Langley Flying School Private Pilot Groundschool Manual Sample ...

Celebrating 18 Years of Flight Training1994-2012LANGLEYFLYINGSCHOOLPRIVATE ANDRECREATIONAL PILOTGROUNDSCHOOL MANUAL

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 3Langley Flying School, Inc.DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................................................................. 37ENGINE TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................................................................... 37Radial Engines ..................................................................................................................................................... 37In-Line Engines.................................................................................................................................................... 37Horizontally opposed ........................................................................................................................................... 37PARTS OF AN ENGINE ............................................................................................................................................... 38FOUR STROKES OF AN ENGINE ................................................................................................................................. 38TIMING ..................................................................................................................................................................... 38COOLING .................................................................................................................................................................. 39OIL ........................................................................................................................................................................... 39FUEL AND FUEL SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................................................ 40Pilot Mixture Control .......................................................................................................................................... 40FUEL SYSTEMS ......................................................................................................................................................... 41Special Considerations associated with Fuel ...................................................................................................... 41CARBURETTOR ICING ............................................................................................................................................... 41Superchargers and Turbochargers ...................................................................................................................... 42Ignition ................................................................................................................................................................ 42ELECTRICAL POWER ................................................................................................................................................. 43PROPELLERS ............................................................................................................................................................. 44QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................................... 45Answers ................................................................................................................................................................ 46AERODYNAMICS AND THEORY OF FLIGHT ................................................................................................. 47FORCES OF FLIGHT ................................................................................................................................................... 47Lift ....................................................................................................................................................................... 47Weight .................................................................................................................................................................. 47Thrust ................................................................................................................................................................... 47Drag ..................................................................................................................................................................... 47GENERATING LIFT .................................................................................................................................................... 47Airfoils ................................................................................................................................................................. 47Bernoulli’s Theorem ............................................................................................................................................ 47Ram Air ................................................................................................................................................................ 48Angle of Attack..................................................................................................................................................... 48DRAG ....................................................................................................................................................................... 48Parasitic Drag ..................................................................................................................................................... 48Induced drag ........................................................................................................................................................ 49Boundary Layer ................................................................................................................................................... 49Aileron Drag ........................................................................................................................................................ 49Stalls .................................................................................................................................................................... 50FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE STALL .......................................................................................................................... 50Snow, frost, ice and dirt:...................................................................................................................................... 50Weight .................................................................................................................................................................. 50Centre of Gravity ................................................................................................................................................. 50Turbulence ........................................................................................................................................................... 50Turns .................................................................................................................................................................... 51Flaps .................................................................................................................................................................... 51SPINS ........................................................................................................................................................................ 51LIFT-DRAG RATIO ..................................................................................................................................................... 52WING DESIGN ........................................................................................................................................................... 52Laminar and conventional airfoils ...................................................................................................................... 52Angle of incidence ............................................................................................................................................... 52Washout ............................................................................................................................................................... 52Stall Strips ........................................................................................................................................................... 53Airfoil Variation .................................................................................................................................................. 53STABILITY ................................................................................................................................................................ 53Longitudinal ........................................................................................................................................................ 53© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 4Langley Flying School, Inc.Lateral ................................................................................................................................................................. 53Directional ........................................................................................................................................................... 53FORCES DURING TAKEOFF ........................................................................................................................................ 54Torque.................................................................................................................................................................. 54Precession ............................................................................................................................................................ 54Slipstream ............................................................................................................................................................ 54Asymmetric thrust ................................................................................................................................................ 54CLIMBS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 54Best Angle Climb (V x ) .......................................................................................................................................... 54Best Rate Climb (V y ) ............................................................................................................................................ 55Normal or Cruise Climb ...................................................................................................................................... 55QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................................... 56Answers ................................................................................................................................................................ 58CANADIAN AVIATION REGULATIONS ............................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.AIRPORTS ........................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Runways and Taxiways .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.THE CIRCUIT ...................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Uncontrolled Airports ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Mandatory Frequency Airports ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Controlled Airports ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Clearances and Instructions .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION ................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Northern and Southern Domestic Airspace ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Class A ................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Class B ................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Class C................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Class D .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Class E ................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Class F ................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Class G .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.VHF AND LF AIRWAYS ...................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.CONTROL ZONES ................................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.VFR WEATHER MINIMUM .................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.SPECIAL VFR ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.VFR OVER-THE TOP........................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.CRUISING ALTITUDES ......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.ALTIMETER RULES ............................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.VFR FLIGHT PLANS ........................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.NOTAMS ........................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.NATIONAL SECURITY ......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.EMERGENCY LOCATION TRANSMITTERS (ELT) ................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.PRIORITY RADIO COMMUNICATIONS .................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.TRANSPONDER REQUIREMENTS .......................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.FUEL REQUIREMENTS ......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.PASSENGER BRIEFINGS ....................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.PILOT PRIVILEGE ................................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Alcohol ................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Anaesthetics ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.WAKE TURBULENCE .......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Wake Turbulence Regulations ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Departures ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Wake Turbulence Rules of Thumb ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.JET BLAST HAZARD ............................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.SEAT REQUIREMENTS ......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.OXYGEN ............................................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 5Langley Flying School, Inc.DOCUMENTS ON BOARD AIRCRAFT .................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS ............................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Operational and Emergency Equipment Requirements ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Additional Equipment Requirements ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.AIRCRAFT ICING ................................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.MINIMUM ALTITUDE .......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.RULES OF THE AIR .............................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.STUDENT PILOT PERMIT EXAMINATION (PSTAR) STUDY QUESTIONS ............... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Answers .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.FLIGHT OPERATIONS ........................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICES ........................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.En route Communication ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.WEIGHT AND BALANCE ...................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Requirements ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Procedure .............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Weight, Balance and Performance ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.PRESSURE AND DENSITY ALTITUDE ................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE.................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.AIRSPEEDS ......................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.CRUISE POWER SETTING .................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.FUEL CONSUMPTION .......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.FUEL, DISTANCE AND TIME TO CLIMB ............................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.LANDING ERRORS .............................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Landing Illusions ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.PRECISION APPROACH PATH INDICATORS (PAPI) .............................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.LANDING RULES OF THUMB ............................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.CROSSWIND LANDING LIMITATIONS .................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.MID-AIR COLLISIONS ......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.BIRD STRIKES ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.FLIGHT OVER WATER ......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.WHITEOUT.......................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.MOUNTAIN FLYING ............................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Be Prepared!.......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.MOGAS ............................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Operational Considerations .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Mogas Requirements ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER ............................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.MEDICAL FACTORS ............................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.INSURANCE ......................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.MARSHALLING SIGNALS..................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Answers .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.HUMAN FACTORS AND PILOT DECISION-MAKING..................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Background ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.What about you? .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.HUMAN FACTORS AND PILOT ERROR ................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Accident Rates ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Exposure to Accident Risk ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.The Accident Pilot Profile ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Experience and Greatest Accident Risk ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.USE OF CHECKLISTS ........................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.DISORIENTATION—178 SECONDS ...................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.HYPOXIA ............................................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 6Langley Flying School, Inc.EMPTY-FIELD MYOPIA ....................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.THE PILOT DECISION-MAKING PROCESS ............................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Situation ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Options .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Choose ................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Act .......................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Evaluate ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.LOSS OF SITUATIONAL AWARENESS ................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.STRESS ............................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Cockpit stress management Rules of Thumb ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.RISK MANAGEMENT AND THE PILOT’S CHECKLIST ............................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES .................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.CASE STUDIES .................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.PSA 182 (Pacific Southwest Airlines), Lindbergh Field, San Diego, September 25, 1978.. Error! Bookmark notdefined.Eastern Air Lines 401(Eastern Air Lines), Lockheed L-1011, Miami International Airport, December 29, 1972............................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Answers .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.METEOROLOGY—PART I (GENERAL) ............................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.THE ATMOSPHERE .............................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Standard Atmosphere ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.CLOUDS .............................................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Cloud Classification .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Sky Opacity ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.PRESSURE ........................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Coriolis Force........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Local Phenomenon Winds ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.HUMIDITY .......................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.HEATING ............................................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.COOLING ............................................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.STABILITY .......................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Answers .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.METEOROLOGY—PART II (ACTIVE WEATHER) .......................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.AIR MASSES ....................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.FRONTS .............................................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Frontal Depression ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.The Warm Front .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.The Cold Front ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Other Fronts and Associated Weather ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Clouds and Precipitation of Active Weather ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.FOG .................................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.ADDITIONAL WEATHER TERMS .......................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.THUNDERSTORMS ............................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Rules of thunderstorm Avoidance .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.ICING .................................................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Icing rules of thumb ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.REGIONAL WEATHER OF BRITISH COLUMBIA .................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Victoria and Nanaimo............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Lower-Mainland Airports ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Fraser Valley ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Route Descriptions ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 7Langley Flying School, Inc.Answers .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.WEATHER INFORMATION ................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS (METAR) ......................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Type of Report ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Station identification .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Date and Time of Issue .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Wind ....................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Prevailing Visibility ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Runway Visual Range ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Present Weather .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Sky Opacity ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Temperature, Dew Point, Altimeter Setting Pressure ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Wind Shear ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Remarks ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Special Weather Reports (SPECI) ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.AWOS .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.GRAPHIC AREA FORECASTS (GFA) .................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.General GFA Format ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.GFA WEATHER INFORMATION—CLDS & WX GFA ......................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Clouds .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Weather and Visibility ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Winds and Pressure ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Dynamic Systems ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.GFA WEATHER INFORMATION— ICG/TURBC/FRLVL ................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Icing ....................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Turbulence ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Freezing Level Isotherms ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.GFA AMENDMENTS AND CORRECTIONS ............................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.AERODROME FORECASTS (TAF) ........................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Change Groups: From, Becoming, Temporary, and Probability .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.UPPER WINDS (FD) ............................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.OTHER REPORTS ................................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.GETTING THE WEATHER ..................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Answers .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.NAVIGATION ............................................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.TERMS AND CONCEPTS ....................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.MAGNETIC COMPASS ......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.AVIATION CHARTS ............................................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Reading the VNC ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.TRIANGULATION OF VELOCITIES ........................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.NAVIGATION PREPARATION ............................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Preparing the Chart ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Navigation Planning—Pre-weather ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Variation ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Pre-flight (with weather information) ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.Why all the detail on the Worksheet? .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.The Fuel Log .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.FLIGHT PLAN ...................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Items on an ATC Flight Plan Form ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.METHODS OF COURSE CORRECTION ................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Double Track Method ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Opening-Closing Angle Method ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 8Langley Flying School, Inc.Answers .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.RADIO NAVIGATION ............................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.VOR ................................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.ADF ................................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.GPS ................................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Answers .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS ........................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTS .............................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Airspeed Indicator ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Altimeter ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Vertical Speed Indicator ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.GYRO INSTRUMENTS .......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.Answers .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.INDEX ......................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 9Langley Flying School, Inc.General InformationCOURSE OUTLINEBefore an individual can receive a private pilot licence or recreational pilot permit, he or she must demonstrate bothflying skill and knowledge. Flying skill is demonstrated to a designated Transport Canada examiner on a flight test,and a specified number of dual and solo hours flight training must be completed before the flight test can beattempted. In contrast, general knowledge of various subjects related to flying is demonstrated by successfulcompletion of a Transport Canada multiple-choice written examination; before a student pilot can write theexamination, he or she must complete the groundschool requirements, complete 10 hours of flight training, andobtain the required Medical Certificate. The purpose of this course is to prepare the student pilot for the writtenexamination. By introducing the student to such subjects as the theory of flight, airframes and aero engines,meteorology and navigation, airpersonship and flight procedures and rules, he or she will acquire knowledge tosuccessfully write the written examination and to safely enjoy the art of flying.EvaluationThe determination of Final Grade is as indicated on the right.To be recommended to write the Transport Canada PrivatePilot or Recreation Pilot examination, students must attain aminimum course grade of 65%. They must also have aMedical Certificate appropriate for their licence, and theymust have completed 10 hours of flight instruction.Additionally, before students can write the Final Examination,they must complete eight Review Quizzes (each quizconsisting of five to twenty multiple choice questions), to bewritten in class. Passing mark on the Review Quizzes is 60%.The Review Quizzes may be written any time during the term for those students undertaking accelerated homestudy. Students are encouraged to submit completed study questions for review and correction by the instructor.It is impossible to cover in class all of the material associated with the Transport Canada examination. How well astudent does depends directly on his or her efforts in reading, studying at home, and asking questions in class. Toget the full benefit of class discussions, students should complete the assigned readings prior to class.Transport Canada requires that groundschool attendance for individual students be maintained at the school in aPilot Training Record. Students pursuing accelerated home study must carefully record the times and dates whenthey study; these times and dates will then be transcribed onto their Pilot Training Record and used in place of classattendance times.Required Equipment E6-B Flight Computer (or equivalent)1. ICAO Chart Rule or Navigation Plotter2. Douglas Protractor3. Vancouver VFR Navigation Chart.4. Vancouver VTA Navigation Chart.Required TextsReview Quizzes (Eight) 40%Final Examination 40%Class Attendance andParticipationTutorial Attendance andParticipationDavid L. Parry2012 Langley Flying School Groundschool Manual Langley: Langley Flying School, Inc.Sandy A. F. MacDonald2000 From the Ground Up (Twenty-eighth Revised Edition) Ottawa: Aviation Publishers Co. Limited.10%10%© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 10Langley Flying School, Inc.Recommended TextsKent Johnson and John Mullock1996 Aviation Weather Hazards of British Columbia and the Yukon Kelowna: Source Graphics and Print Co.Ltd.Environment CanadaAware Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services CanadaPublications Department, Piper Aircraft CorporationTransport Canada1994 Human Factors for Aviation Ottawa: Transport Canada—Safety and SecurityTransport Canada1999 Flight Training Manual (Fourth Edition) Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services CanadaTransport Canada— Pilot Training Record Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services CanadaCommunications Canada1988 Radiotelephone Operator Handbook Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services CanadaTransport Canada-Aeronautical Information Manual Ottawa: Department of Transport, CanadaTransport Canada-Canada Flight Supplement Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services CanadaRichard L. Collins1977 Flying Safely New York: Delacorte Press/Eleanor FriedeWolfgang Langewiesche1972 Stick and Rudder: An Explanation of the Art of Flying New York: McGraw-Hill Book CompanyOutlineSection ISection IISection IIILICENSING REQUIREMENTSReadings: Parry, “Licensing Requirements”AIRFRAMES, ENGINES AND SYSTEMS—PART IReadings:Macdonald, “The Aeroplane”Parry, “Airframes, Engines and Systems—Part I”AIRFRAMES, ENGINES AND SYSTEMS—PART IIReadings:MacDonald, “Aero Engines”Parry, “Airframes, Engines and Systems—Part II”Review Quiz #1: Licensing Requirements, Airframes, Engines and Systems.Section IVAERODYNAMICS AND THEORY OF FLIGHTReadings:Review Quiz #2: Aerodynamics and Theory of Flight.Section VMacDonald, “Theory of Flight”Parry, “Aerodynamics and Theory of Flight”—excluding FlightInstrumentsCANADIAN AVIATION REGULATIONSReadings:Student Pilot Permit Examination (PSTAR)Macdonald, “Aeronautical Rules & Facilities”Parry, “Canadian Aviation Regulations”© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 11Langley Flying School, Inc.Section VISection VIIFLIGHT OPERATIONSReadings:MacDonald, “Aeronautical Facilities”Parry, “Flight Operations”HUMAN FACTORS AND PILOT DECISION-MAKINGReadings: Parry, “Human Factors and Pilot Decision-Making”Review Quiz #3: Flight Operations and Human Factors and Pilot Decision-makingSection VIIISection IXMETEOROLOGY—PART I (GENERAL)Readings:MacDonald, “Meteorology”Parry, “Meteorology—Part I”METEOROLOGY—PART II (ACTIVE WEATHER)Readings:MacDonald, “Meteorology”Parry, “Meteorology—Part II”Review Quiz #4: Meteorology—Part I and II (General and Active Weather).Section XMETEOROLOGY—PART III (WEATHER INFORMATION)Readings:MacDonald, same as above.Parry, “Weather Information”Review Quiz #5: Meteorology—Part III (Weather Information).Section XINAVIGATIONReadings:Review Quiz #6: Navigation.Section XIISection XIIIMacDonald, “Air Navigation”Parry, “Navigation”RADIO AND ELECTRONIC THEORY (RADIO NAVIGATION)Readings:FLIGHT INSTRUMENTSReadings:Review Quiz #7: Radio Navigation and Flight Instruments.FINAL EXAMMacDonald, “Radio Navigation.”Parry, “Radio Navigation”MacDonald, Flight Instruments in “Theory of Flight”Parry, “Flight Instruments”© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 12Langley Flying School, Inc.AcknowledgementsThis manual represents the culmination of notes for initial groundschool, which I have collected over the years. Thecontent of the manual has been subsequently discussed and reviewed by the Langley Flying School instructionalstaff and modifications and adjustments have taken place over the years. The material contained in this manual isbest viewed as a complement to the material contained in that classic groundschool text originally published bySandy McDonald, From the Ground Up (now revised periodically by former professional instructors who now arewith Transport Canada). As it stands in its current form, this textbook is a dense book of knowledge andinformation, and while it is a “must read” for all beginning pilots, I think very few of us have the capability ofreading it in its entirety during the few months that groundschool classes are actually held. It is difficult enough toexplain to our families and friends why we are hanging around the airport so much during our initial training; itwould be impossible to explain why, when we get home, we have our heads continually buried in this McDonald’sFrom the Ground Up, which is no less than a Canadian Aviation Encyclopædia that you will continue to use as aknowledge source throughout your flying career. In Canada, there is no equal authority on groundschool. Facedwith the massive amount of information in this book, I have what many will regard as a radical suggestion—onewhich I got from a respected professor in my university days: don’t read the book—use the book. Specifically, usethe information contained in From the Ground Up as you would use a reference source. If you are fuzzy aboutsomething discussed in class, or if you simply want to further expand your knowledge of a subject, McDonald’sbook is the place to go. Be sure you utilize the Index that appears at the back of the book—a crucial tool in workingyour way through the material.During the almost ninety hours that we will spend in this groundschool class we cannot even come close to coveringthe knowledge associated with flying and learning to fly. Instead, we must be selective in our material, and this isthe true function of the Langley Flying School Groundschool Manual—it complements important material andinformation contained in McDonald’s book which we feel is fundamental to groundschool learning and which lies atthe root of any flying school operational mandate.The material we have selected for this manual and this course focuses on three priorities: safety, Transport Canadaexamination standards, and instrumental knowledge. Safety in flying is something to which all flying schoolsaspire. Simply stated, safety is—and must be—paramount. Like any human activity involving transportation,flying contains black holes, and our job is to map these black holes out for you and provide you with the knowledgeto recognize where you might encounter them, and what is required to keep away from them.Secondly, we have selected material which relates to the slowly yet continuously evolving standards set byTransport Canada’s examinations. In short, our job is to prepare students to pass these examinations. For thesereasons, our material conforms to what Transport Canada personnel regard as “crucial” knowledge requirements forlicense holders. Hopefully, Transport Canada will bear in mind this determinant role they have in the evolvingmaterial presented in groundschools and efforts are not wasted on the examination of trivia—in my experience inaviation training, Transport Canada has a good track record. Groundschool Instructors regard student recall ofexamination questions as pure gold, and the questions that appear at the end of each chapter, beside reinforcingsafety and general knowledge, go a long way to address the specific subject material contained in Transport Canadaquestions (material recalled by students appears in the Langley Flying School Intel File, and this can be signed outby students preparing to write their qualifying examination).Thirdly, we have attempted to weed-out as much as possible any information in potential groundschool material thatis not instrumental to flying. As you will quickly learn, there is a multitude of subjects and issues related to flyingthat are truly fascinating—the history of aviation, the revolution presently occurring in “home-built” aircraft, thecontinuous developments in navigation and instrumentation technologies, commercial aviation and careeropportunities, etc.—all of which can easily stir-up long discussions among pilots and student pilots. Unfortunately,our reality in the classroom is to manage a diverse array of material with rather restrictive time constraints. If theinformation is not instrumental to learning to fly safely, we have made an effort to exclude it from the curriculum ofthe course.I will take this opportunity to thank the many people who have contributed to my own understanding of flying, andthose who have contributed to that collection of Instructors and Students that is called Langley Flying School.Going back to the late 1970s, I am personally indebted to Professors A. Olmsted, D. Hatt, and A. Heinrich (theyshould all be full Professors by now!), who make great effort to implant curiosity into the minds of their young© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 13Langley Flying School, Inc.undergraduate students. I am also personally indebted to the many instructors I have had the pleasure of workingwith in my role as “student”—which of course for any good instructor is a never-ending role—Lenora Crane,Gordon Jones, Mac Arbuthnot, Paul Tinevez, Mark Adam, Jim Krause, Wayne Wolshyn, Jo Harris, Heather Baile,Jamie Roth, John Laing, Donn Richardson, Matt Edwards, Peter Shewring, Roy Isreal, Peter Cox and Al Balogh.With respect to aircraft maintenance engineering and airworthiness, I am grateful to the efforts and assistance overthe years by Don and Loraine Nikkel of Valley Aero Engines Ltd., and Joel H. Schoenberger, Wendy Boyes, andSimon Mears of Transport Canada’s Aircraft Maintenance and Manufacturing.Langley Flying School is but a mere collection of dedicated and hardworking individuals who, motivated by thelove of flying (surely not of money!), have spent many hours contributing to the system of flight training operationsthat has evolved over the years—Kevin Williams, Michel Rouch, Sheldon Pohl (now a Boeing 737 Pilot withWestjet), Heather Wolf (now Boeing 747 Pilot with EVA Airways), Jarrod Burgess (now corporate jet pilot inOklahoma), Nick van Empel (now an Air Canada pilot), Ron Reynolds, Corey Dyer (now a King Air pilot, DaveBeales, Jessica Hamstra (now an Air Canada Jazz pilot), Rita Methorst, David Woollam (now the Chief Pilot withMaldivian Air Taxi), Bob Brown, Dave Page (now a Bearskin Airlines pilot), Tom Larkin, Brandon Dreyer (now aBoeing 727 pilot with Kelowna Flightcraft), Adam O’Sullivan, Patrice Gagnon (now an Air Canada Jazz pilot),Adam Katagiri, Peter Waddington, Ben Orlowski (now an Air Canada Jazz pilot), Ryan Gahan (also Beech 1900Captain with Pacific Coastal Airlines , Cullen Worth (now a Twin Otter Captain with Kenn Borek Air), Philip Craig(a pilot with Pacific Coastal Airlines), Justin Chung (now a pilot with Cathy Pacific, Rod Giesbretcht (also a pilotwith Pacific Coastal Airlines), Naomi Jones (also pilot with Pacific Coastal Airlines) , and Hoowan Nam, Nam Vu,Mayank Mittal, Beda Grunder, Carl Tingstad, Sean Yoo, and Barry Stanley.I always say that teaching flying is awonderful profession that is rich inexcitement, satisfaction, success andchallenge. It truly is an honour to teachpeople how to fly. The pleasures of thejob, however, originate from hearts andminds of students. Pilot students arenever forced to come to school, and it iswonderful to work with such a highlymotivated bunch. For all who completePilot Training, this course will serve tobe the first step in the wonderfuladventure of flight that will last alifetime—for some it will be the first stepin an exciting and rewarding career.When I get into an aeroplane, I still havethe same sense of excitement andanticipation that I had on my first flightlesson at High River Airport on January15 th , 1987. Sentiments such as these donot fade for pilots.This sketch appeared in early publications of From the Ground Up.Special thanks to my Mamoo, Elizabeth(Betty) Parry, for her career role as editing adviser, and Mother. The inspiration for the Field of Dreams originatesfrom my Dad, Ken Parry (who can still grease a Twin on—if you show him where the runway is—just kiddingDad!)—I still can’t believe my Dad talked me into building a flying school!David Parry,Chief Flying InstructorLangley, British Columbia© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 14Langley Flying School, Inc.MISSON STATEMENT To provide safe and effective pilot training. To encourage high standards in flying practices among our students, including thepromotion of professional-level pilot knowledge and skills. To continually develop our training programs to ensure that they meet the highest ofstandards in the flight training industry, yet maintain an effective and informal learningenvironment.Special Note for StudentsThe critical role in creating successful student outcomes is Tutorial attendance. The coursematerial cannot be comprehensively covered in detail during evening classes. The Tutorialsfocus on basic groundschool skills essential to student pilots, and if you attend them regularlyand make effective use of Tutorial Instructor’s time, your success in the course can be virtuallyassured. If you do not attend Tutorials regularly, we cannot make this assurance.If you encounter any errors in this Manual—whether in content or in grammar—please use theSchool’s photocopier and copy the page concerned, and then place the copy with your commentsin the mail box of David Parry. Conversely, you may e-mail David Parry atdparry@langleyflyingschool.com. This applies to all Langley Flying School publications.Langley Flying School maintains an Intel File, which contains a record of the questionscontained on Transport Canada’s Private Pilot Written Examination, as recalled by students afterthe examination is written. Be sure to review this before you write the examination, and be sureyou contribute to it after you have written. See your Instructor for details.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 15Langley Flying School, Inc.LICENSING REQUIREMENTSThere are six categories of aircraft for which flying privileges are provided: balloon, glider, aeroplane, ultra-lightaeroplane, helicopter, and gyroplane.There are four classes of aeroplanes for which privileges are further specified: single-engine land aeroplane, singleenginesea aeroplane, multi-engine land aeroplane, and multi-engine sea aeroplane.Student Pilot PermitThe minimum age for this permit is 14 years.Prior to receiving a Student Pilot Permit, the holder shall have a Category 1, 3, or 4 Medical Certificate (discussedbelow).Prior completion of the examination entitled the Student Pilot Permit or Private Pilot Licence for Foreign andMilitary Applicants, Air Regulations (“PSTAR” for short, as no one can ever remember such an exam name!) isrequired. The PSTAR examination is administered on behalf of Transport Canada by most certified Flight TrainingUnits—Langley Flying School, for example, administers its own PSTAR examination. The passing grade for thePSTAR is 90% and it must be corrected to 100%. The material contained in Canadian AviationRegulations (see Page 58) and the material related to Medical Factors in Flight Operations (see Page Error!Bookmark not defined.), are designed to prepare Langley Flying School students for the PSTAR examination.Once the age, medical, and PSTAR requirements are met, a student may be issued the Student Pilot Permit by anAuthorized Person. 1Before a student pilot can exercise the privileges of a Student Pilot Permit and act as Pilot-in-command—i.e., beforethey can fly an aircraft without a Flight Instructor on board—a Flight Instructor must certify in the student’s PilotTraining Record that the candidate has reached a satisfactory standard of experience and skill to complete soloflight.For the purpose of receiving flight training or undertaking a flight test, the holder of a Student Pilot Permit may actas Pilot-in-command of any aircraft of the category to which the permit applies, provided the following requirementsare met:a) The flight is conducted in Canada during the day;b) the flight is conducted under the direction and supervision of a Flight Instructor;c) passengers are not carried on board the aircraft.Langley Flying School’s Flight Training Operations and Procedures require that a Flight Instructor must authorise inwriting any student solo flight conducted by the holder of a Student Pilot Permit.Student Pilot Permits remain valid for five years beginning on the first day of the month following the month inwhich the student’s medical examination occurred.Recreational Pilot PermitThe minimum age for this permit is 16 years.The holder of a Recreation Pilot Permit must hold a valid Category 4 Medical Certificate or higher.Training for this permit must be conducted as per Transport Canada requirements.The applicant must have completed a minimum of 40 hours groundschool on subjects specified by TC.The applicant must obtain a minimum 60% on the Transport Canada examination (Air Law, Navigation,Meteorology, and Aeronautics-General Knowledge). 21 An Authorized Persons is on staff at Langley Flying School.2 This examination is written via computer at Langley Flying School.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 16Langley Flying School, Inc.The applicant must have completed a minimum of 25 hours flight training in the aircraft category (aeroplane,gyroplane, and helicopter), including no less than 15 hours dual with a flight instructor and 5 hours solo.Of the 15 hours of dual instruction, 2 hours must be cross-country time.Successful completion of a flight test is required.Recreational Pilots are licensed to fly any four-seat aircraft or smaller (including ultra-light, single-engine, andmulti-engine aircraft) during the day in Canada.Private Pilot Licence (day VFR)The minimum age for this licence is 17 years.The applicant must hold a valid Category 1 or 3 Medical Certificate.Training for the licence must be conducted as per Transport Canada requirements.The applicant must have completed a minimum of 40 hours Groundschool on subjects specified by TransportCanada..60% on the Transport Canada examination is required (Air Law, Navigation, Meteorology, and Aeronautics-GeneralKnowledge). 3The applicant must have completed a minimum of 45 hours flight training in the aircraft category (aeroplane,gyroplane, and helicopter), including no less than 17 hours dual (logged with a flight instructor) and 12 hours solo.Of the 17 hours of dual instruction, 3 hours must be cross-country, and 5 hours must be instrument time (referenceonly to flight instruments).Of the 12 hours solo practice, 5 hours must be a cross-country trip with a triangular flight not less than 150 nauticalmiles, including 2 full-stop landings.Successful completion of a flight test is required.Private Pilots receive a blanket aircraft type rating for “all single pilot, non-high performance single engine landaeroplanes”; however, they can fly any aeroplane provided they have received an Individual Aircraft Type Rating,which may require additional ratings, examinations, and Pilot Proficiency Checks (flight test).The blanket aircraft type rating therefore excludes multi-crew aircraft (e.g., requiring a co-pilot), as well as highperformance aircraft.A high performance aircraft is formally defined as aircraft with a “never-exceed speed” (V ne ) 4 of 250 knots (KTS)indicated airspeed (KIAS) and greater, or a “stall speed in a landing configuration” (V so ) 5 of 80 KIAS and greater.Completion RequirementsStudents must be timely on completing both the written examination and flight training requirements for their flighttest examination. The results of written examinations are valid for only 24 months. In contrast, the results of aflight test are valid for only 12 months. To obtain the licence, the successful completion of the flight test and thewritten examination must be simultaneously valid—the flight test must be completed during the validity period ofthe written examination, or the written examination must be completed during the validity period of the flight test,whichever the candidate decides to do first.Transport Canada charges a licensing fee, and Designated Flight Test Examiners (appointed by Transport Canada)charge a flight test fee.3 This examination is written via computer at Langley Flying School.4V ne is the fastest that an aircraft should be permitted to fly, as determined by the aircraft’s manufacturer during the type certification process.V ne is indicated on the airspeed indicated by a red radial line, alerting the pilot to this limitation. Above V ne, an aircraft will encounter structuralfailure.5V so is the “stalling speed” of an aircraft in its landing configuration—e.g., the gear and flaps extended. The aircraft’s manufacturer hasdetermined—again during the type certification process—that speeds below V so are too slow for the wings to properly support lift. V so is alsoindicated on the airspeed indicator, in this case by the bottom of a white arch that appears at the lower end of the speed scale.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 17Langley Flying School, Inc.Examination AdministrationIf a person fails a written examination, there is a waiting period. In the event of a first failure, the person must wait14 days; with a second failure, the waiting period is 30 days; and in the case of third or subsequent failures, theperson must wait 30 days plus an additional 30-day period for each failure in excess of two failures, up to amaximum of 180 days.This waiting requirement does not apply to the PSTAR examination required for the Student Pilot Permit.The Private Pilot and Recreational Pilot written examinations are composed of sections, and the waitingrequirements do not apply if a person obtains a passing grade on the overall examination, but fails one or moresections.Additionally, re-writing an examination only requires that you rewrite the failed sections.Transport Canada charges an administration fee for examinations.Night RatingThe holder of a licence endorsed with a Night Rating may exercise the privileges of the licence in Night VFRconditions.The applicant for the rating requires 20 hours flight experience in same aircraft category.The applicant must have completed a minimum of 10 hours night-flight experience, including no less than 5 hoursdual instruction (which must include a 2-hour cross-country), and 5 hours solo flight time, which must include 10takeoffs and landings.The applicant must also have completed 10 hours dual instrument time.Transport Canada requires neither a flight test nor written examination for the Night Rating.VFR Over-the-Top RatingThe holder of a licence endorsed with a VFR Over-the-Top (VFR OTT) Rating may exercise the privileges of thelicence while flying VFR above a cloud ceiling.This rating requires the applicant to have 20 hours flight experience in same aircraft category.The applicant must have completed 15 hours dual instrument time.Transport Canada requires neither a flight test nor written examination for the VFR OTT Rating.Commercial Pilot Licence (day and night VFR and VFR OTT)The holder of a Commercial Pilot Licence may exercise the privileges of Pilot-in-command of any aircraft engagedin a commercial air service where the aircraft minimum flight crew document requires a minimum flight crew of onepilot—i.e., an air taxi operation—or the privileges of Co-pilot of any aircraft type that is endorsed on his or herlicence.The minimum age for this licence is 18 years.The applicant must have a valid Category 1 Medical Certificate.Training must have been conducted as per Transport Canada requirements.The applicant must have completed a minimum of 40 hours Groundschool on subjects specified by TC.The applicant must obtain a minimum of 60% on the Transport Canada examination (Air Law, Navigation,Meteorology, Aeronautics-General Knowledge).The applicant must have a minimum of 200 hours flight time experience, including 100 hours of Pilot-in-command,and 20 hours of cross-country Pilot-in-command.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 18Langley Flying School, Inc.The applicant must have completed a total minimum 65 hours flight training (including training for the Private PilotLicence) in the aircraft category aeroplane, gyroplane, or helicopter), including no less than 35 dual with a flightinstructor, and 30 hours solo practice (subsequent to Private Pilot Training).Of the 35 hours of dual flight, 5 must be night (including a 2-hour night cross-country), 5 must be cross-country (ofwhich 2 hours may be the night cross-country requirements), and 20 hours must be instrument time (reference onlyto flight instruments).Of the 30 hours solo flight time emphasizing improvement in flying skills, there must be a cross-country flight to apoint not less than 300 nautical miles from the point of departure, with 3 full-stop landings. The 30 solo hours mustalso include 5 hours by night and completion of 10 circuits.The licence requires the successful completion of flight test.Instrument RatingThe holder of a licence endorsed with an Instrument Rating may exercise the privileges of the licence in IFRconditions—i.e., “instrument flight rules,” which is when the pilot can fly in cloud without visual reference to theground.The applicant must obtain 70% on Transport Canada examination, which assesses knowledge of Air Regulations,Instrument Flight Rules and Procedures, Meteorology, Instruments, Radio and Radar Systems, and Navigation.The applicant must have 50 hours cross-country experience.The applicant must have accumulated 40 hours instrument training time, including a cross-country flight in actual orsimulated IFR conditions of not less than 100 nautical miles, and including instrument approaches to specifiedapproach altitude minima at two locations.Successful completion of a flight test is required for this rating.Instrument Ratings are issued on the basis of Groups. A Group 1 Instrument Rating applies specified instrumentprivileges to fly any conventional multi-engine or single-engine aircraft, while the Group 3 Instrument Ratingapplies specific instrument privileges to fly only single-engine aircraft. The Group 2 Instrument Rating is restrictedto centre-thrust multi-engine aircraft such as the Cessna 337.Multi-engine Class RatingThe holder of a licence endorsed with a Multi-engine Rating may exercise the privileges of the licence in aircraftequipped with two or more engines.This rating does not require the completion of a specified number of training hours.The applicant must successfully complete a flight test.Seaplane RatingThe holder of a licence endorsed with a Seaplane Rating may exercise the privileges of the licence in aircraftequipped to land and takeoff on water.The applicant must complete a minimum number of training hours, including a minimum of 5 takeoffs and landingsas the sole occupant of the aeroplaneAirline Transport Pilot LicenceThe holder of a Airline Transport Pilot Licence—the most senior licence issue by Transport Canada—may exercisethe privileges of Pilot-in-command or Co-pilot of any aircraft engaged in a commercial air service where the aircraftminimum flight crew document requires a minimum flight crew of two pilots—i.e., commuter or airline aircraft.An applicant for the Airline Transport Pilot Licence must hold a Group 1 Instrument Rating.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 19Langley Flying School, Inc.The following is also required:1. 70% on Transport Canada examinations—two examinations must be written. The first examination(although order of writing is not important) is entitled SAMRA, concerns the subjects of Meteorology,Radio Aids to Navigation, and Flight Planning. The second examination is entitled SARON, whichconcerns Air Law, Aeroplane Operation and General Navigation.2. 1500 hours flight experience, of which 250 hours must be Pilot-in-command (100 of the 250 hours may beas Pilot-in-command under supervision), 6 including 100 hours cross-country flight time (which mustinclude 25 night hours).3. 100 hours night flight time as Pilot-in-command or co-pilot.4. 200 hours cross-country time as co-pilot in a two-crew aeroplane, or an additional 100 hours cross-countrytime as Pilot-in-command in addition to the above specified.5. 75 hours instrument flight time of which a maximum of 25 hours may be acquired in an approvedinstrument ground trainer (the ground trainer time cannot be applied toward the 1500 hours required).Pilot Personal LogsEvery holder of a flight crew permit, licence, or rating must maintain a personal log for the purpose of documentingexperience and recency.For each flight, this log must contain the following information:a) the date of the flight;b) the type of aircraft and its registration mark; 7c) the flight crew position in which the holder acts;d) the flight conditions with respect to day, night, VFR and IFR;e) in the case of aeroplanes, the place of departure and the place of arrival;f) all of the intermediate takeoffs and landings;g) the flight time.A pilot’s personal log is audited when a licence or rating is achieved by the pilot, and for this reason it is crucial tomake careful entries in the Pilot Log. When a commercial licence or airline transport licence is applied for, forexample, this audit of the Pilot Log is conducted by Transport Canada personnel. In the event of commercial pilottraining, it is important not to “double-dip” instrument training and night flying—that is, if a commercial student isobtaining instrument training at night, and the flight lasts .8 air time and 1.0 flight time, only a maximum of .8 canbe accredited instrument time and this has to be allocated to the Pilot Log’s “day” flight time, while the remaining .2(the difference between air and flight time) can be allocated to “night” flight time. It sounds confusing, but isrequired by Transport Canada.No person shall make an entry in a personal log unless the person is the holder of the log, or has been authorised tomake the entry by the holder of the log.Recency RequirementsFive-year RecencyThe holder of a flight crew permit, licence, or rating can only exercise the privileges of their permit, licence, orrating if they have acted as Pilot-in-command of an aircraft within the preceding five years. 8 In the event that theyhave not acted as such within this time period, privileges can only be reinstated if they undertake the following:a) successfully completes a flight review with a Flight Instructor and the Flight Instructor certifies in theholder’s personal log that the person meets the skill requirements associated with the permit, licence,6Canadian Aviation Regulation (CAR) 421.11. A complete electronic version of the CARs is available on Transport Canada’s website.7 The registration mark is the four-letter identification that appears on the wing and fuselage or tail of the aircraft.8CAR 401.05© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 20Langley Flying School, Inc.or rating; 9 andb) successfully completes the PSTAR examination.Pilots also have requirements with respect to currency in landings and takeoff; this is described on Page Error!Bookmark not defined..Recurrent Training ProgramThe holder of a flight crew permit, licence, or rating can only exercise the privileges of their permit, licence, orrating if, within the preceding 24 months, they have completed a recurrent training program 10 which may take theform of any of the following:a) completion of a flight review with a Flight Instructor;b) attendance of a safety seminar conducted by Transport Canada Aviation;c) participation in an approved recurrent training program designed to update pilot knowledge of humanfactors, meteorology, flight planning and navigation, and aviation regulations, rules and procedures;d) completion of the self-paced study program produced annually in the Transport Canada Aviation SafetyNewsletter, a copy of which shall be the most current published by date and must be retained by the licenceholder;e) completion of the requirements for the issue or renewal of a pilot permit, licence or rating, including nightrating, VFR OTT, instrument rating, multi-engine rating, flight instructor rating or landplane or seaplanerating; orf) completion of the written examination for a permit, licence, or rating.Medical CertificatesHere are the four categories of Medical Certificates:Category 1Category 2Category 3Category 4Required for Commercial Pilots (excluding Ultra-light pilots), consisting of a medicalexamination every 12 months or every 6 months if older than 40.Required for Air Traffic Controllers, Flight Navigators, and Engineers.Required for Private Pilots, consisting of medical examination every 24 months or every12 months after the age of 40. For flight only within Canada, Private Pilots may revert toextended validity periods—the 24-month period is extended to 60 months, and the 12-month period is extended to 24 months (see Aeronautical Information Circular 14/00 inthe Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)Required for Recreational, Glider and Ultra-light Aeroplane Pilots, and is the minimummedical requirement for Student Pilots. Glider and Ultra-light pilots require medicalcertification every 60 months; the same applies to Recreational pilots under the age of 40,but Recreational pilots over 40 require certification every 24 months.An expired Medical Certificate invalidates licensing privileges, beginning on the first day of the month followingthe month in which re-validation was required.The Category 1 certificate requires an electrocardiogram (ECG) for the initial medical, and every two years betweenthe ages of 30 and 40 years; after the age of 40, the ECG is required every year. The Category 1 certificate alsorequires a hearing test for the initial medical, as well as the first medical examination after the age 55. The Category3 certificate requires an ECG every 5 years after the age of 40. Category 4 certificates simply require a MedicalDeclaration unless clinically indicated otherwise.Upon expiration of Medical Certificate, Licence privileges are suspended until a medical examination is againundertaken; privileges expire at midnight on the final day of the month in which the medical was required; in theevent of a Category 1 Certificate expiring, commercial flying privileges are rolled back to private flying privilegesfor an additional 12 or 6 months, depending on age.9CAR 421.05.10CAR 421.05.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 21Langley Flying School, Inc.Pregnant female pilots may fly up to and including their 30th week provided the pregnancy is withoutcomplications; after the 30th week, pilots are considered temporarily unfit in view of the possibility of pre-termdelivery. Medical fitness must be re-certified after delivery.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 22Langley Flying School, Inc.QUESTIONS1) The term aeroplanes denotesa) a class of aircraft.b) a category of aircraft.c) a type of aircraft.d) a model of aircraft.2) A 21-year-old Private Pilot had his last medicalexamination for a Category 3 Medical Certificateon September 23, 2002; accordingly, thisperson’s privileges in Canada expire on:a) September 23, 2003.b) October 1, 2003.c) September 23, 2005.d) October 1, 2004.e) September 23, 2007.f) October 1, 2007.3) A 21-year-old Private Pilot had his last medicalexamination for a Category 3 Medical Certificateon September 23, 2002; accordingly, thisperson’s international privileges expire on:a) September 23, 2003.b) October 1, 2003.c) September 23, 2004.d) October 1, 2004.e) September 23, 2007.f) October 1, 2007.4) A 41-year-old Private Pilot had his last medicalexamination for a Category 3 Medical Certificateon September 23, 2002; accordingly, thisperson’s privileges in Canada expire on:a) September 23, 2003.b) October 1, 2003.c) September 23, 2004.d) October 1, 2004.e) September 23, 2007.f) October 1, 2007.5) A 41-year-old Private Pilot had his last medicalexamination for a Category 3 Medical Certificateon September 23, 2002; accordingly, thisperson’s international privileges expire on:a) September 23, 2003.b) October 1, 2003.c) September 23, 2004.d) October 1, 2004.e) September 23, 2007.f) October 1, 2007.6) The precise suspension of licensing privilegesfollowing the expiration of a Medical Certificateis:a) midnight on the anniversary day of the lastmedical examination.b) midnight on the last day of the anniversarymonth in which the last medical examinationwas taken.c) midnight on the anniversary day of the lastmedical examination, plus 30 days.d) midnight on the first day of the monthfollowing the anniversary day of the lastmedical exam.7) A Private Pilot has the opportunity to fly aCessna 182 for the first time; prior to the flightthe pilota) must have Type Check flight with acommercial pilot or flight instructor.b) must have Type Check flight with a flightinstructor.c) must successfully complete a PilotProficiency Check.d) should have a check flight with a pilot whohas experience flying the Cessna 182.8) For which of the following ratings is a flight testrequired:a) Instrument Ratingb) Night Ratingc) VFR OTTd) Seaplane Rating9) Which of the following is true with respect to theholder of a Student Pilot Permit (SPP) flying asPilot-in-command?a) The holder of an SPP must stay within 25NM of the departure airport.b) The holder of an SPP may only fly the typeof aircraft endorsed on the SPP.c) The SPP provides Pilot-in-commandprivileges for 24 months following thecompletion of the PSTAR examination.d) The flight must be conducted in Canada.10) Which of the following is true with respect to theability of the holder of a SPP to fly withpassengers:a) Passengers on board all training flights isprohibited.b) Passengers can ride on board a flight whenthe holder of a SPP is Pilot-in-command,provided the flight has been authorised by aFlight Instructor.c) The holder of an SPP can only act as Pilotin-commandprovided a Flight Instructor isoccupying the right seat.d) Passengers cannot ride on board a flightwhen the holder of a SPP is Pilot-incommand.11) Which of the following is not a required entryitem in a personal log following a flight:a) the type of aircraft and its registration mark;b) the flight crew position in which the holder© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 23Langley Flying School, Inc.acts;c) in the case of the holder of a SPP, the SPPnumber;d) in the case of aeroplanes, the place ofdeparture and the place of arrival.12) Which of the following is not a required entryitem in a personal log following a flight:a) the flight conditions with respect to day,night, VFR and IFR;b) all of the intermediate takeoffs and landings;c) the date of the flight;d) the flight time;e) the time of day at which the flight occurred.13) To retain current privileges with respect to flightwith passengers during the day or night, a pilotmust complete five takeoffs and landings in dayor night respectively within the precedinga) 6 months.b) 12 months.c) 24 months.d) 5 years.14) To retain current privileges, a pilot must haveacted as Pilot-in-command within the precedinga) 6 months.b) 12 months.c) 24 months.d) 5 years.15) To retain current privileges, a pilot must havecompleted a recurrent training program withinthe precedinga) 6 months.b) 12 months.c) 24 months.d) 5 years.16) The blanket type-rating associated with thePrivate Pilot Licence permits the Pilot-incommandofa) all aeroplanes with a stall speed of less than80 knots (KTS) and a never exceed speed ofless than 250 KTS.b) all aeroplanes with a stall speed of less than80 KTS and a never exceed speed of lessthan 250 KTS, provided the aircraftconforms with the ratings held by the pilot.c) all single crew aeroplanes, provided theaircraft conforms to the ratings held by thepilot.d) all aeroplanes 12,500 lbs. or less maximumgross weight, provided the aircraft conformsto the ratings held by the pilot.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 24Langley Flying School, Inc.Answers1. a2. f3. d4. d5. b6. b7. d8. a9. d10. d11. c12. e13. a14. d15. c16. c© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 25Langley Flying School, Inc.AIRFRAMES, ENGINES AND SYSTEMS—PART IDefinitionsThere are two primary definitions to be aware of, the first being “aircraft,” which is any “machine capable ofderiving support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air.”By comparison, the more specific category of “aeroplane” denotes any “power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft,deriving its lift in flight from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces that remain fixed under given conditions of flight.”A final commonly used term is “airframe” which is the aeroplane structure, excluding instruments and engine.Parts of anAeroplaneFuselageThe fuselage denotes thecentral body of the aeroplanewhere passengers and cargoare housed.Two types of fuselageconstruction exist, the firstreferred to as trussconstruction, which consistsof longerons (tubes runninglength-wise) that are bracedby beams to form a truss. Thesecond is monocoqueconstruction, which entailsformers or bulkheads, joinedby stringers (strips runninglength-wise), and surroundedby a stressed skin. Thestressed skin is designed to beload-bearing, and it is thisfeature which differentiates itfrom traditional trussconstruction. As part of pilotpre-flight inspection,examination of stressed skinprovides indication of thestructural soundness of thefuselage.WingMonocoqueConstructionFormers orBulkheadsTrussConstructionStringers–stripsrunning thelengthwise along thestructureLongerons–runningthe length of theframeStrength basedon external skinCovering–referred to as“stressed skin”–must be rigidin order to carry loading–normally wood or metalCovering may be fabric,metal or compositeStrength basedon internalstructureTruss frames werepreviously made fromwood, but are nowmade from weldedtubular metal.The wing is the primary source of aerodynamic lift; the wing also houses fuel tanks. The main structural and loadbearingcomponent of the wing is the spar, which extends from wing tip to wing root, where it is attached to thefuselage.Differentiation is made between wings with one spar (monospar), and wings with multiple spars (multispar).Primary control surfaces are located on the wing, including the ailerons (which create roll), and the flaps (whichprovide control of lift and drag).© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 26Langley Flying School, Inc.In addition to wing root and tip, a wing also consists of a leading edge and trailing edge.Depiction of the spar structure on the PiperCherokee. The main spars of the wings,composed of a steel I-beam, meet in a sparbox located under the rear seat. The mainspars are “spliced” together by way of thespar box, forming what is in effect a singlespar running the full wing span.WING TIPSKINSTRINGERSSPARRIBWING ROOTFUEL TANKWith respect to internal structure, wing loading is transmitted to the spar by way of ribs, which extend from theleading to trailing edge, intersecting the spar.Two types of wing designs are distinguishable: wings that are externally braced to the fuselage by struts, and wingslacking struts. Wings without struts are referred to as cantilever wings.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 27Langley Flying School, Inc.TailThe tail, also referred to as the empennage, provides pitch (nose-up andnose-down) control, as well as yaw control (nose-left and nose-right). Thetail also provides longitudinal stability (keeping the tail behind the head).The tail consists of two parts, the horizontal stabilizer, and vertical fin; theelevator control surface is attached to the horizontal stabilizer (allowingpitch control), and the rudder control surface is attached to the vertical fin(allowing yaw control).With respect to the horizontal stabilizer and the attached elevator, a seconddesign, referred to as a stabilator, allows the pilot to control pitch bymoving the entire horizontal surface. This is common on Piper aircraft.Elevator and trim tabposition for nosedown/tail-upElevator and trim tabposition for nose-up/tail-downStabilator and antiservoposition fornose-up/tail-downTo assist the pilot in maintaining adesired nose-up or nose-downattitude, both elevators and stabilatorshave a design feature which utilizesaerodynamics to “pre-set” either ofthese control features. The process ofpre-setting the tail for either nose-upor nose-down is referred to astrimming. For elevators, themechanism is referred to as a trimtab, while the mechanism built intostabilators is referred to as an antiservotab.Tail with ElevatorHorizontal Stabilizer (fixed)Tail with StabilatorRudderTo trim an aircraft equipped with anelevator for a nose-up position, referred to as a nose-up attitude, the elevatormust be defected upwards, which lowers the tail and simultaneously raises thenose. Utilizing aerodynamics, however, the trim tab attached to the elevatorcan maintain an upward elevator if trim tab is set downward. This truly is atricky concept to grasp, but it goes like this: an upward deflection of the trimtab as the effect of lowering the elevator, and the lowering of the elevator hasthe effect of raising the nose.To trim an aircraft equipped with a stabilator for a nose-up attitude, thetrailing edge of the stabilator must rise; to complete this task, the anti-servotab attached to the trailing edge must be deflected downwardSwivelPointVerticalStabilizer(fixed)ElevatorSwivelPointStabilatorStabilator and antiservo position fornose-down/tail-upUndercarriagePropulsionPropulsion systems on aircraft include three categories: internal combustionengines, jet and turbine engines, and turboprops (turbine engines with anattached propeller).The engine is draped in cowling to reduce drag and control air-cooling;additionally, the engine is separated from the remaining airframe, includingfuel storage areas, by a firewall. The “vital actions” of the pilot in response toan engine fire is always done in accordance with the Pilot OperatingHandbook, and always entails turning off cabin heat and window defrosting—if these actions are not done, the fire may spread past the firewall throughthese openings.There are four types of undercarriage (landing gear): split axle, tripod, single-leaf cantilever, or single strut (see© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 28Langley Flying School, Inc.From the Ground Up).A more fundamental variation in undercarriage is conventional and tricycle gear—the former having a tail wheel,and the latter having a nose wheel.While conventional gear provides greater manoeuvrability, there are the risks of the aircraft performing a “noseover,”or “ground looping” (tail moving sideways out of control). Conventional gear also presents decreasedvisibility during aircraft taxi and takeoff.In contrast, tricycle gear provide increased control in cross-wind takeoffs and landings; but the design also hasground hazards such as wheelbarrowing on the nose, and “porpoising.” Tricycle gear provides increased drag(slowing the aircraft down), is more expensive to maintain, and is not as strong as conventional gear.Load and Load FactorsPilots must be extremely conscious of structural load and load factors. During manoeuvring in the air, the loadingon the aircraft—and thus the loading stress placed upon the structural components of the aircraft—are continually intransition. You must be aware how the loading changes, and aware that structural failure will result if the load limitsare exceeded.A load factor is simply a weight ratio of the “dead load” (aircraft on the ramp) to the “live load” (in motion). On theramp, without motion, the aircraft weighs 1 times its gravity weight—say 2000 lbs. This changes, however,whenever the aircraft is accelerating/decelerating, climbing/descending, or during turns. In fact the only time anaircraft weighs 1 times its gravity weight (referred to as 1 “g”) is when it is in straight and level flight at a constantairspeed.During a climb, the aircraft has increased weight as it moves away from the earth. During turns or pitch changes,the aircraft is subject to centrifugal force. Consider that in a level 30-banked turn (wings 30 off the horizon), theaircraft weighs 1.15 times it gravity weight (1.15g). The same aircraft, including its occupants, weighs 2.0g in alevel 60° banked turn, and 5g in level 80° banked turn—that is to say, the 2000 lb. aircraft on the ground nowweighs 4000 lbs. and 10,000 lbs., respectively. For this reason, with the exception of fighter and aerobatic aircraft,pilots attempt to manoeuvre aircraft very gently, paying close attention to load factors.Load factor variation is closely related to airspeed. A rapid pitch-up movement that produces maximum lift in anaircraft travelling 2-times its stall speed will produce a force on the aircraft equal to 4 g; the same manoeuvre in anaircraft travelling 4 times its stall speed will exert a force of 16g!An aircraft’s yield load factor is when the structure will begin to bend and become distorted; its ultimate load factoris when the wings break off.Fortunately, Transport Canada enforces Official Aircraft Specification for normal category aircraft (as opposed toexperimental category aircraft) that requires the aircraft meet load standards prior to its being certified.Normal and Utility CategoriesMost general aviation aircraft can be operated in what are referred to as the normal and utility categories; these arecommonly referred to as aircraft loading categories.The normal category enables a pilot to operate his or her aircraft at its maximum permissible gross weight providedthat certain heavy load manoeuvres are not flown—spins, steep turns, etc. Following these restrictions, he isensured the aircraft will withstand 3.8g positive and 1.52 negative.The pilot can also operate the same aircraft in the utility category, whereby he or she is less restricted in manoeuvresthat can be flown (e.g., spins and stalls are approved) provided the aircraft is kept in much narrower weight andloading restrictions; in this utility category, the pilot is assured the aircraft can withstand 4.4g positive and 1.76gnegative. The utility category would therefore be used extensively in training or practice flights.Aerobatic aircraft can have even greater strength—aerobatic certification of an aircraft assures as high as 6g positiveand 5g negative.Manoeuvring Speed and Gust Loads© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 29Langley Flying School, Inc.All pilots must be aware of “gust loads” typically associated with air turbulence. For pilots, one of the mostimportant speeds is referred to as the manoeuvring speed (V a ).At or below an aircraft’s manoeuvring speed, the aircraft’s controls can be fully deflected without exceeding loadlimits.As a rule, V a equals 1.9 times the stall speed of the aircraft at gross weight. It is specifically published in individualaircraft’s Pilot Operating Handbook.Since extreme turbulence can entail momentary acceleration, safe practice is to fly 10 knots (KTS) less than V a inturbulence.Logbooks and InspectionsEach flight in an aircraft must be recorded in three logbooks—the Pilot’s Log (see page 19), the aircraft’s JourneyLog, and the aircraft’s Technical Logs.Aircraft Technical Logs record maintenance, modifications, and installations, and are composed of three sub-logs:an Airframe Log (modifications and installations), an Engine Log, and a Propeller Log. Technical Logs are nevertransported on aircraft. The Engine Log records and documents all maintenance performed on the aircraft.Journey Logs record aircraft destinations, flight crew, weight data, air time (total period of time from aeroplaneleaving the surface to time of aeroplane landing), flight time (total period from time aeroplane moves under its ownpower to time the aircraft stops at the termination of flight), total airframe time, records of inspection, and defects orsnags.All maintenance recorded in the technical logs must be transcribed in the Journey Log. When intending to land andshutdown at an airport other than the airport of departure, the Journey Log must always be transported in aircraft andcompleted and signed by thePilot-in-command following aflight. 11Certificates ofAirworthinessWith the exception of hanggliders and ultra-lights,aircraft must have authority tofly (flight authority), and thisauthority is provided byTransport Canada is the formof a Certificate ofAirworthiness.A Certificate of Airworthinessimplies that a particularaircraft conforms to a typedesign that has been certifiedby the Transport Canada assafe for flight. 12 They must becarried on board during flight.Flight authority is providedby three means: a Standardcertificate of airworthiness, aSpecial certificate of airworthiness, and Flight Permits.5. Authority and basis for issuanceThis Certificate of Airworthiness is issued pursuant to the Aeronautics Act andcertifies that, as of the date of issuance, the aircraft to which it was issued hasbeen inspected and found to conform to the type approval thereof, to be in acondition for safe operation, and has been shown to meet the requirements ofthe comprehensive and detailed airworthiness code . . .6. Terms and ConditionsUnless suspended or cancelled in accordance with the Aeronautics Act, thiscertificate shall remain in force so long as the aircraft identified above ismaintained and certified in accordance with the Airworthiness Manual.11CARs 605.94 and 605.95.12CAR 507.02.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 30Langley Flying School, Inc.Standard certificates are issued for aircraft that fully comply with all standards of airworthiness for normalaeroplanes, utility aeroplanes, aerobatic aeroplanes, transport aeroplanes, normal rotorcraft, transport rotorcraft,glider, powered glider, airships, and manned free balloons.Aircraft not meeting the requirements for a standard certificate may be issued a Special certificate in any one of thefollowing four classifications: 13Provisional Issued subject to conditions of operation.Restricted Issued when an aircraft has been modified for special purposeoperations, such as aerial advertising, fire fighting, photography andsurvey, or crop application.Amateur Built Issued for aircraft manufactured by amateurs in accordance withairworthiness standards. Amateur-built aircraft are inspected byTransport Canada.Limited Issued for aircraft that have been accepted for use in the military andwhich are approved for private, non-commercial use.There are two types of Flight Permits, those for “experimental” flights engaged in aeronautical research, and thosefor “specific purpose.” Specific Purpose Permits are used for ferry flights where movement of the aircraft isnecessary for repairs or maintenance, and are also used for the export and import of aircraft.Non-airworthinessIf a pilot flies an aircraft that is not airworthy, he or she is flying in contravention of the law and will be subject tothe appropriate consequences.Perhaps more importantly, insurance protection does not cover aircraft operated in a non-airworthy state, and thepilot and operator would therefore be exposed to liability associated with property damage and personal injury.Certificates of Airworthiness can be invalidated for a number of reasons, the most common being defectiveequipment.All aircraft defects, irrespective of their effect on the aircraft airworthiness, must be entered in the Journey Log.When faced with a defect, the pilot is responsible to evaluate and determine whether airworthiness is undermined.In the case of a defective VHF radio in an aircraft equipped with two radios, airworthiness is not affected, yet thepilot must still describe the defective condition in the Journey Log, indicating his or her determination of theairworthiness state—e.g., “No. 1 Com U/S—aircraft airworthy.”If the pilot is unsure of the state of airworthiness following detection of a defect, an Aircraft Maintenance Engineershould be consulted and the Journey Log signed accordingly.Less obviously, a certificate of airworthiness is invalidated if the pilot fails to operate the aircraft in accordance withthe Pilot Operating Handbook—i.e., overloads an aircraft, or fails to conduct the required pre-flight inspection.Certificates of Airworthiness can also be invalidated if the aircraft is not maintained as per one of the two acceptedschedules of maintenance: the manufacturer’s recommendations or Transport Canada’s recommendations. 1413CAR 507.03.14As specified in Appendix B of Canadian Aviation Regulation 625, “Aircraft Equipment and Maintenance Standard.”© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 31Langley Flying School, Inc.If maintained as per the manufacturer’s recommendations, the scheduled maintenance will be described in theaircraft’s maintenance manual, and will often entail inspections for every 50 hours, 100 hours, 200 hours, etc., of airtime.In contrast, when maintained in accordance with Appendix B of Canadian Aviation Regulation 625, private aircraftrequires an annual inspection (at least once every 12 months), and commercial aircraft (small) require 100 hourinspections. If an aircraft is flown beyond a scheduled inspection, the Certificate of Airworthiness is not in effect(nor is there insurance protection). The required schedule of maintenance can be determined from historic entries inthe Journey Log.It should be noted that the maintenance of commercial aircraft, including the aircraft of a Flight Training Unit suchas Langley Flying School, are additionally governed by the Unit’s Maintenance Control Manual, a copy of whichmust be carried on board each aircraft. The Maintenance Control Manual contains specific rules that must befollowed in the event of defective equipment and scheduled or unscheduled maintenance.Airworthiness DirectivesWhen Transport Canada becomes aware of service difficulties with particular aircraft it can issue what is referred toas an Airworthiness Directive (AD). If applicable to your aircraft type, or if applicable to any type of component on© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 32Langley Flying School, Inc.the aircraft or engine, the AD will outline the rectification maintenance that must be undertaken to remedy theproblem, and the time line within which the maintenance must be undertaken. 15ADs are sent out via mail to all registered owners of applicable aircraft, based on records maintained by TransportCanada. Importantly, compliance is the legal responsibility of the aircraft owner, and non-compliance renders anaircraft non-airworthy.An AD may apply to particular serial numbers of the aircraft type, or serial numbers equipment contained on theaircraft (e.g., radios, flight instruments, engines, propellers, seat belts, etc.).AD compliance must be recorded in the Journey Log and transcribed in the technical records. Proper technicalrecord-keeping is crucial in dealing with ADs so that the applicability of, or compliance with, an AD can be quicklydetermined with mere reference to entries made in the technical records. When purchasing an aircraft, it is critical toexamine the aircraft’s technical records to ensure historic AD compliance. 16Service BulletinsService bulletins are published by the aircraft or equipment manufacturer and are not automatically sent to theregistered owner; service bulletin compliance is not mandatory, but non-conformity with service bulletins couldraise issues for an owner’s liability with respect to unsafe operation of an aircraft.Pilot Operating HandbooksPilot Operating Handbooks are the manufacturer instructions on how to operate and maintain a particular aircraft.Pilot Operating Handbooks are periodically amended by the manufacturer but the amendments are not automaticallyforwarded to the registered owner; for this reason an owner should contact the manufacturer regularly (once a year,for example) to determine if any amendments have occurred.Pilot MaintenanceAccording to Canadian Aviation Regulation 605.85, no person shall conduct a takeoff in an aircraft, or permit atakeoff to be conducted (in the case of an aircraft owner or operator) following any maintenance (other than“elementary work” described below) unless a maintenance release has been signed by an AME whereby thefollowing is stated: “The maintenance described above has been performed in accordance with the applicablestandards of airworthiness.” (For commercial aircraft, maintenance release statements are required as per theoperator’s Maintenance Control Manual.)An exception to this concerns elementary work performed in accordance with CAR 625.85 (Appendix A), where anAME’s signature is not required. Authorisations for the performance of elementary work is the responsibility of theaircraft owner, and elementary work by a person other than an AME can only be conducted on piston-engine,unpressurized aeroplanes, with less than 12,500 lbs. maximum allowable takeoff weight, and not engaged incommercial operations. With respect to aircraft not operated in a commercial service, elementary work is limited tothe following:1. fabric patches measuring not more than 15 cm (6 in) in any direction and not requiring rib stitching or theremoval of control surfaces or structural parts;2. removal and installation of tires, wheels, landing skids or skid shoes, not requiring separation of anyhydraulic lines;3. removal and installation of skis on fixed landing gear, not requiring separation of any hydraulic lines;4. removal and installation of seats, safety belts and harnesses;5. repair of non-structural fairings, cover plates and cowlings;6. repair of upholstery and cabin trim;7. removal and installation of glider wings and tail surfaces that are designed for quick assembly;15 The time line can be based on hours flown, or it can be based on a specified date. In rare cases, immediate rectification may be specified.16 Transport Canada maintains a website that includes a complete AD-search feature. Just follow the links.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 33Langley Flying School, Inc.8. removal and installation of co-pilot flight control levers and pedals that are designed for quick removal andinstallation;9. cleaning and installation of spark plugs;10. checking of cylinder compression;11. cleaning or changing of fuel, oil, and air filters;12. draining and replenishing engine oil;13. adjustment of generator or alternator drive belt tension;14. removal and installation of aircraft batteries;15. checking the electrolyte level and specific gravity of lead acid batteries;16. removal and installation of fuses, light bulbs and reflectors;17. removal and installation of parts of communications equipment that are line replaceable units (LRUs)designed for rapid replacement;18. installation of anti-misfuelling devices to reduce the diameter of fuel tank filler openings, when theinstallation does not involve disassembly of the existing fuel filler opening, drilling, riveting or welding.The full details of any of the above maintenance must be entered in the Journey Log and signed by the personperforming the work. 17All other maintenance on the aircraft must be performed by an appropriately endorsed Aircraft MaintenanceEngineer, who must sign a Maintenance Release in the Journey Log and other appropriate maintenance logs. If theMaintenance Release is not signed, the aircraft Certificate of Airworthiness is not in effect.The owner or operator of the aircraft is required to maintain the records of maintenance performed, including theJourney Log and all technical logs.17CAR 571.03.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 34Langley Flying School, Inc.QUESTIONS1) A heavier-than-air machine which derives its liftin flight from an aerodynamic reaction of the airon fixed surfaces is referred to as a(n):a) aircraft.b) plane.c) fixed-wind aircraft.d) aeroplane.2) Left and right movements on the control columna) affect the lateral movement of the rudder.b) create a change in the lift characteristics ofthe wing.c) create left and right movement in the flapsurfaces.d) control yaw.3) For the purpose of ensuring safety whenencountering extreme turbulence, a pilot mustknowa) the “never exceed speed” of the aircraft.b) the load limitations associated with theaircraft’s flight category.c) V ad) the speed at which, given the operationalweight of the aircraft, a stall will occur.4) When an aircraft type manufacturing is approvedby Transport Canada as meeting establishedstandards, the pilot will be aware of this by theappearance of a in the aircraftdocuments.a) type airworthiness approvalb) approved airworthiness equipment listc) certificate of airworthiness conformityd) standard certificate of airworthiness5) Unlike a Cessna 172, a Piper Cherokee hasa) cantilever wings.b) a monocoque tail.c) truss wings.d) utility and normal category operations.6) Split axle undercarriage design is found on thea) Piper PA-28b) Aeroncac) Championd) Piper PA-227) Load factor denotesa) the weight category at which the pilotchooses to operate an aircraft.b) should be calculated prior to each flight inrelation to turbulence risk.c) the ratio of dead to live load.d) the structural protection in utility and normalcategory operations.8) During an accelerating descent,a) the pilot must be cautious to maintainairspeed above manoeuvre airspeed.b) normal category load factor would beexcessive.c) the load factor could be 1.3g.d) the load factor could be .8g.9) During a level 60° banked turn, a 200 lb. pilotweighsa) 150 lbs.b) 200 lbs.c) 300 lbs.d) 400 lbs.10) During a level 60° banked turn the weight of theaircrafta) remains unchanged owing to the balancedlift forces of flight.b) decreases.c) increases.d) doubles.11) With respect to aircraft design, there are twotypes of fuselage construction, truss andmonocoque. Which of the following constitutestruss construction?a) longerons and formersb) formers and stressed skinc) bulkheads and beamsd) longerons and beams12) The main structural and load-bearingcomponents of the wing is the spar. Someaircraft have monospar wings, while others mayhave multispar wings. Which of the following istrue concerning spars?a) spars span from wing tip to wing rootb) spars produce lift in association aircraftpitch changesc) spars span from the wing leading edge to thewing trailing edged) spars give the shape to wing known ascamber13) To create a nose-down attitude, the trim tab onan aircraft equipped with an elevatora) is deflected upward.b) is deflected downward.c) is placed in the neutral position.d) is retracted from the flow of air.14) To create a nose-down attitude, the anti-servo tabon an aircraft equipped with a stabilatora) is deflected upward.b) is deflected downward.c) is placed in the neutral position.d) is retracted from the flow of air.15) According to Canadian Aviation Regulation625.85 (Appendix A), a pilot of a noncommercialaircraft cana) lubricate the aileron hinges, but cannot© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 35Langley Flying School, Inc.remove and service the spark plugs.b) adjust the alternator belt, but cannot remove(bleed) air from the brake hydraulic system.c) repair the engine cowling but cannot removethe battery.d) conduct any servicing not involvingdisassembly, but cannot remove inspectionpanels.16) A pilot is faced with the prospect of flying aprivately owned aircraft. A pre-flight inspectionindicates that the landing light does not work,and the last maintenance performed on theaircraft was an annual inspection entered ninemonths ago, with the aircraft flying 300 hourssince this maintenance. Faced with thisprospect, the pilota) should not go. A defective landing lightmakes the Certificate of Airworthinessinvalid and scheduled maintenance isoverdue.b) should not go. Although a defective landinglight does not make the Certificate ofAirworthiness invalid, scheduledmaintenance is overdue.c) should go. Provided the aircraft is notcarrying passengers at night, the Certificateof Airworthiness is valid as long as thedefective light is properly recorded in theJourney Log. With respect to the scheduledmaintenance, private aircraft only require aninspection every 12 months, so maintenanceis not overdue.d) should go, but only if an AME signs thebook stating that the aircraft is airworthy.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 36Langley Flying School, Inc.Answers1. d 182. b3. c 194. d5. a6. d 207. c8. d9. d 2110. d11. d12. a13. a14. a15. b16. c18 This is one of those questions that you have to read carefully; don’t get fixed-wing confused with fixed-wind. When you write TransportCanada’s examination, be sure to read each question twice and carefully. It’s believed that many erred responses on this exam are not the resultof not knowing the material, but the are the result of candidates not reading the question carefully.19 V a is one of the most important airspeed that a pilot must know. It varies for each type of aircraft and it is required that the speed be placardedin the cockpit within view of the pilot.20 This question is a bit tricky; it assumes you are reading From the Ground Up (FGU) carefully. In Part 1 (Aircraft Operations), the first section(The Airplane), read carefully the discussion regarding split axle design.21 The g-force exerted in a level 60° banked turn is easy to remember—2.0g—and that is why this is a good question—the pilot’s weight issimply doubled. Notice the aircraft must be maintained in level flight for this force to be exerted, and is the direct result of the considerable backpressurethat must be exerted on the control wheel for this flight state to be maintained.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 37Langley Flying School, Inc.AIRFRAMES, ENGINES AND SYSTEMS—PART IIDefinitionsPower is the rate of doing work.One horsepower is the amount of work done to raise 33,000 lbs. 1 foot in the air during 1 minute.Indicated horsepower is the power developed within an internal combustion engine.Brake horsepower is the power that remains after friction and other losses.Engine Types and CharacteristicsRadial EnginesEngines are “barrel” shaped.Engines have odd number cylinders.Advantages of radial engines: easy to work on.Disadvantages of radial engines: high parasitic drag and poor visibility.In-Line EnginesTypically found in vintage aeroplanes.Advantages of in-line engines: provide very good visibility.Disadvantages is that there is a limit to the number (six) of cylinders owing to excessive length ofcrankshaft.Horizontally opposedThese engines are the most common in general aviation.They have two banks of cylinders, opposed on crankshaft.There are an even number cylinders.They provide good visibility and relatively low drag.Components ofthe EngineConnecting RodSparkplugPistonCylinder HeadIntakePortIntakeValveCoolingFinsCrankshaftExhaustValveCrankcaseWristpinRingsSparkplugExhaustPort© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 38Langley Flying School, Inc.Parts of an EngineThe shell of an engine is referred to as the crankcase; the crankcase has at its centre the crankshaft, which runslongitudinally through the crankcase and is connected to the propeller at the front end of the crankcase; affixed tothe crankcase are the cylinders which contain the pistons; the pistons move up and down in the cylinders and thismovement, caused by the timed explosion of an air/gas mixture, is the source of engine power; the explosions in thecylinders are caused by the timed spark on the ends of the spark plugs; the sparking of the spark plugs, in turn, iscaused by the magnetos which are connected to the rear of the engine in what is referred to as the accessories box;as the pistons move up and down, the introduction and exhaust of the air/gas mixture is controlled by the timedopening and closing of valves located at the top or “head” of the cylinders; the timed movement of these valves iscontrolled by the camshaft which runs parallel to the crankshaft inside the crankcase; between the valves and thecamshaft is a valve-operating mechanism; the pistons are connected to the crankcase by connecting rods; and themixture of the air/gas mixture prior to entry into the cylinders is an induction system—usually a carburettor or fuelinjection system; between the carburettor and the cylinders in the intake manifold, and as spent gases exit thecylinders they pass into the exhaust manifold and out the exhaust pipe.IntakeCompressionPowerExhaustcrankshaft.Engine Power CycleThe bore of a cylinder is its diameter, while the stroke of apiston is its repetitive movement from upper-most position—referred to as top-dead-centre—to its lower-most position—referred to as bottom dead centre.Four Strokes of an EngineThe production of power in an engine is based on themovement of the pistons which can be broken down into thefollow strokes:InductionstrokeCompressionstrokePower strokeExhauststrokeTimingPiston moves down with intake valveopened and exhaust valve closed.Piston moves up with both valvesclosed.Spark plugs fire forcing pistondownward, with both valves stillclosedPiston moves up with intake valveclosed and exhaust valve open.Timing of an engine is associated with the firing of themagnetos and the opening and closing of valves; the timing iscontrolled by the camshaft, which rotates ½ the speed ofAn AME (Aircraft Maintenance Engineer) can control the timing of an engine by adjusting the timing of the valves;the term valve lead is the opening of valves early (with valve lead set on the exhaust valve, for example, pressurefrom the end of the power stroke can be used to push-out spent gases; valve lag is the closing of valves late (with thevalve lag of the exhaust valve, the end of the exhaust stroke can be used to facilitate the induction of fresh air/gasmixture; valve overlap is where both valves open simultaneously—for, example the exhaust and intake valve areboth opened just prior to induction stroke to facilitate engine cooling.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 39Langley Flying School, Inc.CoolingMost general aviation engines are air-cooled, whereby ram air entersthe engine cowling from the front, and is circulated around the cylindersusing baffles; the baffles surround the cylinders in the form of a lightmetal box structure that controls and maximizes the movement of coolair.With higher performance aircraft that are more tightly cowled, thequantity of air moving through the baffles can be controlled by the pilotvia cowl flaps, which are like reverse air scoops; the cowl flaps areopened during taxiing or during climbs to increase the volume of airmovement, and are closed to reduce drag during the cruise phase.Engine heat from cylinders is dissipated by fins that form part of thecylinder outer wall.EngineCowlingCooling AirIntakecylinderheadBafflescylinderheadBafflesEngineCowling(open during taxiing,takeoff, and climbs)OilThere are four functions of engine oil: cooling, sealing (pistons), lubrication, flushing (cleaning).Pilot rule: Oil types cannot be mixed; for example, when oils contain additives (detergents and dispersants, etc.)only oil of the same type should be added.Oil is graded by viscosity (resistance to flow, stickiness); the higher the viscosity, the smaller are the changes in theviscosity of the oil owing to temperature changes.Three systems for grading viscosity are used:1. S.A.E. Number (Society of Automotive Engineers).2. Saybolt Universal Viscosity.3. US GradeThe formula to translate the oil grades: Saybolt Viscosity (100, for example) equals 2 times the S.A.E. number (50).The U.S. Grade is the Saybolt Viscosity plus 1000 (1100).The type of oil to be added to an aircraft can be determined by the pilot by reviewing preceding maintenance entriesin the aircraft Journey Log.Oil temperature should be regularly monitored in the cockpit, as an indication of engine health. The oil temperaturegauge probe is located where the oil enters the engine. If the oil gets too hot, viscosity is lost and engine parts losetheir protective film of oil; if the oil is too cold, the thick oil cannot flow through engine passageways, and oilfunctions are impaired.Oil pressure monitors pressure of oil supplied by the oil pump. It must be checked right after start, 22 and duringoperations. 23Oil pressure and temperature gauges provide redundancy and a means of verifying engine trouble; a loss of oilpressure on the gauge may indicate engine trouble but it may also indicate an erred reading on the instrument itself;but a loss of pressure indication, combined with an increased temperature indication means a forced landing isimminent.There are two types of oil systems: Wet Sump—oil supply kept in sump or pan under crank case—and Dry Sump—oil supply contained in separate tank (aerobatic aircraft).22 Oil pressure should be indicated in the green arch of the gauge within 30 seconds of engine start, and if not the engine should be shut down andthe problem investigated.23 There are several causes that could be associated with low oil pressure during flight, but the most common are insufficient oil quantity,excessive blow-by of oil past the piston rings, oil leaks, clogged oil-pressure relief valve, or excessively high oil temperature; high oil pressureindications during flight are likely caused by inaccurate instrument indications. Generally, aircraft engines can continue to develop oil pressurewith as little as two or three quarts.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 40Langley Flying School, Inc.Every flight should be preceded by a check of engine oil levels. 24The first flight of the day should include an examination of the oil filter for security (of the safety/lock wiring) andleaks.Fuel and Fuel SystemsAn ideal fuel is a fuel that when ignited produces a slow, smooth burn with slow, even expansion (not explosion);this quality is a “high octane rating.”The term “detonation“ denotes an undesired condition associated with the rapid instantaneous explosion of fuelwith too low an octane rating; it over stresses engine parts, causes overheating, warps valves, and damages pistons(major bad!).Fuel is rated on its portion of Octane to Heptane, expressed as percentage. Octane denotes any substances in thefuel that have minimum detonation qualities, while Heptane denotes any substances that have maximum detonationqualities.Eg.:73 Octane: 73% Octane, 27% Heptane.Octane ratings go as high as 100, after which they become “Performance Number.”Fuel grades are usually denoted by two numbers (e.g., Grade 80/87 or Grade 100/130). The first number is theoctane rating at lean mixture, and the second is the octane rating at rich mixture.Pilots identify octane by fuel colour—Red: Grade 80/87; Green: Grade 100/130; Blue: Grade 100/130 LL (lowlead); Purple: Grade 115/145. Both MOGAS (automobile fuel) and kerosene (jet fuel) are clear (straw).Rule: If the Pilot Operating Handbook recommended fuel is not available, use a higher Octane.Pilot Mixture ControlLeaning the fuel/air mixture is a normal flight procedure required of thepilot as the aircraft is continually changing altitude that will cause achange in the fuel/balance.Caution during fuel leaning must be exercised, as the improper setting ofthe fuel/air mixture can be disastrous for the health of the engine.Mixture operations are specified by the aircraft and engine manufacturerand these instructions are relayed to the pilot in the Pilot OperatingHandbook of an aircraft.The normal gas/air mixture is 1:15; to obtain the maximum power froman engine (as is required, for example during takeoffs and landings), the best power mixture is used whereby theamount of fuel is increased to a ratio of 1:14; to obtain the maximum economy for an engine (as would be selected,for example, during the cruise phase of flight), the best economy mixture is used which decreases the proportion offuel to a ratio of 1:18.These mixture operations can be undertaken using two methods, the method of choice depending usually on theengine gauges on board a particular aircraft.If the mixture is set using the RPM gauge, the rule is as follows: maximum RPM is the setting for best economymixture, while a mixture set slightly rich of maximum RPM (such that the RPMs drop is perceptible) is best power.The EGT (Exhaust Gas Temperature) gauge provides a more precise means of setting the mixture: lean mixture topeak EGT; then enrich by 25 F (cooler) for best economy mixture or 100 F (cooler) for best power mixture.Here are some rules concerning the setting of the mixture control:Power QuadrantMixtureControlThrottle1. set the mixture to full rich whenever manoeuvring on the ground—this provides additional engine cooling;24 It is a good safety rule that a pilot must always visually check oil and fuel levels prior to every departure.© 2012 David L. Parry

Dewpoint (°C)Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 41Langley Flying School, Inc.2. set the mixture to full rich whenever climbing, also for cooling;3. set the mixture to best power or best economy whenever levelling at an altitude;4. always give priority to the aircraft or engine manufacturer’s requirements as described in the PilotOperating Handbook, especially during takeoffs and landings.It should be noted that, owing to the extreme risk associated with fuel leaning in flight, Langley Flying School hasestablished very specific rules and procedures for leaning, which specify that the mixture must not be leaned below4,000’ ASL. For more information see Langley Flying School’s Flight Training Handbook.Fuel SystemsThere are two types of fuel systems: Gravity feed —high wing aircraft—and fuel-pump feed —low wing aircraft(mechanical & electric).Always carefully determine fuel quantity before flight; never trust fuel gauges; always dip tanks; and rememberthere must be 30 minutes of fuel in your tank when you land during the day, or 45 minutes when you land at night.In flight with multiple fuel tanks, manage fuel carefully; poor fuel management by the pilot related to multiple fueltanks has been the cause of many accidents.Always study an unfamiliar aircraft’s fuel system prior to takeoff—be sure you know what to do in the event of anemergency and you will not have time to consult the Pilot Operating Handbook when the emergency occurs.Always be especially sure of the vital actions to take in the event of an engine fire; the Pilot Operating Handbookprocedure for dealing with this emergency must be followed with complete accuracy so as to minimize the damageassociated with an engine fire.Special Considerations associated with Fuel 25Draining the fuel sumps before flight to examine fuel for contaminants, especially water (water is heavier than fueland therefore sinks to the bottom of fuel tank where the sumps are located).Checking fuel colour to determine fuel grade.Grounding aircraft during refuelling to prevent static discharge and possible fire; always supervise refuelling.Use of Jerry Cans should be discouraged owing to the inability to control static discharge.Passengers are not permitted in aircraft duringrefuelling.Carburettor IcingCarburettor icing is one of the most frequentcauses of unexpected engine failure duringflight.An encounter with carburettor icing is mostlikely when in moist air conditions and betweentemperatures of -5 and 30C.; a temperature of15C. presents the highest risk, but the RelativeHumidity must be at least 50%.The signs of carburettor icing are the signs of achoked carburettor—slow drop in RPM (fixedpitchpropellers), or slow drop in manifoldpressure (intake manifold on variable-pitchpropellers).-525 See also discussion P. 108 regarding the use of automobile fuel in aircraft.Graph showing that the greatest risk for carburettor icingoccurs at the convergence of dewpoint and temperaturebetween approximately -5°C and 30°C.© 2012 David L. ParrySerious icing withany power settingModerate icing with cruisepower or serious icing withdescent powerSerious icing withdescent powerLight icing0+5+10+20Temperature (°C)+30+30+20+10+50+5+40

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 42Langley Flying School, Inc.The effects of carburettor icing are usually subtle power loss and progressive engine failure.Their causes are vaporisation and expansion.Vaporisation of fuel requires heat and as fuel is vaporised, heat is taken from the surrounding air; the temperaturedrop in the mixing chamber air can be as much as 30C., thereby freezing any water in the air (fuel vaporizationice).Carburettors have a venturi that is designed to create a low pressure (vacuum) that draws in the fuel; expansion of agas causes cooling (approximately 3C.), and moisture can freeze and collect on the throttle valve at base of venturi(throttle ice).When faced with carburettor icing, the first response is to apply carburettor heat—this action should be the firstaction in engine failure just in case the cause of trouble is ice (if carburettor heat is not applied immediately, usableheat from the exhaust manifold may be lost as the engine cools following the failure); if there is no ice, there will bea crisp drop in RPM. If there is ice there will usually be no immediate change, but this will be quickly followed byengine roughness as water from the melted ice is ingested into the induction system.The two-minute rule is used when in doubt about icing: turn the carburettor heat on for at least two minutes andadjust the mixture to maximize engine performance; remember that carburettor heat degrades engine performance asit effectively decreases the density of the air entering the carburettor.Fuel injected engines are not affected by carburettor icing, but in addition to throttle ice and fuel vaporization ice, athird form of icing, referred to as impact ice, can adversely affect both carburettor engines and fuel injected engines.Impact icing occurs when ice builds on the external airframe during flight, including the air-intake and filteringsystems for the engine.Excessive ice on the air-intake system will effectively choke and eventually starve the engine of airflow; for thisreason the selection of carburettor heat also provides an alternate heated source of air (the air is drawn from a hotbox mounted on the exhaust manifold, but the air entering the hot box is non-filtered air drawn from the enginecompartment); in contrast, fuel-injected engines have an “alternate air” source which can be selected in the cockpitwhich draws air into the engine from an engine compartment source.Superchargers and TurbochargersSupercharger and Turbocharger engine design providegreater altitude performance by creating a forcedinduction (boost) through the use of a compressor.Superchargers are compressors driven by the engine andmounted between the carburettor and intake manifold.Turbochargers are compressors driven by an exhaustturbine and mounted between air intake and thecarburettor.IgnitionTwo independent magnetos (engine-driven generator)that generates low tension current, transforms it into hightension current, and distributes it to individual sparkplugs.Dual ignition provides safety and improved performance;failure of one will result in a 75 RPM reduction inperformance (typically a 3% power reduction). Bothmagnetos are selected for normal flight, and this ischecked by the pilot prior to takeoff using the magnetoswitch in cockpit (the circuits can be grounded). In theevent that one magneto fails during flight, the pilot isable to disconnect the failed magneto by selectivelygrounding it, allowing the engine to run on the normalLeftMagnetoCrankcaseBottom PlugTop PlugRightMagneto© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 43Langley Flying School, Inc.functioning magneto (failure to ground a misfiring magneto could cause serious damage to the engine).Here are two rules to follow:1. Always ensure magnetos are dead during shut down.2. Never rotate the prop of an aeroplane 26It is important to know that unless the primary circuit is grounded by selecting the “off” position with the cockpitmagneto switch, the engine can still fire. The off position effectively grounds the primary circuit, therebyinterrupting the flow of electrical energy. If the grounding connection associated with the magneto switch ismalfunctioning and the circuit is not interrupted, this so-called “live mag” can be extremely hazardous to anyonetouching the propeller as the engine could unexpectedly start merely from physical pressure.Electrical PowerAircraft electrical power is derived from an alternator or generator, which provides electrical power to the aircraftsystems during flight and recharges the battery. The battery, in turn, is used to start the engine and serves as abackup for electrical power should the alternator or generator fail.Most aircraft have alternators, but some have generators; generators cannot produce sufficient electrical charge topower the aircraft systems at low RPM, while alternators provide constant power at any RPM setting.While a generator can bring a dead battery back to life, an alternator cannot.Electrical systems have voltage regulators which safeguard the systems from alternator or generator overload andensures the battery is not overcharged.The bus bar provides the arteries through which the electricalenergy is distributed to the electrical circuits, which in turnare connected to the various electrical components of theaircraft.Each circuit is protected by a circuit breaker or other type offuse that protects the connected components from excessvoltage or short-circuits.The network of circuit breakers is usually the “push to reset”type which can be readily done during flight.Electrical components such as radio equipment can bedamaged from the voltage drop associated with engine start,and for this reason, all electrical components should be turnedoff prior to engine start.Two types of electrical monitoring instruments are theammeter, which measures the rate of flow associated with thecurrent being produced, and the voltmeter, which indicates thevoltage in the system.An ammeter should always indicate a reading that is positive(+) of zero.01020ALTAMPERES3040Alternator LoadAmmeterAMMETERS-40-20 0AMPS+20+40Charge/DischargeAmmeterThe Alternator Load Ammeter (ALA) and the Charge/DischargeAmmeter (CDA) are the two primary types of ammeters. TheALA displays the amount of electrical load exerted on analternator or generator, while the CDA indicates either the rate ofcharge or discharge to the battery. When the CDA needle is tothe left of centre (negative value), more electrical energy is beingused by the aircraft than is being replaced by the generatingsystem. By comparison, an ALA reading of “zero” (0) indicates noelectrical energy is being produced by the generating system.Generator-power aircraft at idle (during pre-takeoff, for example)normally indicate a negative value as the generator is turning tooslow; in contrast, the ammeter values will remain constantregardless of idle speed.26 The magnetos are equipped with impulse coupling, a mechanism that rapidly spins the magneto during starting. Accordingly, all that isrequired to start an aircraft engine is the trigger of the impulse couple (just touching the propeller could do this if the propeller is in the rightposition)—if the magnetos have been left on, the engine will likely start if an impulse couple is triggered. For the same reason, if you ever haveto move a propeller by hand (commonly required when moving aircraft around the ramp), be sure you rotate the propeller opposite to its normalrotation direction—this will not trigger the impulse coupling.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 44Langley Flying School, Inc.PropellersThe pitch of a propeller is the distance in feet a propeller travels forward in one revolution—essentially the “bite” ofair the propeller takes with each revolution. In this regard, reference can be made to a coarse-pitch propeller, whichtakes a “big bite” of the air during rotation and is ideal for cruise performance in straight and level flight—just as,for example, fourth gear is ideal for driving a car down a freeway—and a fine-pitch propeller, which takes a “smallbite” of the air during rotation and is ideal for takeoff and landing performance (including climb performance)—justas first or second gear is ideal for driving in rush-hour traffic.Additionally, there are two types of propellers with respect to pilot operation: constant or fixed pitch and variablepitch. In an aircraft equipped with a constant or fixed pitch, the pitch of the propeller cannot be adjusted by the pilotduring flight. This is the case with the Piper Cherokee, where there are only two power controls manipulated by thepilot—the engine throttle lever, and the fuel mixture lever. In contrast, an aircraft equipped with a variable pitchpropeller enables the pilot to adjust propeller pitch during flight—full fine pitch is selected for takeoffs and landings,a less-fine pitch is selected during climbs, and an even less-fine setting (a coarse-pitch setting) is selected to increasespeed during the cruise portion of flight. This is the case, for example, with the Piper Seneca, where the pilotmanipulates throttle levers, mixture levers, and propeller-pitch levers. With propeller-pitch levers, the pilot variespitch with reference to engine RPMs (low RPM being coarse pitch, and high RPM being fine pitch).Most variable pitch propellers are the constant-speed type (not to be confused with constant pitch). An aircraftequipped with a constant-speed propeller has a governor, which is a mechanism that maintains a constant RPM,despite different power settings.Multi-engine aircraft have propellers that can be feathered during flight—in an engine fails during flight, the pilotselects the feather indent on the propeller-pitch lever and the propeller blades of the selected engine turn in line withthe relative airflow, thereby minimizing drag. This feathering feature is not found on single-engine aircraft withconstant-speed propellers.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 45Langley Flying School, Inc.QUESTIONS1) The standard unit for measuring engine power isa) cubic inches.b) cubic centimetres.c) the number of cylinders.d) horsepower.2) When the piston moves up with both valvesclosed, this is referred to as thea) induction stroke.b) compression stroke.c) power stroke.d) exhaust stroke.3) Aircraft engines are partly cooled by fuel vapourpassing through opened intake and exhaustvalves. This is an example ofa) flushing.b) overlap.c) baffling.d) dissipation.4) Oil is graded on the basis ofa) sealing temperature.b) viscidity.c) lubrication temperature.d) resistance to flow.5) The S.A.E. number isa) an oil grade based on the quantity ofdispersant additives.b) an oil grade based on the quantity ofdetergent additives.c) an oil grade provided by the Society ofAeronautical Engineers.d) one-half the Saybolt Viscosity.6) A fuel grade of 97 Octane indicates thata) the fuel has a sufficiently high octane ratingto be used in an aeroplane.b) the fuel contains 3% heptane and 97%octane.c) the fuel contains 3% octane and 97%heptane.d) the fuel has a 97% detonation factor.7) During the course of flight, monitoring the healthof the engine is best done by monitoringa) the fuel pump.b) the fuel pressure.c) the manifold pressure.d) the oil pressure.8) Detonation is caused bya) too slow an expansion in the cylinders.b) too fast an expansion in the cylinders.c) a high octane factor fuel.d) a low heptane factor fuel.9) A pilot supervises the re-fuelling of his/heraircrafta) to comply with the Canadian AirRegulations.b) to ensure the re-fueller complies with theAir Regulations.c) to ensure mis-fuelling does not occur.d) the quantity is sufficient for the flight, plusan additional 45 minutes at normal cruisespeed.10) With respect to water in fuel,a) water will float on top, provided the fueltanks are not disturbed.b) fuel will float on top, provided the fuel isevenly mixed.c) fuel will float on top, provided the fuel tanksare not disturbed.d) water will float on top, provided the fuel isevenly mixed.11) Fuel that is blue indicatesa) 80/81b) 100/130c) 100/130LLd) 115/14512) A subtle but continuously increasing loss ofpower indicatesa) icing in the carburettor.b) detonation.c) icing in the fuel lines.d) water ingestion.13) A restricted flow of fuel can be caused bya) loose fuel caps.b) a blocked fuel tank vent.c) a malfunctioning auxiliary pumpd) inadequate octane.14) If a malfunction occurs in the groundingmechanism associated with right magnetolocated in the cockpit,a) the left magneto will remain alive after shutdown.b) the right magneto will remain alive aftershut-down.c) the left magneto will not fire.d) the right magneto will not fire.15) The consequence of running an aircraft engineon fuel with too high an octane rating will bea) fouled spark plugs.b) excessive valve overlap.c) pre-ignition.d) detonation.16) The internal performance of a fuel injectionengine can be seriously undermined bya) throttle ice.b) carburettor ice.c) fuel vaporisation ice.d) Impact ice.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 46Langley Flying School, Inc.Answers1. d2. b3. b4. d5. d6. b7. d8. b9. c10. c11. c12. a13. b14. b15. a16. d© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 47Langley Flying School, Inc.AERODYNAMICS AND THEORY OF FLIGHTForces of FlightLiftWeightThrustDrag‣ Artificial forces manipulated by pilot.‣ Generated through the wings.‣ Acts perpendicular to the relative wind andwingspan.‣ Lift is exerted through the centre of pressure.‣ Opposes weight: during level cruise, lift equalsweight; during climb, lift is greater than weight;and during descent, weight is greater that lift.‣ Natural (uncontrollable) force generated by gravity (g force) that acts perpendicular to earth’s surface.‣ Weight is exerted through the centre of gravity.‣ Opposes lift (see above).‣ Artificial force manipulated by pilot and generated through engine(s) that acts horizontally, parallel toflight path.‣ Opposes drag: when airspeed constant, thrust equals drag; when airspeed accelerating, thrust is greater thandrag; and when decelerating, drag is greater than thrust.‣ Natural resistance of aeroplane while moving through air, partially controlled by pilot.‣ A horizontal force, parallel to flight path.‣ Opposes thrust (see above).Generating LiftAirfoils‣ Viewed as a cross-section: upper surface hasmore camber (curve) than lower surface.‣ Chord line: straight line from leading edge totrailing edge.‣ The airfoil generates lift by two means: pressure differential and ram air.Bernoulli’s TheoremTHRUSTupper camberchord linelower camberLIFTWEIGHTDRAGLift by pressure differential is based on the theory of Daniel Bernoulli: the faster a fluid flows (including air), thelower will be the pressure surrounding it.Given the difference of the camber of the upper and lower surfaces, the air passing over the foil has greater distanceto travel than the air passing under the airfoil.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 48Langley Flying School, Inc.The air passing over must therefore travel faster than the air passing under the foil.A low air-pressure region is created above the acceleratedair flow.The foil is displaced toward the lower pressure (upward)above the wing.Ram AirThe pressure differential accounts for about 50% of the lift,while the remaining lift is generated by ram air.Air is rammed under the foil, creating downwash, andupward pressure (Isaac Newton’s Third Law: the applicationof force causes an equal opposite force).Angle of AttackLift varies with theangle of attack.The angle of attack isthe angle between therelative wind (parallelto flight path) and thechord line (linebetween leading andtrailing edge).Generally, the greater the angle of attack, the greater the lift.Lift increases because the distance the air must flow along the upper camber increases, and the ram air anddownwash increase.An excessive angle of attack, referred to as the critical angle of attack, will produce a stall, where air-foil drag(induced drag) exceeds airfoil lift (usually 20).DragThere are two types of drag: parasitic and induced.Parasitic Dragangle ofattackchord lineairflowacceleratedair flowParasitic drag is drag created by those parts of an aeroplane that do not contribute to lift—e.g., the tires, windshield,rivets, etc.There are three forms of parasitic drag: form drag, skin-friction drag, and interference drag.Form drag is caused by the frontal areas of the aeroplane, and is reduced by streamlining.constant speedair flowconstant speedair flowSkin-friction drag is caused by the air passing over the aeroplane surfaces, and is reduced by smoothing the surfaces(flush riveting, smooth paints, and waxing).Interference drag is caused by the interference of airflow between parts of an aeroplane (wings and fuselage orfuselage and empennage) and is reduced by “filleting” interference areas).© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 49Langley Flying School, Inc.Induced dragInduced drag is created by those parts of the aeroplane that createslift—the wings and the horizontal tail surface.Induced drag is said to be the by-product of lift.The greater the angle of attack, the greater the induced drag.Induced drag does not increase with speed; instead, as speeddecreases induced drag increases.Induced drag is associated with difference in pressure that existsabove and below a wing surface; as airspeed decreases, and airfoilmust produce an increased low pressure above the wing, and anincreased high pressure below the wing; at the wing tip thesedisparate pressures meet in the form of a vortex as the high pressureflows around the wing tip is sucked into the low pressure above thewing; the greater the pressure differences (such as in the case inslower flight), the greater the vortices are at each wing tip, and thegreater the drag caused by these vortices.Ground effect is a term used to described the reduced drag andincreased lift experience when an aircraft is flying close to theground—as is the case, for example, during landings and takeoffs;the reduced drag associated with ground effect is the result of the ground interfering with the formation of the wingtip vortices.Ground effect exists when the aircraft is within one wingspan distance from the ground, but is most effective atdistances equal or less than ½ wingspan (i.e., ½ the distance between the wingtips).Wing tip vortices can produce extremely hazardous turbulence and there are crucial operational considerations (seepage Error! Bookmark not defined.).Boundary LayerAlong the upper camber of an airfoil, there are two types of airflow: turbulent and laminar (smooth).The turbulent and laminar flows are separated by a point of transition, or separation point.As the angle of attack is increased the portion of the upper airflow that is turbulent also increases (it migratesforward from the trailing edge).Aileron DragvortexformationFront view ofleading edgeof right wingTop view ofof right wingA type of adverse or undesirable yaw is aileron drag; aileron drag is created when a pilot manipulates the aileronswhen rolling into a turn.When the pilot induces a roll, one aileron is deflected upward so as to decrease the angle of attack associated withthat portion of the wing, the same portion of the opposite wing is subject to an increase in the angle of attack as theaileron is deflected downward.As the downward deflected aileron enters the high-pressure airflow below the wing it creates drag that causes thewing to move rearward; the upward moving aileron enters low-pressure airflow and is subject to less drag andallowing this wing to move forward.Aileron drag can be reduced by flap design, including Differential Ailerons (in which the movement of thedownward aileron is reduced relative to the aileron that is deflected upward), and Frise Ailerons (in which theupward deflected aileron projects the forward portion of the aileron structure into the airflow below the wing).Aileron drag can be controlled by the use of sufficiently adequate opposite rudder during the rolling movement.wing tiplowersurface flowwing tipuppersurfaceflowlowpressureinflowhighpressureoutflow© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 50Langley Flying School, Inc.StallsStalls occur at the critical angle of attack, at which point the airflow over the wing becomes chaotic and the wingscan no longer produce sufficient lift to counteract weight.As the airfoil approaches the stalling speed, the point of transition, or separation point, moves forward enough toexceed the design factor of the wing.The stalling angle is usually 20. Since most aircraft lack angle-of-attack indicators, airfoil angle is measured byindicated airspeed (IAS).As a rule, aircraft will usually stall near the stalling speed published in the Pilot Operating Handbook (bottom ofgreen line on an Airspeed Indicator); however, IAS does not always indicate angle of attack, as in the case of a highspeedstall.Factors that affect the StallSnow, frost, ice and dirt:All of these disrupt the laminar flow and therefore reduce airfoil lift capability. It is illegal to fly with snow, frost, orice adhering to “critical surfaces” of the aircraft 27 — “wings, control surfaces, rotors, propellers, horizontalstabilizers, vertical stabilizers or any other stabilizing surface of an aircraft.” Contamination to the extent ofmedium to coarse sandpaper will reduce lift by 30% and increase drag by 40%.ABC of GlocationForward C of G requiresgreater tail-loading,increasing aerodynamicweight. Total lift requiredis therefore increased.C of GlocationRearward C of G requires less tail-loading,decreasing aerodynamic weight. Total liftrequired is therefore decreased.If both aircraft are traveling at 100 KTS, Aircraft Amust have a higher angle of attack than Aircraft B.Aircraft A is therefore closer to the critical angle ofattack and therefore has a higher stalling speedWeightIncreased weight requires increased lift; therefore thecritical angle of attack (stall) will occur at higherairspeeds. Stated another way, if two aircraft aretravelling at the same airspeed, but one is heavier thanthe other, the angle of attack of the heavier aircraft isgreater than the lighter aircraft and therefore that muchcloser to the critical angle of attack.Centre of GravityStalling speed increases as the aircraft C of G movesforward. As the C of G moves forward, the negativelift generated by the horizontal tail surface will have tobe increased. Any increase in the negative liftproduced by the tail will effectively increase theaerodynamic weight of the aircraft—producing thesame effect as described above with respect to weight.Conversely, stalling speeds decrease as the C of Gmoves aft as less negative lift is required from the tailand the aircraft is aerodynamically lighter. While thebenefits of a rearward C of G is a lower stall speed, theadverse result of a rearward C of G is less stability asthere is less tail force that can be manipulated by thepilot through elevator or stabilator control. 28TurbulenceUpward vertical gusts abruptly increase the angle ofattack beyond the stalling angle, irrespective ofairspeed.27CAR 602.1128 Additional discussions of this appear on P. 93.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 51Langley Flying School, Inc.Angle of Bank in Level Flight0 o Bank 20 o Bank 40 o Bank 60 o Bank 80 o BankLoading: 1.0 g Loading: 1.06 g Loading: 1.31 g Loading: 2.0 g Loading: 5.75 gAerodynamic Weight:2000 lbs.Stall Speed: 55 KTSAerodynamic Weight:2100 lbs.Stall Speed: 56.6 KTSAerodynamic Weight:2620 lbs.Stall Speed: 63 KTSAerodynamic Weight:4000 lbs.Stall Speed: 78 KTSAerodynamic Weight:11,500 lbs.Stall Speed: 132 KTSTurnsLIFTWEIGHTDuring a turn in level flight, greater lift is required tooffset increased effective aerodynamic weight of theaircraft in the turn. Because the angle of attack of anaircraft must be increased to offset the increasedaerodynamic weight (resultant force of a turn), the wingis closer to the critical angle of attack and therefore closerto a stall, despite a constant airspeed. Accordingly, thereis an increase in the relative stall speed of an aircraft in alevel turn. The formula to determine increased stallspeed is as follows: normal stalling speed times thesquare root of the load factor equals banked stall speed.Thus, an aircraft with a stall speed of 50 KTS and in a60-bank turn (load factor of 2.0) will stall at 71 KTS.FlapsLIFTWEIGHTVERTICALCOMPONENT OF LIFT(effective lift)CENTRIFUGALFORCERESULTANTFORCEAn increase in airfoil lift isproduced by the use ofSimple Flapflaps, and the stall speed isdecreased by their useSlotted Flap(bottom of white line on anAirspeed Indicator). TheSplit Flapextension of flaps has theeffect of increasing therelative angle of attack ofFlowler Flapthe airfoil. Induced drag isalso increased. Some flap designs incorporated slots,which permit the compressed air under the wing tomigrate through the slot to the upper surface of the flaps.These are referred to as slotted flaps. Some flap designsallow the flap surface to move rearward as it extends—the feature is referred to as a Fowler Flap.SpinsSpinning is defined as autorotation that develops after an aggravated stall (a wing dropping during a stall).The downward moving wing has a higher angle of attack and more induced drag than the upward moving wing andtherefore acquires a greater stalled condition. Spinning involves simultaneous roll, yaw and pitch as it develops ahelical or corkscrew path nose down.An incipient spin is the autorotation prior to a vertical descent path, while a fully developed spin begins once the© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 52Langley Flying School, Inc.vertical helical or corkscrew path is achieved.Lift-drag ratioThe amount of lift/induced drag can be graphically plotted (lift/drag coefficients vs. angle of attack).As the angle of attack increases, lift increases to the critical angle of attack, and then falls off suddenly.As the angle of attack increases, induced drag increases slowly at first, and then in ever increasing proportions.The lift-drag ratio defines the proportion of lift to drag at given angles of attack.The study of an aircraft’s lift-drag ratio helps engineers map out the maximum range and maximum glide-distanceconfigurations.Wing DesignThere are numerous wing-design features that affect performance: laminar versus conventional airfoils, angle ofincidence, washout, stall strips, and airfoil variation.Laminar and conventional airfoilsThere are two types of airfoils commonlyused in wing design: laminar andconventional.As a rule, the laminar foil is faster, but thecost is more adverse stalling characteristics.They differ with respect to location of themaximum camber: while the maximumcamber on a conventional airfoil is located 25% behind the leading edge, the laminar maximum camber is located at50% chord.On the laminar foil, a greater portion of the upper camber is dedicated to laminar airflow, and there is therefore lessdrag; the cost of this, however, is that the transition or separation point “jumps” rapidly forward at the approach of astall; additionally, the laminar foil is more susceptible to surface contamination.Angle of incidenceDefined as the anglebetween the chordline and thelongitudinal axis ofthe aeroplane;designers select anangle that providesoptimum lift/drag ratio.WashoutAngle ofIncidenceChord LineLongitudinal AxisPosition ofMaximumCamberA design trait that pacifies or softens the stall characteristics of an aeroplane whereby the wings are “twisted” suchthat the wing tips have a lower angle of incidence than the wing root.The effect is that the entire wing will not stall simultaneously; instead, the stall will progressively move from theroots to the tips.Because the wing tips are the last to stall, the ailerons will remain effective longer during the stall.Conventional AirfoilLaminar Airfoil© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 53Langley Flying School, Inc.Stall StripsStall strips are triangular stripsplaced on a portion of the leadingedge of wing.Stall strips create a gentle stallbecause the portions of the wingbehind the strips stall first.Airfoil VariationThis involves spanwise airfoilvariation whereby a thin high-speedairfoil is designed near the roots,and a low-speed airfoil near the tips.The high-speed roots stall before thelow-speed tips.Stall strips serve to pacify the stallcharacteristics of an air foil. As the stall isapproached, early warning of the stalledcondition is produced by the appearance ofturbulent flow downwind of the stall strips.This avoids the situation where the entireupper surface of the wing stallssimultaneously and with little warning.wing rootDuring normal flight, the flow ofair above and below the wing isunaffected by the stall strip.As the critical stall angle isapproached, the flow of abovethe stall strip is prematurelyconverted to turbulent flow.wing tipStabilityAeroplane movement is based on 3 axes: the vertical (normal) axis, the lateral axis, and the longitudinal axis.All three axes pass through the aircraft C of G.Stability is defined as the tendency of an aircraft to return to, stay at, or move farther from its original attitude after ithas been displaced. There is positive, neutral, and negative stability.LongitudinalMovement around the longitudinal axis is roll, which produces bank, and is produced by the ailerons.Longitudinal stability (of the axis) is provided by a nose-heavy design and a “negative-lift” tail.LateralMovement around the lateral axis is pitch, and is produced by theelevator.Lateral stability (of the axis) is provided by dihedral, which lowers Cof G relative to the lifting surfaces (wing tips are positioned higherthan the wing roots). Additionally, the lower wing produces moreeffective lift than the raised wing, causing the lower wing to naturallyrise, and higher wing to descend.DirectionalMovement around the vertical (normal) axis is yaw, and is“controlled” by the rudder.Adverse yaw takes place during rolling movement because ofaileron drag, and is controlled by rudder.Stability of the vertical axis is referred to as directional stability,and is produced by the vertical stabilizer and sweptback(sweepback) wing design. When a sweptback wing movesforward, it acquires increased lift, as the airflow is moreperpendicular to the wing’s leading edge. This increased liftsimultaneously produces increased induced drag, whichencourages the wing to migrate back to is original position. Theeffect is the reverse for the opposite wing.Dihedral--right wing hasmore effective liftAs right wing migratesforward (yaw),sweptback designproduces asimultaneous increasein lift. As the wing’s liftincreases, induceddrag increases,resulting in wingreturning rearward.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 54Langley Flying School, Inc.Forces during TakeoffThere are a number of forces exerted on the aircraft during the take-off roll and climb, and they all contribute (insingle-engine aircraft) to left yaw tendencies, which must be controlled by the pilot with the use of rudder pedals.TorqueThe force of Torque is based on the principle of physics that a movement in one direction will cause a movement inthe opposite direction. The force referred to here is the force of the spinning propeller which, from the pilotperspective in the cockpit, rotates clockwise. This movement of the propeller produces an opposite rotation of theaircraft—from the pilot perspective, counter-clockwise. This translates during the takeoff roll as a left-yawtendency, and requires the pilot to exert right-rudder pressure.PrecessionPrecession is a gyroscopic force, which again originates from the movement of the propeller. According to the lawof precession, a pressure exerted on a spinning mass will cause a reaction 90 along the direction of rotation. Theforce of precession during takeoff is primarily associated with conventional-gear (“tail-dragger”) aircraft, with thepilot exerting nose-down pressure on the control column to raise the tail wheel off the ground—when this happens,the spinning propeller converts this force into a left-yaw movement, which again must be countered by the pilot withright-rudder input.SlipstreamSlipstream refers to the spiral-like movement of the air flowing from the propeller over the fuselage of the aircraft.The spiral flow migrates around the fuselage as it travels rearward and strikes the left side of the vertical fin. Thisagain translates to the pilot as left-yaw tendency, which must also be countered with right rudder.Asymmetric thrustThe force referred to as asymmetric thrust must be managed by the pilot whenever a single-engine aircraft is in aclimb or nose-up attitude. When the longitudinal axis of the aircraft is inclined upward, the propeller producesdifferent levels of thrust whereby the down-going blade (the right side of the spinning propeller disk, as viewed bythe pilot) produces more thrust than the up-going blade (the left side of the propeller disk). The relative wind (orflight path) of the aircraft with a nose-up attitude means that the down-going blade has a greater angle of attack (andtherefore greater thrust) than the up-going blade (which has a less angle of attack). A pilot learns that whenever theaircraft is in a nose-up attitude—whenever the aircraft is climbing—compensating right rudder must be used tocounter the resultant left-yaw tendency.ClimbsThere are three climb configurations commonly used in flying. The climb configurations are flown on the basis ofair speeds (the pilot’s indication of angle of attack), and these speeds, as well as the associated flap configurations,are specified by the aircraft manufacturer in the Pilot Operating Handbook. 29 They are summarized as follows:Best Angle Climb (V x )The best angle climb speed provides the greatest gain in altitude over a given distance. This speed would be used,for example, when the pilot must clear obstacles that exist off the end of a runway. An aircraft manufacturer usuallyspecifies that partial flap settings must be used when flying best angle speed—with the Piper Cherokee, 25 flaps arerequired. 3029Interestingly, two of these climbs speed—V x and V y—must be quoted by a pilot candidate during the oral examination that precedes the actualflight test—the three other speeds that must be quoted from memory are the stall speed, landing configuration (V so), stall speed, cleanconfiguration (V sl), and manoeuvring speed (V a).30By comparison, Piper specifies that 40 flaps (full) should be used for landings.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 55Langley Flying School, Inc.Best Rate Climb (V y )The best rate climb speed provides the greatestgain in altitude over a given period of time—itwill get you to the highest altitude the quickest.This speed is typically flown immediately afterrotation during a takeoff where pilots, not facedwith obstacle clearance concerns, typically seekto get safely clear of the ground as quickly aspossible during a departure.Normal or Cruise ClimbThe normal climb speed is usually specified bythe manufacturer to combine efficiency in climbperformance with effective cooling of theengine (the steeper the angle of attack, the lesseffective the airflow over the engine). Thisspeed is usually flown after the airportdeparture is completed—say 1000’ AAE 31 —andobstacles are no longer a factor. The total timeen route is decreased when a normal or cruiseclimb is flown.Best Angle Climb (V x )Maximum altitude with minimum distanceBest Rate Climb (V y )Maximum altitude with shortest timeNormal or Cruise ClimbMaximize forward visibility and engine cooling12 110 11 29 38 47 6 531“AAE” means “Above Aerodrome Elevation.”© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 56Langley Flying School, Inc.QUESTIONS1) The force during flight that is exerted throughthe centre of gravity, perpendicular to the earth’ssurface isa) lift.b) weight.c) thrust.d) drag.2) The force during flight exerted through thecentre of pressure, perpendicular to the relativewind isa) lift.b) weight.c) thrust.d) drag.3) Drag is opposed toa) lift.b) weight.c) thrust.d) gravity.4) A straight line between the leading edge andtrailing edge of an airfoil is referred to asa) camber.b) the pressure point.c) washout.d) chord.5) With respect to an airfoil, the upper _______ isgreater than the lower _______.a) camber.b) the pressure point.c) washout.d) chord.6) Bernoulli’s Theory for lift is best described asfollows:a) the downward force caused by an airfoilpassing through the air produces an equalbut opposite upward reaction force.b) an accelerated fluid or gas produces adjacentlow pressure.c) lift varies with the angle of incidence of anairfoil.d) the four forces of flight in a balancedcondition, and at right angles to each otherwill produce a balanced coupling capable offlight.7) Approximately one-half of the lift generated byan air foil is created bya) adverse yaw.b) dihedral.c) asymmetric thrust.d) ram effect.8) An airfoil stalls when the _____ exceeds _____.a) angle of attack; 15.b) angle of incidence; 20.c) angle of attack; 20.d) angle of incidence; 15.9) When weight exceeds lift, the aircraft willa) climb.b) descend.c) stall.d) autorotate.10) Induced drag increases witha) an increase in speed.b) angle of incidence.c) angle of attack.d) laminar flow.11) Induced drag decreases witha) a decrease in speed.b) angle of incidence.c) angle of attack.d) laminar flow.12) Parasitic drag increases witha) an increase in speed.b) angle of incidence.c) angle of attack.d) laminar flow.13) Turbulent flow increases witha) speed.b) angle of incidence.c) angle of attack.d) laminar flow.14) A factor of flight which the pilot cannot controlor change isa) speed.b) angle of incidence.c) angle of attack.d) laminar flow.15) During the movement of roll, the wings produce_____ which must be controlled through the useofa) autorotation; flaps.b) aileron drag; rudder.c) differential lift; ailerons.d) adverse yaw; ailerons.16) The point of transition is the point at whicha) laminar flow becomes turbulent.b) the critical angle of attack is exceeded and astall occurs.c) parasitic drag exceeds asymmetric thrust.d) an incipient spin becomes a fully developedspin.17) A stall can occur at anya) speed.b) angle of attackc) instant weight exceeds lift.d) section along airfoil variation.18) To pacify the stall characteristics of an© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 57Langley Flying School, Inc.aeroplane, a common design feature of an airfoilisa) differential camber.b) the use of wing fences.c) sweep.d) washout.19) Stall strips producea) imbalance lift in a slow flight condition.b) premature turbulent flow.c) directional stability.d) lateral stability.20) An aeroplane with positive stability willa) stall at an angle of incidence that is greaterthan the critical angle of incidence.b) stall at an angle of attack that is greater thanthe critical angle of attack.c) will return to straight and level flight when itis disturbed by turbulence.d) have the centre of gravity in equilibriumwith the centre of pressure.21) Wing tip vortices are evidence ofa) aileron drag.b) parasitic drag.c) induced drag.d) skin friction drag.22) Horizontal stabilizers that produce a downwardpressure during flight are a feature ofa) directional stability.b) positive lateral stability.c) negative lateral stability.d) longitudinal stability.23) Vertical stabilizers createa) directional stability.b) positive lateral stability.c) negative lateral stability.d) longitudinal stability.24) Dihedral createsa) directional stability.b) positive lateral stability.c) negative lateral stability.d) longitudinal stability.25) Asymmetric thrust is pronounceda) during a descent.b) during a climb.c) at high speeds.d) during the transition point.26) Which of the following is corrected with the useof right rudder:a) precessionb) torquec) slipstreamd) all of the above.e) answers a) and c) above.f) none of the above.27) Which of the following is corrected with the useof left rudder:a) precessionb) torquec) slipstreamd) all of the above.e) answers a) and c) above.f) none of the above.28) To climb to altitude in the shortest period oftime, a pilot would maintain an airspeed so as toproducea) the best angle of climb.b) the best rate of climb.c) the highest speed on the white arch depictedon the Airspeed Indicator.d) en route climb.29) A rearward C of G loading willa) increase stability.b) decrease stability.c) increase stall speed.d) reduce aileron drag.30) A forward C of G loading willa) increase stall speed.b) decrease stall speed.c) decrease stability.d) increase aileron drag.© 2012 David L. Parry

Private and Recreational Pilot Groundschool Manual Page 58Langley Flying School, Inc.Answers1. b2. a3. c4. d5. a6. b7. d8. c9. b10. c 3211. a12. a13. c14. b15. b 3316. a17. a18. d 3419. b20. c21. c22. d23. a24. b25. b 3526. d27. f28. b29. b30. a32 Remember that induced drag is solely the by-product of lift, irrespective of speed. Parasitic is speed-related—the faster you go, the moreparasitic drag you will experience.33 The expression “adverse yaw” is used to denote all yaw that is undesired, while the expression aileron drag refers to the differential yaw that isproduced when the ailerons are deflected (as is done to produce roll). Understand that aileron drag will produce adverse yaw, but there are manycauses of adverse yaw other than aileron drag. Note also that any form of yaw, adverse or desired, is controlled by the use of rudder.Incidentally, yaw is desired during certain flight situations—e.g., slipping an aircraft on final approach to lose altitude, landing in a cross-wind,and spin training (yaw is often used to initiate the autorotation associated with spins).34 This is another of those questions where careful reading is required. Note the reference to “differential camber,” which is a made-upexpression and not the same as “airfoil variation.” Airfoil variation is a design feature to pacify the stall.35 This is one concept that student pilots typically have difficulty understanding and remembering—right rudder is required during a climb. Theeffect of asymmetric thrust (which produces left yaw) must be countered with right rudder (if you want to climb straight).© 2012 David L. Parry