Parental socialisation effort and the intergenerational transmission ...

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daughters. Moreover, for daughters, the degree of transmission is monotonically increasing inmaternal involvement or effort. We show that this relationship is very robust and not drivenby reverse causality from child attitudes to parental effort. These findings highlight the role ofsocialization in the development of risk preferences in children, and provide support for theidea that the transmission of attitudes from parents to children is responsive to parental effort.This study contributes to the literature that studies preferences and economic decision-makingof children and adolescents, such as attitudes toward risk and uncertainty (Harbaugh et al.,2002, Sutter et al., 2013), rational behaviour (Harbaugh et al., 2001), time preference(Bettinger and Slonim, 2007), and competitiveness (Gneezy and Rustichini, 2004). Ourfindings also relate to the role of nurture relative to nature in shaping preferences, which is acentral question in both social and biological sciences. While some twin studies highlight therole of genetics in the development of risk preferences (e.g. Cesarini et al. (2009) and Zyphuret al. (2009)), studies that document cultural differences in the development of attitudes suchas competitiveness suggest the importance of nurture (e.g., Andersen et al. (2012)). The lattergroup of studies highlight a role for socialization by showing that intergenerationaltransmission is moderated by aggregate or “macro” variables (for example, whether thefamily belongs to a matrilineal or patriarchal society). Our study goes a further step instudying whether intergenerational transmission of attitudes and preferences is moderated byfamily-level (or “micro”) variables, such as the extent of parental investments in children.Thus, we explore whether families have access to a "socialization technology" that mayaccount for the role of nurture in shaping risk preferences.Section 2 describes our data and sample in greater detail, as well as the risk preferenceelicitation procedure. Section 3 presents the results, and Section 4 concludes.2. Data and Summary Statistics.2.1. The ECDET SurveyThe children and mothers in our study are participants in the "Study of Early ChildhoodDevelopmental Ecologies in Turkey" (ECDET). ECDET is a longitudinal survey that hasbeen developed by a team of social scientists to explore in depth the developmentalenvironment of young children and its effects on the development of cognitive and noncognitiveskills, starting from the age of 3 (Baydar et al., 2010). The ECDET Survey follows arepresentative sample of just over one thousand mother–child pairs, drawn from 19 different3
egions in Turkey. 1 Data are collected through home visits that last 2-3 hours. Participantshave been surveyed annually since 2008.The dataset contains an extraordinarily rich set of variables which are useful for our analysis.For example, we have detailed information on household characteristics, the socio-economicbackground of the family, and the cognitive ability of the child. These allow us to directlycontrol for important determinants of risk behaviour. Importantly, we also have extensiveinformation on parenting behaviours and the level of effort mothers and fathers exert to raisetheir child, and these provide an opportunity to investigate the preference transmissionmechanism in greater detail.We designed a risk module for mothers and children and fielded it in the course of the 5thwave of data collection in the ECDET study. Further details are given below. The analysisreported in this paper is based on data collected in the 5 th wave of data collection althoughsome measures are drawn from earlier waves (where noted).2.2. Characteristics of the Children, Mothers and the EnvironmentIn the Wave 5 data the households in our sample have on average 5.1 members, out of which2.7 are children. The children are between 6.8 and 8.9 years old. The mothers are on average34 years old and have 5.9 years of education. Only 17% report being engaged in gainfulemployment. Out of those women who are not working, 99% classify themselves ashousewives. Almost all women are married (98%) and out of those who are married, 94%report having a husband who is working. The fathers of the children are on average moreeducated than the mothers and have an average of 7.4 years of education. The dataset containsseveral items concerning the degree to which the mother is involved in religious activities,which we use to construct a proxy for religiosity.We use information on the household’s monthly expenditure levels and the family’s materialbelongings to construct a measure of the household’s socio-economic status. First, we obtain ameasure of material wealth by extracting a common factor from the single response items of adetailed material wealth questionnaire (Filmer and Scott, 2012). In a second step, we extract acommon factor from both the per capita expenditure of the household and the material wealth1 The sample has been subject to some attrition over the five waves, which seems to haveoccurred predominantly among wealthy households.2 We used an actual bowl and actual tokens, and the mother physically placed the tokens intothe bowl.3 Verbatim instructions are available upon request. 4 These results are not reported and are available4upon request.
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