Primer on Bioproducts - BIOCAP Canada

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSPollution Probe and BIOCAP Canada Foundation gratefully acknowledge the funding support andtechnical review of the <strong>Primer</strong> on Bioproducts by the following organizations:ENVIRONMENT CANADAHEALTH CANADAINDUSTRY CANADANATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCILWe also thank the following individuals for providing technical information and/or comments on the<strong>Primer</strong>: Pierre Charest, David DeYoe, Sheila Forsyth, Randy Goodfellow, Irene Hay, Ed Hogan,Anna Ilnyckyj, John Jaworski, Terry McIntyre, Anne Mitchell, Ashley O’Sullivan, Christine Paquette,Matthew Schacker, Art Stirling, Gord Surgeoner, Maria Wellisch and Suzanne Wetzel.Pollution Probe and BIOCAP Canada Foundation are solely responsible for the contents of thispublication.This publication was researched and written for Pollution Probe and BIOCAP Canada Foundation byPeter Christie and Holly Mitchell, and edited by Randee Holmes. We appreciate the work of staffmembers David Layzell, David Pollock, Ken Ogilvie, Elizabeth Everhardus and Sarah Cummings.Special thanks are given to Krista Friesen for the layout of the <strong>Primer</strong>, and to Shauna Rae forcreative inspiration.ISBN 0-919764-57-6The <strong>Primer</strong> on Bioproducts is printed on Sandpiper, which is an environmentally responsible paper from Domtar.Sandpiper is recycled from 100 per cent post-consumer waste. It is elemental chlorine-free, acid-free andprocessed with environmentally sound dyes.76PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS

IntroductionCanada is home to seven per cent of the Earth’s land mass, 10per cent of its forests and 15 per cent of the world’s fresh water.The country includes large tracts of arable cropland. It isbounded by the world’s longest coastline and by the waters ofthe Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.Canada’s vast geography and abundant biological resourcescould become dependable renewable sources of energy,chemicals and raw materials in the production of bioproducts.Bioproducts could also represent an opportunity to makeCanadian industry and communities less dependent on nonrenewablefossil fuels, which come with related environmentalproblems.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS3

The potential of bioproducts is being evaluatedby Canada’s federal, provincial and municipalgovernments, and some university, industryand environmental organizations. Manyexperts believe that bioproducts could helpreduce smog, improve the economies of ruralcommunities and First Nations peoples, andlessen Canada’s dependence on imported oil.On the other hand, others are concerned thatthe development of bioproducts might lead tothe overexploitation of natural resources,decimation of forests and degradation offarmlands.This <strong>Primer</strong> on Bioproducts is an introduction tocommercial, industrial and environmentalbioproducts in Canada (not including the food,feed and fibre we get from traditional uses ofcrops and trees). It highlights prominentbioproduct technologies under developmentand identifies key issues that might arise in thedevelopment of this growing Canadianindustrial sector.The document has seven chapters. Chapter 1introduces bioproducts. It describes some ofthe familiar products that can be manufacturedusing biomass (i.e., plants, animals and otherorganisms) to replace or complementconventional manufacturing using fossil fuelsand petrochemicals. This chapter also providesan overview of the ways bioproducts are madeand highlights some of the issues thatbioproduct technologies might raise forCanadians.Chapter 2 puts bioproducts in perspective.Forest products, for example, are onebioproduct that already represents a significantpart of the Canadian economy. This chapterdiscusses bioproducts that have already beendeveloped, those that are different from“traditional” biology-based products, andnovel products we may see in the future. Itdescribes both the Canadian industrial contextand the advances of other nations in this area.Chapters 3, 4 and 5 introduce readers toprominent bioproduct and bioprocessingtechnologies and explore ways these couldchange the way we live and do business inCanada. These chapters describe how plantsand other organisms can be used to helpgenerate energy and make chemicals, plasticsand other materials.Chapter 6 introduces readers to some of theprominent and pressing issues raised by thedevelopment of bioproducts in Canada. Itexamines environmental, social and economicconsiderations that Canadians are being askedto think about now and into the future.Finally, Chapter 7 provides information onwhere to find out more about bioproducts andways you can become involved.A glossary of terms is included to define anytechnical terms and phrases used in this<strong>Primer</strong>. Bold-faced text in the documentindicates the first reference to a term that isdefined in the glossary.4INTRODUCTION

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Chapter 1Photo: Corel Corporation6

Chapter 1What are Bioproducts?Biomass is any type of organic material that is available on arenewable or recurring basis. It includes such things as cropsand trees, wood and wood wastes, aquatic plants and grasses.Bioproducts are products that are made from biomass.Until 200 years ago, most of the world’s demand for energy andmaterials was met by using biomass. For example, peopleburned wood and peat to cook and heat their homes, and theyused plant and animal matter to make tools, clothes and dyes.This dependency on biomass often led to serious environmentalproblems. Forests in many countries were decimated, plant andanimal biodiversity decreased, and smoke from wood firescaused significant air pollution. Similar trends can be seentoday in developing countries that rely on biomass for energyPRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS7

Pervasive PetroleumFossil fuels are ubiquitous in oureveryday lives. For instance,according to the US EnergyInformation Administration, theycomprise more than 85 per cent ofthe world’s primary energy supply.In Canada, oil products are used tofuel cars, homes and factories.They also provide the raw materialfor many different commercial andmanufacturing industries.According to the CanadianElectricity Association, fossil fuelpoweredthermal generators supplyabout 28 per cent of the electricitywe use.Petroleum also plays a key role as acritical ingredient in many products.Early in the 20th century, petroleumderivedchemicals were used tomake rayon — the first human-madefibre. These chemicals are nowpresent in many fabrics, such asnylon, polyester and elastic. Theplastics used in computers, medicalcomponents, kitchen utensils andupholstery are also produced usingchemicals derived from petroleumand other fossil fuels.In contrast, bioproducts userenewable biomass as a complementor alternative to non-renewablepetroleum-based feedsteedstocksocks. Theuse of bioproducts could reduceour dependence on fossil fuels as asource of raw materials in themanufacturing and processing ofmany industrial products.and materials. The use of biomass by industry today must includeways to avoid these problems and ensure that the industrial useof biological materials is clean and sustainable.Bioproducts today include everything from electrical power andliquid fuels to products, such as shampoos, plastics, fabrics andsolvents. They are manufactured using energy, chemicals orprocesses derived from biological materials (living organisms anddead matter).In large measure, they come from forestry, agricultural andaquatic sources. They may or may not involve the use ofadvanced technologies, such as genetic engineering. For thepurposes of this <strong>Primer</strong>, bioproducts refer to household,commercial and industrial products, but not to the food, feed andfibre we currently get from traditional uses of crops and trees.The term “bioproducts” refers to a wide array of industrial andcommercial products that are characterized by a variety ofproperties, compositions and processes, as well as differentbenefits and risks. Thus, the term “bioproducts” is one ofconvenience; a careful consideration of bioproducts requires anexamination of the characteristics of particular bioproducts andthe issues they raise on a case-by-case basis.Bioproducts are important to us because the biomass used in theirmanufacture provides either a complement or an alternative topetroleum and petrochemicals. Unlike fossil fuels, biomass isrenewable and has the capacity to quickly replenish itself usingenergy from the sun.8CHAPTER 1 — WHAT ARE BIOPRODUCTS?

Why Bioproducts Now?In the past 50 years, our understanding of the world and itsvarious life forms has changed in profound ways. Science andtechnology are moving at a rapid pace and improving ourknowledge of biology at the molecular level. Developments in thebiological and life sciences, as well as thermo-chemistry, have ledto discoveries of new ways to break down and use biologicalmaterials. Research is making possible new industrial productsand processes that use biomass instead of fossil fuels.From these new methods and materials, biobased fuels,bioplastics and biobased health products are emerging. Thesebioproducts could mark the beginning of a shift to a biobasedeconomy that eventually relies on renewable biological materialsto supply energy, chemicals and other products.Associated with this shift is an increasing interest by academia,industry and governments in exploring whether a biobasedeconomy could offer Canada an opportunity to build on ourexisting resource strengths and industries, while reducingpollution and enhancing economic development in rural areas.Scientists and governments around the world are concernedabout gases generated from the use of fossil fuels. These gases(including billions of tonnes of carbon dioxide, or CO 2) preventheat from leaving the Earth’s atmosphere and are causing globalclimate change, the effects of which include rising temperaturesand increasingly severe weather. Scientists have come torecognize the important role that plants play in absorbing andregulating the concentration of global greenhouse gases.BiomassEach year, according to estimatesby Stanford University biologistPeter Vitousek and his colleagues,approximately 224 billion tonnes ofnew biomass (by dry weight) aregenerated by photosynthetic plantsworldwide. Biomass currentlyprovides about 15 per cent of theenergy used by people around theworld and meets 35 per cent of theenergy needs of developingcountries. In Canada, millions oftonnes of biomass are harvestedevery year as trees and crops fromforests and farms. While biomasscurrently supplies just six per centof Canada’s primary energydemand, the BIOCAP CanadaFoundation estimates that, ifcollecting and processing it werefeasible, the amount of unusedbiomass left on fields and forestcut sites after harvest could supply27 per cent of the energy we nowget from fossil fuels.Industry and governments are examining whether a Canadianbiobased economy — one developed to minimize the adverseenvironmental and social impacts of bioproducts — could helpreduce our overall greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, the use ofPRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS9

Bioproducts and theCarbon CycleOne of the most importantdifferences between bioproductsindustries and fossil fuel-basedindustries is the relationship eachof these has with the carbon cyclecleand, in particular, the trapping ofenergy from the sun throughphotosynthesisosynthesis.The carbon cycle refers to the flow ofcarbon — a common chemical elementcrucial to the chemistry of life — froman inorganic state to an organic state(i.e., biomass) and back again.bioproducts in Canada’s energy and transportation industries(e.g., electricity generated using biomass fuels, or automobilefuels made from plants) can be useful in the fight against climatechange.Where Are Bioproducts Found?Although many consumers may not realize it, bioproducts arepresent in most Canadian households.For instance, wood is a traditional bioproduct that people havebeen using in fires to heat homes and cook meals for thousand ofyears. Today, many forest companies use wood residues togenerate heat and electrical power for their own operations.Other, less traditional products of biological materials andprocesses — now available or under development — includesome types of shingles, insulation, plastics, carpet, linoleum,fibreboard, specialty paper, fabric, packaging, cleaners, solvents,paints, shampoo, cosmetics, soap, lubricants, detergents andbiofuels, such as bioethanol and biodiesel.Fuel ethanol made from the starch of corn is a bioproduct that isbecoming a common feature at gasoline pumps. More than 600service stations across Canada now offer fuel with bioethanolblended in as an additive. Technology to improve the acquisitionof fuel ethanol from corn and other cellulose-based material isadvancing rapidly. This would allow the use of waste agriculturaland forest biomass without detracting from the use of thematerial as a food source.Corn and other plants, such as wheat, that are rich in starch mayalso become the source of wax used to polish cars, or they maybecome ingredients in the glue used in home renovation projects.Using energy-rich biomassto “close” the carbon cycle.10CHAPTER 1 — WHAT ARE BIOPRODUCTS?

shampoo,cosmetics,soapshingles,deck boards,insulationbiofuels,lubricants,car partsSource:Bioproducts Canada Inc.paper,packaging,clothing, fabricfibreboard,linoleum,carpetingpaints, solvents,cleaners,fertilizersBioproducts and theCarbon Cycle — continuedCarbon dioxide (CO 2) is the inorganicform of carbon that is incorporatedinto living organisms throughphotosynthesis, a process that storesenergy from the sun in carbonbasedmolecules within the biomassof vegetation and other organisms.Our bodies get carbon and theenergy it stores by eating plants andthe animals that eat plants.Today, most societies get the energyand chemicals they need from fossilfuels — oil, coal and natural gas.These come from ancient plantmaterial and other biomass that hasbeen sequestuesteredered undergroundand away from the active carboncycle for many millions of years.When we use fossil fuels, we openthe active carbon cycle to anadditional source of carbon (fromCO 2emissions), throwing the naturalcycle off-balance. The resultingincrease in the concentration ofCO 2in the atmosphere has beenlinked to climate change.Hemp, a plant long outlawed because of its close relatedness tomarijuana, is used as an ingredient in clothes, cosmetics,moisturizers and lotions. It could also be blended into the plasticof interior car door panels and dashboards to make them strongerand more durable.The use of biomass, on the otherhand, has the potential (if managedproperly) to be a “CO 2neutral”source of energy and chemicals,essentially closing the carbon cycle.The CO 2absorbed by and incorporatedin this biomass could be enough tooffset the CO 2generated bybiomass industry processes.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS11

PyrolysisPyrolysis is a process that usesheat to decompose biomass in theabsence of oxygen. Ground upbiomass is exposed to temperaturesof just under 500°C, converting itto char and gases. The gases arethen rapidly cooled, and some ofthem condense into pyrolysis oil.The pyrolysis oil is a mixture ofwater and many different organiccompounds. It can be burned as isfor fuel, or can be refined to yielduseful industrial chemicals andhigher quality fuel. The gases thatare produced during pyrolysis canbe burned to create heat to keepthe process going.Bioproducts are already found in cosmetic kits and bathroomcabinets. Products from oil seeds and plant material arefrequently used in the manufacture of soaps and shampoos.Algae are used to produce natural colours for use in cosmetics.A chemical known as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is often used as afloor covering. This petroleum-based product could be replacedby linoleum produced from plant fibres and resins. Artists’ paintsthat once used petroleum-based azo pigments can now use dyesavailable in plants.How Are Bioproducts Made?Bioproducts are made using biomass as a raw material. Rawmaterials for industry can also use biomass left over fromconventional agriculture, forestry and marine activities, as well asmunicipal works and industrial processes. The biomass may havelittle economic value and may be waste material that wouldotherwise be expensive to dispose of, such as manure andmunicipal landfill wastes. Such materials, however, becomevaluable as biomass. As they generate methane through microbialprocessing, they can be used to generate electricity.Biomass may also be specifically grown to serve an industrialpurpose. In some cases, crops and trees are selected or engineeredto provide biomass of a particular quality and composition tomake processing it both technologically and economicallyfeasible.Manufacturing bioproducts from biomass involves a variety ofindustrial techniques. For instance, new methods for thethermochemical processing of biomass (such as pyrolysis) areused to generate biobased oil and gas. These fuels can, in turn, beused to power electrical generators and motors. Fermentation isalso used to make bioproducts and biofuels.12CHAPTER 1 — WHAT ARE BIOPRODUCTS?

Some bioproducts do not require biomass as a raw material.Instead, they use inorganic raw materials, but involve industrialtechniques that use biological enzymes or microbial processingduring their manufacture.Identifying the IssuesThe arrival of new bioproducts in the lives of most Canadianscould go unnoticed. For example, people who add a biobasedcream to their cosmetic bags, or a biodetergent to their householdcleaning products, may be unaware that these products are partof a raw material and process shift by industry.For many people, the strongest indication that Canada’s industryand economy are undergoing fundamental change will be publicdebates in the media concerning the environmental, health, socialand ethical implications of the increased industrial use of biomassand the attendant technologies used by bioproducts industries. Inthis regard, it is likely that negative implications about the use ofbiomass will also be discussed in light of continued fossil fuel useand associated pollution and climate change issues.The appropriate use of land and water resources is an issue thathas arisen from the development of industrial bioproducts. Goodarable land is limited, and the question is whether we can growcrops for industry and still have enough land available to growfood. Similar questions have arisen in the forest sector. Changesin the way land and water are currently used can haveenvironmental consequences and create conflicts among users.FermentationFermentation is a process that usesmicro-organismsto perform a chainof biochemical reactions that turnsugar into other products, such asalcohols and organic acids. Beforestarchy biomass sources (e.g., corn)can be fermented, the starches firstneed to be broken down into simplesugars. This is usually done byexposing the biomass to hightemperatures after adding anenzyme to act as a catalyst. Oncethe starches have been brokendown, a micro-organism, such asyeast, is added. The micro-organismdigests the sugars and producescarbon dioxide and othercompounds. The micro-organismspecies used during fermentationdepends on the desired endproduct. For example, a yeastcalled saccharomyces cerevisiae isused to ferment corn and sugarcane into fuel ethanol. This is thesame species that has been usedfor centuries in brewing and baking.Other concerns relate to conflicts about ensuring that the risks andbenefits of bioproduct development are fairly distributed. Someorganizations, including the ETC Group of Winnipeg (formerlythe Rural Advancement Foundation International), fear thatinadequate patent laws and other biotechnology regulationsensure that large corporations, rather than rural communities andPRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS13

developing nations involved in the production ofbiomass raw materials, will disproportionatelycontrol and benefit from the development ofbioproduct technologies.Controversial forms of biotechnology, such asgenetic engineering, are used in the manufactureof some bioproducts. In bioproducts industries,gene transfer between organisms can be usedto isolate and enhance the performance ofmicro-organisms and their catalyzing enzymesand to increase the production capacity of treesand crops. This is of concern to some people,although not as controversial as the use ofgenetically modified organisms in food crops.If old growth forests and other ecosystems thatstore large amounts of carbon are used to growbiomass crops and fast-growing trees that havelower carbon densities, then bioproductsindustries — often promoted as a means tohelp fight climate change — could contribute tothe greenhouse gas problem. Large areas ofland devoted to single biomass crops forindustry might also threaten biodiversity (justas monoculture farming for food presents thesame risk). However, energy plantations fromforest biomass may be planted on abandonedfarmlands, which could reduce the pressure toharvest natural forests.Intensive growing of crops and trees couldplace unusually high demands on communitywater supplies. Plantations of trees, however,are far less likely to compromise water suppliesthan are agricultural crop species or even manynatural grasses and herbs. Such plantationsmay be a good way to make marginal landsproductive. The large quantities of pesticides orfertilizer required to grow some crops couldalso have an adverse impact on the environment.This impact can be considerably reduced bycultivating fast-growing trees, for example,since it is usually only in the first year or two ofthe rotation that chemicals are used, ratherthan every year. For trees that are coppiced,pesticides and fertilizers may not be used at all.Bioproducts concerns may be offset by thebenefits of using biomass in industry. Thedownside of bioproducts technologies, or ofbiomass production, may be weighed in publicdebates against promises of sustainabledevelopment, including the use of renewableresources as industrial feedstocks, improvedconservation, and various environmental,social and economic benefits.These are just some of the issues raised by thedevelopment and use of bioproducts inCanada. They are described in more detailthroughout this <strong>Primer</strong> and, in particular, inChapter 6. The <strong>Primer</strong> does not attempt toresolve these controversies or discuss thedebates in depth; instead, readers interested inlearning more and engaging in public debatesare encouraged to contact the agencies andorganizations listed in Chapter 7.The benefits, risks and issues raised bybioproducts make it critical that Canadiansbecome well informed and able to participate indiscussions about future directions and policies.This <strong>Primer</strong> is designed to inform the debate.14CHAPTER 1 — WHAT ARE BIOPRODUCTS?

Potential Benefits and Risks of BioproductsUnderstanding bioproducts means understanding the potentials, the promises and the pitfalls associated with theseproducts and the technologies used to produce them. The word “bioproducts” is a term of convenience thatencompasses a wide range of products and processes. It is difficult to make meaningful generalizations about suchdiversity. Adequate consideration of the pros and cons of bioproducts may be most effective when each case isconsidered on its merits. The following lists of potential benefits and risks highlight some of the promises andconcerns that have been identified for bioproducts.Potential Benefits:its:Envirvironmental protection• Reduced dependency on fossil fuels andpetrochemicals.• Less greenhouse gas emissions.• Reduced smog pollutant and toxic chemicalemissions.Diverersifsification ication of energy sources• Use of Canada’s abundant biomass resources as arenewable feedstock.• A source of energy from municipal waste, whichreduces problems associated with municipalgarbage disposal.Use of organic bypryproducts and wasaste• Reduced amounts of effluent and solid waste.• Reduced contamination of air, water and soil.Invigoration of rural communities• Increased demand for forest, farm and aquaticproducts, building on regional strengths.• Localized production and creation of jobs in ruralCanada.An Energy Resource for Developing eloping Economies• More widely distributed access to energy,especially for many developing economies thathave large biomass reserves.• Biomass processing technologies could be anexport opportunity for Canada.Potential Risks:Envirvironmental threats• Depleted biomass carbon stocks, increasedatmospheric CO 2concentrations and contributionto climate change.• Reduced biodiversity.• Increased demand for fertilizers, herbicides andpesticides, thus increasing pollution andgreenhouse gas emissions.• Some crops and micro-organisms are geneticallyengineered to produce bioproducts. These requirefull regulatory analysis to avoid negative effects onecosystems.• Fast-growing, monoculture tree plantations couldbe more susceptible to disease, or could depletelocal water supplies.• Industrial cultivation of favoured species couldthreaten biodiversity.• Increased particulate carbon emissions (soot)from wood burning.Land use and watater use conflicts• Use of land needed to supply food crops.• Use of land and water for biomass production thatshould be protected or reserved for other uses,such as wildlife habitat.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS15

Some Examples of BioproductsProductBiologicalRaw w MaterialReplaced Petrtroleum-basedRaw w MaterialElectrical power Wood, plant fibres Coal, oil, natural gasDiesel fuel Vegetable oils, animal fats Diesel fuel from oilAutomotive fuel Ethanol from starch or cellulose Gasoline from oilGas heating Methane from animal or Natural gas (mostlymunicipal wastemethane)Steel Charcoal or oil from wood Coke made from coalto reduce iron oreto reduce iron orePlastics Polylactic acid from starch PolyethyleneFloor covering Cork, jute, flax Polyvinyl chlorideTextiles, fabric Hemp, flax, other plant fibres PolyestersInsulation Straw, protein glue PolystyreneHydraulics, Plant oils Mineral oilslubricating oilWood glazes Plant resins, oils Polyacrylates, glycolsFibre-reinforced Hemp fibre, shellac resin Carbon fibre, polyamidematerialsArtist’s paints Plant dyes Azo pigments16CHAPTER 1 — WHAT ARE BIOPRODUCTS?

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Chapter 2Photo: Corel Corporation18

Chapter 2Bioproducts TodayUntil the 1920s, most Canadian industries depended onrenewable biological resources, such as trees, crops and otherforms of biomass, to manufacture products. These earlybioproducts industries were largely displaced as new industrialtechnologies made energy, plastics and other materials fromfossil fuels more efficient and economical to produce. As thepopulation and the economy grew during the past century,industrial growth fed by fossil fuels followed. So, too, did majoradvances in technology, medicine, food production and, formany, quality of life.Canada’s early dependence on renewable, biological resources,such as trees and crops, was far from environmentally benign.Large tracts of forests were lost. Biodiversity suffered. Burningbiomass scattered ash, smoke and other pollutants across thelandscape.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS19

Canadian Forest ProductsThe Canadian forest productsindustry is an important industrythat has always used biomass.Canada exports more forest productsthan any other nation in the world.According to figures compiled bythe Canadian Forest Service, in2002 the Canadian forest industryexported almost $43 billion worthof products and was the nation’slargest industrial employer. Theindustry is also considered the mostgeographically dispersed industrialemployer in the country, supportingmore than 300 rural communities.This <strong>Primer</strong> does not considertraditional forest products (e.g.,timber, pulp and paper); instead, itfocuses on bioproducts that have thepotential to complement or replaceproducts currently made frompetrochemicals and fossil fuels. Thisdoes not mean that Canada’sforestry industry has no role to playin the development of a bioproductsindustry. On the contrary, trees areessential as a source of biomass forboth traditional and novel bioproducts.Several forestry companies alreadyuse branches, bark and other woodwaste from their operations togenerate electricity for their ownoperations. For example, PacificaPapers of British Columbia — aproducer of 1,300 tonnes of newsprintand other products per day — usesbark from its stone-ground woodmill and other wood residues to runa 40-megamegawattatt generator thatpowers its facilities.20The switch to coal, oil and other fossil fuels did not solve theenvironmental problems. As the industrial use of these petroleumproducts increased they began to affect the quality of air, landand water, as a growing population generated more demand forindustrial products. The large scale of industrial and otheremissions has resulted in normally valuable atmospheric gases,such as CO 2, becoming global environmental problems.Scientific advances in chemical processing and biotechnologiesare making biomass a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels in themanufacture of many fuels, chemicals and materials. Forexample, the industrial use of enzymes to economically convertcellulose in the tough, woody parts of plants into burnableethanol fuel has only recently been developed. Advances inthermochemical engineering, meanwhile, have improved ourability to convert biomass into gas and oil, and to make diesel fuelfrom vegetable oils and animal fats.Bioproducts in CanadaBased on data collected in 2001, a preliminary study by StatisticsCanada has yielded some information on the Canadianbioproducts industry. There are 81 Canadian companies involvedexclusively with bioproducts. The annual activity within thesecompanies has been estimated to involve revenues of at least$400–500 million, employment of 1,200–1,500 people, andresearch and development funds in the range of $60–80 million.In addition, another 52 Canadian companies are involved inbioproducts on a more limited scale.More than 80 per cent of the bioproducts companies in Canada aresmall- and medium-sized enterprises. The number of enterprisescontinues to grow (but the number reported may not be completelyrepresentative since some bioproducts are also manufactured byfirms not recognized as biotechnology companies in the StatisticsCanada survey). In 2004, 223 Canadian bioproducts companiesCHAPTER 2 — BIOPRODUCTS TODAY

were included in a guide and directory to theindustry published by Contact Canada(http://contactcanada.com).Some Canadian bioproducts manufacturers aresubsidiaries of large corporations. One exampleis Dow Bioproducts of Elie, Manitoba, a whollyowned subsidiary of Dow Chemical Canadathat makes construction materials out of strawand resin. Other large corporations, such asDuPont, BASF, CASCO and Cargill Dow, areinvesting in bioproducts. Most Canadianbioproducts manufacturers, however, are smallcorporations, such as Canolio Inc. of Quebec.Canolio makes body creams and massage oilsfrom hemp. Other current examples ofCanadian bioproduct companies include Iogen,Natunola, Wellington Polymers, Ensyn, Tembec,Nstarch, BioTerre Système, Hempline, BioxCorporation, Dynamotive Energy Systems,Linnaeus Plant Sciences, and Robustion.According to Statistics Canada, in 2001Canadian industry invested $60–80 million inthe research and development of bioproducts— a significant sum, but considerably less thaninvestments in the United States, Japan andGermany. The Canadian government has alsohad a growing interest in bioproducts andbiobased energy production. In 2001, a federal“Inter-departmental Working Group onBioproducts” was established to coordinate theefforts and initiatives of different federaldepartments, including the promotion ofbiotechnology by Industry Canada, EnvironmentCanada, Natural Resources Canada, andAgriculture and Agri-Food Canada, as well asthe regulation of biotechnology by HealthSource:ce: Corel CorporationCanada. Similarly, Industry Canada, alongwith a variety of industrial stakeholders andinterest groups, has developed a technologyroadmap on bioproducts and bioprocesses thatrecommends more investment by the federalgovernment to advance biomass as analternative to petroleum resources.Meanwhile, bioproducts advocacy associations,such as BioProducts Canada Inc. and its regionaland provincial counterparts, have emergednationally to encourage investment in, and agreater emphasis on, bioproducts by governmentsand industries. Other national non-governmentgroups, such as the BIOCAP CanadaFoundation, encourage research, developmentand commercialization in this area.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS21

What Other Nations Are Doing?According to the US Department of Energy,interest in bioproducts is developing steadilyaround the world. Sales of bioproducts in theUnited States more than doubled between 1983and 1995, from $5.4 billion to $11 billion. In1999, a White House Executive Order committedthe United States government to a three-foldincrease in its current use and production ofbioproducts and biofuels from biomass by theyear 2010. In 2002, the US Department ofEnergy published its Vision for Bioenergy &Biobased Products in the United States, whichrecommended that government and industrywork to increase the share of biomass power tofive per cent, transportation fuels to 20 percent, and biobased products to 25 per cent oftheir respective markets by 2030.Japan is also encouraging growth inbioproducts research and industrialdevelopment. Recently, bioproducts wereidentified as one of three key biotechnologyinitiatives aimed at transforming conventionalindustry into industry that is based on cleaner,less greenhouse gas-intensive biologicalprocesses and products.Germany is a leader in developing a suite ofprograms, product standards and regulatoryframeworks designed to promote the use ofrenewable fuels, chemicals and materials, aswell as the development of environmentallyfriendly industrial processes.Brazil requires vehicles to use gasoline with atleast 20 to 24 per cent ethanol, which is locallyproduced from sugar cane. This regulation toreduce dependency on foreign oil has resultedin as much as 40 per cent of Brazil’s vehiclesbeing powered by 100 per cent ethanol. Thegovernment is also encouraging the country —now the world’s largest ethanol producer — toseek export opportunities.Scandinavian countries, meanwhile, areactively encouraging the planting of fastgrowingpoplars and willows to make paperproducts and composite construction materials.22CHAPTER 2 — BIOPRODUCTS TODAY

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Chapter 3Photo: Corel Corporation24

Chapter 3Biofuels and BioenergyCanada’s potential for producing fuels and generating energyfrom biomass is both very large and underutilized. However,the feasibility of using biomass as a source of fuel for cars,factories and electricity generation depends on the availabilityof appropriate technologies and the harvesting of sometimesremote biomass resources. Currently, Canada meets about sixper cent of its total energy needs from biomass, compared tothree per cent for both the European Union and the UnitedStates.Technologies through which biomass can be converted intofuels and energy include fermentation, combustion, anaerobicdigestion, pyrolysis, thermal depolymerization andgasification. Some of these technologies and related processesare described below to show how they work.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS25

Does Canada Have a“Green Advantage”?Canada is home to seven per centof the world’s land mass and 10per cent of its forests. Most of thecountry’s biomass production takesplace in large forests.The BIOCAP Canada Foundationestimates that, if gathering andprocessing this widely distributedenergy resource were economicallyfeasible, there may be enoughunused biomass from Canada’sforestry and farming operationsalone (crop residues, unused treebranches, mill waste, etc.) to providealmost 27 per cent of the country’scurrent energy needs. The universitybasedresearch organization alsocalculates that a 25 per centincrease in today’s tree and cropproduction could meet a further 15per cent of the energy demand nowbeing filled by fossil fuels.These numbers reflect the totalbiomass potential of Canada’s vastforests and farmlands. They do nottake into account the difficultiesassociated with collecting thismaterial, the shortcomings of thetechnology, the economics ofprocessing it, the related pollutionproblems, and other environmentaland economic issues associatedwith the use of biomass as a sourceof energy.Biomass for Heat and PowerBurning biomass is called “direct combustion.” Woodstoves andfireplaces use direct combustion to heat homes. Traditional stovesand fireplaces may be the oldest and perhaps crudest means forconverting biomass to heat, but new technologies have mademany wood and biomass burning stoves very efficient. Fuel forthese stoves includes everything from wood and wood chips tobiomass particles, pellets and fire logs made from coffee grinds.While the amount of trace gases (including CO 2) and particlesemitted from woodstoves varies widely among different models,many Canadians use them as an alternative to oil and gasfurnaces for space heating, or to fossil fuel-fired plants as a sourceof electricity.Biomass direct combustion is also used to generate steam andelectricity (or, more simply put, heat and power). For thispurpose, dried organic material is burned to boil water, and theresulting steam provides process heat that forces a turbine to spinand generate electricity. In the United States, direct biomasscombustion currently generates more than 7,500 megawatts ofelectricity — enough to power several million households.In Canada, direct combustion is used to generate heat andelectricity in communities across the country. For example, inCharlottetown, Prince Edward Island, a wood-fired districtheating system has been supplying heat to 15 buildings since1986, including provincial government buildings, city hall, twochurches, three hotels and a fire hall.Hydro-Québec gets 28 megawatts of power from the wood-firedChapais Generating Station in Chapais, Quebec. The WilliamsLake power plant in Williams Lake, British Columbia, burnswood waste from forestry operations in the area to fuel its 60megawatt operation. In the Town of Ajax, a biomass-powereddistrict energy system provides energy to the community centre,26CHAPTER 3 — BIOFUELS AND BIOENERGY

Ajax-Pickering Hospital, the Ajax WorksDepartment and more than a dozen industrialcustomers.Most biomass can generate energy from directcombustion, but some biomass sources areavoided because they produce large amountsof ash that can foul boilers, reduce efficiencyand increase costs. Similarly, wet biomass canresult in a large amount of energy being wastedin boiling off the moisture before the biomasscan be burned.Biomass can also be converted into clean andefficient fuels that can be indirectly used todrive generators, fuel cells, engines and otherenergy conversion devices, and to producepower. Pyrolysis and advanced gasificationtechnologies transform organic materials intocrude oil (bio-oil) and “synthesis gas” (syngas),respectively. Thermal depolymerizationproduces true hydrocarbon oil comparable tohigh-quality heating oil. These technologiesgenerally have greater conversion efficiencyand use a wider variety of biomass thancombustion technologies.Pyrolysis converts biomass to fuel by heating itin an oxygen-free tank. The gas produced isthen quickly cooled to a liquid and a solidcharcoal. The liquid can be burned for energyor used to produce chemicals that can replacepetrochemicals. Renewable fuels produced bypyrolysis can be more easily stored,transported and burned than can solidbiomass.Source:ce: Corel CorporationGasification is a similar process to pyrolysis,but introduces oxygen as the biomass is heated.The result is a cleaner fuel called syngas.Syngas contains carbon monoxide andhydrogen, as well as nitrogen, but it still burnswith fewer emissions than do fossil fuels.Syngas can be used in place of natural gas togenerate electricity, or as a raw material toproduce chemicals (e.g., ammonia) and liquidfuels (e.g., methanol).Co-firing is another method of reducing gasemissions and the environmental impacts offossil fuel-powered generators. Rather thanheating the generator boilers in electricityplants with coal alone, the co-firing processmixes dried biomass into the fuel. Co-firinghelps reduce the amount of coal needed toproduce electricity.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS27

Processes for producing electrical power fromrenewable biomass (and from other renewableenergy sources) are described in PollutionProbe’s <strong>Primer</strong> on the Technologies of RenewableEnergy (see www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/<strong>Primer</strong>s.htm).Biomass to Fuel VehiclesPeople have been fermenting plant sugar intoethanol almost since the beginning of recordedhistory. New biotechnologies have sped upthese processes. Today’s novel enzymes makeit possible to generate alcohol from plantsseveral thousand times more efficiently thanthe earliest brewers and distillers managed it.Ethanol burns quickly and cleanly and canserve as a renewable fuel for transportation andother uses. Most of the ethanol fuel nowavailable in Canada is produced from corn. Thestarch in the corn is chemically processed intoglucose (a simpler sugar), which, in turn, isfermented into alcohol using yeast. About 225million litres of ethanol is now blended intogasoline (as a five to 10 per cent additive) andsold at more than 600 retail stations acrossCanada each year. In October 2000, the federalgovernment announced plans to increaseethanol production in Canada by 750 millionlitres per year over the next five years, whichwould increase bioethanol production fromabout 0.6 per cent to 2.5 per cent of the totalgasoline use in Canada. Canadian ethanolproduction currently consumes more than 17million bushels of corn every year. One majorbyproduct of this ethanol production is a highqualitylivestock feed that is more nutritiousthan the original corn.The cost and availability of suitable crops areconsidered major hurdles to the largercommercial development of bioethanol inCanada. Additionally, the environmentalbenefits of converting corn and grain to ethanol(e.g., lower greenhouse gases) can becompromised by the large amounts of energy,fossil fuels and fertilizer needed to farm thesecrops.New biotechnology that is promising largescaleconversion of the tough, fibrous parts ofplants (i.e., the cellulose in stalks, corn cobsand straw) to bioethanol may be moreSource:National Biodiesel Board. www.biodiesel.org.28CHAPTER 3 — BIOFUELS AND BIOENERGY

environmentally attractive than current technologies. Many of thetechnologies needed to manufacture cellulose-based ethanol on acommercially viable scale are still in development. IogenCorporation of Ottawa has become a world leader in thedevelopment of this technology.Meanwhile, fatty acids or oils from renewable plant and animalsources can be converted into a clean-burning fuel known asbiodiesel. These organic oils — from seeds, corn, canola, animalfat, and even “used” fast-food-fryer vegetable oil — can beseparated to isolate the combustible compounds that make up thefuel. According to the Canadian Renewable Fuels Association,biodiesel, as a blend or by itself, can be used in conventionaldiesel engines to significantly reduce some pollution emissions.Producing the fuel does not generate any net CO 2emissions, andthe fuel itself is considered to be biodegradable.Gas from Municipal and Farm WasteBiogas — a mixture of methane and CO 2— is a renewable fuelthat can be produced from organic waste. Biogas is made bybacteria that degrade biological material in the absence of oxygenin a process known as anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestioncan result in the creation of gas from organic material. It usuallyoccurs naturally in marshes, rubbish dumps, septic tanks and thedigestive systems of ruminants, such as cattle and sheep.The disposal of farm manure and municipal solid waste presentsserious environmental problems and expense for rural and urbancommunities. Instead of being disposed, these wastes can be usedin the production of biogas. Anaerobic digestion processes havebeen applied to poultry and cattle manure, hog farm effluent andfood processing waste. Biogas from a number of landfill sites inCanada is now used to drive gas turbines for power generation.Fuelled by BiodieselCosts are still a significant barrierto large-scale commercialproduction and use of biodiesel.Estimates by the US Department ofEnergy suggest that biodiesel costsfrom US$1.95 to US$3 per gallon(depending on the feedstock andthe supplier), compared to thecurrent price of regular diesel ofabout US$1.50. Diesel blendsusing 20 per cent biodiesel areexpected to cost US$0.30 toUS$0.40 more per gallon thandiesel, the department says. Animportant factor here is theequalization of incentives andenabling policies for biobasedproducts — starting with energy —that put biomass on a level playingfield with fossil fuels, which are stillsubsidized and not heldaccountable for all of theenvironmental costs they create.According to the American BiodieselAssociation, despite the higher cost,biodiesel users in the United Statesalready include the US PostalService and the US Departments ofEnergy and Agriculture, as well asalmost 100 other public and privatefleets in the country.The use of biodiesel in Canada isproblematic in the winter months. Incold weather biodiesel thickens morequickly than conventional diesel.For the time being, biodiesel can bePRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS29

Fuelled by Biodiesel —continuedused as an additive in up to five percent of the conventional diesel fuelblend until an optimum blend ratiocan be found that will improvebiodiesel’s winter performance.In Canada, very little biodiesel isproduced commercially; however,an increase is expected over thenext few years. Demonstrationprojects to test the viability ofbiodiesel as a fuel for city transitand public works fleets have beenestablished in a number ofmunicipalities, including Kingston,Montreal, Saskatoon, Brampton,Guelph, Vancouver, Whistler, Halifaxand Toronto. BIOX Corporation ofToronto has developed a newchemical technology that producesbiodiesel from biomass at a cost40–50 per cent cheaper than otherbiodiesel processes. The companyis planning to launch its firstcommercial-scale biodieselproduction facility (60 million litresper year) in 2004.This not only makes electricity, but also burns methane — agreenhouse gas 21 times more potent than CO 2— before it isreleased into the atmosphere.The municipality of Kitchener–Waterloo, for example, togetherwith Toromont Energy, use naturally created landfill gases —gases that were once simply burned off — to produce electricity.A network of subterranean pipes collects the gases from thelandfill and uses them to fuel an electrical generating station.In Lethbridge, Alberta, ECB Enviro is building a pilot facility thatwill produce biogas energy (as well as treated water andfertilizer) using pig farm manure generated by area hogoperations. The company expects the plant, which beganconstruction in 2003, to use 100,000 tonnes of manure per year,while generating enough electricity for about 900 homes.Biomass as a Fuel Cell Hydrogen SourceBiomass may also have a role to play in the development ofrenewable hydrogen fuel for fuel cells. Fuel cells generate powerby combining hydrogen fuels and oxygen (without combustion)to produce water and electricity.Hydrogen is extremely volatile and explosive. It also takes up alot of room relative to the amount of energy it provides, and it isdifficult to store and deliver to consumers. One way around theseobstacles is to use established fuels as a portable source of thehydrogen. Ethanol and methane made from biomass can beprocessed into hydrogen for fuel cells. Fuel-cell powered carsgenerate fewer tailpipe emissions and have higher fuel efficiencythan standard gasoline-powered automobiles.30CHAPTER 3 — BIOFUELS AND BIOENERGY

Fuel cells were first used commercially byNASA in the 1960s. Currently, North Americanautomobile manufacturers, as well as manyforeign auto manufacturers, are trying todevelop cost-effective fuel-cell vehicles. Forcars and other vehicles, fuel cells could meanless maintenance than for conventionallyproduced vehicles, and the ability to achieveup to 130 kilometres per litre of fuel (almost 10times more efficient than the average cartoday).A prototype of a car powered by fuel cells.Source:ce: Ballard Power Systems. www.ballard.comPRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS31

Chapter 4Photo: www.comstock.com/ca32

Chapter 4Biochemicals and BiomaterialsIndustrial chemistry is the science used to make many of theeveryday products and materials we take for granted — plastics,glues and cleaners, to name a few. Industry and governmentslooking to find cleaner, more efficient and cost-effectivemanufacturing methods have begun to focus on naturallyoccurring chemical reactions and on the biological structuresthat help these processes along. Their hope is that relying onnatural processes will help industry reduce the hazardouschemicals used, the dangerous reactions required, and the toxicwaste created.Yet, the overall impact of these bioproducts is not clear. In a2001 report, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD) reviewed the environmental andeconomic performance of bioproducts industries (using lifecycleassessments) and found that, in general, bioproductsPRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS33

consume less energy and produce lessgreenhouse gases than conventionallyproduced products. However, the same reportconcluded that bioproducts are rarely superiorto conventional products in all categories ofenvironmental effects. For example, somebioproducts industries that rely on biomass cancontribute to the eutrophication of lakes, riversand other surface waters. Eutrophication isassociated with nitrogen and phosphate runofffrom fertilizers used in growing crops.Green ChemistryIndustrial chemistry that seeks to reducepollution, increase efficiency and limit the use ofhazardous materials in the manufacture and useof chemicals is often called “green chemistry.”The object of green chemistry is to create saferand more environmentally benign chemicals,as well as the synthesis processes, reagents,solvents, products and byproducts involved intheir production and use. It also aims to bemore chemically and energy efficient.Green chemistry often uses biologically derived(from biomass) chemicals and materials toachieve its goals, since these chemicals are lesslikely to be as persistent and as toxic aspetrochemical derivatives. Green chemistry hasalso focused on using chemical processes basedon, or involving, naturally occurring biologicalstructures, such as enzymes or the metabolicpathways of living cells, that are often veryefficient and more likely to be environmentallyneutral than other industrial chemical processes.Biomass to Produce IndustrialProductsIn some cases, the chemically manufacturedmaterials we rely on today can be readilyreplaced by materials found in nature. In somecases, small modifications to naturally occurringsubstances can yield useful, easily obtainableproducts.For example, polylactic acid is a plastic materialderived from renewable sources, such as thestarch from wheat and corn. In the future, itwill also be extracted from plant cellulose.Source:www.comstock.com/ca34CHAPTER 4 — BIOCHEMICALS AND BIOMATERIALS

Similar to conventional fossil fuel-based plastics, polylactic acid isdurable and can be shaped and moulded to create a number ofuseful products, ranging from grocery bags to toys. It can be usedas a textile and can readily replace nylon, polyester and polystyrene.Plastics made from petroleum products are responsible forworldwide landfill and other pollution problems. While polylacticacid plastics are also slow to degrade in the environment, work isbeing done to blend this material with cornstarch or resin to makeit more biodegradable, according to the US Department ofAgriculture. These plastics require far less energy to produce thanconventional plastics. Researchers are also studying ways toproduce polylactic acid from tough stems, husks and woodyleftovers (i.e., cellulose) from farming and forestry.Enzymes as Industrial AgentsEnzymes are large, organic helper molecules that assist and speedup the chemical reactions necessary for life. These (mainly) proteincatalysts grab the chemicals involved in a reaction and bring themtogether, letting go again when the desired reaction has occurred.In some cases, industry has been able to isolate these chemicalmatchmakers from the plants, animals and micro-organisms inwhich they naturally occur, and to put them to work. Enzymescan carry out very specific tasks, so enzyme-mediated chemicalprocesses can be highly efficient. Some enzyme-mediatedprocesses use less energy and produce less waste thanconventional industrial chemistry.Through genetic engineering or by “molecular evolution” (i.e.,rapidly “evolving” enzymes through a process that imitatesnatural evolution and selection), industry can modify and directthe work of enzymes to help with entirely new chemical reactionsor to work in specific conditions, such as high temperatures andhigh acidity.Enzymes at WorkThe global market for industrialenzymes is valued at more than $1billion annually, according to the OECD.It continues to grow by about 10 percent per year. Increasingly, enzymesare playing a pivotal role in industrialprocesses around the world.Right now, for example, enzymes canoften be found in laundry detergentto better remove stains. They arealso used to convert cellulose tosugar, to bleach paper, to curdlemilk for cheese, and to improve theconsistency of flour in bread making.Iogen Corporation (Canada) —Ottawa-based Iogen Corporationhas developed an enzyme hydrolysistechnology that readily breaks downcellulose — the tough, woody materialfound in straw, corn stalks, woodand orchard trimmings — so that itcan be converted to bioethanol fuel.Ethanol from biological sources hasbeen promoted as a fuel alternativethat can help reduce the greenhousegas emissions associated withgasoline. One problem has beenthat the only easy way to getethanol from plants is to convert itfrom starchy plants, such as cornand grain. Iogen, which has built asubstantial business developingnovel industrial uses for naturalenzymes, is now able makeenvironmentally friendly fuel fromthe parts of food crops traditionallyunderused or abandoned in thefields. Iogen’s demonstration-scaleplant for producing “EcoEthanol” canPRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS35

Enzymes at Work — continuedprocess about 40 tonnes wheat, oat and barley straw everyday and has the potential to produce three to four millionlitres of ethanol each year.Mitsubishi Rayon on (Japan) — The Japanese companyMitsubishi Rayon uses an enzyme it gets from a naturallyoccurring micro-organism to help in the production ofacrylamide, an important chemical used in the production ofplastics. During the conventional production of acrylamide,either copper or sulphuric acid, together with very hightemperatures, is needed. By using the enzyme known as nitrilehydratase, Mitsubishi Rayon has been able to produceacrylamide with greater purity at less cost and with 80 percent less energy per unit of production than the conventionalprocess. By genetically engineering the original organism, thecompany has improved both the yield and the performance ofthe enzyme.Baxenden Chemicals (Britain) — An enzyme from the yeastCandida antarctica is the star of a process used by Britain’sBaxenden Chemicals to make polyester. The company employsthe bacterial enzyme to help build long polyester moleculesat much lower temperatures and without use of the toxicsolvents and acids that characterize the conventional process.The enzyme-mediate process is also much better than otherindustrial chemical processes at building the molecules to auniform length. This makes the polyester especially valuableas hot-melt glue, such as the glues used in glue-guns.Cerol (Germany) — Degumming is the process of refiningvegetable oils to free them of unwanted “gummy” materialsand to ensure high quality and a long shelf life. Usingconventional methods, the oils are refined by adding acidsand water to them and then separating them along withunwanted particles and contaminants using a centrifuge.Germany’s Cerol uses the enzyme phospholipase duringdegumming to get the same result, but with a reduced needfor the caustic soda, phosphoric acid and sulfuric acid usedduring conventional processes. The use of the enzyme alsoreduces the amount of water needed for washing and dilution,and cuts down the amount of waste sludge generated.Metabolic Pathways asIndustrial AgentsThe metabolic pathways of an organismrefer to the chemical steps a living cell takesto store or release energy. Like the enzymesthat act as catalysts to make these chemicalsteps happen, these pathways have becomevery efficient over evolutionary time.Industry has been able to harness the wholecells of micro-organisms to take advantageof their metabolic pathways in theproduction of chemicals. By modifying themicro-organisms through geneticengineering, these cells can become highlyefficient, producing higher yields ofchemicals than conventional processes andwithout the need for multiple steps.In Britain, for example, a chemical companycalled Avecia uses Pseudomonas bacteria (acommon bacteria found in soil and water)to help make S-chloropropionic acid, anintermediate chemical used in theproduction of several herbicides. Thebacteria isolate the pure S-chloropropionicacid molecule by breaking down itsaccompanying ineffective molecular twin.Using conventional chemical procedures,this would require solvents and a lot ofenergy. The bacteria do the job at lower costto industry and with less waste.36 CHAPTER 4 — BIOCHEMICALS AND BIOMATERIALS

Bioprocesses for Bleaching andLeachingThe enzymes and metabolic systems of microorganismshave also been useful in the textile,papermaking and mining industries. In theconventional bleaching and treatment of paperand fabric, for instance, large amounts of water,energy, bleach and other chemicals are neededto whiten the fibres and, afterward, to rid theproduct of the leftover chemicals. Enzymesfrom biological sources can help in the bleaching,or they can assist with washing and cleaningthe material once bleaching is complete.Iogen Corporation has been a world leader inthe development of the enzyme xylanase tohelp with the bleaching of wood pulp for papermills. This enzyme, originally isolated from thecells of a fungus, works by making the tough,lignin structure of the wood pulp morepermeable to the bleach. As a result, less waterand chlorine is required in the process. Theprocess is also used by Domtar Inc. of Canada.As another example, Japan’s Oji Paper Co. usesthe enzyme catalase to rid fabric of hydrogenperoxide after bleaching. This enzyme reducesthe temperature and amount of water requiredto wash away the bleach.Meanwhile, bacteria have been put to work inthe mining industry. The South African miningcompany Billeton uses bacteria for leachingcopper from the sulphide ore in which it isfound. The bacteria, which works by oxidizingSource:ce: www.comstock.com/cathe sulphur and iron in the ore, saves the time,energy and expense associated with shippingthe ore to a smelter to extract the copper. It alsocuts emissions of sulphur oxides, arsenic andother toxic chemicals.Budel Zinc of the Netherlands uses bacteria totreat the wastewater from its zinc refineryprocess. The sulphate-reducing bacteria capturetrace amounts of zinc and other metals fromthe acidic wastewater and settle them out as aprecipitate. The process is more successful thanconventional methods for removing thesecontaminants from wastewater, and it avoids thebuild-up of heavy metal contaminated sludgethat was a byproduct of the conventional process.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS37

Industrial EcologySome thinkers, notably the influential UnitedStates management consultant Hardin Tibbs,believe biology can equip industry for greaterproduction efficiency and pollution reductionby providing a model for interdependentindustrial infrastructures.Industrial ecology is the notion that groups ofcompanies can emulate the cooperativeinteractions of living organisms in naturalecosystems. By working together, thebyproducts or wastes generated by oneindustry can serve as the raw material foranother, and so on through an industrialcommunity, or “cluster.” Groups of companiesworking in this manner can become far moreefficient and produce far less waste than onecompany could on its own, resulting inindustrial “ecosystems” that are more selfsustaining.The idea of industrial ecology emerged, in part,from the notion that industry’s negative effectson the environment result because it operatesoutside of a larger view of the planet’s ecology— that is, it does not take into account thenatural cycles of living things. By workingtogether in industrial communities, industry canoperate so that its byproducts and wastes, as wellas its raw material demands, fit into the largescaleecological cycles of the environment.38CHAPTER 4 — BIOCHEMICALS AND BIOMATERIALS

PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS 39

Chapter 5Photo: Corel Corporation40

Chapter 5Bioproducts and BioprocessesThis section of the <strong>Primer</strong> builds on the descriptions ofbiochemicals and biomaterials in Chapter 4, and looks atadditional applications to bioproducts and bioprocesses.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS41

Wood Pulping with FungusTraditionally, pulp is made by boiling woodchips in a chemical solution to break down thelignin and fortified cell walls of the wood.Some pulp and paper companies, such asEuropean paper producer Leykam Austria, arenow looking at using fungi (such as white rotfungus, Bjerkandera sp., which plays a key rolein the natural rotting of fallen trees) and fungalenzymes to begin the breakdown of lignin andfibre separation of wood prior to pulping. Thispre-treatment reduces the amounts of energyand chemicals needed to produce the pulp,while limiting the amount of waste. LeykamAustria has found that, as a pre-treatment forpulping, the fungal enzymes contribute to theremoval of 30 per cent more lignin with the useof less chlorine bleach.Well Drilling with StarchThe process for drilling oil wells uses alubricating mud (a fluid mix of clay, water andoil), which also keeps boreholes open and oildeposits sealed from contaminants duringdrilling. The problem with this traditionalconcoction is that the oil used isenvironmentally harmful, as is the acid neededto break through the sealing layer (the “cake”)of mud. A solution, once again, has been foundin biology. These days, traditional drillingmuds can be replaced with a mixture of starchand organically produced compounds (such asthe lubricating “xanthan gum” made byXanthomonas campestris bacteria). Thesemixtures contain enzymes, instead of acids, toremove the sealing cake. British PetroleumExploration says its use of this biologicalalternative has saved money and reducedenvironmental damage.42CHAPTER 5 — BIOPRODUCTS AND BIOPROCESSES

Biological Sensors for Food and SecurityMillions of Canadians become ill from food poisoning each year,and perhaps hundreds die from bacterial pathogens, such asEscherichia coli and Salmonella. Increasingly, the food processingindustry is looking to biology to provide early warning systemsthat can signal the presence of food pathogens. In general, thesystems work by using the natural protein antibodies producedby living things in response to the toxins (antigens) generated byinvading micro-organisms. The antibodies are arranged in apattern; when the antibody “key” fits the pathogen’s antigen“lock,” the pattern or colour automatically betrays the presence ofthe bacteria. These same techniques are also being developed forearly detection of pollution and for defence against biological andchemical weapons.In some cases, DNA from pathogens and other organisms isincorporated into microscopic detection machines known as“gene chips.” Gene chips combine what is known about thebiology of DNA with nanotechnology and informationtechnology to produce a tiny laboratory slide that automaticallysignals to a computer when the genes are turned “on” or “off.” Aswith the genetic modification of bacteria, gene chips allow forinstantaneous detection of pathogens, toxic chemicals and otherharmful substances.Bacteria Sniff OutLandminesThere are an estimated 60–70million landmines buried in thefields and forests of more than 60countries worldwide. According tothe International Committee of theRed Cross, these mines injure or killapproximately 26,000 civiliansevery year. A few years ago, expertsfound a microscopic ally in theirbattle to rid the world of landmines.The bacterium, Pseudomonasputida, was found to have a naturalsensitivity to trinitrotoluene — thewell-known TNT used in explosives.Through transgenic engineering,scientists have genetically modifiedthe bacterium so that it producesthe same protein that jellyfish useto glow fluorescent green. Thejellyfish protein is stimulated whenthe bacterium detects the presenceof TNT. This modified, explosivesensitivebacterium has alreadybeen shown to be very effective indetecting landmines.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS43

BioremediationSpills and environmental contamination by oiland toxic chemicals are becoming ever largerthreats to the environment and human health.They are difficult and expensive to clean up.However, many naturally occurring microorganismsin soil and water eat away at fossilfuel-derived toxic compounds. These bacteriaand fungi convert the contaminants into lessharmful or benign compounds, such as CO 2and water. The process of using these microorganismsto clean up pollution is calledbioremediation. Crude oil, gasoline, creosote,chlorinated solvents, sewage effluent, industrialeffluent, agricultural chemicals and pesticidesare all potentially susceptible to microbialdegradation. As with bacteria and fungi, plantscan also be used in bioremediation (this is calledphytoremediation). Bioremediation is not limitedto petroleum-based and chlorinated pollutants.The bacterium Geobacter metallireducens, forexample, can remove uranium, a radioactivewaste, from contaminated groundwater.ContaminantsNitratesCarbonTetrachlorideMicro-OrganismsEnd ProductsCarbon DioxideNitrogenWaterGroundwater withContaminationCleanedGroundwaterBioremediation ProcessSource:US Department of Agriculture. www.nal.usda.gov/bic/bio2144CHAPTER 5 — BIOPRODUCTS AND BIOPROCESSES

Specialty BioproductsOccasionally, nature’s cues for industry come fromdisparate places. Consider Montreal’s NexiaBiotechnologies Inc. In its bid to make a superstrengthmaterial for bullet proof vests, medicalsutures and other commercial uses, Nexia realizedthat some of the world’s most resilient and durablefibres were being produced every day in attics andgardens around the world. It discovered thatspider web silk has a tensile strength of about135,000 kilograms per square inch and is bothstronger and lighter than material based on steel orpetrochemicals. Since spiders are difficult to raisein commercially useful numbers (they eat eachother), Nexia soon hit on the idea of splicing thegene that codes for the spider silk protein into theDNA of a goat. The goat then produces the silkprotein in its milk. The next step is extracting theprotein from the milk and making it into useablefibre.Bioproducts and NanotechnologyNanotechnology is the delicate science of buildingdevices and materials one molecule, or even oneatom, at a time. By understanding the world at thescale of a nanometre — one billionth of a metre, orabout a hundred-thousandth of the diameter of ahuman hair — some scientists believe they can createmicroscopic machines and materials for use in industry.For example, organic proteins create complex andminute structures within living cells that can serve asmolecule-scale scaffolds, cables, motors, ion pores,pumps, coatings and chemically powered levers.Similarly, biological organisms can control theconstruction of inorganic structures within living tissue,such as bone, teeth and the inorganic skeletons ofdiatoms and other algae. Biological mineralization, asthe process is known, is providing nanoscientists withthe tools they need to build microscopic silicastructures (such as those used in the development ofinformation technologies) or to devise better medicalmeans of replacing and regenerating bone.Engineered protein machines can be embeddedin synthetic nanomembranes that may one daybreak down cellulose more efficiently or producehydrogen for fuel cells.Source:US Department of Energy Genomes to LifeProgram. http://doegenomestolife.orgPRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS45

Chapter 6Photo: Corel Corporation46

Chapter 6Understanding the IssuesGovernments, industry, university and other researchers arestudying whether industrial bioproducts can help Canadasustainably build on its resource strengths and its existingindustries while lowering greenhouse gas emissions andreducing our dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels.At this point, many questions remain about the environmental,social, economic and ethical implications of bioproducts. Thesequestions are difficult to answer because of the diversity andlarge number of bioproducts involved. Evaluating their impactsis also complicated by the complexity of the science ofbioproducts, the absence of performance evaluations and lifecycleassessments for many existing bioproducts, and theamount of conflicting information available concerning severalbioproduct technologies, such as genetic engineering.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS47

Faced with this uncertainty and complexity,Canadians are being asked to balance therelative merits and threats of bioproducts. Thepromises and issues raised by bioproducts andthe shift towards a biobased economy make itcritical that Canadians become well informedand participate in discussions about futuredirections and policies.This chapter provides a summary of some ofthe issues raised by the development ofbioproducts. It does not discuss these issues indetail, nor does it weigh the merits of thearguments introduced here. Readers interestedin learning more about the issues and challengesof bioproducts are encouraged to contact theagencies and organizations listed in Chapter 7.continue at the pace and consumption level ofthe fossil-based economy that industrial andpost-industrial societies have come to know inthis recent snatch of human history.”The issue is far from simple. Technologicaldevelopments are making agriculturalproduction more efficient at capturing the sun’senergy and using available nutrients. Thesetechnologies hold out the promise that moreproduce can be grown faster on less availableland, or on land previously consideredunsuitable for conventional crop production.On the other hand, biomass as an industrialraw material is generally less concentrated perunit area than fossil fuels. As a result, comparedCrops for Food and IndustryThe development of bioproducts is expected toincrease industrial and commercial demandsfor agricultural crops and crop residues. It willrequire land use changes. For some people, thisraises concerns about the amount of arablefarmland that can be transferred to industrialbiomass production without affecting the landneeded to supply food.For example, Cornell University Professor LoisLevitan concluded in a 2000 report that theamount of useable land on Earth may be barelyadequate to feed the planet’s six billion people,much less to provide biomass for industry. “Iam skeptical,” she wrote, “that a sustainablebiobased economy is possible if it is expected toSource:© Jim Moyes (2002)48CHAPTER 6 — UNDERSTANDING THE ISSUES

to conventional fossil fuel production, somecrops for bioproducts can require more landand water, take more energy and chemicalinputs to produce, collect and transport, andrequire more industrial processing steps tomake into final products.Whether or not bioproducts pose a significantthreat to food supply is a question still to beanswered. The Canadian Renewable FuelsAssociation has concluded that the maximumamount of grain (i.e., corn, wheat, barley, oats,rye) required to ensure that all gasoline used byCanadians contains 10 per cent ethanol wouldbe eight to nine million tonnes annually — wellunder the 50 million tonnes of grain Canadatypically produces. Moreover, a useful byproductof ethanol production is dried distillersgrain, which can be used as a livestock feed.The large component of animal feed fromethanol production is what is termed a “coproduct.”Thus, co-products are an importantconsideration in exploring the value of abiobased economy.Climate ChangeIndustrial bioproducts advocates, such asBioProducts Canada Inc., often point to climatechange as an important reason to encourage thedevelopment of bioenergy and a biobasedeconomy in Canada. They argue that usingbiomass as an alternative (or a complement) tofossil fuels and petrochemicals in industry willhelp reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Manybiofuels, for example, produce less CO 2than dofossil fuels when they are burned.On the other hand, industrial demand for treesand crops for use as biomass raw materialscould have a negative effect on climate change.For example, cutting old-growth forests thatstore large amounts of carbon to producebiomass crops and trees with lower carbondensities could result in a net increase in CO 2inthe atmosphere. Such valuable ecosystemsneed protection (as is happening in manycountries). Similarly, the industrial production ofbiomass could require the increased productionand use of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.These could contribute to increased greenhousegas emissions and pollution.Sustainable Development andOver-consumptionThe shift to bioproducts could merely substitutebiomass and biological processes for conventionalnon-renewable raw materials and manufacturing.Bioproducts would then fit into our existingsystem of industrial production. However,according to leading environmentalists, such asDavid Suzuki, the increasing demand foreconomic growth and the associated use ofresources and energy may not be sustainable.While bioproducts and the biobased economycould still be growth-oriented, it remains amatter of debate as to whether or not theexpanding consumption of resources will surpassthe limits of the Earth’s ecological productivity.As a shift, rather than a fundamental change, inour way of life, bioproducts could serve tomask the problem of over-consumption.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS49

Some Benefits ofGenetically ModifiedOrganisms (GMOs)• The first commercial drug wasdeveloped from this technologyin 1982 and the first commercialcrops were harvested in 1996.• Major scientific review panels(e.g., American MedicalAssociation, French Academy ofScience, British MedicalAssociation and Royal Societyof Canada) have found noevidence of harm to humansfrom current geneticallymodified crops. Each crop genecombination, however, must beevaluated on its own risks.• Genetically engineered cropscan significantly reducepesticide use and protectinsect diversity.• Genetically engineered cropscan encourage no-till farming,which results in much greaterformation of organic matter(i.e., a carbon sink).• Genetically engineered crops,by increasing yields on primeagriculture lands, can reducethe need to grow crops onmarginal land.• Genetically engineeredorganisms are regulated byHealth Canada and theCanadian Food InspectionAgency.Source:Dr. G. Surgeoner, OntarioAgri-Foods Technologies, personalcommunication.On the other hand, the development of bioproducts thatencourage improved conservation and efficient technologiescould be an important step towards sustainable development. Itmay be possible to develop bioproducts that enable industry touse both waste and renewable biomass instead of non-renewablefossil fuels, thus reducing the overall environmental “footprint” ofeconomic activity.The Use of Genetically Modified OrganismsGenetically modified organisms (GMOs) present both anopportunity and a challenge for bioproducts. While geneticengineering technology is only one tool used in the developmentof bioproducts, it has become a flashpoint of public concern. Itwas, for example, identified as a key issue by respondentsinterviewed for a 2002 Pollution Probe report, Towards a BiobasedEconomy (www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Biobased.htm).Several industrial bioproducts and processes require changing thegenetic blueprint of living things, such as transferring DNAbetween organisms. Genetic engineering is used to isolate andenhance the performance of micro-organisms and their catalyzingenzymes or to increase the production capacity and othercharacteristics of trees and crops.Concerns about genetic engineering are influenced by theprocesses involved and by the ultimate use and fate of thegenetically modified organisms. For instance, questionsconcerning the transfer of genetic material between organismsmay be different from those raised by the manipulation of geneswithin a single species. Also, different issues arise for geneticallymodified organisms that are isolated from nature (e.g., enzymesused in contained laboratories and industrial environments) thanfor those planted in fields and forests. For example, one majorenvironment group, the Sierra Club, takes no position withrespect to genetic engineering done in labs or during industrial50CHAPTER 6 — UNDERSTANDING THE ISSUES

manufacturing. The group is, however, opposed to any “out-ofdoorsapplications,” arguing that the modified genes of fastgrowingtrees and disease-resistant crops may have adverseimpacts on natural ecosystems and could escape to becomeincorporated in the genomes of related plants.The Sierra Club of Canada argues that the conflict of interestinherent in government agencies that both promotebiotechnology (e.g., Industry Canada, Natural Resources Canada)and regulate biotechnology (e.g., Health Canada and the CanadianFood Inspection Agency) is another reason to consider thetechnology to be inherently risky to the environment and health.Reports issued by the Royal Society of Canada and the OntarioPublic Health Association in 2001 also criticized thebiotechnology regulatory system in Canada as being inadequateto deal with many of the scientific, social and ethical issuesassociated with genetically modified organisms. The Governmentof Canada has developed an action plan to address therecommendations in the Royal Society Report and has committedto producing reports on the progress of the action plan (www.hcsc.gc.ca/english/protection/novel_foods.html).Other Environmental ConsiderationsSome Concerns AboutGenetically ModifiedOrganisms (GMOs)• Genetically modified organisms(GMOs) could have unexpectedand possibly lasting effects onnatural ecosystems.• GMOs could lead to thedevelopment of super-weedsand super-pests (morepersistent plants andorganisms) leading toincreased or more toxicchemical use to try and containthem.• GMOs could lead to geneticcontamination of wild plants,as well as conventional andorganic crops.• GMOs could harm beneficialinsects and other animals.• GMOs could lead to loss ofbiodiversity.Adapted from www.greenpeace.ca.Much attention is being focused on whether bioproducts canpromise significant environmental benefits in addition to reducedenergy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. A recentreport by the US Department of Energy concludes that, ingeneral, a reduction in electricity generation, farming,transportation and the use of fossil fuels by industry could helpreduce smog and acid rain-related emissions (nitrogen oxides andsulphur oxides), as well as emissions of greenhouse gases, such asCO 2, that contribute to climate change.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS51

In some cases, such as pulp bleaching,bioproducts industries may use fewer toxicchemicals than conventional manufacturing.Similarly, some types of bioproducts are morereadily degradable than their petroleum-basedcounterparts. Further, biobased industries thatuse agricultural, industrial and municipalwastes could reduce the need for incineratorsand landfill sites. Meanwhile, bioproducttechnologies can also be used in pollutionprevention and contaminated site clean-up.Additionally, demand for biomass could resultin a greater cultivation of carbon-fixing plantsand organisms — thus removing CO 2from theatmosphere.These benefits are not assured, and manyoutstanding questions exist about theenvironmental impact of specific bioproductsand bioproduct technologies. One of these iswhether bioproducts industries that depend onthe large-scale harvest of trees and crops coulddemand large enough quantities of this livingresource to outstrip the renewable supply, thusdepleting forests and other ecosystems. Thedemand for parts of trees and crops that areusually left to decompose could leave soilsstarved for nutrients and reduce their value ascarbon sinks. The Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change notes that farms andcommunities in some areas could faceshortages of water during periods of droughtas planted stands of fast-growing trees demandmore groundwater than other trees.Loss of biodiversity is another concern. One ofthe greatest threats to the diversity of life onthe planet is the conversion of land (wildernessand other natural ecosystems) to farmland andcommercial forests. Industrial pressure tocultivate more biomass crops and trees forbioproducts could affect critical habitat formany species. Loss of habitat could cause asignificant reduction in species diversity. Forexample, the diverse plant and animalcommunities of mixed wood forests could sufferif replaced by stands of fast-growing poplar.Source:www.comstock.com/ca52CHAPTER 6 — UNDERSTANDING THE ISSUES

Meanwhile, bioproducts that rely on biomasscombustion could, if not managed properly,increase the amount of particulate emissionsfrom industry, contributing to more industrialsmog and pollution.These issues are complex. Technology holdsthe promise of making biomass production anduse more efficient, so industry demands can bemet with less land and other resources than arecurrently required. Conservation, includingrecycling and the efficient use of waste, couldalso improve the availability of feedstocks andmake industrial consumption of these resourcesmore sustainable. Nevertheless, manyquestions remain about the environmentalimpacts of bioproducts, indicating thatconsiderable research (including detailedresource and life-cycle assessments) is stillrequired to find the answers.Source:ce: Corel CorporationEconomic ConsiderationsBioproducts promise a variety of economicbenefits. According to a report by the OECD,these could include improved investment ininnovation, research and technology, improvedlong-term international competitiveness, andimproved prospects for rural economies. Someresearchers and advocacy organizations, suchas BioProducts Canada, suggest that marketadvantage may be the primary driver for theshift to bioproducts and a biobased economy.But, the economic implications of bioproductsand the biobased economy are far from fullyunderstood, and some of these raise concerns.For example, there is a high potential thatemerging bioproducts industries couldconcentrate on “least-cost” biomass cropsinstead of high-value ones, and could eliminatemany of the expected economic benefits forfarmers. Conversely, farmers may be unwillingto produce agricultural crops for an emergingbioproducts industry if market prices andconsumer attitudes do not make iteconomically worthwhile.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS53

A Challenge toBiotechnology PolicySince 1993, the federalgovernment has had a regulatoryframework for biotechnology (ingeneral) that sets standards forhealth and environmentalprotection, provides productevaluation and risk assessmentguidelines (in line with internationalstandards), and promises open andtransparent enforcement ofregulations. In the federal budget of2000, the government set aside$90 million specifically to developtools to more effectively regulatebiotechnology, including trainingregulators and speeding upregulatory processes. Whileindustry continues to lobby forfaster and more favourableregulations for product approval,most Canadians — according topublic opinion surveys — expect thefederal government to put healthand safety concerns first.International trade issues and agreements, including thoseconcerning farm subsidies and incentives for research anddevelopment, will become more complicated as global marketmechanisms dictate the viability of agriculture, forestry andmarine developments as sources of industrial biomass. Currenttrade agreements affecting Canada, such as the North AmericanFree Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and requirements of the WorldTrade Organization (WTO), do not adequately account for theecological impacts of a global bioproducts industry.National and international agreements on safety, monitoring,processing, regulating intellectual property and governmentfinancing of bioproducts will face new challenges in addressingbiobased technologies. Meanwhile, existing agreements that doapply to biotechnology, particularly with respect to safety andmonitoring, have limited force. For example, the 2000 CartagenaProtocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversityhad been ratified by just 68 nations as of November 2003.Another potential economic constraint to the development ofbioproducts and a biobased economy is the shortage of highlyskilled workers with multi-disciplinary training. Manybioproducts industries, for example, need employees crosstrainedin the fields of engineering, biology and chemistry.Canadian university and research funding, however, continues tobe delivered to investigators within particular disciplines, withlittle encouragement for multi-disciplinary study.54 CHAPTER 6 — UNDERSTANDING THE ISSUES

Social and PolicyConsiderationsThe social impacts of various industrialbioproducts are far from known. An importantconcern for some, such as the CanadianInstitute for Environmental Law and Policy, isthe absence of a public forum in which thesocial merits and risks of bioproducts andbioproduct technologies can be adequatelyevaluated and debated.Outstanding social questions include whetherbioproducts will have a positive or negativeimpact on rural communities. The USDepartment of Energy argues that sincebiological resources used to fuel and feedbioproducts industries are found mainly inrural areas and the hinterlands, bioproductsand a biobased economy can be expected tobenefit rural communities. Similarly,developing countries, whose economies relyheavily on one or more of these resources,could stand to benefit.Some researchers, however, including AuburnUniversity sociologist Conner Bailey, believethese potential benefits for rural areas raise thespectre of industrial control of agricultural andforested land to grow biomass as feedstock.Dynamic rural communities could become oneindustrytowns, subject to the same issues andvulnerabilities as other single-industry townsthroughout North America.The fact that land-use planning often takesplace at a local, rather than a regional ornational level further complicates this problem.According to Bailey, local authorities may missthe wider implications of large-scale industrialuse of their lands. On the other hand, industryfaces difficult hurdles attempting tosimultaneously satisfy the various interests andlevels of government involved in planningprocesses.Ethical ConsiderationsThe development of bioproducts — as the resultof new technologies or existing technologiesput to new uses — raises ethical and legalissues quite apart from their immediateenvironmental, economic and social consequences.These value-laden challenges influence therules, principles and ways of thinking used todetermine whether Canadian biotechnologypolicy is on a socially acceptable track.Resolving ethical issues is rarely simple. Forinstance, how can the benefits to human societybe balanced against the costs that might beimposed on the environment? The complexityand diversity of bioproducts adds anotherelement of difficulty to ethical decision makingin this area. The pace of change in bioproductsdevelopment is yet another confounding factor.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS55

Becoming an InformedCitizen on Bioproducts• Read arguments both for andagainst biotechnology andbioproducts.• Judge information sources(e.g., industry/activist sites, aswell as government reports andpeer reviewed scientificpublications).• Recognize that each bioproductmust be judged on its own risksand benefits. Blanketstatements may be inaccurate.• Consider full life-cycle analysisfrom energy inputs, co-productsproduced and final disposal ofproducts.• Understand the current productproduction system forcomparative purposes (e.g., fulllife-cycle assessment of fossilfuel-based products versusbioproducts).• Consider the probability, notjust the possibility, of risk —“can” and “may” statementsare always possible, butprobability must also beconsidered.• Understand who regulates theuse of bioproducts and how(i.e., role of regulatoryagencies).Organizations involved in the ethical consideration of researchand development that could have an impact on bioproductsinclude the Canadian Biotechnology Advisory Committee(CBAC) — an agency that provides advice to the federalgovernment on ethical, social, economic and regulatory aspects ofbiotechnology — and the International Bioethics Committee ofUNESCO.Many of the ethical considerations facing environmentalbiotechnology research are discussed in a primer for scientistspublished in 2003 by the Ottawa-based Institute on Governance(www.iog.ca). Some ethical questions arising from thedevelopment of bioproducts include balancing precaution againstinaction in the development of technologies (affectinginnovation), establishing a system to determine whether themeans of research and development for bioproducts is morallyjustifiable (with respect to humans, animals and ecosystems), andassessing the potentially conflicting interests and obligations ofbioproducts researchers relative to their funding sources.Technical ConsiderationsWhile many bioproducts have existed for a long time, many moreproducts and the technologies that produce them are beingdeveloped. University and industry researchers continue toexplore the scientific, technological and commercial possibilitiespresented by biological materials. Bioproduct technologies willclearly continue to present new opportunities and challenges forCanadians well into the future.Source:Dr. G. Surgeoner, OntarioAgri-Food Technologies, personalcommunication.56 CHAPTER 6 — UNDERSTANDING THE ISSUES

A Perspective on Biomass and the Biobased EconomyBiomass is one of the more abundant, underutilized and renewable sources of energy,available in relative large quantities across Canada. Organic materials such asagriculture, aquaculture and forestry wastes, biosolids (from municipal waste watertreatment plants and of animal origin), municipal solid waste and fast growing plantshave the potential to be converted into biochemicals or clean burning fuels in anenvironmentally sustainable manner. By utilizing readily available quantities of organicmaterial for energy generation, biomass technologies can help supplant Canada’scurrent reliance on foreign oil and protect the environment by reducing greenhousegases while limiting the environmental damage associated with extraction, refining andproduction of fossil fuels. Opportunities exist across Canada to capture and harness theenergy potential of this resource, particularly in rural areas with significant quantitiesof agro-forestry and marine biomass infrastructure in place. But most biomass userstoday rely upon inefficient and sometimes highly polluting ways of generating,converting and utilizing biomass for energy production.Bioenergy production involves an incredibly complex mix of feedstocks and conversiontechnologies, each with its own set of impacts and benefits. There are very conflictingmessages on even the most environmentally benign options. In addition, unsustainablebiomass harvest and land use practices may cause a depletion of soil nutrients andorganic matter essential for the sustainable growth of agricultural and forest speciesand release soil carbon to the atmosphere. Accelerated and poorly managed cultivationand harvesting of biomass and the conversion of natural ecosystems/marginal landsto fuel farms may also act to increase global warming and degrade the environment.Realization of the tremendous potential contained in biomass across Canada may beimpeded by serious data gaps in our understanding of the following dimensions ofbiomass utilization:• The need for a commonly accepted definition of biomass by government, industryand academia;• The need for regulatory clarity at all levels as to what legislation will be triggered bythe largely novel uses and new technologies likely to be involved in biomassgeneration, conversion, downstream processing, and utilization;• The absence of ecological baseline data on biomass life cycle assessment underrepresentative Canadian conditions;• The continuing fractious debate on the role of rDNA applications in agriculture,forestry and marine environments; and,• The current absence of a scientifically validated framework in Canada to evaluatea range of biobased products for performance, efficiency and overall sustainability.Source:Dr. T. McIntyre, Environment Canada, personal communication.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS57

Chapter 7Photo: www.comstock.com/ca58

Chapter 7How Will Bioproducts Affect You?This <strong>Primer</strong> on Bioproducts is intended to promote a greaterunderstanding of the use of biomass and biological tools as analternative or a complement to fossil fuels and conventionalindustrial processes. It describes what bioproducts are, whythey are being developed now, and where to find them.The <strong>Primer</strong> also emphasizes the importance of being equippedwith at least an introductory understanding of the implicationsof bioproducts in Canada. As more industries and businessesadopt these technologies, Canadians will be asked to debatetheir benefits and risks. Readers will have to make decisionsabout bioproducts, while being faced with difficult issues andcomplex science.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS59

The opportunities for Canadians to make thesedecisions are many. Choosing whether or notto buy bioproducts is among the most powerfulways to express your opinion. Regulations andincentives aside, the success or failure ofbioproducts may ultimately be decided byconsumers at store shelves and gasolinepumps.To learn more about bioproducts, consumerscan watch for labels on the household productsthey buy. In some cases, labels help todistinguish between bioproducts and theresources and technologies — such as geneticengineering — they rely on. They may alsoindicate certain “eco-standards” of being“green,” “sustainable” or “environmentallyfriendly.” At the present time, labelling ofproducts containing genetically modifiedorganisms is not required in Canada (althoughstandards are being developed for thevoluntary labelling of foods derived frombiotechnology).Readers are also encouraged to access otherresources — government and non-governmentorganizations, researchers and educators,industry associations and representatives — toget information that explains the science andtechnology, the environmental and socialimpacts, the costs, and the ethicalconsiderations related to bioproducts.Pollution Probe is dedicated to ensuring thatgovernments and industry implement policiesand programmes that lead to a cleaner andsafer environment. The support of an informedand active public is essential to this mission.BIOCAP Canada is committed to providing theresearch insights and technologies to informpolicy and investment decisions to support thesustainable use of biological systems to addressclimate change. This <strong>Primer</strong> is an importantpart of the public education and outreachprogram of both organizations. Our mainmessage is that you should understand theissues, ask the questions you consider to beimportant, and, if you are concerned aboutbioproducts as an environmental issue, getinvolved!60CHAPTER 7 — HOW WILL BIOPRODUCTS AFFECT YOU?

For Further Information(all websites were accessed for verification on May 28, 2004)To voice your concerns in the public discourseabout bioproducts, you can contact or becomeinvolved in any of the groups and agencies atthe leading edge of the debate about theseproducts and technologies. For furtherinformation about what you can do, somerelevant organizations are listed below:AboutBioDiesel.com —www.greenincubator.com/aboutbiodieselAgriculture and Agri-Food Canada —www.agr.gc.caAmerican Biomass Association —www.biomass.orgBC Biotech — www.bcbiotech.caBioAlberta — www.bioalberta.comBioAtlantech — www.bioatlantech.nb.caBIOCAP Canada Foundation —www.biocap.caBiomass Energy Research Association —www.bera1.orgBioProducts Canada Inc. —www.bio-productscanada.orgBioQuébec — www.bioquebec.comBIOTECanada — www.biotech.caCanadian Biotechnology AdvisoryCommittee — www.cbac-cccb.caCanadian Chemical Producers’ Association —www.ccpa.caCanadian Forest Service (CFS) —www.nrcan.gc.ca/cfs-scfCanadian Institute for Environmental Lawand Policy — www.cielap.orgCanadian Renewable Fuels Association(CRFA) — www.greenfuels.orgCanadian Renewable Energy Network —www.canren.gc.caCanadian Rural Revitalization Foundation —www.crrf.caCentre Quebecois de Valorixation desBiotechnologies — www.cqvb.qc.caContact Canada — http://contactcanada.comCouncil for Biotechnology Information —www.whybiotech.caDavid Suzuki Foundation —www.davidsuzuki.orgPRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS61

Environment Canada, EnvironmentalTechnology Advancement Directorate —www.ec.gc.ca/etadFriends of the Earth Canada —www.foecanada.orgGreenpeace International —www.greenpeace.orgIndustry Canada, Life Sciences Branch —http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/sc_indps/sectors/engdoc/lsbe_hpg.htmlIntergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange — www.usgcrp.gov/ipccNational Climate Change Process —www.nccp.ca/NCCP/index_e.htmlNational Research Council —www.nrc-cnrc.gc.caNatural Resources Canada —www.nrcan.gc.caOntario Agri-Food Technologies —www.oaft.orgOttawa Life Sciences Council —www.olsc.ca/index.phpPollution Probe — www.pollutionprobe.orgRoyal Society of Canada — www.rsc.caSierra Club of Canada — www.sierraclub.caUS National Biobased Products andBioenergy — www.bioproducts-bioenergy.govUnited Nations Environment Programme —www.unep.org62CHAPTER 7 — HOW WILL BIOPRODUCTS AFFECT YOU?

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White House Executive Order #13134. 1999.Developing and Promoting Biobased Products andBioenergy. www.denix.osd.mil/denix/Public/Legislation/EO/note52.html.Chapter 3 — Biofuels and BioenergyBallard Power Systems Inc. www.ballard.com.Biomass District Energy Information Package.www.newenergy.org/biomass_info.html.BIOX Corporation. www.bioxcorp.com.Canadian Renewable Fuels Association.www.greenfuels.org.Cement Association of Canada. www.cement.ca.Michigan Biomass Energy Program.www.michiganbioenergy.org/ethanol/fuelcells.htm.National Renewable Energy Laboratory.www.nrel.gov/documents/biomass_power.html.Natural Resources Canada. 2000. A Guide toResidential Wood Heating. www.canren.gc.ca/prod_serv/index.asp?CaId=103&PgId=576.Ontario Corn Producers Association.www.ontariocorn.org/envt/envfuel.html.Pollution Probe. 2003. <strong>Primer</strong> on the Technologies ofRenewable Energy. www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/<strong>Primer</strong>s.htm.Statistics Canada. www.statisticscanada.ca.University of Adelaide. www.ees.adelaide.edu.au/pharris/biogas/beginners.html.Wood, S. and D.B. Layzell. 2003. A Canadian BiomassInventory: Feedstocks for a Biobased Economy.Kingston: BIOCAP Canada Foundation.Chapter 4 — Biochemicals and BiomaterialsBenyus, J.M. 1997. Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired ByNature. New York: Quill.Industry Canada. http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inind-dev.nsf/en/Home.Iogen Corporation. www.iogen.ca.Organisation for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment. 2001. The Application of Biotechnologyto Industrial Sustainability: A <strong>Primer</strong>.www.oecdwash.org/PDFILES/bio_sustainability.pdf.Tibbs, H. 1993. Industrial Ecology: An EnvironmentalAgenda for Industry. California: Global BusinessNetwork. www.gbn.com/ArticleDisplayServlet.srv?aid=235.US Department of Agriculture. www.nal.usda.gov.Chapter 5 — Bioproducts and BioprocessesAkhtar, M., R.A. Blanchette and T.K. Kirk. 1997.Fungal delignification and biomechanical pulpingof wood. Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology, 57, 59–195.International Committee of the Red Cross.www.icrc.org.Nexia Biotechnologies Inc. www.nexiabiotech.com.64REFERENCES

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Mooney, H. A., and P.G. Risser. 1989: SpecialFeature: The release of genetically engineeredorganisms: A perspective from the EcologicalSociety of America. Ecology, vol. 70, No. 2, pp. 297.National Agricultural Biotechnology Council(NABC), Report Number 12, Proceeding of aNABC Conference, 2000, pp. 130–150. http://environmentalrisk.cornell.edu/Sustainability/SkinCat.pdf.National Research Council. 1999. Biobased IndustrialProducts: Research and Commercialization Priorities.National Round Table on the Environment and theEconomy. 2003. Environment and SustainableDevelopment Indicators for Canada. www.nrteetrnee.ca/eng/programs/current_programs/sdindicators/ESDI-Report/ESDI-Report-E.pdf.Ontario Public Health Association. www.opha.on.caOrganisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment. 2001. The Application of Biotechnologyto Industrial Sustainability — A <strong>Primer</strong>.www1.oecd.org/publications/e-book/9301061E.PDF.Pollution Probe. 2003. <strong>Primer</strong> on the Technologies ofRenewable Energy. www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/<strong>Primer</strong>s.htm.Royal Society of Canada. www.rsc.ca.Sierra Club. www.sierraclub.org.Tibbs, H. 1999. Sustainability. Deeper News 10(1),1–72.United Nations Environment Programme.Convention on Biodiversity. www.biodiv.org/biosafety.US Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. 2002. AnEconomic Analysis of a Major Biofuels ProgramUndertaken by OECD Countries.US Department of Energy — Biomass TechnicalAdvisory Group. 2002. Vision for Bioenergy andBiobased Products in the United States.www.bioproducts-bioenergy.gov/pdfs/BioVision_03_Web.pdf.US Department of Energy. 2003. IndustrialBioproducts: Today and Tomorrow.www.bioproducts-bioenergy.gov/pdfs/BioProductsOpportunitiesReportFinal.pdf.US Department of Energy. Biomass Research andDevelopment Initiative. www.bioproductsbioenergy.gov.World Resources Institute. www.wri.org/wri/index.html.Chapter 7 — How Will Bioproducts Affect You?Canadian Food Inspection Agency.www.inspection.gc.ca/english/sci/biotech/labeti/intere.shtml.Sierra Club of Canada. www.sierraclub.ca.66REFERENCES

Glossary of TermsAnaerobic digestion: Decompositionprocess using micro-organisms thatlive and reproduce in an environmentvoid of “free” or dissolved oxygen todecompose and stabilize organic solidsor biosolids. This process generatesbiogas.Bacteria: Members of a group ofmicroscopic organisms with a verysimple cell structure. Somemanufacture their own food, somelive as parasites on other organisms,and some live on decaying matter.Biobased economy: An economy inwhich most industry, commercial andeconomic activity depends onrenewable biomass and biologicalprocesses to supply energy, chemicals,products and services. Bioproductsare to the biobased economy whatfossil fuels and petrochemicals are tothe current “fossil fuel economy” thatnow provides about 80 per cent of theworld’s energy needs.Biobased industries: Industries thatrely on biological sciences incombination with process engineeringto produce a wide variety of industrialproducts from renewable organicresources. Biobased industrialproducts include liquid fuels,chemicals, lubricants, plastics andbuilding materials.Biodegradable: Capable ofdecomposing rapidly under naturalconditions (usually by the action ofmicro-organisms).Biodiesel: An alternative fuel madefrom plant oils that can be used in aconventional diesel engine.Biodiversity: The relative abundanceand variety of plant and animalspecies and ecosystems withinparticular habitats.Bioenergy: Useful, renewable energyproduced from organic matter; theconversion of complex carbohydratesin organic matter to energy. Organicmatter may either be used directly asa fuel or processed into liquids andgases.Biofuels: Fuels made from cellulosicand other types of biomass resources.Biofuels include ethanol, biodieseland methanol.Biogas: A combustible gas derivedfrom decomposing biological waste.Biogas typically consists of 50 to 60per cent methane.Biomass: Renewable organic matter.Biomass includes forest products,plants, agricultural crops and wastes,wood and wood wastes, animalwastes and aquatic plants, as well asorganic fractions of municipal andindustrial wastes.Bioproducts: Commercial orindustrial products that rely onenergy, chemicals or processesavailable from living organisms. Ifproperly developed, the sources ofbioproducts are renewable and canreplenish themselves over and overagain using energy from the sun.Bioproducts are a complement or analternative to the industrial productsmanufactured using petrochemicalsor fossil fuels.Bioremediation: The use of microorganismsto remedy environmentalproblems, rendering hazardouswastes non-hazardous.Biotechnology: The application ofbiology and biological techniques todevelop products and industrialprocesses.Carbon: A common chemical elementthat plays a critical role in thechemistry of life; it is incorporatedinto biological processes and biomassthrough photosynthesis.Carbon cycle: The flow of carbonfrom an inorganic state to an organicstate and back again.Carbon dioxide (CO 2): A commoncolourless and odourless gasproduced during respiration,combustion and the decomposition oforganic material. It is taken up byplants as part of the solar energytrapping process of photosynthesis.Carrying capacity: The number ofpeople (or their industries) that anarea can support, given the quality ofthe natural environment and the levelof technology of the population.PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS67

Catalysts: Agents (such as enzymes ormetallic complexes) that facilitate areaction, but are not themselveschanged during the reaction. Theymay or may not be consumed duringthe reaction.Cells: The smallest structural units ofa living organism that can grow andreproduce independently.Cellulose: A tough carbohydratefound in plants, cellulose givesstrength and structure to cell walls.Cellulose-based: Biomass with a highcellulose content, or bioproductsderived from cellulose.Co-firing: The practice of introducingbiomass into the boilers of coal-firedelectricity plants. Adding biomass asa source of fuel helps to reduce theuse of coal.Combustion: Burning. Thetransformation of biomass fuel intoheat, gases and inorganic ash throughchemical combination of hydrogenand carbon in the fuel with oxygen inthe air.Coppiced: To cut back, so as to regrowin the form of a forestoriginating mainly from shoots orroot suckers, rather than seed.Cost-effective: A term describing aresource or process that is economicalin terms of tangible benefits producedby money spent.Critical habitat: Geographic areaswith the physical and biologicalfeatures essential to a species.DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): Themolecule that carries the geneticinformation for most living systems.The DNA molecule consists of fourbases (adenine, cytosine, guanine andthymine) and a sugar-phosphatebackbone, arranged in two connectedstrands to form a double helix.Ecosystem: The system of interactionsbetween living organisms and theirenvironment.Emissions: Waste substances releasedinto the air, water and soil.Enzymes: Protein catalysts thatfacilitate specific chemical or metabolicreactions necessary for cell growthand reproduction, as well as otherapplications.Eutrophication: The accumulation ofexcessive nutrients in lakes, streamsand other surface water bodies oftenassociated with enrichment by nitrogenand phosphate run-off from fertilizers.It causes excessive algal growth andreduces available oxygen, often makingthe water uninhabitable for other species.Feedstock: Input material convertedto another form or product.Fermentation: An enzymaticallycontrolled anaerobic breakdown of anenergy-rich compound (such as acarbohydrate to carbon dioxide andalcohol, or to an organic acid).Fossil fuel: Solid, liquid or gaseousfuels formed in the ground aftermillions of years by chemical andphysical changes in plant and animalresidues under high temperatures andpressures. Oil, natural gas and coalare fossil fuels.Fuel cell: A device that converts theenergy of a fuel directly to electricityand heat, without combustion.Gasification: A chemical or heatprocess used to convert a solid fuel toa gaseous form.Gene: A segment of chromosome.Some genes direct the syntheses ofproteins, while others have regulatoryfunctions.Genetic engineering (geneticmodification): The applied techniquesof genetics and molecular biotechnologythat manipulate an organism’s geneticmaterial to make the organismcapable of producing new substances,performing new functions or blockingthe production of substances. Geneticmanipulation involves eliminating,modifying or adding copies of specificgenes (from other organisms) to changeone or more of its characteristics. Alsocalled “gene splicing,” “recombinantDNA (rDNA) technology” or “geneticmodification.”Greenhouse gas (GHG): Any gas thattraps the heat of the sun in the Earth’satmosphere, producing thegreenhouse effect. The two majorgreenhouse gases are water vapor andCO 2. Other greenhouse gases includemethane, nitrous oxide and fluorinatedgases (i.e., CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, PFCsand SF 6).Incinerator: Any device used to burnsolid or liquid wastes as a method ofdisposal. In some incinerators,provisions are made for recoveringthe heat produced.Kyoto Protocol: An internationalagreement extending the68GLOSSARY OF TERMS

commitments of the United NationsFramework Convention on ClimateChange to include targets for futuregreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions bydeveloped countries. Canada’scommitment under the Kyoto Protocolis to reduce net GHG emissions to sixper cent below 1990 levels between2008 and 2012. The protocol wasdeveloped in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.Landfill: Land where householdwaste, industrial waste and/or treateddomestic sewage biosolids aredisposed.Landfill gases: Gases generated bydecomposition of organic material atlandfill disposal sites. Landfill gas isapproximately 50–60 per centmethane, 40–50 per cent CO 2, and lessthan one per cent hydrogen, oxygen,nitrogen and other trace gases.Megawatt (MW): An electrical unit ofpower that equals one million Watts(1,000 kW).Micro-organism: Any organism thatcan be seen only with the aid of amicroscope.Nanotechnology: Atomic- ormolecular-scale technology developedat dimensions of less than 10millionths of a metre (100 nanometres).Organic: Derived from livingorganisms, containing naturallyoccurring carbon (and hydrogen)compounds.Petrochemicals: Chemicals derivedfrom oil, natural gas or otherfossilized hydrocarbons.Photosynthesis: The conversion byplants of light energy into chemicalenergy (carbohydrates are made fromCO 2and water in the presence ofchlorophyll and sunlight). Thechemical energy is then used tosupport the biological processes of theplants and animals that eat them.Protein: An organic moleculecomposed of amino acids that areresponsible for cell maintenance andgrowth.Pyrolysis: The thermal decompositionof biomass at high temperatures(greater than 200°C) in the absence ofair. The end product of pyrolysis is amixture of solids (char), liquids(oxygenated oils), and gases (methane,carbon monoxide, and CO 2), withproportions determined by operatingtemperature, pressure, oxygencontent and other conditions.Sequestration, sequestered: Thelong-term storage of carbon in theterrestrial biosphere, underground, orin the oceans, isolating the carbonfrom the carbon cycle to ensure thebuild up of CO 2(the principalgreenhouse gas) in the atmospherewill be reduced.Sustainable development: Accordingto the 1987 UN World Commission onthe Environment and Development,“development that meets the needs ofthe present without compromising theability of future generations to meettheir own needs.”Syngas: A “synthesis gas” consistingmainly of carbon monoxide (CO) andhydrogen (H) that is created by thegasification of liquid or solid biomass.Syngas is used for producing poweror hydrogen, methane and otherfuels.Thermal depolymerization: Aprocess that uses pressure and heat toreduce biomass (usually organicwaste material) into light crude oil bybreaking down long-chain polymersof hydrogen, oxygen and carbon intoshort-chain petroleum hydrocarbons.The process, also calledthermochemical conversion or athermal conversion process, is thoughtto mirror the natural geologicalprocess that produces fossil fuels.Thermochemical processing: Thechemical processing of biomass athigh temperatures to produce fuels,such as biogas or bio-oil. Pyrolysisand gasification are examples ofthermochemical processes.Thermo-chemistry: The branch ofchemistry that explores theinteraction of heat and chemicalreactions.Toxic substance: A chemical ormaterial harmful to people, plantsand animals.Turbine: A machine of rotary bladesand a drive shaft that uses the energyof a stream of fluid (usually water orsteam) to power a generator thatcreates an electromagnetic field,transforming the mechanical energyinto electricity.Yeast: A general term for single-celledfungi that reproduce by budding.Some yeasts can fermentcarbohydrates (starches and sugars).PRIMER ON BIOPRODUCTS69

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