (25% less than in 1939) as a result of the war. Thewar also inflicted heavy losses on the economy — many historiccities were destroyed, as well as industry and infrastructure.As of 1940, most of the democratic countries around the worlddid not recognise the incorporation of Latvia and the otherBaltic States into the Soviet Union. The exception was Sweden,which surrendered to Moscow the members of the Latvian Legion who had ended up inSweden at the end of the war, and handed over to the Soviets the diplomatic representativeoffices of the Baltic countries in Stockholm. In contrast, after the war, the United States ofAmerica became the most consistent defender of the Baltic people’s aspirations for renewedindependence. Throughout the entire period of occupation, the diplomatic mission ofindependent Latvia continued to function in Washington, DC.Soviet occupation forces re-enteringJelgava and Rīga, 1944.After the war, Latvian exiles founded several organisations, including the World Federationof Free Latvians in 1955 and represented the Latvian people to foreign governments andinternational organisations. During the following period of Soviet occupation, the WorldFederation of Free Latvians seized every opportunity to remind the world of the need to endLatvia’s occupation.37

Propaganda poster of Stalin’stotalitarian regime, 1950. Slogan on theflag: ‘Onward towards Communism!’.The Soviet Era in LatviaWhereas the end of the Second World War brought freedom for many countries throughoutthe world, for Latvia it brought half a century of Soviet occupation. By 1945, Latvia was onceagain under total Soviet occupation and pre-war Soviet rule was reinstated. After the war,Moscow did everything in its power to quickly establish Russian law and order and to fullysubjugate the population. Immediately following the re-occupation of Latvian territory,Moscow authorities began to persecute those who had cooperated with German Naziforces. People were also arrested for activities during the period of independence, for theirparticipation in or support for the resistance movement against the Soviet regime, for beingsuspected of being politically unreliable, for free thought, etc. The Russification of Latviansociety began.The forests of Latvia were full of fighters from the national resistance movement (includingformer members of the Latvian Legion) who believed that Western countries would cometo Latvia’s aid and free the country from Soviet oppression. The national partisans, 20 000 intotal, continued to actively resist Soviet rule long after the war had ended, until they wereeliminated by the local Soviet armed forces. The final unit of national partisans surrenderedonly in 1956, which marked the end of military resistance to the Soviet regime.38Fighters of the national resistancemovement — national partisans (late 40searly50s).

During the post-war occupation period, Latvia was one of fifteen Soviet republics. Power inLatvia belonged entirely to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which also includedthe Communist Party of Latvia (Latvijas Komunistiskā partija). Other political parties ormovements were prohibited. The first leader of the Communist Party of Latvia during thepost-war period was Jānis Kalnbērziņš (1893-1986). Shortly after the end of the Second WorldWar, the Communist Party and its structures gained control over all of Latvia. No importantofficial could be confirmed in office without the approval of the communists.Rīga in the 1950s.On 25 March 1949, more than 44 000 people mostly ruralresidents were deported to Siberia in a sweeping repressiveaction. Deportees included people who were considered toowealthy for the Soviet regime, and those who had supported theanti-Soviet resistance movement — the national partisans. Theirproperty was confiscated, which in many cases was a simple caseof plunder.Sources of Soviet history, including documents from the USSRMinistry for State Security (KGB) suggest that around 190 000people suffered reprisals for being hostile to the Soviet regimefrom 1940 to 1953 (Stalin’s era), which constitutes approximately 10% of Latvia’s post-warpopulation. The reprisals subsided following the death of Stalin, and after 1955 some of thoseexiled to Siberia could return to Latvia. At home, however, they were still faced with problems:they could not find work, a place to live, gain an education, or travel abroad. Generally thesepeople were forced to live with constant insult to their reputation and dignity.Forced collectivisation. A single-housefarm being included in the collectivefarm (kolhoz) in Zemgale, 1951.An extensive Russification campaign began in Latvia and many administrative obstacleswere created to hinder the use of the Latvian language.39

Forced industrialisation — largeindustrial complexes in Soviet Latvia.Due to its advantageous geographical location, Latvia became Russia’s military centre in theBaltic region. The USSR positioned the headquarters of the Baltic War District here: land, seaand aviation bases. In the late 1950s and early 1960s ballistic nuclear missiles were housedon Latvian soil. In turn, Soviet military figures gained a large influence in Latvian political lifeat the time.Latvia was forced to adopt Soviet farming practices while the economic infrastructurethat had been developed in the 1920s and 1930s was purposefully destroyed. Rural areaswere forced into collectivisation. Since Latvia still had a well-developed infrastructure andeducated specialists, Moscow decided to base some of the Soviet Union’s most advancedmanufacturing facilities in Latvia. To supply the large labour force needed to run thesefactories, Soviet workers from Russia and other Soviet republics were flooded into the country,dramatically decreasing the proportion of Latvian nationals. In 1935 Latvians made up 75.5%of the population, but according to official Soviet statistics, in 1959 Latvians comprised only62% of the population, and the proportion of Russians in the population had increasedradically. At this time, the total population of Latvia was a little more than two million (forcomparison, in 1914 the population was more than 2.5 million, and in 2006 — just short of2.3 million).Propaganda poster of soviet buildingindustry. Text in Russian: 'We buildexcellent!'.40The economy in Latvia did nevertheless develop during the Soviet occupation, and acomprehensive system of education and health care existed. All health care, and educationfrom primary school to university level was free of charge. Important achievements wereattained in science. Fifteen institutes of scientific research, operating under the Academyof Science, constituted a significant research centre. Research was conducted in physics,astronomy, composite mechanics, information technology, chemistry, aquatic biology, thestudy of viruses and molecular biology (most of these research fields are being continuedtoday). A quarter of all medicines that were invented in the USSR were developed in Latvia.During the Soviet period, 30 000 people (1.2%) were employed in the field of science inLatvia, which was a very high indicator on a world scale.

Moscow issued orders for the construction of large-scale industrial plantsin Latvia. Manufacturing in the chemical and electronics industries waswidely developed. The necessary labour force for these enterprises wasimported from Russia. Many factories manufactured material for theneeds of Russia’s armed forces.During the 1980s the inability of the Soviet planned economy tocompete with the free market economy of the democratic worldbecame progressively apparent. Thus, increasingly larger circles of thesocial and political elite agreed that it was necessary to convert to aWestern-style economy.Opposition to the occupation regime persisted throughout the entirepost-war occupation period. There existed various outlawed groups of people who heldsimilar views, read prohibited anti-communist literature, disseminated tracts and displayedthe forbidden red-white-red Latvian national flag.Latvian culture became a form of collective opposition. Cultureand intellectuals in Latvia were apportioned unprecedentedsignificance during the era of Soviet occupation. Officialnational offices were founded — creative unions — whichwere responsible for Latvian cultural issues. During the time ofoccupation, Latvian cultural traditions manifested themselvesmost strongly in the tradition of the Song Festival, whichallowed people to feel a sense of national unity and identity.However, this tradition was also subjected to Soviet ideology.An enormous strategic surveillanceradio telescope that was built for theneeds of the Soviet occupation armyin Irbene (near Ventspils). Followingthe renewal of Latvia’s independence,the radio telescope was donated toLatvian science for the detection of radiofrequencies in distant galaxies.Propaganda poster of soviet armed forces. Text in Russian:'Long live the armed forces of the Soviet Union!'.The Soviet era in Latvia. The annual Soviet military powerdemonstration in Rīga (held 1945-90). Soviet forces leftLatvia on 31 August 1994.During the Soviet occupationschoolchildren were submitted toideological training. Most students weremade to join the ‘Pioneer’ movement,which was identifiable by red kerchiefsand school uniforms.41

From the 1980sReinstatingIndependenceand Modern LatviaA liberalisation within the communist regime of the USSR, known as glasnost, beganin the mid-1980s. During the latter half of the 1980s, the process of perestroika(restructuring) began in the Soviet Union, which was led by new Soviet communistleader Mikhail Gorbachev.Propaganda poster ofperestroika (in Russian).Perestroika ('restructuring')is the Russian term for theeconomic reforms, infusion ofdemocratic elements into theSoviet Union's single-partygovernment, introduced inJune 1985 by the soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachev.42In 1986 it became widely known to the public that theUSSR was planning to build another hydroelectric powerplant on Latvia’s largest river, the Daugava, and a subwayin Rīga. Both of these projects, planned by Moscow,would lead to the destruction of Latvia’s landscape, not tomention its cultural and historical wealth. These projectsenvisaged the importation of a huge number of foreignworkers from other republics of the USSR, to provide labourfor these large building works. This threatened to totallychange Latvia’s already fragile demographic environment,by catastrophically reducing the proportion of Latvians toforeigners. The public reacted immediately and in responsefounded the Environmental Protection Club on 28 February1987. Under the cover of environmental protection, a causeseemingly harmless to the Soviet authorities, the movementwas also able to turn its attention to current political issues.During the second half of the 1980s, the EnvironmentalProtection Club became one of the most influential of anumber of mass movements, all of which simultaneouslybegan to make demands for Latvia’s sovereignty.Soviet soldiers preparing to pull downa symbol of Soviet military power —tank,1990.

On 14 June 1987, the commemorative day of the 1941 deportations, the human rights group Helsinki-86, which had been foundedone year earlier, organised a flower-placing ceremony at the Freedom Monument (Latvia’s symbol of independence that waserected in 1935). This was an unprecedented event that demonstrated the rebirth of national courage and self-confidence in Latvia.A second, and even larger, demonstration took place on 23 August 1987, the anniversary of the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’.On 1 and 2 June 1988, the Writers’ Union held a congress during which the Latvian intelligentsia discussed the democratisation ofsociety, Latvia’s economic sovereignty, ending migration from the USSR, the transformation of industry and the protection of Latvianlanguage rights. Over the course of these days, for the first time in post-war Latvia, the secret protocol of the ‘Molotov-RibbentropPact’, which had determined Latvia’s fate after 1939 and the decades of occupation, was publicly acknowledged.The congress of the Writers’ Union stirred up the public and provided an additional stimulus for the general process of nationalrevival.In the summer of 1988 two of the most important organisations of the revival period began to organize themselves: the LatvianNational Independence Movement (Latvijas Nacionālās Neatkarības Kustība or LNNK) and the Latvian People’s Front (Latvijas TautasFronte or LTF). Soon afterwards, the more radically inclined Citizens’ Congress (Pilsoņu Kongress) entered the political arena and calledfor complete non-compliance with the illicit Soviet regime. All of these organisations had a common goal — the reinstatementof democracy and independence. On 7 October 1988, there was a mass public demonstration that was dedicated to the issue ofLatvia’s sovereignty and the establishment of judicial order. The first congress of the Latvian People’s Front was held on 8 and 9October. This organisation, which united 200 000 members under the leadership of famous journalist Dainis Īvāns (b. 1955), becamethe guiding force of the revival movement in Latvia and the return to independence.The mass demonstration forindependence in early 1991.The map displays the locations ofmajor Soviet military-industrial plantsin the three Baltic States. Almost everylarge city had such plants, whichmanufactured equipment for the Sovietarmed forces. In Latvia, most wereconcentrated in Rīga and Liepāja.43

On 23 August 1989, fifty years had passed since the signing of the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’.In order to call the world’s attention to the fate of the Baltic countries, on this day the People’sFronts of all three Baltic countries held a grandiose political demonstration —‘The Baltic Way’.The Baltic people made a 600-km-long human chain from Tallinn through Rīga to Vilnius. Thiswas a symbolic demonstration of the Baltic peoples’ united will for independence.‘The Baltic Way’ — a human chainthat demonstrated the unity of theBaltic nations in their aspirations forindependence. Latvia, 23 August 1989.Latvian parliamentarians following thedecision to reinstate independence, 4May 1990.An article announcing the renewal ofindependence was published on thefront page of the Latvian newspaperLatvijas Jaunatne, 5 May1990.44New elections of the Latvian Supreme Soviet took place on 18 March 1990, in which thesupporters of independence gained victory. On 4 May 1990, the new Supreme Soviet ofthe LSSR adopted a Declaration of Independence, which called for the renewal of pre-warLatvia and its 1922 Constitution. Moscow and USSR military circles could not come to termswith the plans to reinstate Latvia’s independence. In January 1991 pro-Moscow and procommunistpolitical forces launched an attack. With the use of brutal force, attempts weremade to overthrow the lawfully elected government. The implementation of Moscow’sgoals was thwarted by the Latvian people’s non-violent, organised resistance, which enteredhistory as the ‘Days of the Barricades’. On 19 August 1991, an unsuccessful attempt at acoup d’etat took place in Moscow when a small group of leading Soviet functionaries triedto usurp power. This event resulted in Latvia’s moving toward independence at an evenmore accelerated pace. On 21 August 1991, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian Republicannounced that the transition period to full independence that was declared on 4 May 1990had come to an end. Thus, Latvia proclaimed itself a fully independent nation — a nationwhose judicial foundation harked back to thestatehood that existed before the occupationon 17 June 1940. Latvia, alongside the otherBaltic States, demonstrated to the world thatthe renewal of independence of a country canbe achieved in a peaceful manner, withoutwar and bloodshed. Thus the whole process ofrenewing independence since the late 1980s isknown as the ‘Singing Revolution’.

The renewal of independence brought swift changes in Latvia’s economic sphere. At theend of 1991, the country abandoned the planned economy of the Soviet era and switchedto a free market economy. In 1993 the Latvian national currency, the lat, was brought backinto circulation. Latvia became an important transit country for the export of Russia’s rawmaterials. Land and other real estate were returned to their rightful pre-occupation ownersor their heirs.Following the renewal of independence, Latvia rapidly returned to the international milieu.On 17 September 1991, Latvia was admitted to the United Nations, and a few days earlierLatvia had already become a member of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation inEurope (OSCE). In February 1995, Latvia became a member of the European Council.The renewed Latvian parliament convened for its first session in 1993 and elected as PresidentGuntis Ulmanis (born 1939), the grand nephew of Latvia’s pre-war President, Kārlis Ulmanis.A system of political parties began to take shape. The Latvian Social Democratic Workers’Party and the Farmers’ Union resumed activities. Today, the whole spectrum of Europe’straditional political parties is active in Latvia (leftists, centrists, rightists, ‘greens’, etc.).‘Days of the Barricades’ in Latvia, 1991.45

A twenty lat bill. The Latvian nationalcurrency was renewed in late 1992.The removal of the Russian Armed Forces (former USSR occupation forces) from the Latvianterritory was completed on 31 August 1994. The last remaining Russian military objectin Latvia and the Baltic countries, the Skrunda radar station (in western Latvia), ceasedoperations on 31 August 1998. On 21 October 1999, this final Russian military base in theBaltic States was handed over to the jurisdiction of Latvian authorities. A total of 850 formerSoviet military installations were destroyed in Latvia.With the renewal of independence, Latvia moved consistently towards two of its mostimportant foreign policy goals — membership in the European Union and NATO. Duringthe 1990s, many social, economic and judicial changes were implemented in Latvia in orderto prepare for admittance to these organisations. In close cooperation with the EuropeanUnion, a special programme for the integration of immigrants who came to Latvia duringthe Soviet period has been developed and is operating successfully. At the end of 1999 inHelsinki, the heads of the European Union countries invited Latvia to begin negotiationsregarding accession to the European Union.Latvia also worked towards the privatisation of businesses and real estate. A specialPrivatisation Agency was established in order to transfer the large state-owned enterprisesto private ownership.Destruction of the Russian radar facilityin Skrunda, 4 May 1995.46The end of the 20th century in Latvia was unique in the sense that Latvia became the firstcountry in Central and Eastern Europe to elect a woman as president. In the summer of 1999,professor of psychology Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga (born 1937) was elected President of Latvia(1999-2007) by the parliament.

Latvian peacekeepers in Iraq, 2005.In 2004 Latvia’s most important foreign policy goals — membership in the European Unionand NATO — were fulfilled. On 2 April, Latvia became a member of NATO and on 1 May,Latvia, together with other two Baltic States (Estonia and Lithuania), became a fully-fledgedmember of the European Union.Since restoration of Latvia’s independence, many pre-eminent world leaders have embarkedon official visits to Latvia. Due to its advantageous geographical location, Latvia has becomea centre for regional integration on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. The headquarters ofthe united land forces of the Baltic States, the Baltic battalion (BALTBAT), is also stationedhere. Latvia hosted many international events. The most major political event the countryhas ever staged was the NATO summit in Rīga in November 2006. By 2006, Latvia had thefastest growing economy in Europe, and along with Estonia and Lithuania,was looked upon as one of the success stories of a united Europe.Presidents George W. Bush (USA), VairaVīķe-Freiberga (Latvia) and Vladimir Putin(Russia) during the UN General Assemblyin New York, 14 September 2005.47

Main Historical Events9000 BC Arrival of the first inhabitants on Latvian soil, after the glacial retreat.Early 2000 BCProto-Balts (forefathers of the modern Latvians) settle Latvia’s territory.900 AD-early 1200 AD Individual Baltic tribes (Couronians, Latgallians, Selonians, and Semigallians) start to form distinct tribal realms.Latter half of the 1100s-1200s Arrival of German traders, missionaries and crusaders in Latvia. Tribal territories fall into the hands of the Germans.Livonia is established.1201 City of Rīga founded.1500sLivonian War (1558-1583). Latvian territory under Polish-Lithuanian rule. The Duchies of Courland-Semigallia andPolish Livonia (Inflanty) are formed.1600sPolish-Swedish War (1600-1629). Vidzeme (Livland) and Rīga under Swedish rule (1629-1721). Rīga is Sweden’slargest city. Duchy of Courland experiences an economic boom.1700sGreat Northern War (1700-1721). Vidzeme and Rīga come under Russian rule. Latgale (Latgallia) and the Duchy ofCourland are annexed to Russia.1850s-1870sNational awakening of the Latvian people. The New Latvians (jaunlatvieši) movement occurs.1905-1907 Latvian Revolution.18 November 1918 Proclamation of the independence of Latvia.11 August 1920 Soviet Russia (later – the USSR) and the Republic of Latvia sign a peace treaty. Russia acknowledges Latvia’sindependence and forever withdraws its claims to the territory of Latvia.23 August 1939 Non-aggression pact between the USSR and Germany (so-called ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop’ pact): both totalitarianstates divide Eastern Europe between them. According to the secret protocol, Latvia together with Estonia andlater also Lithuania are absorbed within the Soviet sphere of influence.5 October 1939 Threatening armed intervention, the USSR forces Latvia’s government to sign an agreement allowing Soviet armybases on Latvian territory (officially called a ‘mutual assistance agreement’).16 June 1940 Violating all agreements and treaties between the two states, as well as the principles of international law, theUSSR delivers an ultimatum to Latvia. It demands the formation of a new pro-Soviet government and announcesthe immediate deployment of Soviet armed forces to Latvia.17 June 1940 Latvia occupied by USSR troops.23 July 1940 The USA Foreign Affairs department declares that the occupation of the Baltic countries is illegal and theirincorporation into the USSR is not recognised by the USA.14 June 1941 15 424 Latvians are deported from Latvia to Siberia: the political and business elite is considered to be hostiletowards the occupation regime. Among the deported are almost 100 infants under the age of 1 and more than3000 children under the age of 16.1941-1945 Latvia occupied by the German Third Reich.March 1943Germany begins compulsory recruitment of Latvian civilians into its occupation army.1941-1944 The German occupation regime exterminates over 90 000 Latvian civilians, mainly Jews.8 May 1945 End of the Second World War. The German occupation army capitulates and the USSR occupation power is reestablishedin the territory of Latvia.1945-1956 Continuous armed struggle of Latvian national partisans against the second Soviet occupation.25 March 1949 Over 44 000 people are labelled as enemies of the re-established Soviet regime and are deported to Siberia.14 June and 23 August 1987 First large anti-Soviet and anti-occupation demonstrations in Rīga.4 May 1990 Adoption of a declaration restoring independence with a transition period.21 August 1991 Complete reinstatement of Latvia’s independence.31 August 1994 Last troops of the Russian (former USSR) occupation army leave Latvia.April-May 2004Latvia becomes a member of NATO and the European Union.28-29 November, 2006 Latvia hosts NATO summit.48

Further reading on the history of Latvia in English• Baltic region: conflicts and co-operation: road from the past to the future (Tallinn: Euroülikool: Ilo, 2004).• Christianization of the Baltic region (Pułtusk: Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna im. Aleksandra Gieysztora, 2004).• CHRISTIANSEN E., The Northern Crusades: the Baltic and the Catholic frontier, 1100-1525 (London: Macmillan, 1980).• History of Latvia: a breathtaking journey throughout centuries at the Baltic coast: CD encyclopaedia (Rīga: Tilde, 2000).• History of Latvia: the 20th century (Rīga: Jumava, 2006).• GIMBUTAS M., The Balts (London: Thames & Hudson, 1963).• Latvia in World War II: materials of an International Conference, 14-15 June, Rīga (Rīga: Latvijas vēstures institūta apgāds, 2000).• LIEVEN A., The Baltic revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the path to independence (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 1994).• MISIUNAS R.J., TAAGEPERA R., The Baltic States: years of dependence 1940-1990 (London: Hurst, 1993).• Occupation regimes in Latvia in 1940-1959: research of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia (2002) (Rīga: Latvijas vēstures institūta apgāds, 2004).• Occupied Latvia in 20th century (1940s): research of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia, 2004 (Rīga: Latvijas vēstures institūta apgāds, 2005).• PLAKANS A., The Latvians (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1995).• PLAKANS A., Historical dictionary of Latvia (Lanham (Md.); London: The Scarecrow Press, 1997).• The Anti-Soviet resistance in the Baltic States (Vilnius: Akreta, 2001).• The Balts and their neighbours in the Baltic region (800-1200) [Conference] The Balts and their neighbours in the Viking age (Vilnius: Institute of LithuanianHistory, 1997).• The hidden and forbidden history of Latvia under Soviet and Nazi occupations, 1940-1991: selected research of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia (Rīga:Institute of the History of Latvia, 2005).• The issues of the holocaust research in Latvia: reports of an International Seminar 29 November 2001, Rīga and the Holocaust studies in Latvia in 2001-2002(Rīga: Latvijas vēstures institūta apgāds, 2003).• The Sovietization of the Baltic States, 1940-1956 (Tartu: KLEIO Ajalookirjanduse Sihtasutus, 2003).• Totalitarian occupation regimes in Latvia in 1940-1964: research of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia, 2003 (Rīga: Latvijas vēstures institūta apgāds,2004).• URBAN W.L., The Livonian Crusade (Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1981).Internet resourcesInformation about Latvia –http://www.latvia.lvInstitute of History of Latvia –http://www.lvi.lvMuseums of Latvia –http://www.muzeji.lvNational Library of Latvia, electronic catalogue –http://www.lnb.lvState Historical Archives of Latvia –http://www.arhivi.lvThe Chancery of the President and the Commission of Historians of Latvia –http://www.president.lvUniversity of Latvia, Faculty of History and Philosophy –http://www.lu.lv/eng/general/structure/faculties/history/index.htmlISBN 9984-736-33-4© The Latvian Institute, Rīga 2007© Text and concept: PhD Raimonds CerūzisEditorial Board: M.Auliciema, R.Cerūzis, Ē.Jēkabsons, O.Kalniņš, I.Pīgozne-Brinkmane, A.Zunda.Photo credits and illustrations: Archives of Latvia, Archives of Latvian Folklore, L.Balodis, G.Binde, U.Brinkmanis, R.Cerūzis, B.Dumpe, I.Grāvlejs ‘Diena’, G.Indrēvics, V.Kleins‘Fotobanka’, B.Koļesņikovs, P.Korsaks, J.Krūmiņš, Latvian Academic Library, The Latvian Institute, Latvian Museum of Photography, Latvian Museum of War, Latvian RailwayHistory Museum, Literature, Theatre and Music Museum, A.Meiers, Museum of Barricades of 1991, Museum of History of Rīga and Navigation, National History Museum ofLatvia, Occupation Museum of Latvia, V.Rīdzenieks, A.Tenass ‘Fotocentrs’, Ventspils Free Port, personal photo archives and collections.Original drawings: A.Alksne-Alksnīte, J.C.Brotze, O.Engelhardt-Kyffhäuser, A.Liepiņš, L.Pīgozne, S.Vidbergs, V.Vimba.

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