Confucius Institutes v2 (1)

48 CONFUCIUS INSTITUTES AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF CHINA’S SOFT POWERCull, Mark, and others, I understand cultural diplomacy as a partof public diplomacy that is concerned with the use of both culturalartifacts and cultural activities. Cull describes cultural diplomacyas “an actor’s attempt to manage the international environment bymaking its cultural resources and achievements known overseasand/or facilitating cultural transmission abroad.” 4 One of the mostprominent instruments states have at hand in this regard is thepresence of cultural institutes abroad, such as the British Council,Goethe Institute, and Confucius Institutes.As a component of the broader concept of public diplomacy,cultural diplomacy can be understood as a means through whichsoft power is wielded. Soft power itself is “the ability to get whatyou want through attraction rather than coercion or payments.” 5The absence of a shared definition 6 leads to a certain conceptualambiguity and critical engagement with Nye’s concept. LiMingjiang, for example, argues that “the key to whether a certainpower source becomes soft or hard is how a state (or any otheractor) uses its power” 7 (emphasis in original). Li argues in favor ofa “‘soft use of power’ approach.” 8 He rejects Nye’s resource-baseddefinition and sees a behavior-based definition as more suitable. Liargues that “soft power lies in the soft use of power to increase astate’s attraction, persuasiveness, and appeal.” 9 To people affectedby the enormous tsunami in 2004, the foreign naval forces whichcame to their rescue were a source of soft, not hard, power. Thisdiscussion points to the question of soft power resources or softpower instruments. According to Nye, soft power “arises from theattractiveness of a country’s culture, political ideas, and policies” 10and his early assessment of soft power excluded “elements likeinvestment and trade and formal diplomacy and aid.” 11Carol Lancaster, a former U.S. foreign aid official, defines foreignaid as “a voluntary transfer of public resources, from a government toanother independent government, to an NGO, or to an internationalorganization […] with at least a 25 percent grant element, one goalof which is to better the human condition in the country receivingthe aid.” 12 According to Lancaster, humanitarianism and altruism