High Resolution 1:10,000 scale Mapping Strategy of Multi ... - NDMA

High Resolution 1:10,000 scale
Mapping Strategy of Multi-Disaster
Prone areas in India
National Disaster
National Disaster
Management Authority

Chapter
No.
TECHNOLOGY FOR 1:10,000 SCALE MAPPING
Heading
no.
Heading
Page
No.
1
Generation of National Topographic Database (NTDB) For 1:10,000
Scale 2
1.1 Mapping at 1:10,000 Scale 4
1.2 NTDB on 1:10000 SCALE- A National Need 5
2 Disaster Vulnerability and Risk In India 8
2.1 Multi-disaster Prone Areas 12
2.2 Criteria for Priority Zones 15
3 Geographical Information System For Disaster Management 16
3.1 GIS in Different Phases of Disaster Management 17
3.2 GIS database for Disaster Management
Scope for developing a GIS database for Disaster
22
3.3
Management
24
3.4 Projection System 25
3.5 Positional Accuracy 25
3.6 Technology 25
3.7 Functional Requirements for Database Management 26
Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Tropical Cyclone
4
28
4.1 Quality Control for Data 29
4.1.1 Quality Check of Data by IMD 29
4.1.2 Quality Check for Impact for Hazard Assessment 30
4.2 Cyclone 30
4.3 Summry for Cyclone Hazard Zonation
Categorizing Priority Zones (P1, P2, P3) in
32
4.3.1 Hazard Zoning 32
4.4 Summary of Areas affected by Cyclone Hazard
Map Representation of Summary of Areas affected by
33
4.5 Cyclone Hazard 34
4.6 Mapping Requirement for Cyclone Hazard Zonation 35
5 Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Earthquakes 37
5.1 Methodology of Seismic Hazard Analysis 37
5.2 Earthquake and Tsunami Hazard Assessment 39
5.3 Earthquake and Tsunami 39

6
7
8
9
5.4 Mapping Requirement for Earthquake Hazard Zonation 45
Methodology for Flood Hazard Mapping 46
6.1 Introduction 46
6.1.1 Rivers Flowing into Bay of Bengal 49
6.1.2 Rivers Flowing into Arabian Sea 50
6.1.3 Rivers Flowing into Inner Part of India 52
6.2 Dams in India- Irrigation and Power 52
6.3 Areas effected by Floods in India 53
6.4 Definitions of useful Flood Maps 56
6.5 Traditional Techniques of Floodplain Mapping 57
6.6 Methodology of Flood Hazard Zoning 60
6.6.1 Description of Technology 60
6.6.2 Base Map Information 64
6.6.3 Base Flood Elevation (BFE) 64
6.6.4 Elevation Data 65
6.7 Elevation for Nation Method 66
6.8 Summary of Methodology 66
6.9 Mapping Requirement for Flood Hazard Zonation 69
Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Landslides 70
7.1 Description of Landslide Hazard 70
7.2 Trigger Factors for Landslide 72
7.3 Landslide Hazard Zonation Modeling 74
7.4 Landslide Prone Areas in India 75
7.5 Mapping Requirement for Landslide Hazard Zonation 76
Satellite Imagery in Disaster Management and for Generating Multi-
Hazard Maps (MHM) 77
Various Methodology Available for Procurement of 1:10,000 Images
80
9.1 Satellite Imaging 80
9.2 Aerial Photography 81
9.3 Comparison between Satellite Imaging and Aerial Mapping 82
9.3.1 General Differences 82
9.4
Comparison between Lidar, High Resolution Stereo
Satellite Image and Aerial Photo
82
9.5 Comparison of Accuracy of Imaging 84

10
11
12
9.6
Comparison of Ground Sampling Distance (GSD) between
Satellite Imaging and Aerial Photogrammetry 85
Technical Details of Major Satellites used for Procurement of
1:10,000 Images 90
10.1 Available Sensor Resolutions in Satellite Mapping 90
10.2 Technical Details of Indian Satellites 91
10.2.1 Resourcesat 1 91
10.2.2 Cartosat 1 95
10.2.3 Cartosat 2 98
10.3 Technical Details of International Satellites 101
10.3.1 Quick Bird 101
10.3.2 GEOEYE- 1 102
10.3.3 IKONOS 104
10.3.4 WORLDVIEW- 1 105
10.3.5 WORLDVIEW- 2 106
Required Accuracies 108
11.1 Topographic Mapping Standards 108
GIS Acquisition Cost Analysis 121
12.1 Commercial Aspects of Satellite Mapping
Resourcesat-1 High Resolution Satellite Imagery
121
12.1.1 Costs
Cartosat-1 High Resolution Satellite Imagery
121
12.1.2 Costs
Quickbird High Resolution Satellite Imagery Costs
122
12.1.3
Geoeye-1 High Resolution Satellite Imagery
124
12.1.4 Costs 126
12.1.5
Ikonos High Resolution Satellite Imagery Costs
Worldview- 1 High Resolution Satellite Imagery
128
12.1.6 Costs
Worldview- 2 High Resolution Satellite Imagery
129
12.1.7 Costs 130
12.1.8 Landsat Imagery Costs 131
12.1.9 Cost of Aerial Photogrammetry Components 132
12.1.10 Latest Lidar Based Aerial Survey System Cost
Land based Vehicle Mounted Survey System
132
12.1.11 Quotation 133
CONCLUSION 136

TECHNOLOGY FOR 1:10,000 SCALE MAPPING
Chapter No. Table & Figure Heading
1
2
3
4
5
Generation of National Topographic Database (NTDB) For 1:10,000
Scale 2
Table 1.1 Requirements of 1;10,000 Scale maps 6
Page
No.
Disaster Vulnerability and Risk In India 8
Figure 2.1 Flood Hazard Map 9
Figure 2. 2 Landslide Hazard Map 10
Figure 2.3 Wind and Cyclone Hazard Map 11
Table 2.1
Classification of disasters in gradual scale
between purely natural and purely manmade 13
Table 2.2 List of published maps 14
Table 2.3 Criteria used for projecting priority zones 15
Geographical Information System For Disaster Management 16
Table 3.1 Phases of Disaster Management 19
Figure 3.1 GIS in Disaster Scenario
Information required for GIS database for
21
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
disaster management 23
Three tier GIS database for disaster
management 23
Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Tropical Cyclone
Table 4.1 Map resolution for cyclone planning process
28
31
Table 4.2 Priority Zoning categories 34
Figure 4.1 Map of cyclone priority zones 35
Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Earthquakes 37
Figure 5.1 Graph for intensity at a site
Map resolution for earthquake and tsunami
38
Table 5.1 planning process 41
Figure 5.2 Graph for PGA calculation 41
Table 5.2 PGA at the site for different sources 42

6
7
8
9
Figure 5.3 Intensity distribution for one epicenter 43
Figure 5.4 Intensity distribution for two epicenters 44
Methodology for Flood Hazard Mapping 46
Figure 6.1 River Basins and Rivers in India 47
Figure 6.2 Major rivers in India 48
Table 6. 3 River of India 52
Table 6.4 Dams of India 53
Table 6.5 Flood affected area in India from 1953 to 2004
Year wise Area affected by Floods (1953-
55
Figure 6.3
2005) 55
Figure 6.4
Year wise total damage by Floods (1953-
2005) 56
Table 6.6 Features Maps for floods 58
Figure 6.5 Existing flood affected area map of India 59
Figure 6.6 Schematic for flood hazard zonation 61
Figure 6.7 Flood early warning system 62
Figure 6.8 Flood early warning system 63
Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Landslides
Debris flow, occurred on 9 November 2001 in
70
Figure 7.1
Kerala, India.,the event killed 39.
Ferguson Slide on California State Highway
70
Figure 7.2
140, Mon 21 Apr 2008 02:36:01 PM
Schematic of landslide on critical slopes due
70
Figure 7.3 to triggers 73
Figure7.4 Landslide hazard zonation modeling 74
Figure 7.5 Landslide prone regions of India 75
Satellite Imagery in Disaster Management and for Generating Multi-
Hazard Maps (MHM)
Various Methodology Available for Procurement of 1:10,000 Images 80
Figure 9.1 Aerial Photography 81
77

10
11
Table 9.1
Table 9.2
Table 9.3
Table 9.4
Comparison between Lidar, High-resolution
stereo Satellite image and Aerial photo
Comparison between satellite imagery and
aerial photography
Comparison between satellite imagery, aerial
photography and Vehicle mounted ground
survey 87
Comparison of GSD for Satellite imagery and
aerial photography 88
Table 9.5 Current satellite collection rates 89
Technical Details of Major Satellites used for Procurement of
1:10,000 Images 90
Table 10.1 Sensor resolutions of various satellites 90
Table 10.2 Technical details of Resourcesat 1 92
Table 10.3 Sensor details of Resourcesat 1 93
Table 10.4 Payload details of Resourcesat 1 93
Table 10.5 LISS product details of Resourcesat 1 95
Table 10.6 AWiFS product details of Resourcesat 1 95
Table 10.7 Orbit details of Cartosat 1 96
Table 10.8 Technical details of Cartosat 1 96
Table 10.9 Product details of Cartosat 1 97
Table 10.10 Product details of Cartosat 1 98
Table 10.11 Technical details of Cartosat 2 100
Table 10.12 CartoSat 2 Products 100
Table 10.13 Quickbird Details 102
Table 10.14 Geoeye 1 Details 103
Table 10.15 Ikonos Details 104
Table 10.16 Worldview 1 Details 106
Table 10.17 Worldview 2 Details 107
Required Accuracies 108
Table 11.1
Topographic Map Planimetric ( X or Y )
Accuracy (IRMSE in meters): for 1 : 10,000
scale (ASPRS)
The Topographic Map Vertical (Z) Accuracy
109
Table 11.2 (MSL Heights) for 1:10.000scale 109
84
85

12
Table 11.3
Table 11.4
Thematic Map Standards for 1 : 10,000 scale
(NNRMS – 2005) 110
Image resolution, Mapping Scales,
Accuracies and Contour Interval 110
Table 11.5 Comparison of different satellite data 117
GIS Acquisition Cost Analysis 121
Table 12.1 Cost of Resourcesat 1 data 122
Table 12.2 Cost of Carotsat 1 Data 123
Cost of Carotsat 1 Data
Table 12.3
123
Table 12.4 Cost of Quickbird Data 124
Table 12.5 Specific product cost for Quickbird 126
Table 12.6 Cost of Geoeye 1 Data 127
Table 12.7 Cost of Ikonos Data 128
Table 12.8 Cost of Worldview 1 Data 129
Table 12.9 Cost of Worldview 2 Data 130
Table 12.10 Cost of Landsat Data 132
Table 12.11 Cost of Aerial Photography Data 133
Table 12.12 Cost of Land based mapping system
Cost comparison of Satellite, Aerial and
Ground survey (per sq kilometer with minimum
134
Table 12.13 survey area of 100 sq kilometer) 135
CONCLUSION 136

Appendix
No.
Heading
no.
APPENDICES
Heading
I
Approach to Developing A GIS Database for Disaster
Management In India APP 3
APP 1.1 Data Model APP 4
APP 1.2 Design Of Data Files APP 6
II Hazard Assessment Planning Process APP 9
Page
No.
APP 2.1
Natural Hazard Mapping Information For Vulnerability
And Risk Assessments APP 11
III Methodology for Hazard Mapping Of Tropical Cyclone APP 13
APP 3.1 Description of Tropical Storm APP 13
APP 3.2 Classification Of Cyclonic Storms APP 15
APP 3.3 Life Cycle Of Cyclonic Storms APP 17
APP 3.4 Damaging Effects of Cyclonic Storms APP 18
App 3.4.1 Effects at Sea APP 18
APP 3.4.2 Effects of Cyclones Upon Landfall APP 18
APP 3.5 Methodology For Cyclone Hazard Zonation APP 20
IV Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Earthquakes APP 22
APP 4.1 Description Of Tectonics and Seismicity In India
Tectonics Plate Boundary Of Indian Sub-
APP 22
APP 4.1.1 Continent
Main Central Thrust (Mct) And Main
APP 22
APP 4.1.2 Boundary Thrust (Mbt) APP 23
APP 4.1.3 Seismicity of India APP 24
APP 4. 2 Characteristics and Effects Of Earthquakes APP 25
APP 4.3 Earthquake Hazard Zonation of India APP 28
APP 4.3.1 Zone 5 APP 28
APP 4.3.2 Zone 4 APP 29`
APP 4.3.3 Zone 3 APP 29
APP 4.3.4 Zone 2 APP 29
APP 4.4 Scale For Earthquake Hazard Evaluation APP 29
APP 4.4.1 Magnitudes- Richter Scale APP 29
APP 4.5 Scale For Earthquake Hazard Evaluation APP 30
APP 4.5.1 Intensity- Modified Marcalli Scale APP 30
APP 4.5.2 Magnitude Vs Intensity (An Estimate) APP 33
APP 4.6 Earthquake Hazard Estimate APP 34

Isosiesmals – Intensity Distribution Of
APP 4.6.1 Earthquake Away From Epicenter APP 34
APP 4.6.2 Influence of Seismotectonics on PGA
Effect of Geotechnical Features on
APP 35
APP 4.6.3 Earthquake APP 35
APP 4.6.4 Summary of Earthquake Data APP 36
V Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Landslides APP 38
APP 5.1 Landslide And Slope Stability Analysis Modeling APP 38
APP 5.2 Strategy For Reducing Losses From Landslides APP 44
VI
Satellite Imaging Technique for Procurement of 1:10,000
Images APP 46
APP 6.1 Data Acquisition Techniques in Satellite Imaging APP 47
APP 6.2 Imaging Problems in Satellite Mapping APP 50
APP 6.3 Data Processing In Satellite Mapping APP 51
APP 6.4 Data Processing In Satellite Mapping APP 53
APP 6.5 Data Processing Levels In Satellite Mapping APP 54
APP 6.6 Image Processing APP 56
APP 6.7 Remote Sensing Software Used For Data Processing APP 58
VII Details of Imaging Sensors Used In Satellite Imaging APP 60
VIII
Ground Control Points in Procurement of 1:10,000 Satellite
Images APP 65
APP 8.1 Photogrammetric Ground Control APP 65
APP 8.1.1 Datum APP 65
APP 8.1.2 Ground Control Points APP 66
APP 8.1.3 Targeting Control Points APP 67
APP 8.2 Technology Update For Acquisition of Ground Control
Point for Aerial Photography APP 69
APP 8.2.1 Virtual Reference Stations APP 69
APP 8.2.2 Data Quality Control in VRS APP 70
IX Prevailing Technology in Satellite Imaging APP 72
X Satellite Constellation Currently Used in Satellite Imaging APP 75
XI
Ministry of Defence Instructions Regarding Aerial
Photography APP 80
XII Data Model APP 107
XIII
Aerial Mapping Using Photographic FilmsFor Procurement of
1:2000 Images forGenerating Critical Facilities Maps (CFM) APP 133

XIV
APP
13.1 Methodology For Aerial Mapping Using Film APP 133
APP 13.1.1 Aircaraft And Crew APP 133
APP 13.1.2 Aerial Camera APP 133
APP 13.1.3 Camera Construction and Installation APP 135
APP 13.1.4 Camera Filter Description
FIDUCIAL Marks in Negatives And
APP 135
APP 13.1.5 Calibration Plates APP 136
APP
13.2 Technical Details of Film for Aerial Photography APP 136
APP 13.2.1 Film Type and Size APP 136
APP 13.2.2 Film Exposure APP 136
APP 13.2.3 Film Development and Processing APP 137
APP 13.2.4 Labeling Of Exposures APP 137
APP
13.3 Photography Methods and Guidelines APP 138
APP 13.3.1 Flight Line APP 138
APP 13.3.2 Weather and Sun Angle APP 138
APP 13.3.3 Tilt APP 139
APP 13.3.4 Overlap For Full Stereoscopic Coverage APP 139
APP 13.3.5 Quality of Photography APP 140
APP 13.3.6 Scale of Negatives APP 140
NRSA Empanelment Procedure for 1:10,000
Mapping APP 142
XV Aerial Mapping- List of Solution Providers APP 158
APP
15.1 KEYSTONE AERIAL SURVEYS, INC APP 158
APP 15.1.1 Products and Services APP 158
APP 15.1.2 Contact Details APP 159
APP
15.2 OPTECH APP 159
APP 15.2.1 Products and Services APP 160
APP 15.2.2 Contact Details APP 160
APP
15.3 APPLANIX APP 161
APP 15.3.1 Products and Services APP 162
APP 15.3.2 Contact Details APP 162
APP
15.4 LEICA GEOSYSTEMS APP 162
APP 15.4.1 Products and Services APP 163
APP 15.4.2 Contact Details APP 163

APP
15.5 FAIRCHILD IMAGING APP 163
APP 15.5.1 Products and Services APP 164
APP 15.5.2 Contact Details APP 164
XVI Ground Control Point Acquisition- List Of Solution Providers APP 165
APP 16.1 TRIMBLE APP 165
APP 16.1.1 Products and Services APP 165
APP 16.1.2 Contact Details APP 165
APP 16.2 TOPCON APP 166
APP 16.2.1 Products and Services APP 166
APP 16.2.2 Contact Details APP 166
APP 16.3 LEICA GEOSYSTEMS APP 167
APP 16.3.1 Products and Services APP 167
APP 16.3.2 Contact Details APP 167
APP 16.4 NOVATEL INC APP 168
APP 16.4.1 Products and Services APP 168
APP 16.4.2 Contact Details APP 168
APP 16.5 SOKKIA APP 169
APP 16.5.1 Products and Services APP 169
APP 16.5.2 Contact Details APP 169
XVII Satellite Imagery- List of Solution Providers APP 170
APP 17.1 DIGITAL GLOBE CORPORATE APP 170
APP 17.1.1 Products and Services APP 170
APP 17.1.2 Contact Details APP 170
APP 17.2 NATIONAL REMOTE SENSING CENTER APP 171
APP 17.2.1 Products and Services APP 171
APP 17.2.2 Contact Details APP 171
APP 17.3 GEOEYE APP 172
APP 17.3.1 Products and Services APP 172
APP 17.3.2 Contact Details APP 172
XVIII Topographical Mapping- List of Solution Providers APP 173
XIX List of GIS Software Providers APP 179
APP 19.1 Open Source Software APP 179
APP 19.2 Desktop GIS APP 179
APP 19.3 Other GIS Tools- Classified APP 180
APP 19.4 Other GIS Tools- Unclassified APP 182
APP 19.5 Desktop GIS Providers APP 182
APP 19.6 Spatial DBMS APP 183
APP 19.7 Post GIS Tools APP 184
APP 19.8 License, Source, & Operating System Support APP 185

APP 19.9 Pure Server - Map Servers APP 192
APP 19.10 Map Caches APP 193
APP 19.11 Mixed APP 194
APP 19.12 Catalog Servers APP 195
APP 19.13 Pure Web Client Libraries APP 196
APP 19.14 APPS APP 197
APP 19.15 Mobile Clients , License & Platform Support APP 198
APP 19.16 Feature Comparison APP 199
XX Technical Brasstacks of Survey of India APP 201
XXI Possible PPP Model with SOI Under New Map Policy APP 226
XXII Specifications of Differential GPS APP 237

Appendix
No.
I
II
III
IV
V
Table &
Figure
TABLES IN APPENDICES
Heading Page No.
Approach to Developing A GIS Database for Disaster Management In
India APP 3
Table App 1.1
Examples of GIS applications for natural hazards
management at the local level of planning. APP 4
Table App 1.2 Data model APP 6
Table App 1.3 Design of Data files APP 8
Hazard Assessment Planning Process APP 9
Table APP 2.1 Phases of Hazard assessment planning process
Type of information required in each planning
APP 10
Table APP 2.2 phase APP 12
Methodology for Hazard Mapping Of Tropical Cyclone APP 13
Figure APP 3.1 Anatomy of a tropical cyclone APP 14
Table APP 3.1 Classification Of Cyclones APP 17
Figure APP 3.2 Cyclonic track APP 17
Table APP 3.2 Methodology for cyclone hazard Zonation APP 21
Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Earthquakes APP 22
Figure APP 4.1 Map of Indian plate APP 22
Figure APP 4. 2 MBT and MCT APP 23
Figure APP 4.3
Seismicity Map (Earthquake of magnitude 3.0 and
above from 1800 to 2004) APP 24
Table APP 4.1 Twelve levels of Modified Mercalli intensity APP 32
Table APP 4.2
Estimate of earthquake magnitude, intensity and
PGA APP 33
Figure APP 4.4 Pattern of seismic waves APP 34
Table APP 4.3 Earthquakes in India and surrounding areas APP 37
Methodology for Hazard Mapping of Landslides APP 38
Table APP 5.1 Classification of landslides APP 38
Figure APP 5.1 Force diagram for thin to thick translational slides APP 40

Figure APP 5.2
Figure APP 5.3
Table APP 5.2
Geometry of the vector components of gravity.
Unit width of the block is assumed; block length is
infinite in the infinite slope model and is ropped
from the equation. APP 41
Definition diagram of variables in the infinite slope
stability model. APP 42
Variable definitions, units, and probable value
ranges. APP 44
VI Satellite Imaging Technique for Procurement of 1:10,000 Images APP 46
VII
Table APP 6.1 Data acquisition techniques of satellites APP 49
Table APP 6.2 Types of data resolutions APP 52
Table APP 6.3 Data processing levels APP 56
Table APP 6.4 Parameters of image processing APP 57
Figure APP 6.1 Elements of image APP 58
Table APP 6.5 Software for data processing APP 59
Details of Imaging Sensors Used In Satellite Imaging APP 60
Table APP 7.1 Imaging sensors in satellites APP 61
VIII Ground Control Points in Procurement of 1:10,000 Satellite Images APP 65
Table APP 8.1 Recommended Accuracies APP 67
Table APP 8.2 Design Guidelines for White Targets APP 68
Table APP 8.3 Features of Virtual reference Stations APP 70
IX
Prevailing Technology in Satellite Imaging APP 72
X Satellite Constellation Currently Used in Satellite Imaging APP 75
Table APP 10.1 Satellites resolution VS Mapping Scales APP 75
Table APP 10.2
Optical land imaging satellites with 56 meters or
better Resolution APP 75
Table APP 10.3 Radar land imaging satellites APP 79
XI Ministry of Defence Instructions Regarding Aerial Photography APP 80
Table APP 11.1 Identification of Meso Regions APP 103
Table APP 11.2 Meso Regions of India APP 103
Table APP 11.3 Mapping Methods APP 104

Figure APP 11.1 Flow Chart for 1:10000 scale mapping using
Cartosat-1 data APP 106
XII Data Model APP 107
Table APP 12.1 Settlements and Cultural Details APP 107
Table APP 12.2 Hydrography APP 113
Table APP 12.3 Ocean Coastline Features APP 117
Table APP 12.4 Transportation APP 118
Table APP 12.5 Land Cover/ Land Use APP 122
Table APP 12.6 Utilities APP 124
Table APP 12.7 Government/Administrative/Forest Boundaries APP 131
XIII
XIV
Aerial Mapping Using Photographic FilmsFor Procurement of 1:2000
Images forGenerating Critical Facilities Maps (CFM) APP 133
Table APP 13.1 Photography Scale and Flight Height Guidelines APP 141
NRSA Empanelment Procedure for 1:10,000
Mapping APP 142
XV Aerial Mapping- List of Solution Providers APP 158
XVI Ground Control Point Acquisition- List Of Solution Providers APP 165
XVII Satellite Imagery- List of Solution Providers APP 170
XVIII Topographical Mapping- List of Solution Providers APP 173
Table APP 18.1 List of Topographical Mapping Solution Providers APP 173
XIX List of GIS Software Providers APP 179
XX Technical Brasstacks of Survey of India APP 201
Figure APP 20.1 Indian CORS Network APP 205
Table APP 20.1 List of CORS Stations in India APP 206
Table APP 20.2 GPS Tidal Observatories APP 207
Figure APP 20.2
5.2 m VSAT Antenna at Geodetic &Research
Branch, Dehradun for continuously receiving data
from remote locations APP 207
Figure APP 20.3 Indian GCP Library APP 208

Figure APP 20.4
Design of GCP Library Phase-I Monument -Data
Processing and Adjustment APP 209
Figure APP 20.5 Reference Mark APP 211
Figure APP 20.6 Interior orientation in satellite imagery scene APP 213
Figure APP 20.7 Imaging procedure APP 214
Figure APP 20.8 DSM Modeling APP 217
Figure APP 20.9 DTM Modeling APP 218
Figure APP 20.10 Orthoimagery APP 224
XXI Possible PPP Model with SOI Under New Map Policy APP 226
Figure APP 21.1 Mammoth scale of mapping task APP 229
Figure APP 21.2 1:10,000 Database Generation Protocol APP 234
XXII Specifications of Differential GPS APP 237

LIST OF ACRONYMS
ACA Additional Central Assistance
BPR Business Process Re-engineering
CM Chief Minister
CSC Citizen Service Center
Do IT&C Department of Information and Communication Technology,
DIT Department of Information Technology, Government of India
DST Department of Science & Technology
GoI Government of India
GSI Geological Survey of India
FSI Forest Survey of India
ICT Information & Communication Technology
IT Information Technology
ITeS Information Technology Enabled Services
MMP Mission Mode Project
NISG National Institute of Smart Governance
NIC National Informatics Center
NRSA National Remote Sensing Agency
SDC State Data Center
SSL Secure Socket Layer
SWAN State wide Area Network
NGRDS National Geodetic Reference Database System
NTDB National Topographic Database
CI Contour Interval
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
IMD India Meteorological Department
RSMC Regional Specialized Meteorological Center
(NIC’s) National portal Secretariat, National Informatics centers
ACR Annual Cyclone Review
DSHA Deterministic Seismic Hazard Analysis

CWC Central Water Commission
LIDRA Light detection and ranging
IFSAR Interferometric synthetic aperture radar
BFE BASE FLOOD ELEVATION
TIN Triangulated irregular network
GCPs Ground Control Points
NGRDS National Geodetic Reference Database System
IMU Inertial Measurement Unit
GSD Ground Sampling Distance
TDI Transfer Delay and Integration
DG Direct Georeferencing
InSAR Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar systems
SBAS Satellite Based Augmentation Service
ITRF International Geocentric Reference frame
MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging
PET Positron Emission Tomography
NIR Near infrared
RGB Transformation of red, green, blue
OBIA Object-Based Image Analysis
RS Remote Sensing
NGRDS National Geodetic Reference Database System
ITRS International Terrestrial Reference System
IERS International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service
CIO Conventional International Origin
CTP Conventional Terrestrial Pole
VLBI Very Long Baseline Interferometry
LLR Lunar Laser Ranging
RTK Real-Time Kinematic
VRS Virtual Reference Station
LISS-III Linear Imaging and Self Scanning Sensor
AWiFS Advanced Wide Field Sensor
UOPS User Order Processing System
SST Stereo Strip Triangulation

RPCs Rational Polynomial Coefficients
LIS Land Information System
ATCOR Atmospheric and Topographic Correction
CAD computer aided design
DLTs Digital Linear Tapes
DEM Digital Elevation Model
IERS Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service
CIO Conventional International Origin
CTP Conventional Terrestrial Pole
SLR Satellite Laser Ranging
DORIS Doppler Ranging Integrated on Satellite
TRF Terrestrial Reference Frame
CFM Critical Facility Map
ALS Airborne Laser Scanner"
ALTM Airborne Laser Terrain Mapper
TIN Tiangulated Irregular Network
KAR Kinematic Ambiguity Resolution
IAKAR Inertially-Aided Kinematic Ambiguity Resolution
FMC Forward Motion Compensation
TDI Time Delayed Integration
CCD Charge Coupled Device
FDS Flight Data Storage
MDR Mission Data Records
VRS Virtual Station Network
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process
AICTE All India Council for Technical Education
ARMV Accident Relief Medical Van
ASI Archaeological Survey of India
ATI Administrative Training Institute
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards

BMTPC Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council
BRO Border Roads Organisation
CBO Community Based Organisation
CBRI Central Building Research Institute
CBSE Central Board of Secondary Education
CDMM Centre for Disaster Management and Mitigation, Vellore
CFI Construction Federation of India
CLRSM Centre for Landslide Research Studies and Management
CoA Council of Architecture
CRF Calamity Relief Fund
CRRI Central Road Research Institute
CSIO Central Scientific Instrumentation Organisation
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
DCR Development Control Regulation
DDMA District Disaster Management Authority
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DGM Directorate of Geology and Mining
DM Disaster Management
DMA Disaster Management Authority
DMP Disaster Management Plan
DMS Disaster Management Support
DoM Department of Mines
DoS Department of Space
DrISS Doppler Radar and Infrared Satellite Sensing
DRM Disaster Risk Management
DST Department of Science and Technology
DTRL Defence Terrain Research Laboratory

DEFINITIONS
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Photographing of terrain on the ground and objects in the air by cameras mounted in
aircraft. It is utilized in satellites, multispectral scanning and intricate data handling
systems. Also referred to as aerial photo or air photo
BASE MAP
A map showing certain fundamental information used as a base upon which additional
data of specialised nature are compiled.
BLUELINE
A non-reproducible blue image printed on paper from vellum or mylar sheet
BREAKLINE
An elevation polyline, in which each vertex has its own X,Y,Z values.
CADASTRAL MAP
A map showing boundaries of subdivision of land for purposes of describing and
recording ownership
CONTACT PRINT
An aerial photograph reproduced from an original negative to photographic paper.
CONTOUR
An imaginary line on a land surface connecting points of equal elevation
DESIGN SCALE
A scale for which data source has been designed or selected to ensure product
accuracy in derived products the design scale is the smallest scale of individual features.
DVP
Digital Photogrammetric Mapping Software the City uses for maintaining the Enterprise
Stereoscopic Model (ESM) topographic mapping.
DMOG

Formerly known as PUCC, the Digital Map Owners Group (DMOG) is a nine member
sub-committee of the Toronto
Public Utility Co-ordinating Committee (TPUCC), sharing in the cost of maintenance of
the underground utilities of the former City of Toronto.
DTM
A Digital Terrain Model is a land surface represented in digital form by an elevation grid
or lists of three-dimensional coordinates.
ESM
The City’s Enterprise Stereoscopic Model (ESM) delivers digital photogrammetry to the
desktop as a fully oriented 3D
image for the amalgamated City of Toronto. The ESM is the primary environment for
maintaining 2D/3D topographic mapping, high-resolution orthoimagery and Toronto
Mono Viewer(TMV). The City’s Digital Terrain Model (DTM) is collected and maintained
in ESM environment.
GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM
A system used to measure horizontal and vertical distances on a planimetric map. The
City of Toronto’s operational coordinate system is currently the Modified Transverse
Mercator (MTM) projection, North American Datum 1927 (NAD27), with a truncated
northing or y value (-4,000,000).
GEOREFERENCING
A process of assigning map co-ordinates to image data to conform to map projection
grid.
LARGE-SCALE
A description used to represent a map or data file having a large ratio between the area
on the map and the area that is represented. If the map the size of this page shows only
a small area such as your house, it would be described as large scale mapping.
MAP SCALE
The ratio of a distance on a map to the true distance on the ground. For example, if the
map scale is 1:1000, 1cm on the map represents 10 m on the ground. See also Design
Scale.
MAP PROJECTION
A mathematical model that transforms the locations of features on the Earth's surface to
locations on a two-dimensional surface. Because the Earth is three-dimensional, some
method must be used to depict a map in two dimensions.

ORTHORECTIFICATION
A form of rectification that corrects for terrain displacement. See also Rectification
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
The art and science and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical
objects and the environment through process of recording, measuring, and interpreting
images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant energy and
other phenomena.
PLANIMETRIC MAP
A map that represents only the horizontal positions for the features represented.
PUCC
Public Utilities Coordinating Committee. See DMOG
RASTER DATA
Data that are organised in a grid of columns and rows.
RECTIFICATION
A process of making image data conform to a map projection.
RESOLUTION
A level of detail in data. For example, ground pixel distance in aerial photography.
SPOT ELEVATION
A point on a map whose height above a specified reference datum is noted, usually by a
dot and elevation. Also called
Spot height.
STEREOSCOPY
The science and art that deals with the use of binocular vision or observation of a pair of
overlapping photographs.
TIN
A land surface model based on triangles. A specific representation of DTM in which
elevation points can occur at
irregular intervals.
TMV

The Toronto Mono Viewer (TMV) is an application that enables user to view aerial
images of the entire City. User can also query images by municipal address and street
intersection.
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
Map that presents the horizontal and vertical positions of the features represented. It is
distinguished from a planimetric map by the addition of relief in measurable form.
VECTOR DATA
Data that represent physical elements such as points, lines and polygons

TECHNOLOGY FOR 1:10,000
SCALE MAPPING
1

Preamble
Map is an attempt to depict the features of the globe as a whole or a part of it on a
paper. Thereby a three dimensional model is to be shown on a two dimensional space.
Hence, some adjustments are to be made for such transformation in a scientific way.
These transformations depend on the use or application of the spatial information.
Hence, the choice of datum, projection, plotting techniques and symbols become
relevant. Apart from the scientific component, the artistic components are equally
important. The way of presentation, design, choice of colours and symbols, visualization
and the message or theme communicated or highlighted have also become integral part
of map-making.
CHAPTER 1
GENERATION OF NATIONAL TOPOGRAPHIC
DATABASE (NTDB) FOR 1:10,000 SCALE
With the advent of digital technologies, the process of map-making has changed
significantly. The scientific components have become more accurate while the artistic or
design components have become more dependent on the options available with the
software than on drawing skills. As a whole, maps, either in hard copy form or soft copy,
have become more software driven. With such changes in the preparation of maps or
spatial data, the applications have multiplied enormously. One of the important
applications is in the field of disaster management.
The topographical maps available in the country are at the scale of 1:250,000,
1:50,000 and for some areas at the scale of 1:25,000 scale as well. These maps have
2

een prepared scientifically and of very high accuracy at the given scale. The contour
intervals are of 5m or 20m. Neither the scale of the maps not the contour intervals
exactly meets the requirements of disaster management or mitigation. The
requirements of maps for these purposes have been widely discussed in the National
Disaster Management Authority. The Steering Committee and other committees have
dealt this issue at a greater length and considering all types of disasters in the country,
following types of maps have been suggested :
(a) Maps at 1: 10,000 scale with contour interval of 1m for the whole country giving
priority to multiple disaster prone areas; and
(b) Maps at 1:2,000 scale with contour interval of 0.5m for selected areas.
The maps at the scale of 1:10,000 are not only required for disaster management
but for other activities as well. The PC-NNRMS Committee on Cartography of the
Planning Commission has supported mapping at this scale for resource management.
Further, the Ministry of Defence also requires maps at this scale for defence and
security purposes. Survey of India is also planning to introduce a new series of
topographical maps at this scale.
The maps at 1:2,000 scale has been much in demand for urban management
and planning, municipal taxation, JNNURM related activities; and for conducting
elections and censuses. It is to provide a basis for urban flood management and
microzonation. Hence, the maps at both the scales would not only be useful for disaster
management but will also prove to be a national asset.
Present Status
3

Survey of India is already in possession of 1: 50,000 scale maps. However,
these maps cannot support the requirement of present users. Detailed features are not
available in these maps. It is not possible to represent details like utility buildings such
as hospitals, schools, police stations, fire stations, government offices etc. But these
features are imperative for risk assessment and disaster management. It is also
essential to depict roads on these maps for microzonation and development of
vulnerability and hazard maps. During any disaster scenario, it is essential to visualize
the access roads and probability of their closure for relief and rescue planning. It is also
essential to map various layers of utilities including population density for final planning
of effects of any disaster and rehabilitation planning after the disaster.
The proposed 1:10,000 and 1:2,000 National Topographic Database (NTDB) are
a major initiative for heralding a geospatial decision support system at local, state and
national levels. The primary objective is to provide geospatial data for advanced
geospatial tools and applications that are required for improving the land, water,
infrastructure and other essential resources. Moreover, mapping at these scales were
considered necessary and some attempts were made as well.
MAPPING AT 1:10,000 SCALE
The methodology of mapping is based on job specification and deliverables given
in the tender document. For more details , please refer to Annex- I.
Mapping at 1:10,000 scale with 1 meter contour interval (C.I), considering the
guideline provided in the new National Map Policy and confirming to the National
Topographical Database (NTDB) :
4

A. Mapping on the proposed scale based on the aerial photographs or high
resolution remote sensing data, GPS, ground survey or in combination.
B. The details in the maps to be given like road/railways, rivers, administrative
boundaries from villages to state, infrastructures like bridges, power stations,
hospitals, shelters, helipads, dropping points, basic land use like water bodies,
settlements, built up areas, arable lands, forests, communication lines etc.
C. The policy and identification of the districts among the 241 multi-disaster prone or
major disaster prone districts are to be given.
D. Estimate the cost of preparation of the districts among 241 multi-disaster prone
or major disaster prone districts are to be given.
NTDB ON 1:10,000 SCALE- A NATIONAL NEED
As pointed out in Para 1 of this chapter, the SOI is in possession of the NTDB on
1: 50,000 scale. Admittedly, scales do not have as much relevance in digital
environment as for paper maps; but the NTDB of SOI has been made by digitization of
analogue maps. The NTDB have not been captured in digital mode with the result that
this NTDB even while being in digital environment suffers from plotting error. Even
assuming zero plotting error, the NTDB can’t support the kind of details as required by
the present map users. The detailed features call for higher scale maps even when
available in digital form. For instance, on 1:50,000 scale, it is not possible to depict utility
buildings like hospitals, schools, police stations, post offices etc, whereas these have
become indispensable to be shown in village maps. On 1:10,000 scales, all these
5

uildings can be comfortably depicted. In disaster management like microzonation,
1:10,000 maps are essential. In assessing natural resource endowments, agricultural
practices, grazing lands, village forests, which are essential for rural development also
can be shown. In fact, even from government departments, the SOI has received
indents for 1:10,000 maps as given below;
SN LETTER NO. ORGANISATION PURPOSE
1.
2.
3.
4.
No. 01023/Tech-
II/Mil Svy/GSGS
dated 10-02-2006
Minute of the
meeting
No. 17-5/2005-IA.III
dated 27-09-2005
No. DD(RS&GIS-
AA)/06 dated 02-09-
2006
5. No. Nil
6.
7.
No. 2321/S/Mon/
LS&EG/LHZ/Meso/2
006 dated 03-08-
2006
No. 27/5/2007-Map
dated 13-03-2008
Integrated Headquarters of MoD
(Army) (Dte Gen of Mil Svy
(GSGS))
National Disaster management
authorithy (NDMA)
Ministry of Environment and
Forest
National Remote Sensing Agency
Indian Space Research
Organisation HQ, Bangalore
Geological Survey of India
Office of the Registrar General of
India
Table 1.1: Requirements of 1;10,000 Scale maps
For use by Defence
forces
Disaster management
Demarcation of
vulnerability line in
coastal areas
National Database for
Emergency
Management (NDEM)
activity
For various planning
activities
Request for supply of
Toposheet
Preparing detailed
digital map of cities
6

It can also be seen that the data requirement of various consumers mostly
matches with the data structure of the 1: 10,000 maps as given in the annexure. It is
therefore easily to be concluded that SOI to endeavor to make the NTDB of 1:10,000
scale with the latest data. This should be most expeditiously done to support the rapid
pace of economic development of the country and has to be treated as a national
mission. For more details , please refer to Annex- I.
7

The seismo-tectonics of India is unique. The Indian plate is colliding with Eurasian in
north at Main Central thrust (MCT) and Main Boundary thrust (MBT). The Himalayan
range is still rising due to thrust imparted by Indian plate moving towards north. This
makes the northern part of India from Jammu & Kashmir to northeastern India highly
seismic prone.
India’s climate has all extremes conditions such as, lowest Temperatures in
Ladakh and highest temperature in Thar, driest weather in Thar and wettest weather in
northeast. The long Indian coast line is prone to the sever weather arising from ocean
such as cyclones, tsunami etc. The dust storms and squalls are most prevailing severe
weather phenomena in northern and northeastern regions. The heavy rainfall during
southwest and northeast monsoon seasons causes flooding. Thus, Indian landmass is
prone to multiple range of natural disasters including seismological, meteorological,
hydrological and geo-hydrological rising due to its typical topographical, geographical
and geological features.
Earthquakes, cyclones, floods and droughts are the major natural hazards faced
by India. Nearly 5 per cent of the total geography is flood prone, 68 per cent of the net
sown area is susceptible to drought, 59 per cent is vulnerable to moderate to severe
seismic activity (Zone 3 to Zone 5) and the eastern coast as well as Gujarat coast is
exposed to cyclone risk. Also, the sub-Himalayan and Western Ghats are vulnerable to
landslides. Very generalized pattern of these major hazards are shown in the following
maps (Figures 2.1 to 2.4)
CHAPTER 2
DISASTER VULNERABILITY AND RISK IN INDIA
8

Figure 2.1 : Flood Hazard Map
(Source: Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council)
9

Figure 2. 2: Landslide Hazard Map
(Source: National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization)
10

Figure 2.3 : Wind and Cyclone Hazard Map
(Source: Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council)
11

The combined threat from these major disasters varies from region to region and
district to district. Hence it has become imperative to prepare detail maps of the country
in order to make a strategy for mitigation and management. Accordingly, it has been
decided to consider mapping at 1: 10,000 scale which should meet the requirement of
NDMA in particular. Further, for the cities and towns, and special areas, maps at
1:2,000 scale has been suggested.
MULTI-DISASTER PRONE AREAS
In the last decade, statistical modeling of natural disasters in potentially affected
areas by GIS has become a major topic of analysis and research. Despite some basic
approach based on the “weight of evidence”, some unsolved questions are still under
discussion. The disastrous effects of disasters on affected communities are well known,
and there is a need to better understand the causes and the hazards contributions of
the different events related to earthquakes, floods, urban floods, flash floods, droughts
etc. The classification of disasters has been shown in Table 2.1. For more details ,
please refer to Annex- II.
(100%) Natural
Some human
influence
Mixed natural
and human
influence
Little natural
influence
(100%) Human
---� Each column indicates increasing degree of human influence to cause the hazard
listed below.
Earthquake Flood Landslides Crop disease Armed conflict
Tsunami Drought Subsidence Insect
infestation
Land mines
12

Volcanic
eruption
Avalanche/Snow
storm
Glacial lake
outburst
Erosion Forest fires Major air, water and
Desertification Mangrove
decline
Coal fires Coral reef
decline
Lightning Coastal erosion Acid rain Oil spill
Windstorm Greenhouse
effect
Ozone
depletion
land traffic accidents
Nuclear accidents
Chemical accidents
Water/soil/air
pollution
Thunderstorm Sea level rise Groundwater
Hailstorm
pollution
Electrical power
breakdown
Tornado/Cyclone Pesticides
Table 2.1: Classification of disasters in gradual scale between purely natural and
purely manmade
Earthquakes result in largest amounts of losses and accounts for almost 35 per
cent of losses across world, followed by 29 per cent in floods, 28 per cent in windstorms
and 7 per cent in others. The selected approach is to determine disaster zoning from a
set of available attributes that are considered to govern the hazards, while we examine
the influence of each individual event that produce the final hazard.
STATUS OF AVAILABILITY OF DISASTER RELATED MAPS
In order to assess the susceptibility, important parameters include topography,
bathymetry, storm track into coast proximity, and river network, vegetation, soils,
meteorological parameters will be included. Digital Elevation Models have to be
13

prepared at various accuracies. For all this parameters, key attributes based on the
slope data, and coastline bathymetry identification, existing density rain dataset,
elevation datasets and existing disaster inventories will be scaled in a GIS
environment. The list of published maps to be used for the preparation of Zonation Map
of India is given below in Table 2. 2.
SN Thematic maps Source of Publication Year Scale
1.
2. Slope
3. Land use
4. Annual rainfall
5. Physiography
Geology Geological Survey of India 1993 1:5 million
National Atlas and Thematic
Maps Organisation / Survey of
India.
National Atlas and Thematic
Maps Organisation,
India Meteorological
Department.
National Atlas and Thematic
Maps Organisation,
1963 1:6 million
1981 1:6 million
1975 1:6 million
1981 1:6 million
6. Neotectonic Geological Survey of India 1989 1:5 million
7. Geomorphology Geological Survey of India 1989 1:5 million
8. Vegetation
9. Seismic zonation map
National Remote Sensing
Center
India Meteorological
Department / BIS
10. Road network Survey of India 1996
11.
Climatological maps for
flood, droughts,
cyclones other weather
related hazards
India Meteorological
Department
Table 2.2 : List of published maps
1984 1:4 million
2,000 * -
1990
onwards
1:2.5
million
1:2.5
million
14

The hazard results will then overlaid with population data in the overall assessment of
multi-hazard risk. For more details , please refer to Annex- II.
CRITERIA FOR PRIORITY ZONES
For the major types of disasters, i.e. earthquake, landslide, cyclones and floods, some
criteria can be considered which are indicated in Table 2.3.
LOCATION
SEVERITY
LIKELIHOOD
OF
OCCURRENCE
(Duration)
EARTHQUAKE LANDSLIDE CYCLONES FLOODS
Epicenters Inventories Landfall Channel
Geologic
formations
Geologic formations Path Floodway
Slope Floodplain
Elevation
Intensity Velocity Wind velocity Volume
Magnitude Displacement Rainfall Velocity
Acceleration
Displacement
Recurrence
interval
Earthquake
recurrence
Historical
occurrence
Rate of rise
Historical return
periods
Slip rates Bank cutting rates Flood of record
Historical
seismicity
Rainfall patterns
Table 2.3 : Criteria used for projecting priority zones
Design event
The results of priority hazard zones derived for earthquake hazard, landslide hazard,
cyclone hazard and flood hazard, based on above parameters is given in Part 2 of this
Volume. For more details , please refer to Annex- II.
15

CHAPTER 3
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Access to information, and its efficient assimilation and dissemination to a larger group
of people, in a fast, easy and cost-effective manner is crucial for the effective
management of disasters. Timely access to accurate, preplanned, historical and real-
time information becomes inevitable for governments, authorities, task forces and
common man, for disaster management. Also, the information should be processed and
presented in an easily understandable manner, for timely actions to be taken.
Quite often, a considerable portion of the efforts and resources are spent on
finding the relevant information because the information is stored redundantly in
different places and in different formats. The use of GIS becomes relevant in the field of
disaster management as well since it can effectively store and retrieve magnanimous
amount of spatial and attribute data, analyze them and present the information in easily
comprehensible formats. Most of the data requirements for emergency management
are of a spatial nature and hence GIS becomes an extremely handy tool.
Mitigation of natural disasters can be successful only when detailed knowledge is
obtained about expected frequency, character and magnitude of hazardous events in
the area. Maps, aerial photography, satellite imagery, GPS data, rainfall data have
spatial components. Many of these data have different project and coordinate systems
and need to be brought in to common map base in order to be superimposed. GIS
16

provides a historical database from which hazard maps indicating potentially dangerous
areas can be generated. For more details , please refer to Annex- I.
As many types of disasters have certain precursors, satellite remote sensing may
detect the early stages of these events as anomalies in a time series. When a disaster
occurs GIS can be used to plan evacuation routes, design centers for emergency
operations and integrate satellite data with other relevant data. In disaster relief phase,
GIS is extremely useful in combination with GPS for search and rescue operations. And
also damage assessment and aftermath monitoring for providing a quantitative base for
relief operations. In disaster rehabilitation phase, GIS can organize damage information,
census information and sites for reconstruction. Obviously, the volume of data required
for disaster management is too much, particularly in context to integrated development
planning. Thus, GIS platform may be used to model various hazard and risk scenarios
for future development.
GIS IN DIFFERENT PHASES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
GIS as a tool is used for managing the large volumes of data needed for the
identification of vulnerable regions and assessment of hazard and risks; and for
planning the evacuation routes, design of centers for emergency operations, integration
of satellite data with other relevant data in the designing the early warning system etc.
Further, in search and rescue operations, in combination with GPS (global positioning
system), in areas that have been devastated and where it is difficult to orientate.
Furthermore, in order to organize the damage information, the post disaster information
and for evaluation of sites for reconstruction or compensation GIS has boon proved to
be useful. The details are provided in Table 3.1. For more details , please refer to
Annex- I.
17

SN PHASE DESCRIPTION
1 PLANNING
2 MITIGATION
3 PREPAREDNESS
� Emergency management programs begin with
identifying and locating potential risk elements/hazards.
� Using a GIS, hazards can be spatially identified and
consequences evaluated to assess potential
emergencies or disasters.
� Analyzing critical infrastructure that could be damaged
or destroyed is necessary to restoring vital services
and operations.
� Visualizing the hazards with the data of roads,
pipelines, buildings, residential areas, power and
communication infrastructure etc. helps officials to
formulate mitigation, preparedness, response, and
possible recovery plans as well as to spread
awareness among the citizens..
� GIS facilitates an effective emergency management by
providing a platform for thorough analysis and
planning, and by allowing the concerned to view the
various scenarios generated by combinations of spatial
data.
� As potential disasters are identified, mitigation
measures can be planned and prioritized.
� Utilizing existing socioeconomic and other databases,
linked to geographic features, help identifying the
variations in vulnerability of the affected region and
plan the mitigation accordingly.
� GIS can help locating emergency infrastructure like
firefighting stations, fire hydrants, hospitals etc at
minimum response time.
� GIS can be used for integration of satellite data with
other relevant data in the design of disaster warning
systems and to display real-time monitoring of climatic
and other factors for early warning.
� GIS can also be used for the planning of evacuation
18

4 RELIEF
5 REHABILITATION
routes, design of emergency operation centres etc.
� GIS is extremely useful in combination with Global
Positioning System in search and rescue operations in
devastated areas and where it is difficult to orient.
� GIS also supports planning for the relocating
requirements and logistics for emergency supply chain
management.
� GIS can also model the event in order to warn people
and position public safety resources for immediate
deployment.
� GIS is also used to analyze vulnerable populations for
secondary health effects from a disaster, implementing
preventive treatments, and positioning medical teams
and medical supplies in locations to optimize
preventive treatments.
� In the disaster rehabilitation phase, the damage caused
can be assessed using satellite imageries.
� Customized applications can be developed on GIS to
calculate the damage and issue damage certificates to
the victims.
� GIS is also used to organize the damage information
and the post-disaster information, and in the evaluation
of sites for reconstruction, compensation etc
Table 3.1: Phases of Disaster Management
Integration of the GIS and the internet technology can significantly increase the
usage and accessibility of the spatial data, which is a necessity for disaster
management. The planning and preparedness activities like identification and
assessment of risk, awareness creation and early warning can be more effectively
organized and implemented with the use of a web-enabled GIS.
An Internet GIS based emergency management network can help in ensuring
effective public safety by providing a platform for continuous and cohesive exchange of
data, ideas, knowledge and the latest update during the event of any disaster, at local,
19

egional, city, state and national levels, which is of utmost importance. Also, workflows
of the various agencies involved in the disaster management can be integrated with the
web enabled GIS data and applications to manage situation more effectively; all of
these eventually resulting in better management and control of resources. For more
details , please refer to Annex- I.
A separate Working Group of Experts has been appointed by NDMA to develop
GIS for disaster management. This WGE is to provide the mapping base for the
development of GIS. However, the flow diagram of GIS for disaster management is
shown below (Fig. 3.1).
20

Figure 3.1 : GIS in Disaster Scenario
21

GIS DATABASE FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT
The data from different disciplines and agencies, as listed below, is required
for disaster management process to obtain satisfactory results. Spatial and temporal
data on the disastrous phenomena like landslides, floods, earthquakes their location,
frequency, magnitude, etc. Data on the environment of the region like topography,
geology, geomorphology, soils, hydrology, land use, vegetation etc. For more details
, please refer to Annex- I.
Data on elements in the region that might be affected by the disaster like
infrastructure, settlements, population etc and the socioeconomic condition of the
region. It can be seen that most of these data are of spatial nature, hence a GIS
would not only be the most appropriate way to compile the data, but also the best
platform to analyze them. A GIS database for disaster management would consist
of several sets of information, as given below (Table 3.2).
1 Base maps
2 Remotely sensed imageries like Quickbird, IRS LISS III
3
4
Thematic maps like, geology maps, geomorphology maps, Soil maps, Flood
maps and digital terrain modeL
Temporal data on disasters and their details, connectivity and
communication infrastructure like roads, railways, ports, airports, helipads
etc
5 Hospitals and medical facilities
22

6 Other emergency Infrastructure like fire stations, police control rooms etc
7 Urban and town distributions, land use and facilities
8 Demographic data
9 Socioeconomic data etc.
Table 3.2 : Information required for GIS database for disaster management
Databases at various scales and accuracy will be required for the various
activities related to disaster management. A three-tier database is envisaged for
India.
TIER 1
TIER 2
TIER 3
A regional level database at 1:50,000 scale developed from IRS LISS
images and 1:50,000 scale Survey of India toposheets
A district level database at 1:10,000 scale developed from Quickbird
imagery (0.6m accuracy)
A site-level investigation or micro level database of 1:2,000 scale and
lesser for all the town/cities falling under the major disaster prone/multi
disaster prone districts developed from aerial photography and ground
survey.
Table 3.3 : Three tier GIS database for disaster management
For Tier 1, the Survey of India topographical sheets are useful. However, a few
additional features would be required for NDMA purposes. Regarding Tier 2, the
present DPR is being prepared. Further for the last tier, another DPR is also being
prepared.
The site investigation scale GIS is used in the planning and design of
engineering structures such as building, bridges, roads etc. It is also used on
detailed engineering measures to mitigate natural hazards. Nearly all the data is
23

quantitative in nature and GIS is used for data management instead of data analysis.
Deterministic models and 3D GIS can be of great advantage at this stage. The
selection of scale of analysis is usually determined by the intended application of the
mapping results; however, the choice of analysis technique remains open. This
choice is dependent upon the type of problem, availability of data, availability of
financial resources, time available for investigation and finally the professional
experience of the experts involved in the survey. For more details, please refer to
Annex- I.
SCOPE FOR DEVELOPING A GIS DATABASE FOR DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
The draft scope of work of the project includes (but not limited to) the following:
o Data model definition for all the three tiers of the database. The
National Map Policy guidelines and National Topographical Data Base
(NTDB) must be referred to.
o Source procurement guidelines formulation
o Firming up and detailing the database creation methodology, solution
architecture, the technology and platform, compliance criteria, resource
model and products
o Documentation and approval of the project blue print
o Project estimation, structuring, planning and scheduling
o Detail project report finalization and approval
o 1:10,000 scale mapping and database creation: secondary data
collection, mapping, attribution, database structuring
24

o Analysis and Products
o Quality assurance and project handover
PROJECTION SYSTEM
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system must be used.
The datum must be WGS 84. Such datum is compatible to GPS, remote sensing
data and the Open Map Series now under preparation by Survey of India.
POSITIONAL ACCURACY
The regional level database must have a minimum accuracy of 5 m. The
district level database should have sub-meter accuracy and micro level database
should have accuracy up to millimeters.
TECHNOLOGY
1. Survey: Survey must be conducted using highly calibrated DGPS, electronic
total station etc.
2. Image Processing: Image processing involves image engineering, image
classification, and image interpretation. ERDAS Imagine is widely used
software.
3. GIS Technologies: ESRI, AutoDesk, Bentley, MapInfo etc are the
technologies that can be used for GIS mapping and analyses
25

4. Source Procurement: passive and active sensor based technologies must be
explored for image procurement. Quickbird, Landsat, IRS LISS III, LISS IV,
Cartosat I and II etc can be used appropriately.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DATABASE
MANAGEMENT
Seamless integration of 1: 10,000 and 1: 2,000 database with 1: 50,000 database
Seamless integration of enterprise services and data The solution will be able to
serve the data in heterogeneous formats as a consolidated view to the end users
The solution must support popular geospatial data sources from ESRI, TNT Mips,
Intergraph, Autodesk MapInfo, Post GIS, Oracle Spatial, Bentley, OGC web maps,
etc.
Ingestion of high resolution satellite imagery from Cartosat, Google Maps, Virtual
Earth, Pictometry and OGC compliant providers.
Easy (web-based) ability to integrate multiple applications meant for various
agencies / decision making purposes
The solution will act as a single-window portal hosting applications and serving data
pertaining to different agencies.
The end user would need only a standard web browse to avail of desired
functionalities.
Authorized user(s) must be able to browse through available metadata and the
request specified geospatial data of interest.
The solution will be designed on open standards with wide support for various
emerging industry standards
26

Visitors may be able to contribute information for collaboration and sharing using
Web services and there would be intuitive user friendly, user interfaces.
Multi-lingual support should be provided
User identity and access management
User may be able to edit spatial data (geometry and attributes) using editing tools
Advanced map layer / mis database column searches
Configurable search wizards
Flexibility to print only the map or map or with attributes definition of new print
templates
Users should be able to place points, line, polygons and text and save Redlining for
future retrieval.
Support for custom tools and commands and toolbars
Users should be able to create charts based on selected data layer e.g. pie, bar,
line, charts etc
Enable user to display attribute table based on selected map views.
Provision to sort attributes in descending / ascending order for both OGC and
standard data sets.
27

India meteorological department is the custodian of cyclone related data. They have
collected the data from 1891 onwards for all cyclones forming in Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea affecting Indian subcontinent and recently published cyclone e atlas in
June 2008 containing the detailed data of cyclone formation, intensity, tracks, land
fall positions, wind & rainfall intensity, cyclone storm surge and area of dissipation.
The data was obtained from IMD in digital form for conducting further analysis of
Hazard Zonation of India. The data before 1960 is based on synoptic charts and ship
observations and after that the advance observational technologies like satellite
observations, radar observations and closed surface observation network were used
for precise tracking of cyclones and warning.
The database used consists of complete history of 271 Severe Cyclonic Storms,
553 Cyclonic Storms and 4,610 Deep Depressions. For more details , please refer
to Annex- III.
Maps: The georeferenced maps of Indian subcontinent have been extracted from
google maps. The political boundaries of India including the boundary of each state
and district have been taken from various government agencies and websites as
followed:
a. National portal Secretariat, National Informatics centers (NIC’s)
b. State NIC centers
CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY FOR HAZARD MAPPING OF
TROPICAL CYCLONE
c. Census of India, Ministry of Home Affairs
28

d. Maps of India
e. National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization
f. Other Govt. and state government websites
The maps of state and districts had been collated with georeferenced map of
India using various GIS tools. The comprehensive maps of India including state and
district boundaries have been prepared and used for present purpose. The accuracy
of maps is sufficient for the present purpose.
State and Districts profiles: The census 2001 data has been used as base data
for district population, area and other relevant information. The data has been cross-
verified from NIC and state government databases. The new districts from 2001
onwards have also been taken in to the present data set. There are total 28 state,
07 union territories, and 626 districts in India. For more details , please refer to
Annex- III.
QUALITY CONTROL FOR DATA
QUALITY CHECK OF DATA BY IMD
India Meteorological Department has inbuilt quality control mechanism on
cyclone data base including track, intensity and other parameters. Every year IMD
conducts a Annual Cyclone Review (ACR), where the operational data is presented.
The data acquired from various method such as ship data, synoptic charts, surface
observations, satellite and radar observation etc. is presented and compare by
experts. The corrected cyclone parameters are finalized and archived for records.
29

QUALITY CHECK FOR IMPACT FOR HAZARD ASSESSMENT
Each cyclone track has been analyzed for its life cycle from formation to
dissipation. The life cycle of cyclone undergoes five stages from depression to sever
cyclone to depression.. The sectors of different intensities have been identified in
order to asses the exact impact of the system in that sector. For each sector
involving the different phase of system falling in the track, intensity, wind potential,
potential storm surge and period of residency of the system have been clearly
segregated in order to evaluate the hazard potential of the system in particular sector
CYCLONE HAZARD ASSESSMENT
The cyclone hazard assessment planning process requires maps of different
resolutions as given below in the table.
CYCLONE
INFORMATION TYPE DESCRIPTION
PRELIMINARY PLANNING
Maps
Studies Event histories
PHASE 1 ACTIVITIES
Maps
PREFERRED MAP
SCALE
Historical events (paths) 1:1 00000 – 1:50,000
Risk 1:10,0000 -1:50,000
Bathymetric 1:25,000 - 1:10,000
Drainage and irrigation 1:25,000 - 1:10,000
30

Studies and other
information
PHASE 2 ACTIVITIES
Maps
Event-related inundation 1:25,000 - 1:10,000
Floodplain for design event 1:25,000 - 1:10,000
Historical events (affected area) 1:50,000 - 1:50,000
Surge tide for design event 1:50,000 - 1:10,000
Aerial photographs 1:10,000 – 1:2,000
Coastal infrastructure 1:10,000 – 1:2,000
Episodic data 1:10,000 – 1:2,000
Event damage 1:10,000 – 1:2,000
Flood histories 1:10,000 – 1:2,000
Hydrology reports 1:10,000 – 1:2,000
Meteorological records 1:10,000 – 1:2,000
Satellite imagery 1:50,000 - 1:10,000
Tide tables 1:2,000 – 1:300
Bathymetric 1:2,000 - 1:300
Drainage irrigation 1:2,000 – 1:300
Event-related inundation 1:2,000 – 1:300
Floodplain for design event 1:2,000 – 1:300
Historical events (affected area) 1:2,000 – 1:300
Structural damage assessment 1:2,000 – 1:300
Surge tide for design event 1:2,000 – 1:300
Table 4.1 : Map resolution for cyclone planning process
31

SUMMRY FOR CYCLONE HAZARD ZONATION
CATEGORIZING PRIORITY ZONES (P1, P2, P3) IN HAZARD
ZONING
Background
India is divided into twenty eight states and seven union territories with total
number of 626 districts. India has 7,517 Km of coast line. The eastern coast is
bordered with Bay of Bengal and western coast is surrounded by Arabian Sea. The
cyclogensis is predominately in Bay of Bengal making east coast more vulnerable to
cyclones. The frequency of cyclones is much lesser in Arabian Sea making western
coast less vulnerable. For more details , please refer to Annex- III.
The cyclone and depression data from 1891 to 2007 have been analyzed for
assessment of hazards in the present study. During this period Deep Depressions –
4,610, Cyclones Storms – 553 and Sever Cyclonic Storms – 271 have hit the both
east and west Indian coast line.
High Hazard Zone (mapping priority P1)
The areas, which have been frequently hit by sever cyclonic storms with
intensity T3 and above have been categorized as most vulnerable area and given
high priority (P1) for mapping. These areas are hit by storm surge of three meters
and above, flooding due inundation, high rainfall and wind exceeding 100km/hour.
Mostly the coastal districts of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
in east coast and Kerala, Maharashtra and Gujarat fall in this category.
32

Moderate Hazard Zone (mapping priority P2)
The areas, which have been frequently hit by cyclonic storms with intensity T2
have been categorized as vulnerable area and given Moderate priority (P2) for
mapping. These areas are affected by high rainfall, flooding and damage due to high
winds exceeding 60 km/hour. Normally these areas are adjacent to sever cyclonic
affected areas, where sever cyclone loose their intensity and remain in cyclonic
storm category. Mostly the districts of West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and Tamil Nadu in
east coast and Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat fall in this category.
Low Hazard Zone (mapping priority P3)
The areas, which have been frequently hit by deep depression with intensity
T1 and above have been categorized as low vulnerable area and given Low priority
(P3) for mapping. These areas are affected by moderately high winds exceeding 50
km/hour above and high rainfall.
Though the entire country is affected by depression/deep depression,
however the areas, which are affected by with highest frequency (atleast 50 during
test period) have been identified and the areas that are having lower occurring
frequency have been ignored. Most of these areas are located in Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, east Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.
SUMMARY OF AREAS AFFECTED BY CYCLONE HAZARD
33

Mostly the coastal districts of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu in east coast and Kerala , Maharashtra and Gujarat fall in this category.
For more details , please refer to Annex- III.
Category
Total
Districts
Total
Area(Sq
Km)
Total
Population
(Crores)
High Hazard Zone (mapping priority P1) 123 709,285 28.3
Moderate Hazard Zone (mapping priority P2) 43 282,966 7.99
Low Hazard Zone (mapping priority P3) 187 961,515 31.5
Table 4.2 : Priority Zoning categories
MAP REPRESENTATION OF SUMMARY OF AREAS AFFECTED
BY CYCLONE HAZARD
34

Figure 4.1: Map of cyclone priority zones
Source: eoa NDMI Map representation based on 100 years data by IMD
MAPPING REQUIREMENT FOR CYCLONE HAZARD ZONATION
35

1. Aerial mapping at scale 1:2,000 or better in the 10 kilometer strip of coastline
covered under very high-risk zone.
2. Contour interval of 0.5 meter or better in the 10 kilometer strip of coastline
covered under very high-risk zone.
3. Aerial mapping at scale 1:2,000 or better in the 10 kilometer strip of coastline
covered under high-risk zone.
4. Contour interval of 0.5 meter or better in the 10 kilometer strip of coastline
covered under high-risk zone.
5. High resolution satellite imaginary (0.6 meter or better resolution) to be used
to derive 1:10,000 maps for the very high and high-risk zones for the area 10
kilometer away from coastline.
6. High resolution satellite imaginary (0.6 meter or better resolution) to be used
to derive 1.0 meter contour map for the very high and high-risk zones for the
area 10 kilometer away from coastline.
7. High resolution satellite imaginary (0.6 meter or better resolution) to be used
to derive 1:10,000 map and 1-meter contour map for the very-high and high
risk zones for the area 10 kilometer away from coastline. This requirement
can be considered in lower priority.
36

Seismic hazard at the site is defined as a quantitative estimation of the most possible
ground shaking at the site. It may be obtained either by deterministic approach or
by probabilistic approach. Whatever may be approach, the seismic hazard measured
by possible ground shaking (PGA and PGV) at a given site by the occurrence of the
earthquake . For more details , please refer to Annex- IV.
The deterministic seismic hazard analysis (DSHA) is a simple and straight
forward framework for the competition of intensities (MM scale)/PGA for the worst
case. DSHA consist of following five steps:
a. Identification of all potential earthquake sources surrounding the site,
including the source geometry.
CHAPTER 5
METHODOLOGY FOR HAZARD MAPPING OF
EARTHQUAKES
METHODOLOGY OF SEISMIC HAZARD ANALYSIS
b. Evaluation of sources to site distance for each earthquake sources. The
distance is characterized by the shortest epicenter distance or hypocenter
distance if the source is a line source.
c. Identification of the maximum (Likely) earthquake expressed in terms of
magnitude or any other parameter for ground shaking for each source.
d. Determination of the worst case ground shaking parameter at the site.
37

e. Selection of the predictive relationship (or attenuation relation) to find the
seismic hazard caused at the site due to an earthquake occurring in any of the
sources. For example, the Cornell relationship gives:
In PGA(gal)= 6.74 + 0.859 m –1.80 ln (r+ 25) EQ 1.0
Where r is the epicentral distance in kilometer and m is the magnitude of earthquake.
A simpler relationship of observed seismic intensity Ix has been widely used
developed by KarniK.
Io-Ix= c log (D/H) EQ 2.0
Where Io is intensity in MM scale at epicenter, Ix is intensity at site in MM scale at
distance D. The hypocenter depth is given by H. The graph for intensity at site Ix is
shown with distance r from epicenter. The hypocenter depth is considered at 33 km,
which is a normal for shallow earthquakes. From the graph, we can estimate the
intensity at site at distance D from the epicenter. Using this graph, we can
Io-Ix(in MM Scale)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-1 -1
DISTANCE FROM EPICENTER(in KM)
quantitatively estimate the earthquake hazard at the site
Figure 5.1 : Graph for intensity at a site
Series1
38

EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI HAZARD ASSESSMENT
The earthquake and tsunami hazard assessment planning process require maps of
different resolutions as given below in the table. For more details , please refer to
Annex- IV.
EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI
INFORMATION TYPE DESCRIPTION PREFERRED MAP SCALE
PRELIMINARY PLANNING
Maps
Studies
PHASE 1 ACTIVITIES
Maps
Event epicenters 1:1 000 000-1:50,000
Plate tectonics/faults 1:1 000 000-1:50,000
Regional geology 1:1 000 000-1:50,000
Seismic risk/ Microzonation 1:100,000 – 1:50,000
Seismicity 1:100,000 – 1:50,000
Earthquake catalogues 1:100,000 – 1:50,000
Event histories 1:100,000 – 1:50,000
Tsunamic event history 1:100,000 – 1:50,000
Event epicenters 1:25,000 -1:10,000
Faults 1:25,000 -1:10,000
Historical events (including tsunamiaffected
area)
1:25,000 -1:10,000
Isoseismic 1:25,000 -1:10,000
39

Studies and other
information
PHASE 2 ACTIVITIES
Maximum observed intensity 1:25,000 -1:10,000
Seismic risk/microzonation 1:25,000 -1:10,000
Seismo-tectonic 1:25,000 -1:10,000
Engineering design reports on major
infrastructure projects
1:10,000 - 1: 2,000
Event damage assessment 1:10,000 - 1: 2,000
Interpretative soils reports to identify
formations susceptible to liquefaction
and slope failure
1:10,000 - 1: 2,000
Satellite imagery 1:10,000 - 1: 2,000
Strong ground motion investigations 1:10,000 - 1: 2,000
Maps Event epicenters 1: 2,000 – 1:300
Studies and other
information
Faults 1: 2,000 – 1:300
Historical events (including
tsunami-affected area)
1: 2,000 – 1:300
Liquefaction and slope failure 1: 2,000 – 1:300
Seismic risk/microzonation 1: 2,000 – 1:300
Structural damage assessment 1: 2,000 – 1:300
Engineering design reports on
major infrastructure projects
1: 2,000 – 1:300
Event damage assessment 1: 2,000 – 1:300
Interpretative soils reports to
identify formations susceptible to
liquefaction and slope failure
1: 2,000 – 1:300
Satellite imagery 1: 2,000 – 1:300
Strong ground motion
investigations
1: 2,000 – 1:300
40

Table 5.1 : Map resolution for earthquake and tsunami planning process
PGA Calculation -An Example:
A site is surrounded by three independent sources of earthquake, out of which
one is a line source, as shown in Figure B.2.3 given below. Location of the sources
with respect to the site is also shown in the figure. The maximum magnitudes of
earthquakes that have occurred in the past for the sources are recorded as source
1.7.5, source 2.6.8 and source 3.5.0. Using deterministic seismic hazard analysis
compute the peak ground acceleration to be experienced at the site. For more details
, please refer to Annex- IV.
Source 1
(7.5)
Source 3 (5.0)
Site
Figure 5.2 : Graph for PGA calculation
Source 2 (6.8)
41

Solution: It is assumed that the attenuation relationship given by Cornell at equation
(1) valid for the region. The peak ground acceleration to be expected at the site
corresponding to the maximum magnitude of an earthquake occurring at the sources
is given in Table below.
On the basis of Table 5.2, the hazard would be considered to be resulting
from an earthquake of magnitude 7.5 occurring from source 1. This hazard is
estimated as producing a PGA of 0.49g at the site.
Source M r(km) PGA(g)
1 7.5 23.70 0.490
2 6.8 60.04 0.10
3 5.0 78.63 0.015
Table 5.2 : PGA at the site for different sources
Intensity Calculation - Examples:
To estimate the intensity of the earthquake, following methodology is adopted :
� Step1: Divide the entire country in to ½ degree X ½ degree blocks. Each ½
degree block is 55 km X 55 km.
� Step 2: Plot all the historical earthquake of magnitude 5 and above in Richter
scale.
� Setp3: Use table 1.0 to estimate the intensity at epicenter ( Io)
� Step 4: Use the equation EQ 2.0 to estimate intensity in neighboring block(
Ix)
� Step 5: Plot all major earthquakes occurring in different blocks and estimate
the intensities in the surrounding blocks.
42

� Step 6: The maximum intensity or worst case intensity may be chosen to
identify the hazard in that block.
Example 1: An earthquake of magnitude 7+ occurring in the block shown by red star
produces an intensity X in MM scale. The intensities in the neighboring block will be
distributed as shown below. For more details , please refer to Annex- IV.
VI VI VI VI VI VI VI
VI VII VII VII VII VII VI
VI VII IX IX IX VII VI
VI VII IX
X IX VII VI
VI VII IX IX IX VII VI
VI VII VII VII VII VII VI
VI VI VI VI VI VI VI
Figure 5.3 : Intensity distribution for one epicenter
Example 2: In this case two earthquakes of magnitude 7 + occurring in two blocks
at distance of 500 km apart will have different intensity distribution in the common
blocks. The zones are denoted in two colors of blue and brown.
43

For example earthquake 1 gives an intensity VI in a block at the distance of
200 km and the earthquake 2 give intensity IX in the same block due to proximity In
such case, the common block the worst case intensity IX will be considered as the
earthquake hazard potential.
VI VI VI VI VI
VII
VII VII VII VII
VII IX IX IX VII
VII IX X IX VII
VII IX
VI VI
IX IX VII
VI VII VII VII VI VII VII VII VII VII
VI VI
VI VII IX IX IX VII VI
VI VII IX X IX VII VI
VI VII IX IX IX VII VI
VI VII VII VII VII VII VI
VI VI VI VI VI VI VI
Figure 5.4 : Intensity distribution for two epicenters
44

MAPPING REQUIREMENT FOR EARTHQUAKE HAZARD
ZONATION
1. High resolution satellite imaginary (0.6 meter or better resolution) to be used
to derive 1:10,000 map and 1-meter contour map for Zone-V and Zone-IV.
2. Aerial mapping using laser and medium format digital cameras at the scale of
1:2,000 or better with three dimensional maps of all the towns falling in Zone
V and Zone IV with complete asset mapping. The data model given in
Annexure to be used to delineate all the assets and critical structures with
attributes.
3. The ground survey using vehicle mounted mobile survey system to be used to
create high resolution maps of the narrow streets and lanes in the town.
4. All critical facilities and approach roads to be marked clearly in the map for
mitigation purpose.
5. Geotectonic maps in the scale 1:50,000 are required for hazard zonation.
6. Geotechnical maps in the scale of 1:10,000 will be required in the specific
areas and towns where Microzonation for earthquake hazard needs to be
done.
7. All the maps must follow standard guidelines laid down under National
Mapping Policy.
45

CHAPTER 6
METHODOLOGY FOR FLOOD HAZARD MAPPING
INTRODUCTION
India is the seventh largest country in the world with the Land area of about 3.3
million sq km area and coastline of 7,517 kms. The rapid growth in population and
urbanization compounded by deforestation has enhanced the threat of flood hazard
in last four decays. Every year the floods in some or other areas cause loss of life,
property, crops, and health hazards. The erosion of top fertile soil due to floods is a
major long-term problem reducing the fertility of agriculture land. The frequency
urban floods have significantly increased in recent years due to rapid unplanned
organization with poor drainage system. Almost all the metros like Delhi, Mumbai,
Bangalore, Hyderabad, etc experience urban floods almost every year during
mansoon periods. Some useful information concerning facts are given below:
Total Land Area: 32,87,263 sq km
Length of Coast Line: 7,517 km
Number of Large Dams: 4,525
Length of river (major) Embankment: 16,000 km
Average Flood Affected Area: 90,000 sq km
46

Figure 6.1 : River Basins and Rivers in India
Source: Map of India
47

Figure 6.2 : Major rivers in India
Source: Map of India
48

Rivers flowing into Bay of Bengal
North-East
Brahmaputra
river basin
Ganga river
basin
West Bengal
coastal rivers
Mahanadi
river basin
Godavari
river basin
Krishna river
basin
Subarnarekha, Kharkai, Damodar, Karnaphuli, and Bangladesh Meghna
river from India and Bangladesh, Titas river in Tripura, Haora
river in Agartala
Brahmaputra river, Lohit river, Burhidihing river, also called Noa Dihing in
its earlier course through Namdapha National Park, Kameng river, Disang,
Dikhou, Bhogdoi, Kakodonga, Dhansiri river, Subanshiri, Kapili, Pagladiya,
Manas river, Sankosh, Yamuna, Teesta river, Rangeet river, Lachen river,
Lachung river, Dharla, river in Bangladesh, Jaldhaka in Sikkim and West
Bengal
Ganges river, Hooghly river (distributary), Jalangi river, river Churni,
Ichamati river, Damodar river, Barakar river, Rupnarayan river, Ajay river,
siang, tirap, Mayurakshi river, Dwarakeswar river, Mundeswari river,
Meghna river (distributary), Padma river (distributary), Budhi Gandak, Kosi
river, Falgu river, Gandak at Patna, Son river, Koel river, Rihand river,
Gopad river, Goini river, Neur river, Banas river, Ghaghara river (Gogra)
or Karnali river in Nepal, Yamuna river, Ban Ganga river, Betwa river
Dhasan river, Halali river, Kaliasote river, Sindh river, Kwari river, Pahuj
river in Bhind district Madhya Pradesh, Chambal river, Banas river, Berach
river, Ahar river, Kali Sindh river, Parbati river (Madhya Pradesh), Shipra
river in Ujjain, Gambhir river, Parbati river (Rajasthan), Gomti river,
Mahananda river, Mahakali river, Bhagirathi river, Alaknanda river, Gangi
river, Beson river, Mangai river, Bhainsai river, Tamsa river, Karmanasha
Subarnarekha river, Kharkai river, Kangsabati river, Bhagirathi, Hughli
Mahanadi river, Brahmani river, South Koel river near Rourkela, Sankh
river, Devi river, Kusabhadra river, Daya river, Bhargavi river, Kadua river
Godavari river in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra states, Kolab
river in Orissa State, Indravati river in Gadchiroli district
of Maharashtra State and also in Chhattisgarh state, Bandiya
river in Gadchiroli
Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra states, Munneru
river in Andhra Pradesh, Akeru river in Andhra Pradesh, Paleru
river in Andhra Pradesh, Musi river in Andhra Pradesh, Tungabhadra river,
Vedavathi river, Suvarnamukhi river, Veda river, Avathi river, Varada river,
Tunga river, Bhadra river, Bhima river in Karnataka and Maharashtra, Sina
river, Nira river, Mula-Mutha river, Mula river, Mutha river, Chandani river,
49

Andhra
Pradesh
coastal rivers
Penner river
basin
Kaveri river
basin
Tamil Nadu
coastal rivers
Kamini river, Moshi river, Ambi river, Bori river, Man river, Bhogwati river,
Indrayani river, Kundali river, Kumandala river, Ghod river, Bhama river,
Pavna river, Malaprabha river, Ghataprabha river, Varma river, Koyna
river in Satara district of Maharashtra state
Rivers like Vamsadhara and Nagavalli are the two coastal rivers in
Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh, Sharada river starts at Devarapally
in Visakhapatnam district and drains in to the Bay of Bengal
Penner river
Kaveri river (Kaveri), Kollidam (distributary), Amaravati river, Arkavathy
river, Mettur Dam, Bhavani river, Hemavati river, Kabini river
Thamirabarani river, Palar river, Vaigai river, Vellar, Vasishta Nadi, Sweta
Nadi, Cooum river
Rivers flowing into Arabian Sea
Karnataka coastal rivers
Kerala coastal rivers
Coastal rivers of Goa
The rivers flowing through three coastal
districts of Karnataka join Arabian sea.
Kali river, Netravati river, Sharavathi river,
Aghanashini river, List of rivers of Dakshina
Kannada and Udupi districts
The rivers flowing through three coastal
districts of Kerala to join Arabian sea.
Periyar river, Bharathapuzha river, Pamba
river, List of rivers of Kerala
Tiracol, Chapora, Baga, Mandovi river,
Mandovi river,known as Mhadai in Western
Ghats of Goa and Karnataka, has three
sources viz., the Degao, the Nanevadichi Nhõi
((nhõi means river in Konkani) and Gavali the
last two sources go dry in summer season.
The main origin of the river, in the form of a
spring, even during Summer season, is at
Bavtyacho Dongor hills near Degao village in
Khanapur Taluka of Belgaum district in
Karnataka State. The three streams
confluence at the Kabnali village whereafter it
is known as Mhadai, which has an easterly
flow initially, then flows north and finally turns
to the west on entering Goa. Mhadai river
enters Goa between Krisnapur (Karnataka)
and Kadval (Goa) villages. The tributaries of
50

Maharashtra coastal rivers
Tapti river basin
Narmada river basin
the Mhadai are the Nersa Nala, the Chapoli
and Kapoli nala, the Bail Nala, the Volo
Panshiro ( Karnataka), the Suko Panshiro, the
Harparo, the Nanodyachi Nhõi, the Vellsachi
Nhõi, the Valpoichi Nhõi, the Ghadghadyachi
Nhõi, the Valvanti/ Volvot, the Divcholchi Nhõi,
the Asnoddchi Nhõi, the Khandeaparchi Nhõi,
the Mhapxechi Nhõi, Xinkerchi Nhõi etc, Zuari
river, Sal, Talpona, Galgibag
Shastri river, Gad river, Vashishti river, Savitri
river, Patalganga river, Ulhas river, Thane
Creek (distributary), Vasai Creek (distributary),
Mithi river or Mahim river, Oshiwara river,
Dahisar river, Tansa river in Thane, Vaitarna
river, Surya river.
Tapti river and its tributaries, Tapti
river in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh, Gomai river in Nandurbar district of
Maharashtra, Arunavati river in Dhule district of
Maharashtra, Panzara river in Jalgaon, Dhule
districts of Maharashtra, Kaan river in Dhule
district, Aner river in Jalgaon, Dhule districts,
Girna river in Nashik, Malegaon, Jalgaon
districts, Titur river in Jalgaon district, Waghur
river in Jalgaon, Aurangabad districts, Purna
river in Amravati, Akola, Buldhana,
Jalgaon, Navsari districts of Gujarat,
Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh, Nalganga
river in Buldhana district, Vaan river in
Buldhana, Akola, Amravati districts of
Maharashtra Morna river in Akola, Washim
districts, Katepurna river in Akola, Washim
districts, Umaa river in Akola, Washim districts,
Sangiya river in Amravati district of
Maharashtra
Narmada river, Kolar river in Sehore, Barna
river in Raisen, Hiren river, Tawa river,
Burhner river
Mahi river basin Mahi river, Som river, Gomati river
Sabarmati river basin Sabarmati river, Wakal river, Sei river
51

Indus river basin
Rivers flowing into inner part of India
Indus river (largely in Pakistan), Panjnad
river (Pakistani river), Sutlej river (Northern
India and Pakistan), Beas river (North India),
Parbati river (Himachal Pradesh) (North India),
Chenab river (largely in Pakistan), Ravi
river (largely in Pakistan), Jhelum
river (in Pakistan and Indian Kashmir), rivers
flowing into inner part of India, Ghaggar
river in Haryana, Rajasthan, Musi
river at Hyderabad, India, Samir river, India/
Gujarat.
Ghaggar river in Haryana, Rajasthan, Musi river at Hyderabad, Samir river, Gujarat
Table 6. 3: River of India
DAMS IN INDIA- IRRIGATION AND POWER
S.N
STATE
TOTAL
DAMS
1 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 001
2 Andhra Pradesh 185
3 Arunachal Pradesh 001
4 Assam 003
5 Bihar 029
6 Chhattisgarh 254
7 Goa 007
8 Gujarat 567
9 Haryana 000
52

10 Himachal Pradesh 006
11 Jammu & Kashmir 010
12 Jharkhand 076
13 Karnataka 231
14 Kerala 054
15 Madhya Pradesh 803
16 Maharashtra 1,651
17 Manipur 005
18 Meghalaya 006
19 Mizoram 000
20 Nagaland 000
21 Orissa 159
22 Punjab 012
23 Rajasthan 188
24 Sikkim 001
25 Tamil Nadu 100
26 Tripura 001
27 Uttar Pradesh 130
28 Uttarakhand 017
29 West Bengal 028
Total No. of Dams 4,525
Table 6.4 : Dams of India
SOURCE: Central Water Commission (CWC)
AREAS EFFECTED BY FLOODS IN INDIA
The area affected by flood in the country from 1953 to 2004 is given below:-
53

Year
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
Flood Affected Area
(Million Ha.)
Year
Flood Affected Area
(Million Ha.)
2.290 1979 3.990
7.490 1980 11.460
9.440 1981 6.120
9.240 1982 8.870
4.860 1983 9.020
6.260 1984 10.710
5.770 1985 8.380
7.530 1986 8.810
6.560 1987 8.890
6.120 1988 16.290
3.490 1989 8.060
4.900 1990 9.303
1.460 1991 6.357
4.740 1992 2.645
7.150 1993 11.439
7.150 1994 4.805
6.200 1995 5.245
8.460 1996 8.049
13.250 1997 4.569
4.100 1998 9.133
11.790 1999 3.978
6.700 2000 5.166
6.170 2001 3.008
54

1976
1977
1978
11.910 2002 7.090
11.460 2003 6.503
17.500 2004 8.031
Table 6.5 : Flood affected area in India from 1953 to 2004
SOURCE: Central Water Commission (CWC)
Figure 6.3 : Year wise Area affected by Floods (1953-2005)
55

Figure 6.4 : Year wise total damage by Floods (1953-2005)
DEFINITIONS OF USEFUL FLOOD MAPS
Flood hazard map
A flood hazard map provides information about the return period associated
with the aerial extent of inundation for a reach of a river .The flood hazard maps are
prepared delineating areas subjected to inundation by floods of various magnitudes
and frequencies. These maps may serve as important tools in proper flood plain
management. It is necessary that the area flooded by a particular flood is shown by
suitable color scheme or designs on the map. In addition, explanatory notes, tables
and graphs may also be provided with flood hazard maps to facilitate their use.
Flood inundation map
A flood inundation map provides information about the aerial extent of
inundation for a reach of a river during a flood event when the flood water in the river
56

overtops its banks and leads to the flooding of adjoining areas or flood plains. The
flood inundation map for a reach of river may be prepared by demarcation with
physical inputs i.e. by demarcating the various locations of the flood plains which get
inundated during a particular flood, by hydraulic/hydrologic modeling and using the
satellite data.
Flood risk zone map
A flood risk zone map provides information about the risk associated with the
damages caused or losses resulting from a flood event in a particular area or flood
risk zone. Preparation of flood risk zone map incorporates the financial aspects and
provides the actuarial inputs for flood insurance plans and for other purposes.
Flood plain zoning map
A flood plain zoning map categorizes various zones based on administrative
legislations for planning and development of the flood plains for various purposes
such as agricultural activities, play fields, industrial areas and residential areas etc.
Preparation of flood plain zoning maps takes into consideration the inputs from flood
inundation, flood hazard and flood risk zone maps.
TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES OF FLOODPLAIN MAPPING
Conventional dynamic flood frequency analysis techniques have been
developed to quantitatively assess flood hazards over the past half century. These
traditional techniques yield dynamic historical flood data which, when available, is
used to accurately map floodplains. In addition to a record of peak flows over a
period of years (frequency analysis), a detailed survey (cross sections, slopes and
contour maps) along with hydraulic roughness estimates is required before the
57

extent of flooding for an expected recurrence interval can be determined. In
traditional floodplain mapping, the requisite data and maps include the following:
The selected base (topographic) map with the surface water system
FEATURES DESCRIPTION
Hydrologic
data
Related maps
� Frequency analysis (including river discharge and
historical flood data), Flood inundation maps
� Flood frequency and damage reports, etc.
� Stage-area curves, Slope maps, Cross sections
� Hydraulic roughness
� Soils, Physiographic
� Geology, land use, Hydrology
� Vegetation, population density
� infrastructure and settlements
Table 6.6: Features Maps for floods
This dynamic approach requires extensive long term field surveys, with a
network of gauging stations that can develop the data needed for precise risk
assessments. Such extensive long term information is seldom available for river
systems in less developed countries. To obtain hydrologic data, one must contact
the appropriate hydro-meteorological agencies of government to secure available
data and maps. Soils maps and geological maps often delineate floodplains.
Topographic maps at suitable scales for the project should be available within
the country. What is more readily available is information derived from static
techniques which are capable of yielding information on flood hazard
58

assessment.
Figure 6.5 : Existing flood affected area map of India
SOURCE: Central Water Commission (CWC)
59

METHODOLOGY OF FLOOD HAZARD ZONING
DESCRIPTION OF TECHNOLOGY
These technologies include light detection and ranging (LIDAR),
Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (IFSAR), and photogrammetry.
1. Identify the current mapping technologies being used to develop flood hazard
maps
2. Identify mapping technologies that are currently available; and
3. Determine if newer technologies are appropriate and would be of additional
benefit to floodplain mapping.
Special focus in detail is required on the following issues:
(1) Coastal flooding—this involves a different methodology than riverine
flooding and since the nation has 7,517km of coastlines and more than
16,000 km of rivers and streams, the focus on riverside flooding and coastal
flooding because that makes up the bulk of flood map modernization.
(2) Geodetic control—the precision of definition of the survey control points and
vertical datums across the nation, to highlight land subsidence, an issue
important to flood map modernization.
(3) Mapping technologies other than airborne remote sensing to be the
considered in detail only photogrammetry, light detection and ranging
(LIDAR), and interferometric synthetic aperture radar (IFSAR), which are all
aerial mapping technologies, and did not consider land-based mapping
technologies.
(4) Uncertainties in flood hydrology and hydraulics.
60

Figure 6.6 : Schematic for flood hazard zonation
61

Catchment
Area Rainfall
measurement
FLOOD EARLY WARNING SYSTEM
River
Gauging/low
measurement
Dam Discharge
Actual
Inundation
map
Assets in Flood
Areas
Risk Analysis
Figure 6.7 : Flood early warning system
Dissemination of warning
62

Figure 6.8 : Flood early warning system
63

BASE MAP INFORMATION
Land surface reference information describes streams, roads, buildings, and
administrative boundaries that show the background context for mapping the flood
hazard zone.
The new methods typically use a digital orthophoto as the base map,
supplemented by planimetric vector data for key map features (e.g., roads needed
for georeferencing building locations) and administrative boundaries (e.g., city or
county boundaries) that cannot be observed in photography. An orthophoto is an
aerial photograph from which all relief displacement and camera tilt effects have
been removed such that the scale of the photograph is uniform and it can be
considered equivalent to a map. The elevation data input to floodplain mapping, has
a much greater effect on the accuracy of floodplain maps and base flood elevation
(BFE) is an important component of those maps.
BASE FLOOD ELEVATION (BFE)
Land surface elevation information defines the shape of the land surface,
which is important in defining the direction, velocity, and depth of flood flows. Land
surface elevation data for flood management studies of individual streams and rivers
have traditionally been derived by land surveying, but the very large aerial extent of
floodplain mapping, which covers the areas adjacent to streams and shorelines,
means that land surface elevation data for flood map modernization are mostly
derived from mapped sources, not from land surveying.
Land surface elevation information is combined with data from flood hydrology
and hydraulic simulation models, to define the BFE, which is the water surface
64

elevation that would result from a flood having a 1 percent chance of being equaled
or exceeded in any year at the mapped location. A floodplain map is created by
tracing the extent of inundation of the landscape by water at the BFE.
Use of the maps to regulate land development in floodplains by local
communities typically requires the first floor elevation of a building to be at or above
the BFE if that building is to be constructed within the floodplain. The governing
criterion used is thus often stated as: Is the first floor elevation above the BFE? In
some communities, a safety margin such as 1 foot of elevation is added to the BFE
in order to take into account allowable encroachments into the floodplain that may
raise the water surface elevation by 1 foot. This criterion, based on vertical rather
than horizontal criteria, is better than that used in flood insurance determinations.
Rational floodplain management and flood damage estimation depend not
only on how far the water spreads, but also on how deeply buildings are flooded and
with what frequency. If the task of the nation’s flood management is observed in this
larger context, accurate land surface and floodwater surface elevation information
are critical. For example, in the flood damage mitigation projects undertaken in
collaboration with local communities, flood damage estimation requires knowing the
first floor elevation of all flood-prone buildings. The rational flood management for the
nation requires that the problem be viewed in three dimensions, quantifying flood
depth throughout the floodplain, not as a two-dimensional problem of defining the
extent of a flood plain boundary on a flat map.
ELEVATION DATA
The elevation data of 0.5 m equivalent contour accuracy by National Map
Accuracy Standards in flat areas and 1.0 m equivalent contour accuracy in rolling
65

and hilly areas, which corresponds to a root mean square error of 18.5 centimeters
for flat areas and 37.0 centimeters for rolling and hilly areas, respectively. Flat and
hilly are not defined quantitatively in the current guidelines; they are subjective terms
that are to be interpreted during the scoping phase of a flood study. In other words,
the detailed floodplain mapping standards call for elevation data that are about 10
times more accurate than the NED, although existing elevation data coverage in
many areas of the country is of significantly better quality. This means that the
existing NED, and the topographic contour information upon which it is based, are
not adequate to support Flood Map Modernization, except where new high-accuracy
elevation data have been added from state or local sources.
ELEVATION FOR NATION METHOD
Elevation for the Nation implies not simply a new data measurement initiative,
but also a change in the way the nation’s elevation data are archived. In order to
support all forms of subsequent interpretation, all of the measured LIDAR points
should be stored. The points defining the bare-earth elevation are combined with
break lines defining the boundaries of water features to produce a digital terrain
model that is capable of several forms of output representation, including traditional
contours, regularly girded digital elevation models, or a better approach called a
triangulated irregular network (TIN), in which individual points and lines are
combined into a triangular mesh that continuously spans the land surface of an area.
TINs represent sharp land surface features such as road embankments precisely,
and they are the representation of choice for hydraulic analysis of floodplains, which
defines floodwater surface elevations.
SUMMARY OF METHODOLOGY
66

1. Elevation for the Nation should employ LIDAR as the primary technology for
digital elevation data acquisition. LIDAR is capable of producing a bare-earth
elevation model with better than 0.5 m equivalent contour accuracy in most
terrain and land cover types; a 1.0 m equivalent contour accuracy is more
cost-effective in mountainous terrain, and a 1-foot equivalent contour
accuracy can be achieved in very flat coastal or inland floodplains. A
seamless nationwide elevation database created at these accuracies would
meet requirements for floodplain mapping for the nation.
2. A seamless nationwide elevation model has application beyond the Map
Modernization program; some local and state governments are acquiring
LIDAR data at these accuracies or better.
3. The new data collected in Elevation for the Nation should be collated with
existing data set as part of an updated National Elevation Dataset
4. The Elevation for the Nation database should contain the original LIDAR mass
points and edited bare-earth surface, as well as any break lines required to
define essential linear features.
5. In addition to the elements proposed for the national database, secondary
products including triangulated irregular networks, hydrologically corrected
digital elevation models, and hydrologically corrected stream networks and
shorelines should be created to support floodplain mapping. Standards and
interchange formats for these secondary products do not currently exist and
should be developed. Comprehensive standards for LIDAR data collection
and processing are also needed.
6. DEM/DSM/DTM model to be created for catchment areas in 1: 2,000 scale
where contour intervals better than 0.5 meter
67

7. The DEM/DSM/DTM model to be created for river embankment areas (5
kilometers strip on either side) and coast line (10 kilometer strip along the
coast) in 1: 2,000 scale which contour intervals better than 0.5 meter
8. The flood inundation map to be created forms the above data using standard
programs available.
9. Flood data record to be collected for different river basins and flood returns
period analysis and flood intensity analysis to be done.
10. The river cross-section and river hydraulic maps to be worked out.
11. The flood inundation map for different river gauge levels, flood return period
and flood intensity analysis to be converted into flood hazards maps.
12. The flood hazards maps are to be calibrated with actual flood records to
arrive at flood hazard zonation map.
13. The early warning system schematic is shown in Figure B.2.12. It requires
real time measurement of precipitation in catchment area and river gauging
and dam discharge data.
14. Combined with the information provided in above paragraphs, river hydraulics
and DEM/DTM/DSM maps, the flood inundation maps can be created.
15. The inundation map combined with assets maps will generate risk maps
which are useful tool for mitigation.
68

16. The early warning can be generated 72 hrs prior to actual event based on
inundation and risk maps.
MAPPING REQUIREMENT FOR FLOOD HAZARD ZONATION
1. Aerial mapping of catchment area of all critical river basins needs to be done
at the scale 1:2,000 and contour intervals of 0.5 meters or better to create
catchments area module.
2. Aerial mapping of all embankments of rivers to be done at the scale 1:2,000
and contour intervals of 0.5 meters or better to create three dimensional
riverside model.
3. The aerial survey is supplemented with field survey of river bed to obtain river
hydraulic model.
4. Aerial mapping of 10 kms strips on both sides of riverbed to be done at the
scale of 1:2,000 and contour intervals of 0.5 meters or better to create flood
inundation maps.
5. The high resolution maps at the scale 1:10,000 with contour interval 1.0 meter
or better can be done for entire flood hazard prone area.
6. Complete asset map in flood hazard zone to be created as per the data model
given in the Annexure.
7. The mapping requirement for the flood hazard due to storm surge due to
cyclones is covered in the mapping requirement of the cyclone hazard
69

CHAPTER 7
METHODOLOGY FOR HAZARD MAPPING OF
LANDSLIDES
DESCRIPTION OF LANDSLIDE HAZARD
Landslide is a geological/geotechnical phenomenon which includes a wide range of
ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris
Figure 7.1 : Debris flow, occurred on 9
November 2001 in Kerala, India.,
The event killed 39.
Figure 7.2 : Ferguson Slide on California
State Highway 140, Mon 21 Apr 2008
02:36:01 PM
flows, which can occur in Offshore,
coastal, and onshore environments. The primary driving force for a landslide to
occur is gravity, however there are other contributing factors affecting the
70

original slope stability making it unstable.Once the instability is created in sub-critical
slopes any natural/human induced trigger can cause landslide. Some of the typical
landslide scenarios are show in Fig. 7.1 and 7.2 For more details , please refer to
Annex- V.
Landslide hazard analysis and mapping can provide useful information for
catastrophic loss reduction, and assist in the development of guidelines for
sustainable land use planning. The analysis is used to identify the factors that are
related to landslides, estimate the relative contribution of factors causing slope
failures, establish a relation between the factors and landslides, and to predict the
landslide hazard in the future based on such a relationship . The factors that have
been used for landslide hazard analysis can usually be grouped into
geomorphology, geology, land use/land cover, and hydrogeology.
Since many factors are considered for landslide hazard mapping, GIS is an
appropriate tool because it has functions of collection, storage, manipulation, display,
and analysis of large amounts of spatially referenced data which can be handled fast
and effectively. Remote sensing techniques are also highly employed for landslide
hazard assessment and analysis. Before and after aerial photographs and satellite
imagery are used to gather landslide characteristics, like distribution and
classification, and factors like slope, lithology, and land use/land cover to be used to
help predict future events. Before and after imagery also helps to reveal how the
landscape changed after an event, what may have triggered the landslide, and
shows the process of regeneration and recovery. For more details , please refer to
Annex- V.
Using satellite imagery in combination with GIS and on-the-ground studies, it
is possible to generate maps of likely occurrences of future landslides. Such maps
71

should show the locations of previous events as well as clearly indicate the probable
locations of future events. In general, to predict landslides, one must assume that
their occurrence is determined by certain geologic factors, and that future landslides
will occur under the same conditions as past events . Therefore, it is necessary to
establish a relationship between the geomorphologic conditions in which the past
events took place and the expected future conditions.
Natural disasters are a dramatic example of people living in conflict with the
environment. Early predictions and warnings are essential for the reduction of
property damage and loss of life. Because landslides occur frequently and can
represent some of the most destructive forces on earth, it is imperative to have a
good understanding as to what causes them and how people can either help prevent
them from occurring or simply avoid them when they do occur. Sustainable land
management and development is an essential key to reducing the negative impacts
felt by landslides. For more details , please refer to Annex- V.
GIS offers a superior method for landslide analysis because it allows one to
capture, store, manipulate, analyze, and display large amounts of data quickly and
effectively. Because so many variables are involved, it is important to be able to
overlay the many layers of data to develop a full and accurate portrayal of what is
taking place on the Earth's surface. Researchers need to know which variables are
the most important factors that trigger landslides in any given location. Using GIS,
extremely detailed maps can be generated to show past events and likely future
events which have the potential to save lives, property, and money.
TRIGGER FACTORS FOR LANDSLIDE
72

Landslides occur when the stability of slope changes from a stable to unstable
condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors,
acting together or alone. Both natural and human induced triggers cause landslides
as shown in the Figure 7.3.For more details , please refer to Annex- V.
Figure 7.3 : Schematic of landslide on critical slopes due to triggers
73

LANDSLIDE HAZARD ZONATION MODELING
Figure7.4 : Landslide hazard zonation modeling
74

LANDSLIDE PRONE AREAS IN INDIA
This map given below is based on the past history and records of landslides
occurrences in India. It is found that some areas are most prone to landslide hazard
and require to be mapped in 1:2,000 scale. The areas are most prone including
northeast India, Sikkim, Western Ghats (Kerala and Tamil Nadu), Western Ghats
(Kokan), Western Ghats (Maharashtra). For more details , please refer to Annex- V.
Figure 7.5 : Landslide prone regions of India
Source: Survey of India
75

MAPPING REQUIREMENT FOR LANDSLIDE HAZARD ZONATION
1. Aerial mapping of critical slopes needs to be done at the scale 1:2,000 and
contour intervals of 0.5 meter or better for slope angles less than ten degrees.
2. Aerial mapping of critical slopes needs to be done at the scale 1:2,000 and
contour intervals of 1.0 meter or better for slope angles more than 10 degrees.
3. Geotechnical map of critical slopes needs to be done at the scale 1:2,000 and
contour intervals of 1.0 meter.
4. Vegetation map/ land use map in the scale of 1:2,000.
5. Geological maps of the area of interest in the scale of 1:50,000.
6. Rainfall map in the scale of 1:10,000.
7. Seismotectonic map of the area of interest in the scale of 1:50,000.
76

Despite our best efforts the natural development cycle of large scale emergency
response is overwhelmingly a reactionary process -- crisis event, response,
evaluation, innovation, preparation, crisis event and response. Precious early
moments are spent gathering situation knowledge as matters continue to destabilize.
In this regard, remote sensing is arguably a great equalizer, allowing for quicker
analysis of larger affected areas and affording a means to “catch up” to a disaster
using available reserves and incoming assistance. Quality geospatial information is
among the most valuable and most sought after assets in a modern situational crisis.
This places greater responsibility on the remote sensing community to continually
develop improved methods and technology that deliver data quickly and efficiently for
all-purpose applications; from emergency response to urban planning to team
preparation – all so that potential problems may be identified, visualized, countered,
resolved, and, in future, avoided.
CHAPTER 8
SATELLITE IMAGERY IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
AND FOR GENERATING MULTI-HAZARD MAPS
(MHM)
Significant developments in digital technology, network capabilities, and data storage
have lent themselves well to the aerial remote sensing world, and extend beyond
never before experienced processing speed and data-sharing potential.
Fresh geographic information available in the critical early hours of a crisis remained
a luxury as late as 2002. One critical time delay to getting this information in-hand
77

was that ground control points (GCPs) were typically needed to produce accurate
data for any purpose beyond ad hoc visualization. By definition, the horizontal datum
is a rectangular plane coordinate system. All horizontal control shall begin and
terminate on monuments that are in the National Geodetic Reference Database
System (NGRDS). The vertical datum is normal to gravity. All vertical control shall
begin and terminate on existing benchmarks that are in the National Geodetic
Reference Database System (NGRDS).
Time consumed to collect under the best conditions, placing personnel on the ground
to collect GCP data in order to properly orthorectify images captured over
inaccessible regions such as a heavily flooded or hostile area may be impossible or
at least certainly not worth the risk. A new method was needed – direct
georeferencing.
Direct georeferencing produces an accurate relationship between airborne image
data and the terrain it represents by accurately measuring the relative position and
orientation of the sensor, removing the need for traditional ground-based GCP
measurements. This approach employs a GPS-assisted inertial navigation system to
determine the exact position and orientation of an airborne sensor at the exact
moment of data capture.
As navigation sensors (GPS, IMU, etc.) continuously record sensor travel and
rotation data before during and after image capture, ranges and bearing
measurements are produced to represent exact points on the ground via the sensor.
It is then possible to calculate the exact position each image pixel represents on the
ground through the corresponding points measured in the mapping frame; all without
ever needing to collect a single GCP. This is true remote sensing in that no work is
required on the ground.
78

One current state-of–the-art direct georeferencing system uses GPS measurements
integrated with an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) and flight assistance technology
to measure sensor position and orientation up to 300 times per second. Whereas a
GPS can refresh position and orientation data accurately approximately once every
second if given direct line of sight to a minimum of 5 GPS satellites, a quality IMU
(supported by the GPS system) can fill in the GPS data gaps, performing even in the
absence of a suitable number of GPS satellite connections, during long outages, and
throughout tight turning maneuvers. (For more details please refer to Annex. VIII)
Software post-processing of collected data turns sub-meter accuracy into centimeter
accuracy by comparing position and orientation information before and after data
capture and filtering out anomalies. Integrating navigation data with airborne remote
sensing data means that exterior orientation parameters can be produced in near
real-time. Images are corrected without accepting the time cost, financial cost, or
possible dangers of collecting GCPs.
Suddenly, the most significant delay in getting data to response teams becomes the
wait for the plane to return !
Rapid response camera systems have benefited just as much from medium format
airborne digital camera advances over the past five years as they have from overall
system cost savings., Innovations in medium format lens quality, Pixel sizes, CCD
quantum efficiency, and radiometric performance have blurred long established
divisions between medium and large format aerial camera systems.
79

The following methodologies may be considered for the generation of 1:10,000
database:
Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible
areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such
as the Amazon basin, the effects of climate change on glaciers and Arctic and
Antarctic regions, and sounding of coastal and ocean depths. Military collection
during the cold war made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border
areas. Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground,
ensuring in the process that areas or objects are not disturbed. (For more details
please refer to Annex. IX)
CHAPTER 9
VARIOUS METHODOLOGY AVAILABLE FOR
PROCUREMENT OF 1:10,000 IMAGES
SATELLITE IMAGING
More and more, high and very high resolution optical space sensors are
available. Ground Sampling Distance (GSD) of the imaging system of optical space
sensor is an important value, also the type of imaging with a Transfer Delay and
Integration sensor (TDI) or by reducing the angular speed with a permanent rotation
of the satellite during imaging is important, like the accuracy of the attitude control
and determination unit. The radiometric and spectral resolution has to be taken into
account. For operational use the swath width, viewing flexibility and imaging capacity
80

has to be respected. The very high resolution optical satellites can change the view
direction very fast, allowing a stereoscopic coverage within the same orbit, but this is
reducing the amount of scenes which can be taken from the same orbit. On the other
hand stereo combinations taken from neighboring paths are affected by changes in
the object space, atmospheric conditions or different length of shadows.
The object identification is strongly dependent upon the GSD. Individual
buildings can be identified up to 2m GSD, while with 62cm also building details can
be seen. Building extensions are represented only in maps up to a scale 1:5,000
while in 1:25,000 maps buildings are shown mainly as symbols. Caused by the
required generalization, in maps 1:50,000 only the character of a settlement is
available. In a scale 1:5,000 the building details and in 1:25,000 the rough shape is
shown, while in 1:50,000 only symbols for the houses are present. This confirms the
mentioned rule of thumb for a required GSD of at least 0.1mm in the publishing
scale. (For More details please refer to Annex. XVII)
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Direct georeferencing (DG) system,
for aerial photography, provides the
ability to directly relate the data
collected by a remote sensing device
to the Earth, by accurately measuring
the geographic position and
orientation of the device without the
use of traditional ground-based
measurements. Examples of where
DG systems are used in the airborne
Figure 9.1: Aerial Photography
mapping industry include: scanning laser systems or LIDAR, Interferrometric
Synthetic Aperture Radar systems (InSAR), multispectral and hyperspectral
81

scanners, large format digital line scanners, large and medium format digital frame
cameras, and traditional large format film cameras, Current state-of–the-art direct
georeferencing systems are available with leading manufacturers. They use carrier
phase differential GNSS measurements integrated with an Inertial Measurement Unit
(IMU). (For more details please refer to Annex. XI)
The key component of the DS system is the GNSS-Aided Inertial Navigation
software. This software runs in real-time on the processing Computer System and in
post-processing software suite. It performs the integration of the inertial data from the
IMU with the data from the GNSS receiver.
COMPARISON BETWEEN SATELLITE IMAGING AND AERIAL MAPPING
GENERAL DIFFERENCES
With the higher resolution and unrestricted access to images taken by
satellites, a competition between aerial images and space data is existing, starting
for a map scale 1: 5,000. However, high resolution stereo satellites are still under
evaluation for detailed mapping.
COMPARISON BETWEEN LIDAR, HIGH RESOLUTION STEREO SATELLITE IMAGE
AND AERIAL PHOTO
Features LiDAR
Contour Interval
Contour
Generation
High Resolution
satellite stereo
Aerial
Photogrammetry/
Photo Scale
0.5 m � � � (1:5,000)
1 m � � � (1:10,000)
82

2 m � � � (1:25,000)
5 m �
10 m and
Above
Target Map Scale
3D Feature
Extraction
Base Map
creation
Output Resolution
Ortho
Photo
�
� Geoeye,
Worldview
and Ikonos
(1m and
below)
� (Many
Satellites)
� (1:40,000
andAbove)
1:500
Feature
� (1:3,500)
1:1000 Collection
� (1:6,000)
1:2500 possible, but for
� (1:12,500)
1:5000 Higher
� (1:30,000)
1:7,500
and
Above
accuracy
images are
required
� Geoeye and
Worldview
(0.5m)
� (1:40,000 and
above)
1:500
Feature
� (1:3,500)
1:1000 Collection
� (1:6,000)
1:2500 possible, but for
� (1:12,500)
1:5000 Higher
� (1:30,000)
1:7,500
and
Above
accuracy
images are
required
� Geoeye and
Worldview
(0.5m)
� (1:40,000 and
above)
0.1 m
� (1:5,000)
0.25 m � (1:15,000)
83

Generation
0.5 m
1 m
2.5 m
5m and
Above
LiDAR alone will
generate DEM’s
� Geoeye and
Worldview
(0.5m)
� Geoeye,
Worldview
and Ikonos
(1m and
below)
� Geoeye,
Worldview,
Ikonos and
Cartosat 1
(2.5m and
below)
� (Many
Satellites)
List is attached in
annexure
� (1:30,000)
� (1:50,000
andAbove)
Table 9.1: Comparison between Lidar, High-resolution stereo Satellite image
and Aerial photo
COMPARISON OF ACCURACY OF IMAGING
The most significant plus points of such datasets includes
� Less numbers of images compared with aerial photos (minimizes
triangulation time)
� The flying restriction issues
84

� Medium scale mapping can be done with this technique. Feature
extraction meeting 1:7,000 scales and above is possible
Satellite stereo is not a full replacement for traditional aerial photogrammetry, since
feature extraction for higher mapping scales is still an area to be looked upon. The
accuracy differences are given below in the table.
Scale Accuracy Remark
1:10,000
1:5,000
Aerial Photography
20 cm ( X,Y)
40 cm (Z)
10 cm
20cm ( z)
Satellite stereo
Imagery
Greater than 3 m
(6 meter)
2.5 - 3 m
1:1,000 5 cm 1.2 m
Both satellite and aerial
provide comparable results.
Satellite requires more GCP
points for registration
purpose
Aerial can give better and
more accurate. Aerial flying
requires minimum GCPs
Satellite can not give this
scale and accuracies
Table 9.2: Comparison between satellite imagery and aerial photography
COMPARISON OF GROUND SAMPLING DISTANCE (GSD) BETWEEN
SATELLITE IMAGING AND AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
85

A brief comparative of the various techniques for image procurement are as follows;
S.No. Parameters Satellite
mapping
1. Resolution Max: 40 cm
(Geoeye)
Aerial mapping
Vehicle mounted
ground survey
Better than 10 cm Better than 5 cm
2. Mapping Scale 1:10000 1:2000 or better 1:500 or better
3. Type of imaging Stereo Stereo Stereo
4. Derived Product DEM/DTM/DSM DEM/DTM/DSM DEM/DTM/DSM
5. Contour 1 meter Better than 0.5 meter Better than 10 cm
6. GCP
requirement
Yes (atleast 14
per frame OF 10
Km x 10 Km at
minimum
spacing of 5 Km
or better
traceable to
reference datum
of International
Geocentric
Reference frame
(ITRF))
Not required as on board
Dual Frequency
Differential GPS
processing integrated
with Satellite Based
Augmentation Service
(SBAS). Automatically
performances Geo
referencing of images.
Not required as on
board Dual
Frequency
Differential GPS
processing
integrated with
Satellite Based
Augmentation
Service (SBAS).
Automatically
performances Geo
referencing of
images.
86

7. GCP Accuracy
(95%
confidence)
Horizontal
Vertical
Required on the
ground
Better than 30
cm
Better than 20
cm
Table 9.3: Comparison between satellite imagery, aerial photography and
Vehicle mounted ground survey
Automatically done
Better than 5 cm
Better than 5 cm
Based on experiences, optical images should have a ground sampling distance (GSD) of
0.05mm up to 0.1mm in the map scale corresponding to a map scale of 1: 20,000 up to 1:
10,000 for a GSD of 1m. GSD is the distance of the centre of neighborhood pixels
projected on the ground. Because of over or under-sampling, the GSD is not identical to the
projected size of a pixel, but for the user, the GSD appears as pixel size on the ground.
GSD Target map scale Comparisons
AT GSD 10 cm Aerial Satellite
1:500 0.05 m Not Good
1:1,000 0.05 m Not Good
AT GSD 20 cm 1:2,000 0.10 m Not Good
1:2,500 0.10 m Not Good
1:3,000 0.10 m Not Good
1:4,000 0.10 m Not Good
1:5,000 0.10 m Not Good
AT GSD 50 cm 1:8,000 0.25 m 2.5 m
1:9,000 0.25 m 2.5 m
Automatically done
Better than 5 cm
Better than 5 cm
8. 3D imaging Rough estimate Accurate Accurate
87

1:10,000 0.25 m 2.5 m
1:16,000 0.25 m 2.5 m
1:20,000 0.25 m 10.0
Table 9.4: Comparison of GSD for Satellite imagery and aerial photography
A target scale of 1:6000 and less is not possible with resolution 0.5 m as
some of the finer features like poles, manholes will not be visible on these satellite
images and therefore for such map scales Aerial imagery is used. With the present
commercial stereo satellite imagery available a target scale of 1:7,000 or more is
possible. (For more details please refer to Annex. XVII)
� The accuracy achieved for Geoeye test data, shows that the map scale of
1:7,000 and above is achievable as per ASPRS standards reference (Table)
for aerial images, but the problem lies with the GSD of the satellite Data, for
Geoeye has a GSD of 0.5m
� QuickBird is limited to 6,900 lines/second with orbit speed 7,638m/sec and
footprint speed 7,134m/sec - with 0.62m GSD slow down factor 1.61 required
� EROS-B – 2,400 lines/sec � slow down factor at least 4.2.
� EROS-A – 750 lines/sec � slow down factor at least 5.2 limiting imaging
capacity, with EROS only individual areas, no large continuous coverage
Important also is the internal storage and downlink capacity.
Satellite Collection rate Approximate theoretical collection
capacity / day
IKONOS 2,365 km²/min 150,000 km²/day
QuickBird 2,666 km²/min 135,000 km²/day
OrbView-3 1,483 km²/min 80,000 km²/day
88

WorldView-1 4,512 km²/min 750,000 km²/day
GeoEye-1 2,842 km²/min
PAN: 700,000 km²/day; PAN+ms: 350,000
km²/day
WorldView-2 4,686 km²/min 975 000 km²/day
Table 9.5: Current satellite collection rates
89

Some of the available sensors resolutions are as follows;
SATELLITE RESOLUTION
GeoEye-1 0.41 meter resolution- Panchromatic / Multispectral
Worldview-2 0.46 meter resolution- Panchromatic/Multispectral
Worldview-1 0.46 meter resolution- Panchromatic
Quickbird 0.6 meter resolution- 5 bands (Red - Green - Blue - Pan - NIR)
Ikonos 0.8 meter resolution- 5 bands (Pan, blue, green, red, NIR)
Aster
Landsat 7 TM
EO-1 Sensor
Hyperion
CHAPTER 10
TECHNICAL DETAILS OF MAJOR SATELLITES USED
FOR PROCUREMENT OF 1:10,000 IMAGES
AVAILABLE SENSOR RESOLUTIONS IN SATELLITE MAPPING
15 meter resolution- 14 spectral bands (Visible and Near
Infrared - 3 bands), (Short Wave Infrared - 6 bands) and
(Thermal Infrared - 5 bands)
15 meter resolution- 8 spectral bands (Visible, Infrared, NIR,
Table 10.1: Sensor resolutions of various satellites
Thermal, Low Gain, High Gain, Mid IR, and Pan)
10 meter resolution- 220 spectral bands
90

TECHNICAL DETAILS OF INDIAN SATELLITES
RESOURCESAT 1
Resourcesat – 1 is conceptualised and designed to provide continuity in operational
remote sensing with its superior capabilities. The main objective of Resourcesat - 1 is
not only to provide continued remote sensing data for integrated land and water
management and agricultural and it’s related applications, but also to provide additional
capabilities for applications. Apart from making data available in real time to the Ground
Stations in it visibility area Resorcesat - 1 with it’s ability to record data anywhere in the
world with its advanced On Board Solid State Recorder, has entered into new
dimensions of meeting the requirements of Resource Managers globally.
PARAMETERS SPECIFICATIONS
Orbit/Cycle Visits / year 341
Semi major axis 7195.11km
Altitude 817 km
Inclination 98.69 deg
Eccentricity 0.001
Number of Orbits/day 14.2083
Orbit period 101.35 min
Repetivity 24 days
Distance between adjacent paths 117.5 km
91

Distance between successive ground tracks 2820 km
Ground trace velocity 6.65 km/sec
Equatorial crossing velocity
Table 10.2: Technical details of Resourcesat 1
10:30 Am At Descending node
± 5 min
The Resourcesat - 1 is designed to provide multispectral, monoscopic and stereoscopic
imageries of the earth’s surface with it’s advanced on-board sensors. Linear Imaging and
Self Scanning Sensor (LISS-III), an Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS) and a High
Resolution Multispectral Sensor LISS-IV constitute main payload of Resourcesat.
SENSOR
SPECIFICATIONS
LISS-4 LISS III AWIFS
IGFOV 5.8 m at nadir 23.5 m 56 m at nadir
(Across Track) (Across track)
Spectral Bands B2 0.52 - 0.59 B2 0.52 - 0.59 B2 0.52 - 0.59
B3 0.62 - 0.68 B3 0.62 - 0.68 B3 0.62 - 0.68
B4 0.77 - 0.86 B4 0.77 - 0.86 B4 0.77 - 0.86
B5 1.55 - 1.70 B5 1.55 - 1.70
Swath 23.9 km (Mx), 141 km 740 km (Combined)
70 kms (Mono) , 370 km (Each head)
Integration time 0.877714 msec, 3.32 msec, 9.96 msec
Quantization 10 bits, 7 bits ,10 bits
Selected 7 Bits will be SWIR band has 10 bit transmitted by
the data quantization, selected handling system 7 bits out of
10 bits will be transmitted by the data handling system
92

No. of gains Single gain 4 for B2, B3 and B4.
(Dynamic range obtained by sliding 7 bits out of 10 For B5
(Dynamic range obtained by sliding 7 1 bits) bits out of 10
bits)
Table 10.3: Sensor details of Resourcesat 1
PAYLOAD RESOLUTION
(METERS)
LISS III
Visible
LISS III
SWIR
LISS IV
Mono
SWATH
(KM)
REVIST
IMAGE
SIZE KM X
KM
OVERLAP
KM
SIDELAP
EQUATOR
KM
23.5 141 24 Days 142 x 141 7 23.5
23.5 141 24 Days 142 x 141 7 23.5
5.8 70 5 Days 70 x 70 2.5
Mx 5.8 23 5 Days 23 x 23 14.2
AWIFS
56 (Nadir) 70
(End pixel)
Table 10.4: Payload details of Resourcesat 1
5 With in
LISS III
737 5 Days 738 x 737 82 % 84 %
Data products can be categorized as standard and value added products. Value
added products are generated by further processing of standard corrected data. Data
products are supplied in both photographic and digital media. Various options like
different digital formats, resampling methods, etc. are available to the
user community. Data products are classified into
� Scene based standard products
� Scene based georeferenced products
� Map based geo-coded products
� Floating geo-coded products
93

� Ortho-rectified geo-coded products
� LISS IV Products
� LISS III Products
The oblique viewing capability of LISS-IV sensor can be used to acquire stereo pairs.
S.No
LISS IV
Product
Type
Level of
Correction
1. Scene based Standard
2.
Map sheet
based
Area
Covered
(Km x Km)
23 x 23 70
x 70
Georeferenced 23 x 23
Geocoded 7.5' x 7.5'
3. Point based Geocoded 5' x 5'
4.
Basic stereo
pair
5. Ortho Image
Radiometrically
corrected
Ortho Rectified
(External DEM)
Orthorectified
(External DEM)
No. of
Bands
3 Mx
bands
Mono
3 Mx
bands
Output
Digital /
Photographic
Digital /
Photographic
Digital
70 x 70 Mono Digital
3 Mx
bands
7.5' x 7.5' Mono
15' x 15' Mono
3 Mx
bands
Mono
Digital /
Photographic
Digital /
Photographic
Digital /
Photographic
Digital /
Photographic
Digital /
Photographic
70 x 70 Km Mono Digital
7.5' x 7.5'
(Stereo
graphic)
Mono
7.5' x 7.5' Mono
Digital /
Photographic
Digital /
Photographic
94

6.
LISS III +
LISS IV
(Mono)
Geocoded
Orthorectified
(External DEM)
15' x 15' Mono
Merge 15' x 15' 3
Table 10.5 : LISS product details of Resourcesat 1
S.No
1.
2.
AWiFS
Product
Type
Path row
based
(with or
without
shift)
Map sheet
based
Level of
Correction
70 x 70 Km 3
Area
Covered
(Km x Km)
No. of
Bands
Digital /
Photographic
Digital /
Photographic
Digital /
Photographic
Output
Raw 370 x 370 4 Digital
Radiometrically
corrected
370 x 370 4 Digital
Standard 370 x 370 3 4
Photographic
Digital
Geo referenced 370 x 370 4 Digital
Geo coded 1 o x 1 o 3 4
Table 10.6 : AWiFS product details of Resourcesat 1
Photographic
Digital
Users can view the data using our advanced digital browsing facility and place
indents using the User Order Processing System (UOPS) . Those who has further
data requirements and OBSSR requirements, can provide details through UOPS so
that the satellite is suitably programmed and the data made available to the user.
These data products can be delivered by conventional methods of speed post /
courier or by electronic delivery.
95

CARTOSAT 1
There is now an increasing demand for large scale and topographic mapping to meet
this requirement. DOS has launched the Cartosat-1 satellite which is dedicated to
stereo viewing for large scale mapping and terrain modeling applications.
ORBIT DETAILS
01 Orbit Polar Sun Synchronous
02 Orbital Altitude 618 km
03 Orbits / cycle 1867
04 Semi Major Axis 6996.14 km
05 Eccentricity 0.001
06 Inclination 97.87 o
07 Local Time 10:30 AM
08 Revisit 5 days
09 Repetition 126 days
10 Orbits / day 14
11 Orbital Period 97 minutes
Table 10.7: Orbit details of Cartosat 1
96

Table 10.8: Technical details of Cartosat 1
The data rate requirement for 2.5 m resolution system is about 336 Mbps for a 10 bit
quantization. This high bit data is compressed by 3.2:1 by JPEG compression
technique. A spherical Phased Array Antenna with steereable beam is used to
transmit the data to the required ground station. A solid state recorder with 120 Gb
capacity to store about 9 minutes of Payload data is available for global operation of
the payloads.
Cartosat - 1 Products
Cartosat-1 data products are of two categories.
1. Standard product (radiometrically corrected, georeferenced)
2. Precision product (ortho rectified product)
Standard products are generated after accounting for radiometric and geometric
distortions while precision products are ortho rectified. Ortho rectified products are
corrected for terrain distortions and camera tilt effects with the help of control points
and using Stereo Strip Triangulation (SST) based DEM (only for Indian region). All
Cartosat-1 data products are supplied with 10 bit radiometry for both PAN Fore and
Aft cameras.
97

Standard Products
01
02
03
Radiometrically
corrected / Basic Stereo
Standard
Georeferenced
Orthokit products (Mono
/ Stereo)
04 Ortho product
Stagger corrections, line loss corrections, radiometric
correction at scene level
Radiometric and geometric corrections (northoriented)
at scene level using System knowledge
Radiometric corrections along with Rational
Polynomial Coefficients (RPCs)
Terrain corrected products using TCPs and DEM
from SST software (only for Indian region)
Table 10.9: Product details of Cartosat 1
98

CARTOSAT 2
Table 10.10: Product details of Cartosat 1
CARTOSAT-2 is an advanced remote sensing satellite capable of providing scene-
specific spot imagery. The panchromatic camera (PAN) on-board the satellite can
provide imagery with a spatial resolution better than one meter and a swath of 9.6
km. The satellite can be steered up to ±45 deg along and ±26 deg across the track.
The data from the satellite can be used for detailed mapping and other cartographic
applications at cadastral level, urban and rural infrastructure development and
management, as well as applications in Land Information System (LIS) and
Geographical Information System (GIS).
Several new technologies like two mirror on axis single camera, carbon fabric
reinforced plastic based electro-optic structure, lightweight, large size mirrors, data
compression, advanced solid state recorder, high-torque reaction wheels and high
99

performance star sensors, imaging along the corridor or any direction have been
employed in Cartosat-2.
ORBIT PARAMETERS
Orbit Polar, Sun-synchronous
Orbital Altitude 630.6 km
Semi Major Axis 7008.745 km
Inclination 97.914 degrees
Local Time 9:30 A.M
Revisit 4/5 days
Repetivity 310 days
Orbits/day 14.78
Inter-path distance 8.75 km
Distance between successive orbits 2711.9 km
Orbital period 97.446 minutes
Spatial resolution < 1m
Swath 9.6 km
Spectral band 0.5 - 0.85 microns
Type of compression JPEG like
Quantization 10 bits
ROLL tilt ±26 deg
OBSSR Capacity 9 minutes of data/64Gb
CartoSat 2 Capabilities include
Table 10.11: Technical details of Cartosat 2
a. CARTOSAT-2 sensor scans upto 2732 lines/second
100

. Various dimensions of AOI can be acquired. For example a AOI ( Area of
Interest) of 28 km x 28 km can be acquired within a single pass using Paint-
Imaging.
c. The satellite is also capable in collecting spot images of size 9.6 x 9.6 km.
About fifteen spot images of size - 9.6km x 9.6km can be acquired in a given
orbit. This helps in servicing more number of users in a single orbit.
d. Revisit of same area depends upon acceptable across-track tilt and gap
Area
Length
(km)
between paints depend upon the pitch biases used.
Area Width (km) =
n x 9.6 where n:
no of scans
within one paint.
Total Area
(km2)
Difference in
View Angle
between
successive
scans (deg)
Along-Track
Bias variation
(deg)
9.6 4 x 9.6 = 38.4 368.6 12o +/- 26o
28.0 3 x 9.6 = 28.8 806.4 18o +/- 26o
50.0 2 x 9.6 = 19.2 960.0 22o +/- 26o
Table 10.12: CartoSat 2 Products
CartoSat 2 products are of two categories,
AOI based standard product (radiometrically corrected/geo referenced orthokit)
AOI based precision product (ortho corrected)
Standard products are georeferenced and AOI based products, generated after
accounting for radiometric and geometric distortions.
Minimum AOI is 25 sq Km and Maximum AOI is 2500 sq km.
Rational polynomial coefficients are provided. Several strips of data covering
different dates of acquisition are provided without gaps with strips and sufficient side
lap
Geometric accuracy of 100meter circular error
101

Digital data format- Geo TIFF
Precision products are orthorectified and corrected for terrain distortions and camera
tilt effects with the help of control points and SST based DEM of CartoSat 1 user
DEM.
CartoSat 2 browse images are uploaded on to website www.nrsc.gov.in regularly.
CartoSat 3 has been launched and the details are awaited.
TECHNICAL DETAILS OF INTERNATIONAL SATELLITES
QUICK BIRD
QuickBird was launched on October 18, 2001 from Vandenburg Air Force Base in
California. QuickBird collects over 75 million square kilometers of imagery annually.
QuickBird Specifications
Imaging Mode Panchromatic Multi-spectral
Spatial Resolution 0.61 meter GSD at Nadir 2.4 meter GSD at Nadir
Spectral Range 445-900 nm
Swath Width 16.4 km at nadir
Off-Nadir Imaging
0-30 degrees off-nadir
Higher angles selectively available
Dynamic Range 11-bits per pixel
450-520 nm (blue)
520-600 nm (green)
630-690 nm (red)
760–900 nm (near IR)
102

Mission Life 8+ years
Revisit Time Approximately 3.5 days (depends on Latitude)
Orbital Altitude 450 km
Nodal Crossing 10:30 am
Table 10.13: Quickbird Details
GEOEYE- 1
GeoEye-1, the world’s highest-resolution commercial color imaging satellite, was
launched on September 6, 2008 from Vandenburg Air Force Base in California.
This newest satellite offers extraordinary detail, high accuracy and enhanced stereo
for DEM generation. GeoEye-1 will simultaneously collect Panchromatic imagery at
0.41m and Multispectral imagery at 1.65m.
Due to U.S. Government Licensing, the imagery will be made available
commercially as 0.5m imagery. GeoEye-1 has the capacity to collect up to 700,000
square kilometers of Panchromatic imagery (and up to 350,000 square kilometers
of Pan-Sharpened Multispectral imagery) per day.
GeoEye-1 Specifications
Imaging Mode Panchromatic Multi-spectral
Spatial Resolution .41 meter GSD at Nadir
1.65 meter GSD at
Nadir
103

Spectral Range 450-900 nm
Swath Width 15.2 km
Off-Nadir Imaging Up to 60 degrees
Dynamic Range 11 bit per pixel
Mission Life Expectation > 10 years
Revisit Time Less than 3 day
Orbital Altitude 681 km
Nodal Crossing 10:30 am
Table 10.14: Geoeye 1 Details
IKONOS
450-520 nm (blue)
520-600 nm (green)
625-695 nm (red)
760-900 nm (near IR)
Ikonos, the world’s first high-resolution commercial color imaging satellite, was
launched on September 24, 1999 from Vandenburg Air Force Base in California. The
Ikonos satellite collects Panchromatic imagery at 0.82m and Multispectral imagery at
3.2m at Nadir.
Ikonos Specifications
Imaging Mode Panchromatic Multispectral
104

Spatial Resolution .82 meter GSD at Nadir 3.2 meter GSD at Nadir
Spectral Range 450-900 nm
Swath Width 11.3 km at Nadir
Off-Nadir Imaging
Up to 60 degrees
450-520 nm (blue)
520-600 nm (green)
625-695 nm (red)
760-900 nm (near IR)
Higher angles selectively available
Dynamic Range 11 bit per pixel
Mission Life Expectation > 10 years
Revisit Time Less than 3 day
Orbital Altitude 681 km
Nodal Crossing 10:30 am
Table 10.15: Ikonos Details
WORLDVIEW- 1
WorldView-1 (a Panchromatic only satellite) was launched on September 18, 2007 from
Vandenburg Air Force Base in California. WorldView-1 was the first satellite in the “next
generation” of satellites to be added to the DigitalGlobe constellation of satellites.
WorldView-1 is capable of collecting up to 750,000 square kilometers (290,000 square
105

miles) per day of half-meter imagery.
WorldView-1 Specifications
Imaging Mode Panchromatic
Sensor resolution
0.50 meter GSD at Nadir
0.59 meters GSD at 25° off-nadir
Spectral range 400-900 nm
Swath width 17.6 km at nadir
Off-nadir imaging
0-30 degrees off-nadir
Higher angles selectively available
Dynamic range 11-bits per pixel
Mission life Expected end of life 2018
Revisit time
1.7 days at 1 meter GSD or less
4.6 days at 25° off-nadir or less (0.59 meter GSD)
Orbital altitude 496 km
Nodal crossing 10:30 am
Table 10.16: Worldview 1 Details
WORLDVIEW-2
Imaging Mode Panchromatic Multispectral
106

Spatial resolution
0.46 meter GSD at Nadir
0.52 meter GSD at 20
degrees off-Nadir
Spectral range 450-800 nm
Swath width 16.4 km at nadir
Off-nadir imaging
1.84 meters GSD at Nadir
2.08 meters GSD at 20 degrees
off-nadir
400-450 nm (coastal)
450-510 nm (blue)
510-580 nm (green)
585-625 nm (yellow)
630-690 nm (red)
705–745 (red edge)
770–895 (near IR-1)
860-900 nm (near IR-2)
Nominally +/- 45 degrees off-nadir = 1,355 swath width
Higher angles selectively available
Dynamic range 11-bits per pixel
Mission life 7.25 years
Revisit time
1.1 days at 1m GSD or less
3.7 days at 20 degrees off-nadir or less (0.52 meter GSD)
Orbital altitude 770 km
Nodal crossing 10:30 am
Table 10.17: Worldview 2 Details
107

CHAPTER 11
REQUIRED ACCURACIES
Earlier during non-digital era, the accuracies were determined in relation to plot able
point on the hard copy map. But this basis was no longer acceptable with the
introduction of digital data. The demand of higher accuracies of geospatial data
became essential for various applications. In case of disaster management and
mitigation, highest order of accuracy has to be met. Accordingly, different options
have to be assessed against time and resources required for such purposes.
Several experiments have been conducted by the mapping agencies, committees
and the companies supplying data or equipment. These efforts do indicate the
options in front of us. Nevertheless, the basic sources of spatial data have been the
aerial photography and satellite remote sensing data. The other sources are Air-
borne Lazar Terrain Mapping (ALTM), GPS and ground surveys. These sources can
only be used for mapping for a very local localized area.
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING STANDARDS
Based on type of topographic map or requirements various topographic mapping
standards are being followed by different nations, Though, each country follows their
own standards, American Society of Photogrammtery & Remote Sensing (ASPRS)
are being widely accepted and being followed by many mapping organizations
across the world. The 1:10,000 scale ASPRS standards are given below (http : /
www.asprs.org / publications / pers / scans / 1989 jul 1038 – 1040.pdf).
108

Sl.
No.
Map
class
Accuracy (RMSE meters) Remarks
1. Class - I 0.25 mm of map scale; 2.5 At well defined points (The
2. Class - II Twice of class - I; 5
3. Class - III Thrice of class – I; 7.5
term “well defined points”
pertains features that can be
sharply identified as discrete
points).
Table 11.1: Topographic Map Planimetric ( X or Y ) Accuracy (IRMSE in
meters): for 1 : 10,000 scale (ASPRS)
Sl.
No.
Map
class
Accuracy (RMSE meters) Remarks
1. Class - I DTM accuracy is 1 / 3 of
contour Interval 1.67m
2. Class - II DTM accuracy is 1 / 1.5 of
contour Interval 3.3m
3. Class - III DTM accuracy is of
contour Interval 5m
At well defined points (The
term “well defined points”
pertains features that can be
sharply identified as discrete
points).
Table 11.2: The Topographic Map Vertical (Z) Accuracy (MSL Heights) for
1:10.000scale
Sl No. Description Value
1. Satellite Imagery 2.5 m PAN + 5.8 MX merged product.
2. Planimetric
accuracy
5 m
3. Datum WG 584.
4. Projection LCC / TM (in view of National Map Policy for open
series mps projection LCC / TM projection may be
109

changed on UTM).
5. Theme Content Content and classifications are given in NNRMS –
2005 document.
Table 11.3: Thematic Map Standards for 1 : 10,000 scale (NNRMS – 2005)
(www.nnrms.gov.in / nnrms / download / Nnrms Standards Doc.pdf)
The table below indicates relationship between the spatial resolution of
different remote satellite data, achievable accuracies (horizontal and vertical) and
potential purposes of the maps brought out on the basis of such data.
Spatial
resolutio
n
Mappin
g scale
Achievabl
e
horizontal
accuracy
Contour
interval
Purpose of the map
5 – 7 cm 1:500 12.5 cm 30 cm Engineering design-based mapping
particularly for facilities management
10 – 15
cm
25 – 30
cm
40 – 50
cm
1:1,000 25 cm 60 cm Engineering design-based mapping
particularly for facilities management
1:2,500 60 cm 1.5 m Topographic mapping for planning and
general use
1:5,000 1.25 m 2.5 m Topographic mapping for planning and
general use
2 – 2.5 m 1:10,000 5 m 10 m Topographic mapping for planning
4 – 5 m 1:25,000 8 m 15 m Topographic mapping for high level
planning
5 – 7 m 1:50,000 15 m 20 m Topographic mapping for very high
level planning
10 m and
above
- - - Topographic mapping is not possible at
these resolutions
Table 11.4: Image resolution, Mapping Scales, Accuracies and Contour Interval
In September, 2008 the Hon’ble Minister (S&T and ES) has informed DST and
SOI to expedite the creation of data on 1:10,000 scale from suitable satellites (for
priority areas) and to make use of the very narrow window in October 2008 for cloud
110

free images. It may be mentioned here that a typical topographical sheet will have
information which can be broadly by identified under following heads :
1. Heights shown in the form of contours, spot heights and some time
by hill shading,
2. Surface features like broad land use/land cover such as roads,
rivers, water bodies, settlements, forests etc
3. Place names, road names, river names etc
4. Ancillary information such as projection, scale, year of survey,
authority, reference box etc.
It was decided to use the latest remote sensing data for surface features
(item 2) which is compatible with the mapping at 1;10,000 scale. The best Indian IRS
remote sensing data now available is at 2.5m from Cartosat 1 which is not the best
resolution at this scale.
Regarding the place names etc. (item 3), we have to depend on the recently
completed field work at 1:50,000 scale. The additional place names can be compiled
from different sources available in the different offices of the Survey of India. This will
help us in creating Version 1 data. Version 2 data can be developed after
conducting special field work for additional place names at a suitable time.
Regarding ancillary information (item 4), the details are generally available in the
SOI offices.
Regarding heights (item 1), we have following three options :
1. Field work with traditional and modern equipment. This method will take
several decades hence not proposed.
2. Use of air photos and PT sections developed by 1: 40,000 and 1:50,000
scale air photos for 1:25,000 scale mapping earlier. Here only about 60 per
111

cent of the country is covered. The condition of the air photos/PT sections
may not be appropriate to undertake mapping at 1:10,000 scale
topographical mapping. The search for such items and then to scan it for
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generation will take a long time. In some
places, fresh photography will become necessary considering the (a) scale
of photography, (b) condition of photography, and (c) location of such
materials.
Further, with the PT sections which have to be scanned can only generate
contour interval (CI) of 5m while 2.5m CI can be extrapolated. The general
requirement is of 2m CI with extrapolation of 1m. Hence, there will be a
limitation if we use PT section developed earlier for 1:25,000 scale
topographical maps.
3. The third option is of using remote sensing satellite data having stereo
capabilities, i.e. which can generate height or CI at 2m/1m. The Indian
satellite Cartosat 1 which has the stereo capability is not good enough to
provide such CI. Hence we have to consider other options. Here we have
following two options :
(a) WorldView Stereo product by M/s Digital Globe having resolution of
0.5m.
(b) GeoEye stereo products by M/S GeoEye again having a resolution
of 0.5m.
Both the above satellites are US based and are willing to provide data as per
the US regulation, i.e. at 0.5m resolution. WorldView stereo data is available while
the former satellite has just then launched and the first product was to be made
available from November 2008 onwards. Further, considering the WorldView data
112

only available for this purpose, an experiment was conducted to find out the
accuracy of such data by the SOI officers. The summary of the Root Mean Square
Error (RMSE) for the Ground Control Points (GCPs) and Ground Heights (CHKs) is
as follows :
Ground X (4 observations) : 0.4616519m
Ground Y (4 observations) : 0.4202892m
Ground Z (4 observations) : 0.4508022m
The above errors are within the limits for mapping at 1:10,000 scale with
2m/1m CI. Hence the data can be accepted.
Further, recently, the Department of Science & Technology has appointed a
committee headed by the Secretary, Ministry of Earth Science for preparing a Report
of the Task Force : Procedures for Mapping on 1:10,000 scale. According to the
report :
It was observed that Cartosat-I and LISS IV merged images could be good source for
generation of 10K thematic maps for the entire country. These datasets are available
for more than 97 per cent of geographical are of India. It is expected that maps with
limited topographical information on 1:10,000 scale can be generated with 3-4m
planimetric and 3-4m vertical accuracies using this dataset. The project will be
executed by Survey of India, Indian Space Research Organisation and partner
institutes. The total cost of the project is estimated to be Rs 1,700 crore. A total
number of 80,000 sheets covering an area of approximately 25 sq m each will be
prepared. The cost per sheet is estimated to be approximately Rs 2 lakhs. The
geospatial data thus generated could be further improved in due course of time with
higher resolution of IRS satellites.
Further, there have been a lot of discussions about the possibility of using
satellite remote sensing data for the purpose of mapping, particularly level of
113

accuracies in X, Y and Z director, and interpretation of features. The availability of
RS data has been discussed earlier. After certain experiments, the above Task
Force observed :
Sl.
No.
(a) It has been observed that 5 or 7metre interval contours can be generated
from DTM of Cartosat – I in plain areas.
(b) 10 meter contours in hilly areas on 1 : 10,000 scale can be generated from
DTM
of Cartosat – I
(c) 2 meter contours can be generated from DTM of Geo Eye and
Worldview on 1 : 10,000 scale
(d) Settlements in rural areas are seen very clearly and mapppable each house in
Geo Eye and World View – I where as in Cartosat the settlements are seen as
dots or points.
The technical details of the experiment are summarized in the following table:
Task CARTOSAT Geo Eye World View
1. Sensor details CARTOSAT - I Geo Eye - I
2. Data
1) Data Quality
2) No. of
Scenes
2 8 4
3) Size of Scene 27 X 27 km 6 X 5 km 20 X 15 km
114

4) Importing
Time
Easily imported
into
photogrammetric
project as the
number
of images
covering the
project area are
very few.
5) Import Importing is
available in all
versions
6) Date of Pass 28Feb 07
Takes more
time for
importing as
there are more
number of
images
covering the
same study
area.
Staging is
required in all
versions
Easily imported into
photogrammetric
project as the number
of images covering the
project area are very
few.
Importing in latest
versions
7) Resolution 2.5 m 0.5 m 0.6 m
8) Lateral
Overlap (%)
9) Forward
Overlap (%)
10) AFT and
Fore
3. Control Network
1) No. of GCPs
required 100 sq
km
4. Photogrammetric
process
1) Block
adjustment
1 GCP per 100
sq km (minimum
5 per scene)
Most cost
effective in terms
of GCP collection
(a) The points 9 point pattern
per scene 0.1
pixel
(b) RMSE
15 15 15
100 100 100
16 GCPs per
100 sq km
9. points pattern
per scene 0.2
pixel
3 GCPs per 100 sq km
9 points pattern per
scene
115

2) 2D feature
extraction
Extraction of 2D
features is
difficult.
(a) Built-up Individual
buildings not
visible. Built-up
area is captured
as a single
polygon.
(b)
Transportation
(c ) Water
bodies
(d) Other land
use
(e)
Topographical
features
(f) Utility
features
Only main roads
and village roads
are clear and
they are
captured. Cart
tracks and foot
paths are not
clear and visible.
So very less cart
tracks and foot
paths are
captured.
Major streams
captured as
single line.
Captured as
agricultural land,
wasteland,
plantation land
and forest.
Extraction of 2D
features is
relatively
comfortable.
Most of the
buildings are
clearly visible.
Built-up area is
captured as
single buildings
and group of
buildings.
All types of
roads are
clearly visible
and they are
captured.
Major streams
captured on
both edges and
minor streams
captured as
single line.
Captured as
agricultural
land, wasteland
plantation land
and forest
Extraction of 2D
features is relatively
comfortable.
.Most of the buildings
are clearly visible.
Built-up area is
captured as single
buildings and group of
buildings
All types of roads
except foot paths are
clearly visible and they
are captured. Foot
paths are not clearly
visible.
Major streams
captured on both
edges and minor
streams captured as
single line.
Captured as
agricultural land,
wasteland, plantation
land and forest.
Spot heights Spot heights Spot heights
Tree symbol. Tree and poles
symbol etc.
Tree and poles symbol
etc.
116

3) DEM 10m contour
interval has been
generated.
4) Contour
Generation
Manually digitized
for 10m
2m contour
interval has
been
generated.
Manually
digitized for 2m
5) Ortho Image 2.5 m GSD 0.5 m GSD 0.5 m GSD
Task Force Observations :
Table 11.5: Comparison of different satellite data
2m contour interval
generated.
Manually digitized for
2m
1. From the accuracy achieved during the process so far indicates that the
Data captured in 3 D mode from both the data will satisfy the positional
accuracy level required for 1 : 5,000 scale.
2. The accuracy of orthophotos evaluated against the limited ground points,
mainly in the plain area, indicates that Data captured in 2 D environment
will satisfy the positional accuracy level required for 1 : 6,000 – 1 : 8,000
scale
3. The height accuracy achieved indicates the accuracy level of 1 – 1.5
meters.
4. In general contour agrees if DEM is generated using manual mass points
and Break lines (2 m contour interval from DTM of Geo Eye and
Worldview – I; and 10 m contour interval from DTM of Cartosat – I).
5. Mass points need to be measured carefully at all strategic points and
Break lines need to delineated carefully.
6. Level of identification is better that Cartosat – I data in the study area.
7. But Field Verification is a must to Pick up Point features and Attribute other
features.
8. The final conclusion can be drawn only after evaluating the aspects of
identifying the features (Points and Linear) required for large scale, 3 D
117

perceptions, accuracy of Contour generated and accuracy of ortho images
for different types of retrain including hilly area.
9. As the number of scene increases for both the data, substantially for Geo
Eye in comparison to Cartosat image, considering the cost effectiveness
and complexity of data handling, these data can only be used for smaller
area for specific purpose. For area having large coverage or say for
national level Cartosat data should be preferred if the achievable accuracy
solves the purpose.
Exercise in productive environment accompanied with ground verification and
supplimentation in different types of retrain should be carried out to find out the
achievable accuracies, limitation in data capturing, cost and time factor. The
recommendations of the Task Force is as follows :
1. Task Force recommends that the Cartosat – I stereo satellite data will be
sufficient to generate thematic maps with limited topographic information on
1 : 10,000 scale, in view of achievable planimetric accuracy of the order of 3–
5 m and contours of 10 m interval can be derived. Elevation data already
available with Survey of India for 60% of area in the form of maps on 1 :
25,000 scale with contour interval of 5/10 m can be integrated with the data
derived from satellite images,
2. The content of the map should include contours, built up area hydrography
communications, land cover, administrative boundaries, annotation, utilities
and infrastructure details which are identifiable through Cartosat data with
limited field observations and existing topographical mapping data.
3. Indian dataset to be utilized for project as ensures complete coverage across
the country for recent years. Cartosat – I and LISS IV orthorectified fused
118

image will be sufficient enough to generate thematic maps with limited
topographic information.
4. The pilot studies established the standards and procedures for generation of
thematic layers and also overlaying of cadastral information, linking of Record
of Rights and other respective stakeholder’s attribute data to generate
thematic geospatial information at the resolution of 1:10,000 required for
various developmental programmes including grass root kevel support &
planning, infrastructure, disaster management programmes and
environmental studies.
5. It is recommended that dual frequency GPS base station and rovers should be
used for collection of horizontal and vertical Ground Control Points (GCP) in
the field. GTS bench marks with 4 th decimal meter can be provided by SOI for
calculation of ortho heights above Mean Sea Level (MSL). All control points to
be fitted in WG584 system and are to be post pointed on satellite imagery.
6. Where maps on scale 1:25, 000 are not available, DEM’s can easily generated
from the stereo images on digital photogrammetric work stations provided the
height control points (BMs) are established, post-pointed and georeferenced.
It is suggested 5 m contour will be interpolated for plain areas from 10m DEM
and also suggested that 10m contour interval will be for hilly / forest areas to
be depicted on map (10m contour and 5m interpolated with different
symbology)
7. It is recommended that all the thematic layers be generated upto level III of
NRDMS data models provided in Annexure V and NRSC created topographic
Data models provided in annexure VI.
119

8. AQC system based on NSD / OGC / ISO standards and sampling methods will
be used in the process of creating Topographical database. The approved
confidence level in these cases for QC shall be 95%.
120

Sensor LISS-III AWiFS AWiFS
Non-
Commercial
use RRP
Product
Specification
CHAPTER- 12
GIS ACQUISITION COST ANALYSIS
COMMERCIAL ASPECTS OF SATELLITE MAPPING
RESOURCESAT-1 HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGERY COSTS
$550 $550 $550
Level 2 Path Level 1 Level 2 Map Oriented
Datum WGS84 No Datum WGS84
Projection UTM Unprojected
data
Lambert Conformal
Conic (LCC) -
Specifications
121

Resampling NN Not Applicable KD16
Format Fast Format LGSOWG GeoTIFF
Processing
Level
Level 2 Radiometric
and Geometric
Correction - Path
based
Level 1
Radiometric
Correction
Scene Size 140 x 140 km 740 x 740 km, 4 quadrants
Nominal pixel
size
Standard Product Pricing
Level 2 Radiometric and
Geometric Correction -
Map oriented
23.5 meters 56 meters at nadir, 70 meters at field edge
Table 12.1: Cost of Resourcesat 1 data
CARTOSAT-1 HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGERY COSTS
Area
Accuracy
S.
Coverage
(Scene
No based /
Float)
Specifications
Location Accuracy
Remarks Volumes Price
1 Scene/Float 250m Terrain Basic stereo
Mono/Stere
o *
dependent pair
< $50K $ 2280
$50K -$100K $ 2150
> $100K $ 2020
122

2 Scene/Float 250m Terrain RAD product
< $50K $ 1200
$50K -$100K $ 1095
(Mono) * dependent with RPC file > $100K $ 1045
Geo- < $50K $ 1200
3 Scene/Float 250m Terrain Referenced $50K -$100K $ 1095
(Mono) * dependent product > $100K $ 1045
4 Scene/float
Mono *, AOI
§
250m Terrain
dependent
Geo- < $50K
Referenced
product
Table 12.2: Cost of Carotsat 1 Data
§ Minimum area of AOI is 25km x 25km. supplied with Meta file
* Restricted Area Masking is done, whenever required
Precision Ortho Product Pricing
S. No
1
Area
Coverage
(Scene based
/ Float)
Mapsheet
based
/Float 7.5’ x
7.5’ *
2 Float 5’ x 5” *
3
4
Float 3.75’ x
3.75’ *
Float 2.25’ x
2.25’ *
Level of
Processing
Precision
(ortho) Terrain
Corrected
Precision
(ortho) Terrain
Corrected
Precision
(ortho) Terrain
Corrected
Precision
(ortho) Terrain
Corrected
$
1.70/SKM
$50K -$100K $
1.50/SKM
> $100K
$
1.40/SKM
Remarks Volumes Price
Using DEM
and TCPs
Using DEM
and TCPs
Using DEM
and TCPs
Using DEM
and TCPs
Table 12.3: Cost of Carotsat 1 Data
< $50K $880
$50K -$100K $820
> $100K $785
< $50K $735
$50K -$100K $684
> $100K $655
< $50K $590
$50K -$100K $550
> $100K $525
< $50K $590
$50K -$100K $550
> $100K $525
123

Product
Type
� All Geocoded products are orthorectified,
� Restricted Area Masking is done whenever possible.
Cartosat 2 suffered from problems after launch
QUICKBIRD HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGERY COSTS
Projection/
Datum
Specifications
Accuracy
in mts
Format
System corrected, geo-referenced, Polyconic
AOI (min.
area 25 1
sq km)
(Scene size
9.6 km x 9.6
km)
Everes
t
UTM/
WG
S84
International
List price (US$)
Per
Scene
More
than
1000
sq km
(sq.km)
Table 12.4: Cost of Quickbird Data
International List
Price Per Scene
Archive Data (US$)
Archives
6-12
months
old (Per
Scene)
Archives
12-24
months
old (Per
Scene)
International
List price Per
skm Archive
Data (US$)
Orders
more
than
1000
sq km
for
archive
data 6-
12
months
old (per
sq.
km.)
124
Orders
more
than
1000
sq km
for
archive
12-24
months
old (per
sq. km)
150 Geotiff 780 8.6 590 470 6.5 5.2

QuickBird Pricing
60cm and 2.4m Satellite Imagery - Pricing per square kilometer.
Product Type
Panchromatic, Multispectral (4-Band), Natural Color
or Color Infrared
Image Library
(Archive)
Select
$14 $20
Pan-Sharpened (4-Band) or Bundle (Pan + MS) $17 $23
Quickbird Product Description
400 dpi DRG (Digital Raster Graphic), Full or Cropped, New
Production
400 dpi DRG (Digital Raster Graphic), Full or Cropped, From Archive
(click here for a PDF listing of archived data)
Digital Elevation Model (DEM), 10 - 90 meter (

Full Vectorization Except Contours -- up to 8 features, 8 layers
(except contours)
Full Vectorization Including Contours -- up to 9 features, 9 layers
(including contours)
QuickBird Notes:
Table 12.5: Specific product cost for Quickbird
� Minimum order area for archive imagery (if available) = 25 sq. km.
$549
$799
� Minimum order cost for new “Select Tasking” collection = $1,800 USD
� Unless already in archive, QuickBird does not collect stereo imagery
� Cloud Cover specification for “Select Tasking” orders is 15% or less
� Additional “priority” tasking levels available
� All prices in $USD and subject to change without notice
� Licensing fees will apply for 6+ end users (up to 5 included in base price)
GEOEYE-1 HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGERY COSTS
GeoEye-1 Pricing
50cm and 2m Satellite Imagery - Pricing per square kilometer.
Product Type
Image Library
(Archive)
Tasking Collection (New)
126

Archive (Geo Only > 90 days) $12.50 N/A
Geo N/A $25
GeoProfessional $30 $30
GeoProfessional - Precision
Upgrade
$40 $40
GeoStereo $40 $40
GeoStereo - Precision Upgrade $50 $50
GeoEye-1 Notes:
Table 12.6 : Cost of Geoeye 1 Data
� GeoEye Products can be delivered as one of the following: Panchromatic,
Multispectral (4-Band), Natural Color (3-Band), Color Infrared, 4-Band Pan-
Sharpened or Panchromatic + Multispectral Bundle
� Minimum order area for archive imagery (if available) = 49 sq. km.
� Minimum order area for new tasking collection imagery = 100 sq. km
� Cloud Cover specification for new tasking collection orders is 15% or less
(additional cloud cover options available)
� A 2km x 2km area may be guaranteed cloud free on new tasking collection
orders
� Standard Geo New Tasking Collection imagery is collected between 60-90
degrees elevation angle – 72-90 degree elevation angle available for an
additional $2 per sq. km.
� Additional “priority” tasking level available (additional charges will apply)
� All prices in $USD and subject to change without notice
� Licensing fees will apply for 1+ end users
127

IKONOS HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGERY COSTS
Ikonos Pricing
1m and 4m Satellite Imagery - Pricing per square kilometer.
Product Type
Image Library
(Archive)
Tasking Collection (New)
Archive (Geo Only > 90 days) $10 N/A
Geo N/A $20
GeoProfessional $25 $25
GeoProfessional - Precision
Upgrade
$35 $35
GeoStereo $35 $35
GeoStereo - Precision Upgrade $45 $45
Ikonos Notes:
Table 12.7: Cost of Ikonos Data
� Ikonos Products can be delivered as one of the following options:
Panchromatic, Multispectral (4-Band), Natural Color (3-Band), Color Infrared,
4-Band Pan-Sharpened or Panchromatic + Multispectral Bundle
� Minimum order area for archive imagery (if available) = 49 sq. km.
� Minimum order area for new tasking collection imagery = 100 sq. km
128

� Cloud Cover specification for new tasking collection orders is 15% or less
(additional cloud cover options available)
� A 2km x 2km area may be guaranteed cloud free on new tasking collection
orders
� Standard Geo New Tasking Collection imagery is collected between 60-90
degrees elevation angle – 72-90 degree elevation angle available for an
additional $2 per sq. km.
� Additional “priority” tasking level available (additional charges will apply)
� All prices in $USD and subject to change without notice
� Licensing fees will apply for 1+ end users
WORLDVIEW- HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGERY
COSTS
WorldView-1 Pricing
50cm Satellite Imagery - Pricing per square kilometer.
Product Type Image Library (Archive) Select Tasking (New)
Panchromatic Only $14 $20
Basic Stereo – Pan Only $28 $40
WorldView-1 Notes:
Table 12.8: Cost of Worldview 1 Data
� Minimum order area for archive imagery (if available) = 25 sq. km.
� Minimum order cost for new “Select Tasking” collection = $1,800 USD
129

� There is a 210 sq. km minimum order area for all “Stereo” orders.
� Cloud Cover specification for “Select Tasking” orders is 15% or less
� Additional “priority” tasking levels available
� All prices in $USD and subject to change without notice
� Licensing fees will apply for 6+ end users (up to 5 included in base price)
WORLDVIEW-2 HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGERY
COSTS
WorldView-2 Pricing
50cm and 2m Satellite Imagery - Pricing per square kilometer.
Product Type
50cm Panchromatic, 2m Multispectral (4-
Band) or 50cm 3-band PS (color)
50cm 4-band Pan-Sharpened or Bundle
(50cm Pan + 4-Band 2m MS)
WorldView-2 Notes:
Image Library
(Archive)
$14 $20
$17 $23
Table 12.9: Cost of Worldview 2 Data
� Minimum order area for archive imagery (if available) = 25 sq. km.
� Minimum order cost for new “Select Tasking” collection = $1,800 USD
� There is a 210 sq. km minimum order area for all “Stereo” orders.
� Cloud Cover specification for “Select Tasking” orders is 15% or less
Select Tasking (New)
130

� Additional “priority” tasking levels available
� All prices in $USD and subject to change without notice
� Licensing fees will apply for 6+ end users (up to 5 included in base price)
LANDSAT IMAGERY COSTS
Landsat 4,5
TM
SPOT XS SPOT P IRS-
1C/D
Scene dimension (km) 180 x 180 60 x 60 60 x 60 70 x 70
Scene coverage (km 2 ) 32.000 3.600 3.600 4.900
Data cost per scene (US-$) 4.400 1.870 2.090 2.500
Data cost per 100 km 2 (US-
$)
Landsat 7 ETM+
Archived SLC-On products - all
bands
0.14 0.52 0.58 0.51
SLC-Off products - all
bands
SLC-Off Customer
Composite Package
(Individual scenes for
clients to manually
combine - all bands) -
Path image only. Fast
L7A or HDF format
131

Optical Data Processing Options Optical Data Processing
Options
Path
Image
Map
Oriented
Image
Orthocorrected
Image
Path
Image
Map
Oriented
Image
Ortho
corrected
Image
Select from between 2 to
6 scenes so long as: 1 to
5 SLC-Off scenes are
chosen, and. 0 to 1 SLC-
On scenes are chosen
2 scenes
(minimum)
Each
additional
scene
- $450 $550 - $400 $500 $550 $25
- $600 $700 - $450 $550 $600 $25
- $700 $800 - $550 $650 $700 $25
- $800 $900 - $650 $750 $800 $25
$1,100 - - $750 - - $900 $25
- $1,100 $1,200 - $750 $850 $900 $25
$1,300 - - $950 - - $1,150 $50
- $1,300 $1,450 - $950 $1,100 $1,150 $50
$1,500 - - $1,150 - - $1,400 $75
- $1,500 $1,700 - $1,150 $1,350 $1,400 $75
Table 12.10: Cost of Landsat Data
COST OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY COMPONENTS
LATEST LIDAR BASED AERIAL SURVEY SYSTEM COST
132

Aerial monitoring system, comprising:
� Inertial Measurement Unit
� Specialized Computer System
� External GPS with GPS Antenna Cable, 10 m
� 1 High-gain Antenna, GPS,GLONASS, L-Band
� 2 BNC Adapters
� Controller Software (PC not included)
� Power Cable Assembly
� I/O Analogue Cable Assembly with Industrial Ethernet
Connector
� Industrial Ethernet Cable Assembly, RJ-45, crossover
USD $ 3,41,594.00
PCS Firmware Option – Free Inertial Navigator USD $ 3,575.00
GNSS-Aided Inertial Processing Tools Set USD $ 27,423.00
SAR Processing Tool Set USD $ 9,295.00
One-Year Maintenance for GNSS-Aided Inertial Processing Tools USD $ 4,147.00
One-Year Maintenance for SAR Processing Tools USD $ 1,397.00
Table 12.11: Cost of Aerial Photography Data
Land based Vehicle Mounted Survey System
Item Description
Total Price
US$
1 Land based Vehicle System comprising $190,736.00
Land based Vehicle , comprising
Land based Vehicle Computer System, complete with
133

Core Processor
Inertially Aided RTK
12 VDC (standard) power supply1
PC Card Disk Drive
2 GPS Receivers, Dual Frequency, L1/L2/L2C GPS,
L1/ L2 GLONASS, Omni STAR L-Band Corrections2
(GPS-16)
2 Land based Vehicle Data Processing Software $26,845.00
3
Installation and Training for Land based Vehicle
System
Cost of installation, training and maintenance varies
from manufacturer to manufacturer
Table 12.12: Cost of Land based mapping system
S.No. Technology COST in INR
1.
2.
Ground Control Points (GCP)
� Cost of establishment of Permanent
Station Network
� Cost of Virtual Station Network (VRS)
� Cost of Human Resource
Total Cost (Per GCP)
Satellite
� Cost of stereo image bundle of
Panchromatic, Multispectral (4-Band),
Natural Color (3-Band), Color Infrared, 4-
Band Pan-Sharpened.
� Digital Elevation Model (DEM), 3D Vector
Contours
� Full Vectorization Including Contours --
up to 9 features, 9 layers
� Apportioned cost of GCP acquisition (per
Rs. 50,000.00
Rs 2,500.00
(Per Square Km)
Rs. 12500.00 (Per Square
Km)
Rs. 20000.00 (Per Square
Km)
134

3.
4.
kilometer)
Total Cost (Per Square Km)
Aerial Mapping (ALTM)
� Cost of Aerial Mapping (cost of flying)
� Cost of Full Vectorization Including
Contours -- up to 9 features, 9 layers
� Cost of Geo Referencing
Total Cost (Per Square Km)
Ground Survey
� Cost of Image collection by Vehicle
Mounted System
� Cost of Full Vectorization Including
Contours -- up to 9 features, 9 layers
� Cost of Geo Referencing
Total Cost (Per Square Km)
5. Cost Comparison
� Satellite Image Product + GCP
� Aerial Mapping + GCP
� Ground Survey + GCP
Rs 7,000
Rs. 42,000.00
Rs. 25000.00
Rs. 25000.00
Nil
Rs. 50000.00
Rs 15000.00
Rs. 25000.00
Nil
Rs. 40000.00
Rs 42,000.00
Rs 50,000.00
Rs 40,000.00
Table 12.13: Cost comparison of Satellite, Aerial and Ground survey (per sq
kilometer with minimum survey area of 100 sq kilometer)
135

The Task Force constituted Thematic Mapping suggested 10K mapping on first
priority. With the present status of Indian satellite, topographic mapping using
Cartosat – I can be done with the following specifications of cloud free data of the
country and high geometric fidelity for photogrammetric processing.
� 3 – 4m plainmetric (positional) accuracy
� 3 – 4m height accuracy
� Information content commensurate to 10 K topographic mapping
� Suggested to have 5m contour depiction on map (10m contour and \
5m interpolated with dotted symbology)
Further, thematic mapping on 10K can be done using Cartosat – I and LISS –
IV MX data with following specifications.
CONCLUSION
� Base, infrastructure, land use / land cover, soil ground water
prospects maps and slope maps with 5 m plainmetric accuracy.
� The theme content may be commensurate to 10K scale.
However, the statistics of the DEM difference of stereo Aerial photos and
Cartosat 1 stereo image indicate height variation in the ranges of 3m..
As compromise, the topographic mapping with above specifications can be
taken up as 10K series – I maps as and when Cartosat – III with 25cm spatial
resolution data(as per ISRO website ) is available these maps can be updated with
better specifications. This satellite is to be launched in 2012-13.
The higher resolution stereo data upto 40 CM resolution is commercially available,
where DEM/DTM/DSM can be derived with 1.5 meter contour intervals, which can
136

easily be extrapolated to get 1 meter contour interval with fair degree of accuracy.
The close network of secondary ground control points can be used to achieve
consistent plainmetric or height accuracies due non-metric nature of image
acquisition geometry over the entire study zone. This option gives a good beginning
of getting accurate 1 meter contour interval 10 K maps for hazard-zonation. The cost
implication will only be difference of the cost of acquiring foreign commercial satellite
data and the Indian satellite data as processing and other requirement will remain
the same.
In order to get the most reliable 10K maps, an Aircraft equipped with latest state of
instrumentation with processing software and large format camera is the preferred
option. However, it requires meticulous project planning depending upon the priority
and requirements of area under mapping.
137

APPENDICES
App 1

FUNCTION POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS EXAMPLES
Data display
Land information
storage and
retrieval
- Aid in the analysis of spatial
distribution of socio-economic
infrastructure and natural hazard
phenomena
APPENDIX I
APPROACH TO DEVELOPING A GIS DATABASE FOR
DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
- Use of thematic maps to
enhance reports and/or
presentations
- Link with other databases for
more specific information
- Filing, maintaining, and updating
land-related data (land
ownership, previous records of
natural events, permissible uses,
etc.)
- What lifeline elements lie in
high-risk areas?
- What population could be
affected?
- Where are the closest hospitals
or relief centers in case of an
event?
- Display all parcels that have
had flood problems in the past
- Display all non-conforming uses
in this residential area
App 3

Zone and district
management
- Maintain and update district
maps, such as zoning maps or
floodplain maps
- Determine and enforce
adequate land-use regulation and
building codes
Site selection - Identification of potential sites
for particular uses
Hazard impact
assessment
Development/Land
suitability
modelling
- Identification of geographically
determined hazard impacts
- Analysis of the suitability of
particular parcels for
development
- List the names of all parcel
owners of areas within 30 m of a
river or fault line
- What parcels lie in high and
extreme landslide hazard areas?
- Where are the hazard-free
vacant parcels of atleast ‘x’ ha
lying at least ‘y’ in from a major
road, which have at least z bedhospitals
within 10 km radius?
- What units of this residential
area will be affected by a 20-year
flood?
- Considering slope, soil type,
altitude, drainage, and proximity
to development, what areas are
more likely to be prioritized for
development? What potential
problems could arise?
Table App 1.1: Examples of GIS applications for natural hazards management at
the local level of planning
DATA MODEL
App 4

A standard data model should be defined, which will be applicable to the three tiers of
databases. The preparation of a standard data model is necessary for the
interoperability and consistency of data. The data model will define the various layers of
the database, the features in each layer and their geometry. The database requires
spatial information on the following
Topography
Contours/ elevations
Slopes/ aspects
Vegetation, soils
Bathymetry
Digital elevation models at various
accuracies
Demography and Socio-Economy
Population density
Age and sex structure
Literacy rates
Household data
Political and administrative boundaries
Building footprints and settlements
Geology
Bedrock, fault lines, plate boundaries
Land use
Residential, commercial
Industrial, agricultural
Restricted zones
Hydrology
Rainfall, air temperature
Net radiation
Wind speed and direction
Evaporation rate
Rivers and water bodies
Watersheds
Connectivity/ Infrastructure
Telecommunication
Transportation
Utilities
Social infrastructure like schools,
religious institutions
Emergency Infrastructure like hospitals,
police stations, fire stations
Risk/Hazard/ Disaster Data
Type of disaster, date and time of
occurrence, location and epicenter (for
earthquakes), magnitude/severity,
App 5

Sensitive zones impact/damage
DESIGN OF DATA FILES
High risk areas/ industries
Flood plain and flash flood maps
Siesmotectonic maps, storm surge maps
Table App 1.2: Data model
The next step is to design the cartographic layers to be entered into the system, and the
spatial attributes to be assigned to them. In this regard, detail of the database, input
scale, and resolution must be considered.
SN FEATURES DESCRIPTION
1 Cartographic layers
2
Selection of layers
Cartographic layers are the different "maps" or "images"
that will be read into the system and later overlaid and
analyzed to generate synthesis information.
For example, cartographic layers depicting past landslide
events, geological characteristics, slope steepness,
hydrology, and vegetation cover were entered and
overlaid in a GIS to create a landslide hazard map
There are three basic types of layers, and many different
possible combinations among them: polygons
(floodplains, landslide hazard areas), lines (fault lines,
rivers, electrical networks), and points (epicenters, well
locations, hydroelectric facilities).
Selection of the correct layer type for a database depends
App 6

3 Scale
4 Resolution
on anticipated uses and on the scale and resolution of the
source data. A volcano, for example, may be represented
as a point at 1:250,000 scales, but it could well be a
polygon at 1:20,000.
Similarly, flood-prone areas may be represented as lines
bordering rivers at scales smaller than 1:50,000, but as
polygons on 1:10,000 scale maps.
Planners must keep in mind that point and line
representations may well be used for depicting variable
locations, but they are seldom used for GIS operations
involving cell measurement.
Regarding scale, planners or GIS users can take
advantage of the flexibility some GIS offer by entering
data at various scales and later requesting the system to
adjust the scale to fit the particular purpose or stage of
planning.
Small to medium scales for resource inventory and project
identification; medium scales for project profiles and pre
feasibility studies;
Large scales for feasibility studies, hazard zone mapping,
and urban hazard mitigation studies.
Resolution or spatial accuracy of the database will be
reflected in the number of cells (columns and rows or Xs
and Ys) making up the database. The greater the number
of cells used to cover a given area, the higher the
App 7

5 Performance
resolution obtained.
High resolution is not always necessary, and the tradeoff
between what is gained in terms of analytical capacity and
what is lost in terms of consumption of computer's
memory and input time must be considered.
The type of graphic adaptor, the size of computer's
memory, and the user's preference as to whether a full or
partitioned screen should be used, are determining factors
in this respect.
Finally, the design of the database should be tested for
performance.
Following a pilot test, it is not uncommon to obtain a
sizable set of database design rectification.
Guidelines are usually not only directed at the spatial
accuracy of data and layer design, but also at the
identification of possible obstacles for final system
implementation, and the development of procedures or a
methodology for performing tasks under normal
operational conditions.
Table App 1.3: Design of Data files
App 8

The hazard assessment planning process can be delineated in to different phases. This chapter endeavors to trace these
phases with respect to the activities incorporated in each phase. Each activity phase requires maps of different resolutions
which is given in the succeeding tables.
PHASE ROLE OF HAZARD ASSESSMENT
Preliminary
Mission
Hazard-related
objective:
Effect on development
planning activities:
APPENDIX II
HAZARD ASSESSMENT PLANNING PROCESS
To collect information to establish the presence of natural events in the study
area and the limitations imposed by hazards.
Presence of hazards indicates the need for further qualitative and quantitative
assessment of this potential effect on development.
App 9

Phase I:
Development
Diagnosis,
Strategy
Formulation,
and Project
Identification
Phase II:
Action Plan
Preparation
Project
Formulation
Implementation
Hazard-related
objective:
Effect on development
planning activities:
Hazard-related
objective:
Effect on development
planning activities:
Hazard-related
objective:
Effect on development
planning activities:
To assess those hazards present in the study area and identify existing critical
segments or elements of production facilities, infrastructure, and settlements
(lifeline network mapping).
To include vulnerability in the determination of development potential and
strategy (for example, by identifying floodplains, landslide areas, incipient
desertification).
To identify alternative non-structural and structural mitigation measures in initial
project identification.
Presence of hazards will affect the overall strategy. Hazard mitigation should
influence identification of sectoral projects, particularly agriculture and
infrastructure.
Presence of hazards will affect the identification, type, and location of
investment projects, which may require modification of the lifeline network.
To determine specific mitigation measures for selected investment projects and
identify critical elements of lifeline network disaster preparedness activities.
Presence of hazards will affect the action plan for project implementation, the
specific site selection of investment projects at the local level, the project
engineering design, and the economic feasibility.
To follow through on implementation of mitigation measures and disaster
preparedness.
Monitoring of natural phenomena for early warning against possible damage,
and formulation of future risk assessment and disaster preparedness activities.
Table App 2.1: Phases of Hazard assessment panning process
App

NATURAL HAZARD MAPPING INFORMATION FOR VULNERABILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENTS
INFORMATION
TYPE
Maps and
accompanying
studies
DESCRIPTION PLANNING
PROCESS STAGE
Basic Information
Urban and rural settlements
Basin infrastructure
Service infrastructure Lifeline network
Land use
App
SCALE RANGE
Preliminary Mission 1:100,000 – 1: 50,000
Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300
Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300
Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300
Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300
Preliminary Mission 1:100,000 – 1: 50,000
Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300
Agriculture cropping patterns Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300
Water storage, drainage and irrigation
Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300
Structural damage assessment Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300

Studies and
other
information
Animal carrying capacity and present density
Human population density
Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300
Phases I and II 1:25,000 – 1:300
Development project identification Phase I 1:25,000 - 1:10,000
Specific development project description Phase II 1:2,000 – 1:300
Building codes and specifications Phase II 1:2,000 – 1:300
Vulnerability assessment Phase II 1:2,000 – 1:300
Risk assessment Phase II 1:2,000 – 1:300
Table App 2.2 : Type of information required in each planning phase
App

APPENDIX III
METHODOLOGY FOR HAZARD MAPPING OF
TROPICAL CYCLONE
DESCRIPTION OF TROPICAL STORM
A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a large low-pressure center
and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and heavy rain. Tropical
cyclones feed on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation
of water vapor contained in the moist air
Tropical cyclones originate in the doldrums near the equator, about 10° away from it.
The term "tropical" refers to both the geographic origin of these systems, which form
almost exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in maritime
tropical air masses. The term "cyclone" refers to such storms' cyclonic nature, with
counterclockwise rotation in the northern hemisphere and clockwise rotation in
the southern hemisphere
While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain,
they are also able to produce high waves and damaging storm surge as well as
spawning tornadoes. They develop over large bodies of warm water, and lose their
strength if they move over land. This is why coastal regions can receive significant
damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions are relatively safe from
receiving strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can produce significant flooding
inland, and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40 kilometers
from the coastline
13

All tropical cyclones are areas of low atmospheric pressure near the earth's surface.
The pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest that
occur on earth's surface at sea level. Tropical cyclones are characterized and driven
by the release of large amounts of latent heat of condensation, which occurs when
moist air is carried upwards and its water vapor condenses. This heat is distributed
vertically around the center of the storm. Thus, at any given altitude (except close to
the surface, where water temperature dictates air temperature) the environment
inside the cyclone is warmer than its outer surroundings.
Figure App 3.1: Anatomy of a tropical cyclone
A tropical cyclone's primary energy source is the release of the heat of
condensation from water vapor condensing at high altitudes, with solar heating being
14

the initial source for evaporation. Condensation leads to higher wind speeds, as a
tiny fraction of the released energy is converted into mechanical energy; the faster
winds and lower pressure associated with them in turn cause increased surface
evaporation and thus even more condensation. Much of the released energy
drives updrafts that increase the height of the storm clouds, speeding up
condensation. This positive feedback loop continues for as long as conditions are
favorable for tropical cyclone development
CLASSIFICATION OF CYCLONIC STORMS
Any tropical cyclone that forms between longitude 45°E and 100°E in the Northern
Hemisphere is monitored by the India Meteorological Department (IMD), who run
the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (RSMC) in New Delhi, India. Since
1998, RSMC New Delhi has used six different categories to measure the wind speed
of a tropical cyclone based on the maximum sustained winds over a 3-minute
averaging period. The classification of cyclones by RSMC is as follows;
CATEGORY SUSTAINED
Depression
WINDS
≤27 kts
≤51 km/h
T-SCALE
(INTENSI
TY)
0
DESCRIPTION
Depression is the lowest category that
RSMC New Delhi uses to designate tropical
systems, and systems designated as
depressions have wind speeds of under
27 kn (51 km/h, 31 mph).
15

Deep
Depression
Cyclonic
Storm
Severe
Cyclonic
Strom
Very Severe
Cyclonic
Strom
Super
Cyclonic
Strom
28–33 kts
52–61 km/h
34–47 kts
62–87 km/h
48–63 kts
88–117 km/h
64–119 kts
118–
221 km/h
>120 kts
>222 km/h
1
2
3
4
5
Deep depression - A depression is
classified as a deep depression when it has
maximum sustained winds between 27 kn
(51 km/h, 31 mph) and 33 kn (61 km/h,
38 mph
Cyclonic storm- If its sustained winds reach
34 kn (62 km/h, 39 mph) a tropical system is
classified as a cyclonic storm
Severe cyclonic storms- In cases where
cyclonic storms possess wind speeds
greater than 48 kn, (88 km/h, 55 mph), they
are classified as severe cyclonic storms.
Very severe cyclonic storm- A severe
cyclonic storm is labelled as a very severe
cyclonic storm when it reaches wind speeds
greater than 64 kn, (118 km/h, 74 mph).
Super cyclonic storm – It is the highest
category that the India Meteorological
Department uses in its scale, and is used to
refer to tropical cyclones that have maximum
sustained winds exceeding 120 kn,
(222 km/h, 138 mph). IMD then made
another change in 1998 to introduce a
category for super cyclonic storms which are
cyclonic storms with wind speeds of more
than 120 kts, (222 km/h, 138 mph).
16

Table App 3.1: Classification of cyclones
LIFE CYCLE OF CYCLONIC STORMS
A low-pressure area when formed over warm sea conditions is likely to intensify in to
a depression. Depending upon the heating of ocean, the energy is supplied to a
depression. It further
strengthens the low
pressure area in to deep
depression. with supporting
conditions, the cyclogensis
starts by further sucking the
moist warm air feeding
more energy to the system.
The system organizes in
the form of cyclone and
further intensifies
depending upon the
prevailing wind and
temperature conditions. a
typical storm track is shown
in the given figure. The
Figure App 3.2: Cyclonic track
storm brewing in sector A7 as
depression and intensifies as cyclone as it moves to sector A6. In sector A5, it further
intensifies to severe cyclonic storm until land fall in sector A4. It continues to remain
for sometime as severe cyclonic storm overland as it continues to draw energy from
ocean through its coast lines. When the system is totally on land, the energy feed is
cut off and the system weakens to cyclonic storm and continues to maintain in sector
A3 and part of A4 due to its inherent energy. The storm further weakens to
17

depression and moves overland in sector A1.
DAMAGING EFFECTS OF CYCLONIC STORMS
EFFECTS AT SEA
A mature tropical cyclone can release heat at a rate upwards of 6x10 14 watts tropical
cyclones on the open sea cause large waves, heavy rain, and high winds, disrupting
international shipping and, at times, causing shipwrecks.
� Shipping: The shipping in cyclone infested sea area is dangerous and
normally even big ships avoid encountering such weather conditions.
� Fishing: From depression stage onwards, the sea conditions become
extremely rough due to large waves, heavy rain and high winds. The fishing
during these conditions is not permissible. Every year large nunber of fishing
boats are lost and a large number of fisherman die due to lack of early
warning or warning at sea.
EFFECTS OF CYCLONES UPON LANDFALL
1. Storm surge: The storm surge, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is
typically the worst effect from land falling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in
90% of tropical cyclone deaths. The relatively quick surge in sea level can
inundate miles/kilometers inland, flooding homes and cutting off escape routes.
The highest storm surge during super cyclone has been recorded up to 10 meter
height. The storm surges and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to humanmade
structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries, which are
18

typically important fish breeding locales.
2. Strong winds: Strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges,
and other outside objects, turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles.
Tropical cyclones often knock out power to tens or hundreds of thousands of
people, preventing vital communication and hampering rescue efforts. Tropical
cyclones often destroy key bridges, overpasses and roads, complicating efforts to
transport food, clean water, and medicine to the areas that need it. Furthermore,
the damage caused by tropical cyclones to buildings and dwellings can result in
economic damage to a region, and to a diaspora of the population of the region
3. Heavy rainfall: The thunderstorm activity in a tropical cyclone produces
intense rainfall (up to 20 to 30 cm/hour), potentially resulting in flooding,
mudslides, and landslides. Inland areas are particularly vulnerable to
freshwater flooding, due to residents not prepared adequately. Heavy inland
rainfall eventually flows into coastal areas damaging marine life in coastal
estuaries. The wet environment in the aftermath of a tropical cyclone, combined
with the destruction of sanitation facilities and a warm tropical climate, can induce
epidemics of disease which claim lives long after the storm passes.
4. Tornadoes: The broad rotation of a land falling tropical cyclone often
spawns tornadoes, particularly in their right front quadrant. While these tornadoes
are normally not as strong as their non-tropical counterparts, heavy damage or
loss of life can still occur. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eye wall
meso-vortices, which persist until landfall.
5. Flooding: Heavy rain fall associated with storm surge causes large flooding and
inundation in the coastal and adjoining reasons causing heavy losses to life and
property.
6. Ecosystem: The sudden flooding and storm winds completely damage the
standing crops, uprooting trees and destroying the eco- system of the coastal
environment.
7. Loss of Life: During the last century, tropical cyclones have been responsible for
19

the deaths of about 1 million persons in India. It is estimated that 10,000 people
per year perish due to tropical cyclones. The deadliest tropicalwas the 1999
Orissa cyclone also known as also known as Paradip cyclone, was the
deadliest Indian ocean tropical cyclone in recent years. The cyclone dumped
heavy torrential rain over southeast India, causing record breaking flooding in the
low-lying areas. The storm surge was 30 feet (10 meters) struck the coast of
Orissa, traveling up to 20 km inland. About 17,110 km² of crops were destroyed,
and an additional 90 million trees were either uprooted or had snapped.
Approximately 275,000 homes were destroyed, leaving 1.67 million people
homeless. Another 19.5 million people were affected by the super cyclone to
some degree. A total of 9,803 people officially died from the storm, though it is
believed that 15,000 people died. Nearly 8,119 of those fatalities were from
the Jagatsinghpur district. The damage across fourteen districts in India resulted
from the storm was approximately $4.5 billion (1999 USD, $5.1 billion 2005 USD).
METHODOLOGY FOR CYCLONE HAZARD ZONATION
Step 1:
Step 2:
The Indian land mass has been divided in to 1 degree Lat X 1
degree Long to blocks. Each block is 111 km X 111 km for
tropical Latitudes. Total number of blocks covering entire Indian
landmass and immediate neighborhood are 277 No’s.
For each block, the number of depressions, cyclonic storms and
sever cyclonic storm have been identified with their intensity and
duration of residency.
20

Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
Step 6:
The blocks, which show frequently hit by sever cyclonic storm
and cyclonic storm have been designated as highest hazard
prone area (very high hazard).
The blocks, which shows frequently hit by cyclonic storm have
been designated as high hazard prone area (high hazard).
The blocks that show frequently hit (more than 50 times during
the check period) by deep depression have been designated as
moderate hazard prone area (Moderate). The hazard is only due
to moderately high winds and heavy rainfall.
The depression covers almost 90% of the Indian subcontinent,
which bring rainfall during monsoon period. Thus such areas are
designated as no hazard zone.
Table App 3.2: Methodology for cyclone hazard zonation
21

APPENDIX IV
METHODOLOGY FOR HAZARD MAPPING OF
EARTHQUAKES
DESCRIPTION OF TECTONICS AND SEISMICITY IN INDIA
TECTONICS PLATE BOUNDARY OF INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT
There are eight major tectonics plates defining entire world’s land mass viz. African
Plate, Antarctic Plate, Indian Plate, Australian Plate, Eurasian Plate, North American
Plate, South American Plate, Pacific Plate. The Indian tectonics plate boundary is
shown in figure. It began
moving north, at about
20 cm/yr (8 in/yr) , and
began colliding with Asia
between 50 and 55
million years ago, in the
Eocene epoch of the
Cenozoic Era. During
this time, the India Plate
covered a distance of
2,000 to 3,000 km and
moved faster than any
other known plate.
Figure App 4.1: Map of Indian plate
22

The India Plate is currently moving northeast at 4 cm/yr, while the Eurasian Plate is
moving north at only 2 cm/yr . This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the
India Plate to compress at a rate of 4 mm/yr. The Indian plate boundary runs from
north to north-east India and down to Andman-Nicobar and Indonesia in Indian
Ocean. The ocean bottom earthquake occurred on 26 Dec 2004 magnitude 9.3 Off
West Coast Of Sumatra has genreated unprecetended Tsunami causing large
damage in India and Sri-lanka.
MAIN CENTRAL THRUST (MCT) AND MAIN BOUNDARY
THRUST (MBT)
The
northern
plate
boundaries
shown in
figure below
are Main
Central
Thrust
(MCT) and
Main
Figure App 4.2: MBT and MCT
Boundary
Thrust (MBT). Some of the major inter-plate land earthquakes have occurred along
with MCT and MBT viz. Shillong plateau (magnitude 8.7), Himachal Pradesh
(magnitude 8.0), Bihar-Nepal border (magnitude 8.3), Arunachal Pradesh- China
border (magnitude 8.5) etc, make northern and northeast India most susceptible
zone for earthquake hazard.
23

The intra plate earthquakes such as Latur-Osmanabad, Maharashtra, Jabalpur and
Madhya Pradesh significantly show the seismicity of the central India. The Koyna
Dam, south of Mumbai is a unique example of dam induced seismicity generating
earthquake of magnitude 6.5. Kutch region in Gujarat has also experienced high
magnitude interplate earthquake in past creating high seismic hazard zone in west of
India.
SEISMICITY OF INDIA
The
Figure App 4.3: Seismicity Map (Earthquake of magnitude 3.0 and
above from 1800 to 2004)
24

earthquakes of magnitude 5.0 and above have been plotted for last 100 years (1905
to 2006) in India and neighborhood, which clearly depict the seismicity of India. The
clear feature of the seismicity plot is the earthquake events are mainly distributed
along with the plate boundary and Kutch. However, the devastating intra plate
earthquake of magnitude 6 and above are also seen to be occurring over main land
along with active seismotectonics faults making more than 50% of the land area
earthquake hazard prone.
CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake swarms
Earthquake swarms also occur frequently over land mass. These are low intensity
(around 3 magnitude) series of earthquakes occurring at the location. The frequency
of tremors could be as high of 50 shocks a day. These are normally originated from
shallow depth. The Maharashtra (Nanded 2006-08), Haryana (Jind 2003) and
Gujarat (Bhavnagar-2000) are typical examples. These swarms cause damage to
hutments and even cracks in RCC structures.
Aftershocks
An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the main
shock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller
magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is
redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a
foreshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane
adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Large numbers of aftershocks have been
recorded by IMD after each earthquake magnitude 6 and above viz Bhuj, Uttar
Kashi, Chamoli, Jabalapur etc. Some time aftershocks cause significant loss of life
and property and Latur earthquake is a typical example in India. The aftershock of
Bhuj earthquake has caused lot of damage to property.
Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes. The major reason for
the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the Indian plate is driving
25

into Euranasian Plate at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year northwards. Almost
54% of the Indian land mass is vulnerable to earthquakes. The latest version of BIS
seismic zoning map divides India in four seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5).
According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of seismicity
whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity.
Shaking and ground rupture
Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally
resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The
severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake
magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and
geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. The
ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.
Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce
high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes.
This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of
the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of
seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits.
Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along
the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several metres in the case of
major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures
such as dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of
existing faults to identify any likely to break the ground surface within the life of the
structure.
Landslides and avalanches
Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and
wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological
hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting
rescue.
26

Fires
Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event
of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop
the spread of a fire once it has started.
Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular
material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to
a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt
or sink into the liquefied deposits. This can be a devastating effect of earthquakes.
Tsunami
Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or
abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean the distance between
wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62 miles), and the wave periods can vary
from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800 kilometers per hour
(373-497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an
earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of
minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and
wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.
Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale do not
cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most
destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.
Floods
A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. Floods occur usually
when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the
total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside
27

of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of
earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dams on
rivers, which can then collapse and cause floods.
Tidal forces
Research work has shown a robust correlation between small tidally induced forces
and non-volcanic tremor activity.
Impacts on habitat
Earthquakes may lead to disease, lack of basic necessities, loss of life, higher
insurance premiums, general property damage, road and bridge damage, and
collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings.
Earthquakes can also precede volcanic eruptions, which cause further problems.
EARTHQUAKE HAZARD ZONATION OF INDIA
ZONE 5
Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risk zone that suffers earthquakes of
intensity MSK IX or greater. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5.
Structural designers use this factor for earthquake resistant design of structures in
Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 is indicative of effective (zero period) peak horizontal
ground accelerations of 0.36 g (36 % of gravity) that may be generated during MCE
level earthquake in this zone.
It is referred to as the Very High Damage and Risk Zone. The state of Kashmir,
Punjab, western and central Himalayas, northeastern Indian region and the Rann of
Kutch in Gujarat fall in this zone. Generally, the areas having trap or basaltic rock are
prone to earthquakes.
28

ZONE 4
This zone is called the High Damage and Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK
VIII. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4. The Indo-Ganga basin and
the capital of the country (Delhi, Jammu) and Bihar fall in Zone 4.
Areas which are near to Yamuna bank are very much prone to the earthquake. East
Delhi is the most earthquake prone area. Some areas such as Shahdara, Mayur
Vihar Phase I, II, III, Laxmi Nagar and nearby areas like Gurgaon, Rewari and Noida
ZONE 3
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall under this
zone. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK
VII. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3.
ZONE 2
This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk
Zone. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum horizontal acceleration that
can be experienced by a structure in this zone is 10 % of gravitational acceleration)
for Zone 2.
SCALE FOR EARTHQUAKE HAZARD EVALUATION
MAGNITUDES- RICHTER SCALE
There is always confusion about magnitude and intensity of the earthquake event.
29

Infact, magnitude is the measurement of the energy released by the earthquake
event, whereas the intensity are connected with effect of earthquake at epicenter to
location away from epicenter.
Richter magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the
amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs (adjustments are included to
compensate for the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and
the epicenter of the earthquake) as per the relationship
where A is the maximum excursion of the Wood-Anderson seismograph, the
empirical function A0 depends only on the epicentral distance of the station, δ. In
practice, readings from all observing stations are averaged after adjustment with
station-specific corrections to obtain the ML value.
Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in
magnitude represents a ten fold increase in measured amplitude; in terms of energy,
each whole number increase corresponds to an increase of about 31.6 times. The
energy released in an earthquake of magnitude 3 on Richter scale is equivalent 31.6
metric tons of TNT. An earthquake of magnitude 6 on Richter scale is equivalent 1
mega tons of TNT. An earthquake of magnitude 9 on Richter scale is equivalent 31.6
gigatons of TNT. This is an idea of strength of the energy released during the
earthquake.
SCALE FOR EARTHQUAKE HAZARD EVALUATION
INTENSITY- MODIFIED MARCALLI SCALE
The effect of an earthquake on the earth's surface is called the intensity. The
intensity scale consists of a series of certain key responses such as people
awakening, movement of furniture, damage to chimneys, and finally - total
destruction. Although numerous intensity scales have been developed over the last
several hundred years to evaluate the effects of earthquakes, the one currently used
is the Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity scale. This scale, composed of 12 increasing
levels of intensity that range from imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction,
is designated by Roman numerals. It does not have a mathematical basis; instead it
30

is an arbitrary ranking based on observed effects.
The modified mercalli intensity value assigned to a specific site after an earthquake
has a more meaningful measure of severity to the nonscientist than the magnitude
because intensity refers to the effects actually experienced at that place.
The lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the
earthquake is felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on
observed structural damage. Structural engineers usually contribute information for
assigning intensity values of VIII or above.
The following is an abbreviated description of the 12 levels of Modified Mercalli
intensity.
31

Degree Force Behavioral effects Structural effects Geologic effects
I Imperceptible Not felt — —
II Very light Felt sporadically — —
III Light Felt only by people at rest — —
IV Moderate Felt indoors, many
awakened
Windows vibrate —
V Fairly strong Widely felt outdoors Interior plaster cracks, hanging objects
swing, tables shift
VI Strong Fright Damage to chimneys and masonry Isolated cracks in soft ground
VII Very strong Many people flee their
dwellings
Serious damage to buildings in poor
condition, chimneys collapse
VIII Damaging General fright Many old houses undergo partial
collapse, breaks in canals
IX Destructive Panic Large breaks in substandard
structures, damage to wellconstructed
houses, underground pipe
breakages
—
Isolated landslides on steep
slopes
Changes in wells, rockfalls onto
roads
Cracks in ground, sand eruptions,
widespread landslides
X Devastating General panic Brick buildings destroyed Rails twisted, landslides on
riverbanks, formation of new lakes
XI Catastrophic — Few buildings remain standing, water
thrown from canals
XII Very
catastrophic
— Surface and underground structures
completely destroyed
Widespread ground disturbances,
tsunamis
Upheaval of the landscape,
tsunamis
32

Table App 4.1: Twelve levels of Modified Mercalli intensity
MAGNITUDE VS INTENSITY (AN ESTIMATE)
The Intensity generated by earthquake at epicenter is highest and causes maximum
destruction. The intensity is also associated with peak ground acceleration (PGA)
which is more useful parameter for structural design and effect of earthquake.
The earthquake hazard is estimated by the intensity of earthquake felt at a given site
generated from the earthquake. The earthquake magnitude measured in ML, MB,
MS and MW, where as earthquake intensity is measured in modified mercalli
intensity scale or peak ground acceleration felt at epicenter and away from epicenter.
The empirical relationship/estimate of earthquake magnitude, intensity and PGA is
given below
Richter Magnitude
Typical Maximum Intensity at
Epicenter in Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scale
Peak Ground
Acceleration (m/s2)
1.0 - 3.0 II 0- 0.2
3.0 - 3.9 III 0.2-0.4
4.0 - 4.9 V 0.4-0.8
5.0 - 5.9 VII 0.8-2.4
6.0 - 6.9 IX 2.4-3.2
7.0-7.9 X 3.2-4.0
8.0+ X+ 4.0+
Table App 4.2: Estimate of earthquake magnitude, intensity and PGA
33

EARTHQUAKE HAZARD ESTIMATE
ISOSIESMALS – INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE
AWAY FROM EPICENTER
In seismology an isoseismal map is used to show lines of equal felt seismic intensity,
generally measured on the modified mercalli scale. Such maps help to identify
earthquake epicenters, particularly where no instrumental records exist, such as for
historical earthquakes. They also contain important information on ground conditions
at particular locations, the underlying geology, and radiation pattern of the seismic
waves and the response of different types of buildings. They form an important part
Figure App 4.4: Pattern of seismic waves
34

of the macroseismic approach, i.e. that part of seismology dealing with noninstrumental
data. The shape and size of the isoseismal regions can be used to help
determine the magnitude, focal depth and focal mechanism of an earthquake. The
isoseismal maps give very important information about hazard created by an
earthquake at places away from earthquake. The intensity in MM scale and PGA
generated at epicenter by earthquake of different magnitude are given Table App
4.2.
It is seen from isoseismal map that the intensity is highest at the epicenter and at
every 50 km distance from the epicenter the MM scale intensity reduces by one
scale. For example the intensity at epicenter of a magnitude 7 on Richter scale is 10.
The intensity in 100 km circle around the epicenter will be 8 in MM scale. This
estimate is correct to the first order. However the local intensity may be modified due
to under line geo technical and seismotectonics features of the site.
INFLUENCE OF SEISMOTECTONICS ON PGA
The underlying faults play important role in generating PGA on the site. Normally the
faults amplify the earthquake intensity. Similarly the Geotechnical features of the
sites have major effect on PGA. However both these features locally modulate the
isoseismals. The general effect of the earthquake hazard undergoes only minor
modification. We can observe that isoseismal map contours are never circular
centered at epicenter. The distribution of intensity is affected by the intervening
seisomotectonics features and geotechnical features. Both these features can
amplify or attenuate the Seismic Intensity at site.
EFFECT OF GEOTECHNICAL FEATURES ON EARTHQUAKE
Geotechnical features may have a profound influence on the ground motion
characteristics, namely, amplitude, frequency contained and duration. The most
35

influencing factors are the properties of overlying soil layer over the bedrock., type of
rock bed and the depth of overlying soil. The summary of effects is as follows;
1. Attenuation of ground motion may be significant through the rock up to the
long distances from the epicenter.
2. Soil deposit may change the predominate period of seismic waves.
3. Duration of shaking considerably increases at site with soft soil deposit. sandy
soil layer causes amplification of PGA
4. Response spectrum narrows down over soft soil compare to bed rock.
5. Spectral amplification is more for soft soil compare to silt soil. For longer
period seismic waves(.5 to 2 seconds)
6. Amplification factor for PGA decreases at soil surface
SUMMARY OF EARTHQUAKE DATA
The earthquake data for last 200 years for the period 1800-2005 has been collected
from IMD catalogs, ISC bulletins and USGS publications. The total number of
earthquakes recorded in India and their neighborhoods are 10,376 with magnitude
4.0 and above on Richter scale mostly located on tectonics plate boundaries as
shown in seismicity map as above
Total numbers of earthquakes recorded in Indian territory are 3,968 with magnitude
4.0 and above. Total 152 devastating earthquakes with magnitude 6.0 and above
have occurred in India which shows the vulnerability of Indian landmass. Total 5
great earthquakes of magnitude 8.0 and above have occurred in MCT/MBT causing
significant damage. The possibility of occurrence of major earthquake in MCT/MBT in
near future can not be ruled out.
36

Earthquakes During The Year (1800-2005)
Earthquakes Inside Indian Boundaries
MAGNITUDE 4-5 MAGNITUDE 5-6 MAGNITUDE 6-7 MAGNITUDE 7-8
Table App 4.3: Earthquakes in India and surrounding areas
MAGNITUDE 8
AND ABOVE
2856 960 113 34 5
TOTAL NUMBER OF EARTHQUAKES = 3968
Earthquakes In India and Neighborhood
MAGNITUDE 4-5 MAGNITUDE 5-6 MAGNITUDE 6-7 MAGNITUDE 7-8
MAGNITUDE 8
AND ABOVE
7786 2008 494 77 11
TOTAL NUMBER OF EARTHQUAKES = 10376
37

Mass wasting is a generic term referring to the downslope movement of soil or rock
material under the influence of gravity. Landslides is nearly a synonymous term,
implying a surface of failure along which slippage, flow, or fall occurs. Varnes
classification system for landslides (Varnes, D.J., 1975, Slope movements in the
western United States, in Mass Wasting: Geoabstracts, Norwich, p. 1-17) is the most
widely-used and is reproduced in Table 1. Classification of landslide types (adapted
from Varnes’ (1975).
Type of movement Type of material
APPENDIX V
METHODOLOGY FOR HAZARD MAPPING OF
LANDSLIDES
LANDSLIDE AND SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS MODELING
Bedrock unconsolidated sediment or soil
Falls Rockfall Debris Fall Earth fail
Slides Rotational Roack Slump Debris Slump Earth Slump
Translational Rock Block slide Debris Block slide Earth Block slide
Flows Rock Slide Debris Slide Earth Slide
Rock Flow Debris Flow Earth Flow
Complex Combination of two or more types
Table App 5.1: Classification of landslides
The three primary types of landslides, falls, slides, and flows, are distinguished on
38

the basis of the relationship between the unstable mass and the failure surface and
the internal structure and deformation of the mass.
(A) Falls- The material may be in freefall, losing contact with the failure surface
intermittently or entirely. In this type of landslide the mass moves as individual
particles, with no coherent structure developing between particles.
(B) Slides- Move as coherent blocks or masses along the failure plane. Slides
exhibit little internal shear or deformation such that patches of turf, trees, and
structures on the surface may stay relatively intact and are not incorporated into the
slide. Soil or sediment stratigraphy within the sliding mass also may be preserved.
(C ) Flows- Move as a coherent but constantly changing mass, involving internal
shear or mixing of the mass,even sorting based on particle size and position in the
flow. Surface features such as turf, shrubs, trees, and structures are incorporated
into the flow. Downslope materials and surface features may be buried by the flow
mass, but they may also be incorporated into the flow as this type of slide tends to be
erosive as it travels along its path.
SLOPE MODELING
The forces acting on a point along the potential failure plane are illustrated in Figure
App 5.1. All variables in the figures, equations, and tables are defined in Table App
5.1.
39

Water Table
Potential Failure
Plane S
σ
Figure App 5.1: Force diagram for thin to thick translational slides
The resisting force of earth materials, whether consolidated bedrock or
unconsolidated sediments, is the shear strength (S) of the materials (Figure App 5.1
and Figure App 5.2). Shear strength is a combination of forces, including the slope
normal component of gravity (Figure App 5.3 ) or normal stress (σ), pore pressure
(μ) within the material, which counteracts the normal stress, cohesion of the material
(C), and the angle of internal friction (φ). Shear strength is given by the Coulomb
Equation:
S = C + (σ - μ )tanφ (Eq 1)
Normal stress is the vertical component of gravity, resisting downslope movement
(Eq 2).
σ = γzcosβcosβ (Eq 2)
G
The role of water is especially critical in slope stability, but it is incorrect to think of its
role as that of lubrication. Water plays a dual role. In increasing the unit weight of
material, it increases both the resisting (normal stress) and driving (shear stress)
forces. It also creates pore pressure, which opposes the normal stress and therefore
reduces the resisting force or shear strength of the material (it is subtracted from
µ
τ
40

normal stress in Eq 1). It is represented by the following equation:
μ = γw mzcosβcosβ (Eq 3)
γzsinβ
Potential failure
Plane
Figure App 5.2: Geometry of the vector components of gravity. Unit width of
the block is assumed; block length is infinite in the infinite slope model and is
dropped from the equation.
The driving force is shear stress (τ), the slope parallel component of Shear strength
is given by the following equation
τ =γz cosβ sinβ (Eq 4)
Slope stability is typically evaluated in terms of a safety factor, also referred to as a
factor of safety and denoted as SF. As it applies to the infinite slope model, the SF is
a ratio between resisting and driving forces as shown in Equations 5 and 6.
Resisting Force Shear Strength S
SF= = = (Eq 5)
Driving Force Shear Stress τ
γz
Z
γzcosβ
41

C + ( γ -mγw)zcosβ cosβ tanΦ
SF= (Eq 6)
γ
γw
γ z sinβ cosβ
Figure App 5.3: Definition diagram of variables in the infinite slope stability
model..
β
Z
Material
Properties C,Φ
Zw
m=Z/Zw
It follows that if shear strength is greater than shear stress, then SF > 1 and the
slope may be considered stable; if shear strength is less than shear stress, SF < 1
and the slope may be considered unstable. For SF = 1, the slope would be
considered in a balanced state, but inherently unstable. In cases where SF ≤ 1,
whether the slope actually fails is another matter as will be discussed later, but the
potential for failure is high and mitigation would be warranted.
The infinite slope model generally relies on several simplifying assumptions which
may cause some limitation to its application. It assumes that
a. Failure is the result of translational sliding;
b. Failure plane and water table parallel the ground surface;
c. Failure plane is of infinite length; and
d. Failure occurs as a single layer.
42

It also does not account for the impact of adjacent factors like upslope development
or down slope modifications of the hill slope or accentuating factors such as ground
vibrations or acceleration due to earthquakes.
Symbol Definition Units Value Range
C cohesion kN/m2 0-250
γ unit weight of slope material kN/m3 12-22
γw unit weight of water kN/m3 9.8
Z thickness of slope material
above the slide plane
Zw thickness of saturated slope
material above the
slide plane
m vertical height of water table
above the slide plane,
expressed as a fraction of
total thickness
β slope of the ground surface
which is assumed parallel to
the slope of the failure plane
m 1-20
m 0-20
dimensionless
degrees
φ internal angle of friction degrees
S shear strength
0-1
1-40
22-46
43

τ shear stress
σ normal stress
μ pore water pressure
Table App 5.2: Variable definitions, units, and probable value ranges.
STRATEGY FOR REDUCING LOSSES FROM LANDSLIDES
The Strategies for reducing the losses due to landslides are;
a. Restrict development in landslide-prone areas;
b. Standardize codes for excavation, construction, and grading;
c. Protect existing development;
d. Utilize monitoring and warning systems; and
e. Provide landslide insurance and compensation for losses
This is accomplished In three successive steps
Step 1- Introduction to Landslide Processes. Geological Survey will provide an
introduction to landslides. By studying recent events and well-documented historical
events, we should understand the variation in landslide type according to types of
movement and material involved (Table 1), their general distribution in the country
regarding physiographic position and general geology, and the conditions under
which they occur, including any extreme triggering conditions.
Step 2- Sensitivity Analysis of the Infinite Slope Model. The infinite slope model
is an analysis of the ratio between driving and resisting forces of slope movement.
The ratio value is called the Factor of Safety or Safety Factor. The infinite slope
model is appropriate for evaluating transnational landslides and is the basis for the
GIS model in the next step. By evaluating a sensitivity analysis of the Factor of
44

Safety to variables in the infinite slope model, we will better understand the
importance of accurate parameter estimation as well as the significance of or
confidence you might have in the GIS model.
Step 3- GIS Model of Slope Stability. A GIS model of slope stability has to be
developed for portions of the country prone to landslide. Parameter values have to
be generalized, based on the geology and topography of the area. The resultant
output is an overlay of values for the Factor of Safety, essentially a landslide
susceptibility map. We will compare the landslide susceptibility map with landslide
inventories. Other simplified variants of the model, using single variables or
combinations of variables (e.g., using combinations of the most sensitive
parameters, slope, or geology) as predictors of slope instability, can also be
evaluated. For those familiar with GIS and raster or map algebra functions, sufficient
data is provided for completing a landslide susceptibility map for an adjacent area.
45

APPENDIX VI
SATELITE IMAGING TECHNIQUE FOR
PROCUREMENT OF 1:10,000 IMAGES
Remote sensing is the small or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or
phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real-time sensing device(s) such as
by way of aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, buoy, or ship. In practice, remote sensing is
the stand-off collection through the use of a variety of devices for gathering
information on a given object or area. Thus, earth observation or weather satellite
collection platforms, ocean and atmospheric observing weather buoy platforms, the
monitoring of a parolee via an ultrasound identification system, Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), X-radiation (X-RAY) and
space probes are all examples of remote sensing.
In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of imaging sensor
technologies including instruments found in aircraft and spacecraft as well as those
used in electrophysiology, and is distinct from other imaging-related fields such as
medical imaging. There are two main types of remote sensing: passive remote
sensing and active remote sensing.
1. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the
object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sun light is the most
common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of
passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-coupled
devices, and radiometers.
2. Active collection, on the other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and
areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is
46

eflected or back scattered from the target. Radar is an example of active
remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is
measured, establishing the locations, height, speed and direction of an object.
Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or
inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation,
the effects of climate change on glaciers and Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth
sounding of coastal and ocean depths, collection of data about dangerous border
areas. Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground,
ensuring in the process that areas or objects are not disturbed.
Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or groundbased
sensing and analysis provides researchers with enough information to monitor
trends such as El Niño and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other
uses include different areas of the earth sciences such as natural resource
management, agricultural fields such as land usage and conservation, and national
security and overhead, ground-based and stand-off collection on border areas.
DATA ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES IN SATELLITE IMAGING
The basis for multi-spectral collection and analysis is that of examined areas
or objects that reflect or emit radiation that stand out from surrounding areas.
SN TECHNIQUE DESCRIPTION
1
Interferometric
synthetic
aperture radar
Interferometric synthetic aperture radar is used to produce
precise digital elevation models of large scale terrain.
47

2
3
4
5
Laser and
radar
altimeters on
satellites
Light detection
and ranging
(LIDAR)
Radiometers
and
photometers
Stereographic
pairs of aerial
photographs
Laser and radar altimeters on satellites have provided a wide
range of data. By measuring the bulges of water caused by
gravity, they map features on the seafloor to a resolution of a
mile or so.
By measuring the height and wave length of ocean waves,
the altimeters measure wind speeds and direction, and
surface ocean currents and directions.
Airborne LIDAR can be used to measure heights of objects
and features on the ground more accurately than with radar
technology. Vegetation remote sensing is a principle
application of LIDAR.
Radiometers and photometers are the most common
instrument in use, collecting reflected and emitted radiation
in a wide range of frequencies. The most common are visible
and infrared sensors, followed by microwave, gamma ray
and rarely, ultraviolet. They may also be used to detect the
emission spectra of various chemicals, providing data on
chemical concentrations in the atmosphere.
Stereographic pairs of aerial photographs have often been
used to make topographic maps by imagery and terrain
analysts in traffic and highway departments for potential
routes.
48

6
Multi-spectral
platforms such
as Landsat
Simultaneous multi-spectral platforms such as Landsat have
been in use since the 70's. These thematic mappers take
images in multiple wavelengths of electro-magnetic radiation
(multi-spectral) and are usually found on earth observation
satellites, including (for example) the Landsat program or the
IKONOS satellite.
Maps of land cover and land use from thematic mapping can
be used to prospect for minerals, detect or monitor land
usage, deforestation, and examine the health of indigenous
plants and crops, including entire farming regions or forests.
Table App 6.1: Data acquisition techniques of satellites
In order to coordinate a series of large scale observations, most sensing
systems depend on the following:
(a) Platform location
(b) What time it is, and
(c) The rotation and orientation of the sensor.
High end instruments now often use positional information from satellite
navigation systems. The rotation and orientation is often provided within a degree or
two with electronic compasses. Compasses can measure not just azimuth (i.e.
degrees to magnetic north), but also altitude (degrees above the horizon), since the
magnetic field curves into the earth at different angles at different latitudes. More
exact orientations require gyroscopic-aided orientation, periodically realigned by
different methods including navigation from stars or known bench marks.
Resolution impacts collection and is best explained with the following
relationship: Less resolution = less detail and larger coverage; and More resolution =
49

more detail, less coverage. The skilled management of collection results in cost
effective collection and avoids situations such as the use of multiple high resolution
data which tends to clog transmission and storage infrastructure.
IMAGING PROBLEMS IN SATELLITE MAPPING
The human eye is able to separate approximately 64 grey values (6 bit), but it
can adapt very well to the brightness. The imaging sensors cannot change the
sensitivity very fast without influence to a homogenous image quality, by this reason
they must be able to separate quite more grey values.
� Modern CCD sensors used in space do have a radiometric resolution up to 11
bit, corresponding to 2,048 different grey values. Usually there is not a good
distribution of grey values over the whole histogram, but the important part
can be optimized for the presentation with the 8 bit grey values of a computer
screen.
� The higher radiometric resolution includes also the advantage of an optimal
use of the grey values also in extreme cases like bright roofs just beside
shadow part. By high pass filter the important information for mapping can be
optimized.
� Also for 11 bit-sensors, there are some limits. If the sun light will be reflected
by a glass roof directly to the sensor, an over saturation will occur and the
generated electrons will flow to the neighbored CCD-elements and the readout
will be influenced over short time. The over-saturation does not causing
problems, but the human operator should know about it to avoid a
misinterpretation of the objects.
50

� Some sensors do have only a limited radiometric calibration and improvement
of the delivered images, visible in a striping effect. The human eye is very
sensitive for this. By a simple shift of the grey values by half the mean
difference of neighbored lines the effect can be removed.
� Direct Sensor Orientation- The satellites are equipped with a positioning
system like GPS, gyroscopes and star sensors. So without control points the
geo-location can be determined with accuracies depending upon the system.
For example IKONOS can determine the imaged positions with a standard
deviation of approximately 4m.
� Often more problems do exist with not well known national datum.
DATA PROCESSING IN SATELLITE MAPPING
The quality of remote sensing data consists of its spatial, spectral, radiometric and
temporal resolutions.
SN RESOLUTION DESCRIPTION
1
Spatial
resolution
The size of a pixel that is recorded in a raster image
typically pixels may correspond to square areas
ranging in side length from 1 to 1,000 meters (3.3 to
3,300 ft).
51

2
3
4
Spectral
resolution
Radiometric
resolution
Temporal
resolution
The wavelength width of the different frequency
bands recorded - usually, this is related to the
number of frequency bands recorded by the
platform.
Current Landsat collection is that of seven bands,
including several in the infra-red spectrum, ranging
from a spectral resolution of 0.07 to 2.1 μm. The
hyperion sensor on Earth Observing-1 resolves 220
bands from 0.4 to 2.5 μm, with a spectral resolution
of 0.10 to 0.11 μm per band.
The number of different intensities of radiation the
sensor is able to distinguish. Typically, this ranges
from 8 to 14 bits, corresponding to 256 levels of the
gray scale and up to 16,384 intensities or "shades"
of colour, in each band. It also depends on the
instrument noise.
The frequency of flyovers by the satellite or plane,
and is only relevant in time series studies or those
requiring an averaged or mosaic image as in
deforesting monitoring. This was first used by the
intelligence community where repeated coverage
revealed changes in infrastructure, the deployment
of units or the modification/introduction of
equipment. Cloud cover over a given area or object
makes it necessary to repeat the collection of said
location.
Table App 6.2: Types of data resolutions
In order to create sensor-based maps, most remote sensing systems expect
52

to extrapolate sensor data in relation to a reference point including distances
between known points on the ground. This depends on the type of sensor used. For
example, in conventional photographs, distances are accurate in the center of the
image, with the distortion of measurements increasing the farther you get from the
center.
Another factor is that of the platen against which the film is pressed can cause
severe errors when photographs are used to measure ground distances. The step in
which this problem is resolved is called georeferencing, and involves computer-aided
matching up of points in the image (typically 30 or more points per image) which is
extrapolated with the use of an established benchmark, "warping" the image to
produce accurate spatial data. As of the early 1990s, most satellite images are sold
fully georeferenced.
In addition, images may need to be radiometrically and atmospherically
corrected.
� Radiometric correction - Gives a scale to the pixel values, e.g. the
monochromatic scale of zero to two hundred and fifty five will be converted to
actual radiance values.
� Atmospheric correction - Eliminates atmospheric haze by rescaling each
frequency band so that its minimum value (usually realized in water bodies)
corresponds to a pixel value of zero. The digitizing of data also make possible
to manipulate the data by changing gray-scale values.
DATA PROCESSING IN SATELLITE MAPPING
Interpretation is the critical process of making sense of the data. Image
53

Analysis is the recently developed automated computer-aided application which is in
increasing use.
Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) is a sub-discipline of GIS Science
devoted to partitioning remote sensing (RS) imagery into meaningful image-objects,
and assessing their characteristics through spatial, spectral and temporal scale.
Old data from remote sensing is often valuable because it may provide the
only long term data for a large extent of geography. At the same time, the data is
often complex to interpret and bulky to store.
Modern systems tend to store the data digitally, often without loss compression. The
difficulty with this approach is that the data is fragile, the format may be archaic, and
the data may be easy to falsify.
One of the best systems for archiving data series is as computer-generated
machine readable ultrafiche, usually in type fonts such as OCR-B, or as digitized
half-tone images. Ultrafiche survives well in standard libraries, with lifetimes of
several centuries. They can be created, copied, filed and retrieved by automated
systems. They are about as compact as archival magnetic media, and yet can be
read by human beings with minimal and standardized equipment.
To facilitate the discussion of data processing in practice, several processing
DATA PROCESSING LEVELS IN SATELLITE MAPPING
“levels” were first defined in 1986 by NASA as part of its Earth Observing System
and steadily adopted since then, both internally at NASA and elsewhere. In this
system,
Level 1 data record is the most fundamental (i.e., highest reversible level) data
record that has significant scientific utility, and is the foundation upon which all
subsequent data sets are produced.
54

Level 2 is the first level that is directly usable for most scientific applications; its value
is much greater than the lower levels. Level 2 data sets tend to be less voluminous
than Level 1 data because they have been reduced temporally, spatially, or
spectrally.
Level 3 data sets are generally smaller than lower level data sets and thus can be
dealt with without incurring a great deal of data handling overhead. These data tend
to be generally more useful for many applications. The regular spatial and temporal
organization of Level 3 datasets makes it feasible to readily combine data from
different sources.
These level processing definitions are as follows,
Level Description
0
1a
1b
2
Reconstructed, unprocessed instrument and payload data at full resolution,
with any and all communications artifacts (e.g., synchronization frames,
communications headers, duplicate data) removed.
Reconstructed, unprocessed instrument data at full resolution, time-referenced,
and annotated with ancillary information, including radiometric and geometric
calibration coefficients and georeferencing parameters (e.g., platform
ephemeris) computed and appended but not applied to the Level 0 data (or if
applied, in a manner that level 0 is fully recoverable from level 1a data).
Level 1a data that have been processed to sensor units (e.g., radar backscatter
cross section, brightness temperature, etc.); not all instruments have Level 1b
data; level 0 data is not recoverable from level 1b data.
Derived geophysical variables (e.g., ocean wave height, soil moisture, ice
concentration) at the same resolution and location as Level 1 source data.
55

3
4
Variables mapped on uniform space-time grid scales, usually with some
completeness and consistency (e.g., missing points interpolated, complete
regions mosaicked together from multiple orbits, etc).
Model output or results from analyses of lower level data (i.e., variables that
were not measured by the instruments but instead are derived from these
measurements).
Table App 6.3: Data processing levels
Among the most obvious features in a photograph are tones and tonal
variations (as grays or colors) and patterns made by these. These, in turn, depend
on the physical nature and distribution of the elements that make up a picture.
These "basic elements" can aid in identifying objects on aerial photographs.
Elements Description
Tone
Tone refers to the relative brightness or color of elements on a photograph. It is,
(closely
perhaps, the most basic of the interpretive elements because without tonal
related to
differences none of the other elements could be discerned.
Hue or Color)
Size
IMAGE PROCESSING
The size of objects must be considered in the context of the scale of a
photograph. The scale will help you determine if an object is a stock pond or
Lake Minnetonka.
56

Shape
Texture
Pattern
(spatial
arrangement)
Shadow
Site
Association
Refers to the general outline of objects. Regular geometric shapes are usually
indicators of human presence and use. Some objects can be identified almost
solely on the basis of their shapes: for example - the Pentagon building,
(American) football fields, cloverleaf highway interchanges
The impression of "smoothness" or "roughness" of image features is caused by
the frequency of change of tone in photographs. It is produced by a set of
features too small to identify individually. Grass, cement, and water generally
appear "smooth", while a forest canopy may appear "rough".
The patterns formed by objects in a photo can be diagnostic. Consider the
difference between (1) the random pattern formed by an unmanaged area of
trees and (2) the evenly spaced rows formed by an orchard.
Shadows aid interpreters in determining the height of objects in aerial
photographs. However, they also obscure objects lying within them.
Refers to topographic or geographic location. This characteristic of photographs
is especially important in identifying vegetation types and landforms. For
example, large circular depressions in the ground are readily identified as
sinkholes in central Florida, where the bedrock consists of limestone. This
identification would make little sense, however, if the site were underlain by
granite.
Some objects are always found in association with other objects. The context of
an object can provide insight into what it is. For instance, a nuclear power plant
is not (generally) going to be found in the midst of single-family housing.
Table App 6.4: Parameters of image processing
These elements can be ranked in relative importance:
57

Figure App 6.1: Elements of image
REMOTE SENSING SOFTWARE USED FOR DATA PROCESSING
Remote Sensing data is processed and analyzed with computer software, known as
a remote sensing application. A large number of proprietary and open source
applications exist to process remote sensing data. According to an NOAA Sponsored
Research by Global Marketing Insights, Inc. the most used applications among Asian
academic groups involved in remote sensing are as follows:
NAME OF SOFTWARE MARKET SHARE
ESRI 30%;
ERDAS IMAGINE 25%
ITT Visual Information Solutions ENVI 17%
58

MapInfo 17%
ERMapper 11%
PCI Geomatics who makes PCI Geomatica, the leading remote sensing software
package in Canada
IDRISI from Clark Labs, and the original object based image analysis software
eCognition from Definiens
Open source remote sensing software includes GRASS GIS, QGIS, OSSIM,
Opticks (software) and Orfeo toolbox.
Table App 6.5: Software for data processing
59

Viewing Direction
The first imaging satellites have had a fixed view direction in relation to the orbit.
Only by panoramic cameras, scanning from one side to the other, the swath width
was enlarged. For a stereoscopic coverage a combination of cameras with different
longitudinal view directions was used, like for the Corona 4 series and later MOMS
and ASTER. With SPOT by a steereable mirror the change of the view direction
across the orbit came. IRS-1C and -1D have the possibility to rotate the whole
panchromatic camera in relation to the satellite. This requires fuel and so it has not
been used very often. Ikonos launched in 1999 was the first civilian reconnaissance
satellite with flexible view direction. Such satellites are equipped with high torque
reaction wheels for all axes. If these reaction wheels are slowed down or
accelerated, a moment will go to the satellite and it is rotating. No fuel is required for
this, only electric energy coming from the solar paddles.
SENSORS DESCRIPTION
APPENDIX VII
DETAILS OF IMAGING SENSORS USED IN SATELLITE
IMAGING
60

TDI-sensors
The optical space sensors are located in a flying altitude
corresponding to a speed of approximately 7 km/sec for the
image on the ground. So for a GSD of 1m only 1.4 msec
exposure time is available. The 1.4 msec is not a sufficient
integration time for the generation of an acceptable image quality,
by this reason, some of the very high resolution space sensors
are equipped with time delay and integration (TDI) sensors.
The TDI-sensors used in space are CCD-arrays with a small
dimension in flight direction. The charge generated by the energy
reflected from the ground is shifted with the speed of the image
motion to the next CCD-element and more charge can be added
to the charge collected by the first CCD-element. So a larger
charge can be summed up over several CCD-elements. There
are some limits for inclined view directions, so in most cases the
energy is summed up over 13 CCD-elements.
Ikonos, QuickBird and OrbView-3 are equipped with TDI sensors
while Eros-A and the Indian TES do not have it. They have to
enlarge the integration time by a permanent rotation of the
satellite during imaging. Also QuickBird is using this enlargement
of the integration time because the sensor originally was planned
for the same flying altitude like Ikonos, but with the allowance of a
smaller GSD, the flying height was reduced, resulting in a smaller
pixel size. The sampling rate could not be enlarged and this has
to be compensated by the change of the view direction during
imaging, but with a quite smaller factor like for Eros-A and TES.
61

CCD-
configuration
Most of the sensors do
not have just one CCD-
line but a combination
of shorter CCD-lines or
small CCD-arrays. The
Figure A.3.1: CCD arrays
CCD-lines are shifted against each other in the CCD-line direction
and the individual color CCD lines are shifted against the
panchromatic CCD-line combination in the sampling direction.
The merging of sub-images achieved by the panchromatic CCD-
lines belongs to the inner orientation and the user will not see
something about it. Usually the matching accuracy of the
corresponding sub-images is in the lower sub-pixel range so that
the geometry of the mosaicked image does not show any
influence. This may be different for the larger offset of the color
CCD-lines. Not moving objects are fused without any problems
during the pan-sharpening process. By theory only in extreme
mountainous areas unimportant effects can be seen. This is
different for moving objects – the time delay of the colour against
the panchromatic image is causing different locations of the
intensity and the color. The different colour bands are following
the intensity. This effect is unimportant for mapping because only
not moving objects are used.
62

Staggered CCD
Configuration
The ground resolution can be improved by staggered CCD-lines
(Figure 4). They do
include 2 CCD-
lines shifted half a
pixel against the
other, so more
details can be seen in
the generated images.
Because of the over
Figure A.3.2: mixing of staged and in moving
direction over sampled information to higher
resolution image
sampling, the information contents do not correspond to the linear
double information. For SPOT 5 the physical pixel size projected
to the ground is 5m, while based on staggered CCD-lines the
super-mode has 2.5m GSD. By theory this corresponds to the
information contents of an image with 3m GSD.
63

Multi spectral
information
Sensors usable for topographic mapping are sensitive for the
visible and near infrared (NIR) spectral range. The blue range
with a wavelength of 420 – 520nm is not used by all sensors
because of the higher atmospheric scatter effect, reducing the
contrast. In most cases the multispectral information is collected
with a larger GSD like the panchromatic. With the so called
pansharpening, the lower resolution multispectral information can
be merged with the higher resolution panchromatic to a higher
resolution colour image.
For example after HIS transformation (transformation of red,
green, blue (RGB) to the colour model intensity, hue, saturation
(IHS)) and after linear enlargement of the number of pixels, the
intensity channel coming from RGB is exchanged by the
panchromatic channel and IHS is transformed back to higher
resolution RGB. This pan sharpening is using the character of the
human eye which is more sensitive to grey values like for colour.
A linear relation of 4 between panchromatic and colour GSD is
common.
Because of the lower sun energy in the mid-infrared range, the
GSD is larger for this like for the visible and NIR range. The
panchromatic range does not correspond to the original definition
– the visible spectral range. Often the blue range is cut of and the
NIR is added to the spectral range of approximately 500nm to
900nm.
Table App 7.1: Imaging sensors in satellites
64

APPENDIX VIII
GROUND CONTROL POINTS IN PROCUREMENT OF
1:10,000 SATELLITE IMAGES
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC GROUND CONTROL
DATUM
By definition, the horizontal datum is a rectangular plane coordinate system. All
horizontal control shall begin and terminate on monuments that are in the National
Geodetic Reference Database System (NGRDS)
The vertical datum is normal to gravity. All vertical control shall begin and terminate
on existing benchmarks that are in the National Geodetic Reference Database
System (NGRDS).
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is a realization of International
Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS), which is a definition of geocentric system
adopted and maintained by International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems
Service (IERS). IERS was established in 1987 on the basis of the resolutions by
IUGG and IAG. The origin of the system is the centre of mass of the Earth. The unit
of length is meter. The orientation of the axes was established as consistent with that
of IERS’s predecessor, Bureau International de l’Heure, BIH, in 1984. The Z-axis is
the line from the Earth’s centre of mass through the Conventional International Origin
(CIO). Between 1900 and 1905, the mean position of the Earth’s rotational pole was
designated as the Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP). The X-axis is the line from
the centre through the intersection of the zero meridian with the equator. The Y-axis
is the line from the centre to equator and perpendicular to X axis to make a right
65

handed system. ITRF is a set of points with their 3-dimensional Cartesian
coordinates and velocities, which realizes an ideal reference system, the
International Terrestrial Reference System. Each ITRF is identified by the digits of
the year as ITRFyy e.g. ITRF97, ITRF2000 etc. The latest is ITRF2005 which has the
epoch 1 st January 2000. For realization the different techniques are used: Very Long
Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR), Satellite Laser Ranging
(SLR), Global Positioning System (GPS) and Doppler Ranging Integrated on Satellite
(DORIS). Each has strengths and weaknesses - their combination produces a strong
multi-purpose Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF). ITRF is the best geodetic
reference frame currently available. The GRS80 ellipsoid is recommended by IERS
to transform Cartesian coordinates to latitude and longitude.
India has an existing network of approximately 300 Ground Control Points (GCP).
This network is to be used in the image acquisition for the hazard mapping database
in this project. The number of stations directly realized by the geocentric geodetic
system is not enough for practical use. Worldwide there are several hundred realized
stations in ITRF and about twenty stations in WGS84. Therefore it is necessary to
increase the density of the local stations based on the given stations in each nation
or area.
GROUND CONTROL POINTS
Horizontal control points shall be set up as station points in a closed traverse
whenever practicable. If field conditions dictate otherwise, control points shall either
be tied to the traverse from two different stations or have the angles and distances
for single ties measured at least twice. Each control photograph shall be examined
carefully in the field to insure that the object described in the photograph is indeed
the corresponding object in the field.
66

Vertical control points shall be set up as turning points on differential level runs. Side
shots used for photo control points are not acceptable. Trigonometric leveling is
acceptable in lieu of differential leveling if field conditions so dictate. However, all
distances shall be measured using electronic distance measuring devices in order to
insure that the accuracies listed in Table 2-2 can be obtained.
MAPPING SCALE HORIZONTAL VERTICAL
1: 300 60 MM 15 MM
1: 500 90 MM 20 MM
1: 1 000 150 MM 30 MM
1: 2,000 300 MM 90 MM
Note: Standard error, defined as the square root of the sum of the squares
of the errors from “n” measurements divided by “n”, in position and
elevation of each control point shall not exceed the recommended
accuracies shown.
Table App 8.1: Recommended Accuracies
TARGETING CONTROL POINTS
Either control points can be pre-targeted (prior to flight), or photo-identifiable points
can be selected for use upon viewing existing aerial photographs. The Contractor
shall prepare and establish targets in the field for a permanent photographic record
to be made by means of aerial photography.
Targets serve to make evident the locations of control points so that the
existence and position of each point is easily and accurately discernible when its
corresponding image is viewed in an aerial photograph. Targets also pinpoint
supplemental control points which enable aerial photographs to be oriented within
photogrammetric instruments for use in the stereoscopic compilation of map
manuscripts. Additional targets will be provided over existing baseline and right of
67

way monuments or control points. This will permit orienting the maps to plan
stationing and plan right of way lines.
Targets shall be placed in the median and shoulder zones of the roadway in question
and on flat ground whenever practicable. Steep slopes, sharp ridges and ditches
should be avoided. All targets shall be placed on contrasting background so as to be
readily distinguishable in aerial photographs.
Each target shall be placed with its center directly over and at the exact elevation of
the steel rod or other appropriate manifestation of the control point in question.
The target legs should not slope appreciably from the center.
Normally, target spacing shall be at an interval equal to one-fifth (1/5) the flight
height. However, for those projects where the required flight height is 365 M or
less, targets shall be placed so that at least two (2) will appear in the overlap
between adjacent photographs. The recommended guidelines for sizes and centerto-center
intervals of white targets shown in the table given below. The linear
dimensions of a black target should be two to three times those tabulated below to
allow for image spread in the aerial negatives.
MAPPING
SCALE
FLIGHT
HEIGHT
MAXIMUM
INTERVAL
TARGET LEG
WIDTH
1:300 459 M 110 M 0.15 M 0.6 M
1:500 612 M 192 M 0.15 M 0.9 M
1:1 000 1 285 M 384 M 0.20 M 1.5 M
1:2,000 2 570 M 768 M 0.46 M 3.0 M
Table App 8.2: Design Guidelines for White Targets
LEG LENGTH
Target shape shall be in the form of either a symmetrical cross, a "T”, or a "Y" in that
order of preference. The stem of the "T" and each leg of the "Y" shall be equal in
length to one half (1/2) the recommended leg length. Targets shall be prepared by
painting or printing them on cardboard, muslin or similar cloth, or they shall be
68

constructed of lime placed on the ground, or they shall be painted on the roadway
surface. In all cases, a cross, "T" or "Y" template shall be used as a guide.
TECHNOLOGY UPDATE FOR ACQUISITION OF GROUND
CONTROL POINTS FOR AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
VIRTUAL REFERENCE STATIONS
For land-based applications a significant productivity improvement in Real-Time
Kinematic (RTK) positioning has been achieved using the concept of a “Virtual
Reference Station” or VRS. Here observables from a dedicated network of GNSS
reference stations are processed to compute the atmospheric and other errors within
the network. These are then interpolated to generate a complete set of GNSS
observations as if a reference station was located at the rover.
There are a number of significant benefits to a VRS approach:
� Distance to the nearest reference station can be extended well beyond 30
kilometer
� Time to fix integer ambiguities is significantly reduced
� Overall reliability of fixing integer ambiguities in increased
� Cost of doing a survey is reduced by eliminating the need to set up dedicated
base stations.
� No special processing is required in the RTK engine, as it is the case for a
centralized multi-base approach
Salient Features of VRS
1
Real-time positional accuracies using a VRS approach are at the cm RMS level
anywhere within the network.
69

2
3
4
5
6
New software is now introduced as post-processed version of VRS technology.
Software can be optimized for large changes in altitude by the rover, and
extended to work with reference stations separated over very large distances.
With this approach it is only necessary to be within the network and at least 70
km to the nearest reference station to initially resolve the correct ambiguities.
Once resolved, the aircraft can then fly up to 100 km away from the nearest
station within the network, while still achieving positioning accuracy at the 10 -
15 cm RMS level.
It is possible to achieve better than decimeter RMS accuracies with a sparse
network of only 4 reference stations separated by over 100 km, but the results
are highly dependent upon the particular data set.
A rigorous adjustment of all the reference station antenna positions within the
selected network over an 18-24 hour period is available.
Table App 8.3: Features of Virtual reference Stations
DATA QUALITY CONTROL IN VRS
This quality control function ensures that all the reference station data and
coordinates are correct and consistent before the rover data is processed. Such a
concept is done routinely in land survey as part of best practices, but has been a
weak point in the aerial mapping and survey industry.
Too often data from a single reference station or a CORS network are used without
proper quality control. Quality failures can include incorrect published antenna
coordinates, incorrect datum or poor observables, any of which can result in
accuracy and reliability failures in the final product.
But now this technology enables missions to be flown with bank angles above 20
70

degrees, with the only restriction that the turns are less than about 70 km from the
nearest reference station.
71

Research has expanded to include analysis of hyperspectral data acquired
simultaneously in tens to hundreds of narrow channels. New algorithms have been
developed both to exploit the spectral information of these sensors and to better deal
with the computational demands of these enormous data sets. It is an excellent tool
for environmental assessments, mineral mapping and land cover mapping, wildlife
habitat monitoring and general land management studies.
Multispectral imaging often can include large data sets and require specialized
processing methods. Hyperspectral data sets are generally composed of about 100
to 200 spectral bands of relatively narrow bandwidths (5-10 nm), whereas,
multispectral data sets are usually composed of about 5 to 10 bands of relatively
large bandwidths (70-400 nm).
APPENDIX IX
PREVAILING TECHNOLOGY IN SATELLITE IMAGING
Actual detection of materials is dependent on the spectral coverage,
spectral resolution, and signal-to-noise of the spectrometer, the abundance of the
material and the strength of absorption features for that material in the wave length
region. In remote sensing situations, the surface materials mapped must be exposed
in the optical surface and the diagnostic absorption features must be in regions of the
spectrum that are reasonably transparent to the atmosphere.
Full spectral imaging is a form of imaging spectroscopy and is the successor
to hyperspectral imaging. Full spectral imaging was developed to improve the
capabilities of earth remote sensing (see also remote sensing). Hyperspectral
imaging acquires data as many contiguous spectral bands. Full spectral imaging (fsi)
acquires data as spectral curves. A significant advantage of FSI over hyperspectral
72

is a significant reduction in data rate and volume. FSI extracts and saves only the
information that is in the raw data. The information is contained in the shape of the
spectral curves. The rate at which data is produced by an FSI system is proportional
to the amount of information in the scene/image.
Full Spectral Imaging, along with empirical reflectance retrieval and
autonomous remote sensing are the components of the new system for remote
sensing. the new system for remote sensing could be the successor to the Landsat
series of satellites of the Landsat program. The concepts mentioned above have
been developed in collaboration with many experts, most of whom have little to
nothing to do with traditional remote sensing.
Satellite Imaging uses advanced image processing
techniques from various satellite sensors such as
color and panchromatic image data processing,
orthorectification, Pan sharpening with image data
fusion, image enhancements, georeferencing,
mosaicing, and color/gray scale balancing and is used
in various applications.
Specialized imaging processing techniques
Figure App 9.1: Geometry of
Direct Geo-referencing
are required to convert the apparent surface reflectance before analysis can take
place. Atmospheric correction such as ATCOR (Atmospheric and Topographic
Correction) techniques are used to retrieve physical parameters of the earth's
surface such as atmospheric conditions (emission, temperature), thermal and
atmospheric radiance and transmittance functions to simulate the simplified
properties of a 3D atmosphere.
Classification and feature extraction methods have been commonly used for
many years for the mapping of minerals and vegetative cover of multispectral and
hyperspectral data sets. Vector data structure is essential to most mapping, GIS
(geographic information system), and CAD (computer aided design) software
packages, which might export data to vector formats such as shape files, DXF,
73

DWG, SVC, and ASV.
In order to complement the mapping functions that are included in GIS and
other mapping and data processing software, vector data is used to facilitate the
visualization of surface and subsurface features. The image acquisition process
generates the initial raster image at a certain spatial resolution.
To ensure that the vector data, which might be extracted from digital satellite
images, aerial photo mosaics, or digital map data, is free of any coordinate
ambiguities outside of the project specifications, the satellite image data or digital
aerial photography is orthorectified. Topographic, geological, and any other source
map data is also rectified, using 75 to 100 percent of the grid ticks available on the
maps.
Additionally, vector data can be merged with 3D terrain visualization mapping
environments, such as those which use ESRI's ArcGIS software with the 3D Analyst
module. The 3D terrain flythrough scenes with vector data are produced in standard
video formats, such as AVI and WMV.
The final vector data can be provided in a variety of formats, such as
AutoCAD, DWG/DXF, SVG, ASV, ESRI shape files, or standard ASCII X/Y/Z, and
referenced to a specified survey datum and mapping projection.
74

Various national and international satellites with 56 meters resolution or better are
given below.
RESOLUTION MAPPING SCALE
40cm 1: 10,000
50 cm
1 meter
2 meter
4 meter
5 meter
10 meter
1: 12,000
1: 25,000
1: 50,000
1: 1,00,000
1: 1,25,000
1: 2,50,000
Table App 10.1: Satellites resolution vs Mapping Scales
OPTICAL LAND IMAGING SATELLITES WITH 56 METERS OR BETTER RESOLUTION
SATELLITE
COU
NTR
Y LAUNCH
PAN
RES. M MS RES. M
SWATH
KM
Landsat 5 US 3/1/1984 15 30 185
SPOT-2
APPENDIX X
SATELLITE CONSTELLATION CURRENTLY USED IN
SATELLITE IMAGING
Franc
e 1/22/1990 10 20 120
IRS 1D India 9/29/1997 6 23 70, 142
Suitable for
mapping scale
of
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
75

SPOT-4
Franc
e 3/24/1998 10 20 120
Landsat 7 US 4/15/1999 15 30 185
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
IKONOS-2 US 9/24/1999 1 4 11 1: 50,000
TERRA (ASTER)
Japa
n/US
KOMPSAT-1 Korea
EO-1 US
12/15/199
9 15 15, 30, 90 60
12/20/199
9 6.6 17
11/21/200
0 10 30 37
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
EROS A1 Israel 12/5/2000 1.8 14 1: 50,000
QuickBird-2 US
SPOT-5
DMC AlSat-1
(SSTL)
DMC BilSat
(SSTL)
DMC NigeriaSat-
1 (SSTL)
10/18/200
1 0.6 2.5 16 1: 10,000
Franc
e 5/4/2002 2.5 10 120 1: 50,000
Algeri
a
11/28/200
2 32 600
Turke
y 9/27/2003 12 26 24, 52
Nigeri
a 9/27/2003 32 600
DMC UK (SSTL) UK 9/27/2003 32 600
IRS
ResourceSat-1 India
CBERS-2
FORMOSAT-2
China
/
Brazil
10/17/200
3 6 6, 23, 56
24,
140,740
10/21/200
3 20 20 113
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Taiwa
n 4/20/2004 2 8 24 1: 50,000
IRS Cartosat 1 India 5/4/2005 2.5 30 1: 50,000
MONITOR-E -1
Russi
a 8/26/2005 8 20 94, 160
Above
1: 50,000
76

Beijing-1 (SSTL) China
TopSat (SSTL) UK
ALOS
10/27/200
5 4 32 600
Above
1: 50,000
10/27/200
5 2.5 5 10, 15 1: 50,000
Japa
n 1/24/2006 2.5 10 35, 70 1: 50,000
EROS B1 Israel 4/25/2006 0.7 7 1: 10,000
Resurs DK-1
(01-N5)
Russi
a 6/15/2006 1 3 28 1: 50,000
KOMPSAT-2 Korea 7/28/2006 1 4 15 1: 50,000
IRS Cartosat 2 India 1/10/2007 0.8 10 1: 10,000
WorldView -1 US 9/18/2007 0.5 16 1: 10,000
CBERS-2B
THOES
RazakSat*
China
/
Brazil 9/19/2007 20 20 113
Above
1: 50,000
Thail
and 2/27/2008 2 15 22, 90 1: 50,000
Malya
sia 3/1/2008 2.5 5 1: 50,000
HJ-1-A China 4/1/2008 30, 100 Hyp 720, 50
HJ-1-B China 4/1/2008
RapidEye-A
RapidEye-B
RapidEye-C
RapidEye-D
RapidEye-E
SumbandilaSat
X-Sat
30, 150,
300 720
Germ
any 4/1/2008 6.5 78
Germ
any 4/1/2008 6.5 78
Germ
any 4/1/2008 6.5 78
Germ
any 4/1/2008 6.5 78
Germ
any 4/1/2008 6.5 78
South
Africa 4/1/2008 7.5
Singa
pore 4/16/2008 10 50
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
77

Hi-res Sterio
Imaging China 7/1/2008 2.5, 5 10
Above
1: 50,000
WorldView -2 US 7/1/2008 0.5 1.8 16 1: 10,000
Venus
Israel
/
Franc
e 8/1/2008 10 28
Above
1: 50,000
GeoEye-1 US 8/23/2008 0.4 1.64 15 1: 10,000
DMC Deimos-1 Spain
DMC UK-2 UK
Alsat-2A
IRS
ResourceSat-2 India
11/15/200
8 22 660 Above 1: 50,000
11/15/200
8 22 660 Above 1: 50,000
Algeri
a 12/1/2008 2.5 10 1: 50,000
12/15/200
8 6 6, 23, 56
24, 140,
740
Above
1: 50,000
EROS C Israel 4/1/2009 0.7 2.8 11 1: 10,000
CBERS-3
China
/
Brazil 5/1/2009 5 20 60, 120
TWSAT India 7/1/2009 35 140
DMC NigeriaSat
ARGO
Pleiades-1
CBERS-4
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Nigeri
a 7/1/2009 2.5 5, 32 320 1: 50,000
Taiwa
n 7/1/2009 6.5 78
Above
1: 50,000
Franc
e 3/1/2010 0.7 2.8 20 1: 10,000
China
/
Brazil 7/1/2010 5 20 60, 120
Above
1: 50,000
SeoSat Spain 7/1/2010 2.5 1: 50,000
Pleiades-2
EnMap
Franc
e 3/1/2011 0.7 2.8 20 1: 10,000
Germ
any 7/1/2011 30 Hyp 30
Above
1: 50,000
78

LDCM US 7/1/2011 10 30 177
SPOT
Above
1: 50,000
Franc
e 7/1/2012 2 6 60 1: 50,000
Sentinel 2 A ESA 7/1/2012 10, 20, 60 285
Sentinel 2 B ESA 7/1/2013 10, 20, 60 285
Above
1: 50,000
Above
1: 50,000
Table App 10.2: Optical land imaging satellites with 56 meters or better
resolution
RADAR LAND IMAGING SATELLITES
BY DATE BEST
SATELLITE COUNTRY LAUNCH RES. M BAND
ERS-2 ESA 04/21/95 30.0 C
RadarSat 1 Canada 11/04/95 8.5 C
ENVISAT ESA 03/01/02 30.0 C
ALOS Japan 01/24/06 10.0 L
YaoGan WeiXing 1 (JB-5) China 04/27/06 5.0 L
YaoGan WeiXing 3 (JB-5-
02) China 11/12/07 5.0 L
COSMO-Skymed-1 Italy 06/08/07 1.0 X
TerraSAR X Germany 07/15/07 1.0 X
RadarSat 2 Canada 09/14/07 3.0 X
COSMO-Skymed-2 Italy 12/08/07 1.0 X
SAOCOM-1A Argentina 07/01/08 10.0 L
RISAT India 07/01/08 3.0 C
COSMO-Skymed-3 Italy 07/01/08 1.0 X
TerraSAR L Germany 08/15/08 1.0 L
COSMO-Skymed-4 Italy 03/01/09 1.0 X
TanDem-X Germany 06/30/09 1.0 X
SAOCOM-1B Argentina 07/01/09 10.0 L
KompSat 5 S Korea 03/15/10 3.0 X
Sentinel 1 ESA 07/01/11 5.0 C
Table App 10.3: Radar land imaging satellites
79

To
The Chief Secretaries of all
State Governments and Union Territories
No.28(14)/2006-D(GS-III)
Government of India
Ministry of Defence
New Delhi
Dated: the 1 st May 2006
Sub: Instructions for Conduct and Clearance of Aerial Photographic Survey/Aircraft
Borne Remote Sensing data and Imageries, their acquisitions, storage and
issue.
Sir,
APPENDIX XI
MINISTRY OF DEFENCE INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
In supersession of this Ministry’s OM No.F.2(2)/55/D(GS-III) dated 28.10.57,
F.2(2)/57/D(GS-IV) dated 17.8.61 and 18(8)/82/D(GS-III) dated 31 st January
1989, the following instructions are hereby issued for aerial
photography/Aircraft Borne Remote Sensing Data and Imageries, their
acquisitions, classification, storage and issue:
80

1. Appication for Aerial Photography/Air Borne Remote Sensing Data and
Imageries (ABRSD&I) through Analogue Metric Camera (AMC), Air Borne
Laser Terrain Mapping (ALTM), Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Hyper
Spectral Scanner (HSS), Geophysical Sensor, Electromagnetic Sensor, Digital
Camera or other approved techniques of aerial survey. (Cases for aerial
commercial photography for live news to be covered by Director General of
Civil Aviation in accordance with Ministry of Defence (MOD) guidelines:-
(a) Security clearance for Aerial Photographic requirements of agencies other
than Survey of India (SOI)/National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) foe
Aerial Photography) of smaller areas.
1.1 Alll applications (Appendix ‘A’ attached herewith) for aerial
phogography/ABRSD&I will be made to the Director General of Civil Aviation
(seven copies) at least 6 weeks before the date on which the photography is
desired to be carried out. The application must clearly indicate inter0alia the
purpose for which aerial photography/ABRSD&I is required and details about
the flying agency to be engaged for the tasks.
1.2 The Director General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) will make references to the
three Service Intelligence Agencies, Intelligence Bureau (IB) and AHA/GSGS
simultaneously along with Ministry of Defence/D(GS-III) depicting the area to
be photographed. After obtaining the requisite clearance/comments from all
concerned, Ministry of Defence/ D(GS-III) will issue security clearance for
such aerial photography incorporating such condition(s) as deemed
necessary.
1.3 The DGCA shall incorporate all the conditions/restrictions as imposed by the
Ministry of Defence in their clearance as enumerated above in the flight permit
to be issued by them.
81

(b) Security Clearance for Aerial Photographic requirements of SOI/NRSA.
1.4 Survey of India (SOI) shall also obtain the security clearance from the Ministry
of Defence for aerial photographic requirements projected to them by the
Central/State Government Departments/Agencies. After obtaining the
clearance from the Ministry of Defence, the aerial photography task may be
allotted to IAF/NRSA/other agencies as per clearance obtained. SOI shall
directly send application to three Service Intelligence Agencies, IB/MHA,
AHQ(GSGS) with copy to MOD(GS-III) and DGCA.
1.5 In case of NRSA/Govt. bodies and the requirements projected to NRSA by the
State/Central Government Departments/agencies, the application may be
submitted directly to three Service Intelligence Agencies, IB/MHA,
AHQ(GSGS) and MOD/D(GS-III) with copy to DGCA for their aerial
photographic/remote sensing requirements in respect of those areas for which
aerial photographic coverage is not available with the SOI or the existing
coverage is not suitable for their purpose.
(c) Security clearance for Disaster related activities
1.6 However, in cases of disaster related activities, the following procedure will be
followed for NRSA/Govt. agencies:-
(i) For disaster-related activities, the NRSA/Govt. agencies will
carry out aerial surveys with prior intimation to the MOD and
IB/MHA.
(ii) In cast the MOD feel the need for a Security Officer on borad the
aircraft during such survey(s), they may second an officer from
82

the Air Force Station at Hyderabad/Air HQ (Directorate of
Intelligence). NRSA’s aircraft will be equipped with state-of-theart
positioning systems which will record the track flown by the
aircraft. The record will be made available on demand by the
IAF.
1.7 A Core Group consisting of members from security agencies would be formed
to clear such disaster related data on priority.
1.8 The validity period of the permission for Aerial Photography will be twelve
months from the date of issue of the permission by MOD.
2. Photo-flights and Deployment of Security Officer
Execution of all types of aerial photography tasks/acquisition of aircraft
borne remote sensing data and imageries shall be taken up only after
clearance from the Ministry of Defence/D(GS.-III) in all cases except
conditions specified in para 1.6 of this OM or when the task is executed
by the Indian Air Force.
On such flights, as and when required on security considerations, MOD
will depute a suitably briefed security officer to be on-board the aircraft
as specified in the clearance note issued by the Ministry of
Defence/D(GS-III) based on the information received from various
Intelligence Agencies.
Requirement of security officer in case of Central/State Govt./UTs and
NRSA may be dispensed with on aerial surveys that do not envisage
flying over Vulnerable Areas/Vulnerable Points (Vas/VPs)/Sensitive
Areas. In cases where the aerial photography/survey is planned in the
83

vicinity of Vas/VPs, the requirement of the security officer may be
assessed accordingly by security agencies. The need for deputing a
security officer or otherwise shall be clearly mentioned at the time of
conveying approval.
For tasks that are uindertaken for the Central/State Governments/UTs
and where Vas/VPs are involved, security officers vetted by IB/MHA
are required to be detailed. MOD may permit deployment of
responsible Central/State Govt. security officers 9in lieu of Defence
Security Officer) who shall be overall responsible for conduct of the
task in accordance with the MOD clearance/guidelines as per the
sensitiveness of the taks on case to case basis.
The requirement of onboard security officers for aerial
photography/aerial surveys carried out by Indian Private operators will
be assessed case by case. In case of foreign crew/operators, the
requirement of on board security officer will be mandatory.
Security officer, for task planned to be undertaken close to International
Border/ Line of Control/ Coast Line and restricted zone, will be
considered by the respective Services (Air Force/Army/Navy) as per
the concerned area. Air Force security officer will be detailed for all
areas except those areas where army/navy security officers are
provided as per the requirement.
In case of special aerial survey other than the aerial photography
where foreign aircrafts/equipments/any advanced technology is being
involved, joint inspection by the concerned specialists Govt. agencies
will be carried out before the survey task is undertaken.
84

The duties of the security officer shall be as indicated at Appendix ‘B’ to
these instructions. In exceptional cases, where it is not possible to send
a security officer in the aircraft due to paucity of space, the film
rolls/photographic storage medium to be used in such flights shall be
signed and accounted before and after the flight by the security officer
designated for the flight.
Post Survey Security Vetting and Final Clearance
All aerial photography/survey tasks will be security vetted by all
concerned intelligence and security agencies irrespective of tasks
undertaken with or without on board security officer before final
classification/clearance. The operators/uisers will give an undertaking
to the effect that under to circumstances they will create any duplicate
copy of the aerial photography/ survey data till security vetted by MOD
agencies and cleared.
However, MOD may grant waiver in exception to the provisions
contained in the para 2.9 above on case to case basis in the following
circumstances. MOD shall keep all intelligence agencies informed of
such waiver.
(a) In case of Disaster related tasks where urgency is considered in
national interest.
(b) In case of aerial survey/photography undertaken by the Central/State
Govt. agencies which does not involve flying over or in vicinity of
Vas/VPs/Border/Coastal areas/Restricted Areas, the post vetting of
data may be dispensed with on case to case basis provided the aircraft
is equipped with state-of-the-art positioning systems which will record
85

the flight track flown by the aircraft and the record of the flight path will
be made available to MOD on completion of aerial survey tasks.
In case of Private and foreign operators the surveyed data be
processed under the supervision of security officer and the data kept
under safe custody till security vetted by MOD agencies. The
processed negtives/prints/digital data will be accounted for in proper
ledger form. The operator will indicate, at the time of initial application,
the location where the processing of data/aerial photographs will be
carried out.
The negatives/digital data depicting the sensitive area/Vas & VPs and
other specific areas which were prohibited for photography while
according flight clearance and which might have inadvertently been
photographed shall be obtained during the post survey security vetting
by the MOD agencies. The original negatives/digital data of the above
stated areas will be blacked out/deleted and contact prints, if any, will
be destroyed in the presence of the Defence Security Officer.
Where the exposed films or ALTM data/Digital Aerial Image/ special
survey data (Geo-physicall/hyper-spectral/electro-magnetic/any other
advanced technology survey data) have to be conveyed outside India
due to non-availability of facilities to develop/process them in the
country, Ministry of Defence will be informed by the organization of this
fact at the time of seeking initial permission for the task. Ministry of
Defence in consultation with Intelligence Agencies will consider grant of
clearance accordingly and lay down appropriate conditions in the
clearance.
The organization shall abide by all conditions laid down by the Ministry
86

of Defence and shall provide requisite assistance to the Security
Officer/representative of the Air HQrs in discharging his duties.
3. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
Aerial photographs/aircraft borne remote sensing data and imageries will
be classified on the following basis:-
(a) Secret
(i) All IAF airfields and other installations of operational nature
(ii) DRDO establishments, Army and Naval Installations/ Ships,
Cantonments.
(iii) All the civil installations pertaining to energy like atomic
energy, oil, thermal/hydel projects and the installations under
the Department of Space or the installations which are so
recommended by the Ministry of Home Affairs (IB).
(b) Restricted
(i) 50 kms belt along the border and coastline
(ii) Areas falling in J&K, North Eastern States, Andaman &
Nicobar, Lakshadweep Islands
(iii) All civil airfields and other civil installations like steel projects,
heavy engineering projects, AIR/Doordarshan installations,
fertilizers factories and communication centres or the
installations which are so recommended by the Ministry of
Home Affairs/IB.
Note: All trans-border AP/ABRSD&I will be treated as
‘Restricted’ unless otherwise specified by the Ministry of
Defence.
87

(c) Unrestricted:
All AP/ABRSD&I other than those covered by higher
classifications will be placed in the ‘unrestricted’ category
which will be indicated on case to case basis while giving
the clearance.
(d) Aerial photographs/ ABRSD&I objects such as mobile
military hardware/installations/ships in transit not specifically covered
by sub paras (a) & (b) above but which may acquire special security
significance under certain circumstances are to be graded in
consultation with the appropriate agencies (Air/Army/Naval HQs) and
IB for Civil Vas/VPs.
4. PROCEDURE FOR SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
Since giving security grading to each photograph of the aerial
photography tasks is likely to take some time, an initial security grading
for purposes of storage and handling is necessary. The procedure for
initial classification shall be as follows:-
INITIAL CLASSIFICATION
(i) All AP/ ABRSD&I tasks will be initially graded as ‘Secret’ only.
Classification lower than ‘Secret’ shall not be given except when
considered for the unrestricted tasks.
(ii) Intelligence Agencies and AHQ/GSGS will submit their
recommendations for initial classification (1:50,000 scale map
sheets) for the entire country to Director, Survey (Air), Survey of
India. They will submit by 30 th June every year a list containing
1:50,000 sheet numbers of which aerial photography tasks will be
88

classified (initial classification) as ‘Secret’. Aerial photography tasks
falling in the remaining sheets will be classified (initial classification)
as ‘Restricted’.
(iii) On the basis of recommendation submitted by the Intelligence and
AHQ/GSGS, Director, Survey (Air), Survey of India will inform the
flying agencies regarding the issue of task specifications. Director,
Survey (Air), Survey of India will indicate the initial security grading
of each task to NRSA/Other Agencies at the stage of coverage
intimation.
(iv) The first set of prints generated by the flying agencies for the
internal use for the purpose of security, preparation of cover plots,
etc. shall bear the initial security classification ‘Secret’.
(v) The initial classification will remain valid till the final classification is
made and intimated to the flying agencies and the scrutinizing
offices.
(vi) Aerial photographs/imagery/ALTM data/Digital aerial data will not be
issued till final classification has been made. However, in case of
aerial photographs undertaken on behalf of the Survey of India, the
first set of prints generated by the flying agencies may be issued to
the scrutinizing officer, viz. Director, Survey (Air), Survey of India
and No.12 GASL Platoon, etc.
FINAL CLASSFICATION
The following shall be the procedure for final security classification:-
(i) All flying agencies including IAF and NRSA will send the cover plots
of the aerial survey photography tasks to Director, Survey(Air),
Survey of India, immediately after the tasks are completed. Director,
Survey (Air), Survey of India will send copies of the cover plots to
89

the three Services Intelligence Agencies, Intelligence Bureau
(Ministry of Home Affairs) and AHQ/GSGS and convene meetings
periodically during which the representative of the intelligence
agencies and AHQ/GSGS will decide on the security grading of
each photograph of the entire tasks. In case an Intelligence Agency
can not be represented in the meeting, it must send its comments
well in advance to Director, Survey (Air), Survey of India for
consideration in the meeting.
(ii) Security grading of each photography shall be decided as per
norms laid down in para 3 above.
(iii) Director, Survey (Air), Survey of India will inform the details of the
security gradings decided in the meeting to the concerned flying
agencies and also the officer carrying out scrutiny who will
thereafter incorporate these security grading on each photo
negative as well as on each photograph of the first set of the prints.
(iv) For aerial photography tasks which are not indented by Survey of
India and carried out by NRSA and other agencies for themselves
or for other indentors, similar procedure as out-lined above will be
flowed. The coordination will be done by NRSA/other agencies at
Delhi or Hyderabad NRSA office or any other mutually agreed
location to finalise the initial/final security grading after due vetting
of each task. In case of NRSA (Govt. tasks) reps of AHQ/GSGS and
Air Hqrs (Dte of Intt) may visit NRSA, Hyderabad to scrutinize and
black out/delete the data depicting the sensitive information. After
final classification, NRSA/other agencies will send cover plots of the
tasks to the Director, Survey (Air), Survey of India for records. No
distribution of the products will, however, be made before the final
classification is completed.
(v) In case of ALTM data/Digital Aerial Image, security clearance will be
done though secured automated digital clearance system which will
90

e developed and installed by NRSA. The data will be transferred
on line to (a) central agency designated by MOD for undertaking
joint clearance or otherwise to various security agencies through
secured VPN duly encrypted. The duly vetted/classified data and
recommendations for deletion of Vas/VPs shall be transferred back
to the data generating agency on line. However, in case where data
transfers on line is not possible, the same may be sent on sealed
CD/Magnetic storage medium under personal responsibility of the
data generating agency or conventional methods of obtaining
clearance on hard copies may be followed.
5. STORAGE AND ISSUE
(i) Negative rolls/digital data shall be classified as per the initial/ final
security classification.
(ii) All the photography/imagery/remote sensing data will have the
security classification in bold capital letters on the reverse centre of
every print (unless they are pasted or mounted, in which case it
should be marked in top centre to ensure that security classification
is visible)/the data storage device (CD/DVD ROMS/DAT
(iii)
drive/Magnetic tapes etc.) and shall be kept in sate custody under
authorized official and accounted for. The digital data stored on
hard disk/servers will be password protected and be known to only
authorized officials. No unauthorized copies to be made at any
stage.
In the case of photographs/imagery/remote sensing data in book
form or album form the front and back cover will also be marked as
stated above.
(iv) All the prints taken should be serially numbered, accounted
distribution and list maintained.
91

(v) All transfers of photographs/imagery/remote sensing data between
officers or individual holder whether by hand or through registration
will be made under proper acquaintances with full signature name
and designation of the authorized officials (written legibly).
(vi) All the photographs/imagery will be issued against the index form
0.57(P) and properly vouchered for.
(vii) If the receipt voucher for photographs/imagery does not reach the
issuing authority within a reasonable time, the issuing authority will
ascertain whether the document has in fact been received.
(viii) All the entries in the stock register should be authenticated with the
signature of the Officer-in-Charge (who should be Gazetted Officer
in the case of Government organization or senior officer in
NRSA/other agencies speciall designated by the Head of the
organization of photographs. The stock register may be suitably
devised to contain all relevant information and technical details
pertaining to the aerial photography/survey carried out including
tasks/sortie name, number, area covered, date of task, security
classification, number of copies and type of survey etc.
(ix) An Aerial Imagery Transaction Registry will be maintained by
Director, Survey (Air), Survey of India, to keep record of indentors
and to monitor the safe custody certificates in respect of classified
aerial image data.
6. CUSTODY AND HANDLING OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS/DATA
(i) ‘Secret’ aerial photographs and remote sensing data/imageries/
ALTM data/Digital Aerial Image will be regarded as under the
personal charge of the officer to whom their issue is last recorded
and by whom a receipt has been given. One copy of the negative/
digital data of the aerial imagery taken by IAF/NRSA/other agencies
92

will be handed over to Director, Survey (Air), Survey of India as
record in safe custody.
(ii) Other aerial photograph and remote sensing data/imagery will be
regarded as on the charge of the person to whom the custody of
these documents has been entrusted by the officer in charge of the
establishment.
(iii) Officer in charge of the photographs and remote sensing
data/imagery are personally responsible for their safe custody.
(iv) Entry to the areas where photographs and remote sensing
data/imagery are stored/handled, should be restricted only to the
persons authorized to do so.
(v) When an officer who has charge of aerial photographs/ remote
sensing data is about to vacate his appointment whether on transfer
or on retirement, he/she will hand over both the lists and
photographs/remote sensing data/ imagery as per the list to his
successor after obtaining a proper receipt under intimation to the
issuing authority.
(vi) When an officer proceeds on leave not exceeding 15 days, handling
or taking over of classified aerial photographs/ imagery/remote
sensing data may be left to his discretion.
(vii) In the event of a holder being taken ill or dying suddenly, these will
be taken over by the new incumbent of the appointment after they
have been checked by a Board of Officers. Their findings may be
brought to the notice of the issuing authority.
(viii) Should it be necessary to transfer photographs/imagery/ remote
sensing data from one officer to another, proper handling over
certificates must be obtained and forwarded to the issuing authority.
(ix) NRSA/other agencies will ensure that the computer on which the
ALTM data/Digital Aerial Image/other surveyed data are stored
should be duly password protected and in Stand Alone mode
93

(x)
without internet connectivity. The computer system shall be kept in
secured environment and entry of unauthorized personnel be
prohibited. MOD may review the security arrangements if so
desired.
For disaster related tasks, NRSA shall be authorized to issue the
photographs/ALTM data/Digital Aerial Image to the officers of the
Central and State Govt. under the condition that the
photographs/data will be strictly for use of the concerned State
Govt. and will not be passed on to any agency within or outside the
Government. The concerned officer to whom the data is issued will
be responsible for safe keeping of the photographs/data. However,
if the photographs/data is to be passed on to any non-government
organization usual procedure will be followed. Director, Survey (Air),
Survey of India will maintain database expressly devoted for
monitoring of aerial photographs/imagery collection and supply
status. Day-to-Day status of any order should be updated for the
indentors to be able to know online.
7. PERIODICAL CHECKS AND INSPECTION
The aerial photographs/remote sensing data/imagery will be checked
by the custodian annually ending 31 st December. Certificate to his
effect will be endorsed on the register. The aerial photographs/ remote
sensing data/imagery will be recorded in an aerial photography
transactions registry maintained by nodal agencies which will be
subject to external audit.
All the photographs/imagery/remote sensing data held on charge of a
particular officer will be cheked by a Board of Officers as on 31 st
December of every year and a certificate to this effect along with a copy
94

of the proceedings submitted to the head of the office by 20 th January
of the successive year.
External Audit of storage and transactions of aerial photographs/digital
aerial data should be done every year by the Intelligence Agencies
8. Time frame for compliance of the procedure
81. All efforts will be made to adhere to the following time frame prescribed for
various steps involved in the procedure –
(a) Fifteen working days from the date of receipt of
application at MOD/Service Hqrs for initial vetting and
grant of permission. For this purpose, the Committee of
three services of the armed forces and representatives of
IB/MHA may meet twice in a month on designated days at
MOD/D(GS-III).
(b) Request for on-board officer in accordance to MOD
guidelines/clearance must be made with clear fifteen
working days prior for detailing in time.
(c) Thirty days period for post survey security
9.
vetting/clearance and final classification of surveyed data.
However, the time frame may vary in some cases based
on the quantum of work and other considerations.
Generation of Maps and records
The policy regarding authorization for generation of maps by various
agencies will be broadly covered by the National Map Policy, 2005
approved by the Government.
95

Copy forwarded to:-
All Ministries/Departments of the Govt. of India
General Staff Branch (MI Directorate)
Army Headquarters, Military Survey
Naval Headquarters, (Naval Intelligence)
Air Headquarters, (Dte. Of Intelligence)
Headquarters, IDS, MOD, New Delhi
Coy also to :-
Surveyor General of India, Dehra Dun
Director General of Civil Aviation, New Delhi
National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad
Yours faithfully,
( S. K. Yagnik )
Director (G)
96

Appendix ‘A’ to MDO LETTER NO.28(14)/2005-D(GS-III)
APPLICATION FOR GRANT OF PERMISSION FOR AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY/
REMOTE SENSING SURVEY
1. Name and Detail of the company/Agency seeking permission for aerial
photography/Remote Sensing Survey with its registered office address:
2. Details of the person(s)/company who is to take photographs/aerial survey on
behalf of the agency at para 1 above:
(a) Name (Expanding initials) :
(b) Father’s Name :
(c) Date and Place of Birth:
(d) Present Address:
(e) Permanent Address:
(f) Nationality (if foreigners, information
in Sr. No.(g) & (h) may also be provided)
(g) Passport No. Date of Issue & Issuing Authority
(h) Visa particulars including type, No., date, validity
& Issuing Office
3. (a) Purpose of aerial photography/aerial survey
(b) Objects to be photographed with the exact location (six copies of map
scale 1:250,000 or a tracing of the same scale are to be attached) with
latitude/longitude:
(c) Scale of Photography
(d) Focal length of camera
(e) Height of the flight
(f) Format size
97

(g) Type of Camera/sensor being used
(h) Type of data
4. Proposed date when aerial photography/aerial survey is to be undertaken
5. Description of Aircraft, along with the name and address of the pilot and of the
owner of the aircraft
6. Name of the Aerodrome to take off
7. In case of the task is to be carried out for State/Central Government, the copy
of authority from the concerned State Government may be attached
8. If permission is granted I/we undertake to comply with the following conditions
and any other conditions as prescribed:
(i) The photography/remote sensing survey will be confined to the exact area as
applied and cleared by the Ministry of Defence.
(ii) No photography/survey will be undertaken in the area so specified by the
Ministry of Defence.
(iii) The exact date and time of actual photography/remote sensing survey will be
intimated to Air Hqrs (Directorate of Intelligence) at least two weeks in
advance to enable them to detail a Security Officer
(iv) The Aircraft/helicopter used for aerial photography/remote sensing survey will
have seating capacity for Security Officer apart from pilot and photographer.
(v) The Security Officer of the Ministry of Defence will accompany the flight
98

undertaken for aerial photography, if considered necessary. The security
officer when deputed will initial each film/digital media taken for aerial
photography. His decision with regard to all photographic matters shall be final
and binding.
(vi) We shall take out an insurance policy of Rs.20,00,000 (Rupees twenty lakhs
only) in favour of the security officer and assign it to the President of India to
indemnify the Govt. of India from any charges on account of non-effective
benefits admissible to the Security officer and/or his family in the event of any
mishap to the aircraft.
(vii) No defence installations will be photographed/over flown unless specifically
cleared by the Ministry of Defence
(viii) Air Hqrs. (Directorate of Intelligence) will be intimated on completion of
photo/survey task and for detailing another Security Officer to check the cover
plots/photo products/digital data as required.
(ix) In cases where it is not considered necessary to depute security officer by the
Ministry of Defence, the exposed film will be processed and plotted but not
issued for use till Security vetted by a representative of the Air Hqrs
(Directorate of Intelligence)
(x) In case so specified by the Ministry of Defence in their clearance letter, the
film/digital image after exposure will be processed in the presence of Air Force
representative designated who will vet them from security angle before
releasing them.
(xi) Government will not be liable for any loss or damages of films/digital data
while in their custody
99

(xii) Travelling allowance/daily allowance in respect of the Security Officer/Joint
Inspection Team (specified by MOD on case to case basis) as admissible
under the existing rules will be paid by us.
(xiii) Where exposed films/digital data have to be conveyed outside India because
facilities to develop/process them do not exist in the country, Ministry of
Defence will be informed of this fact at the initial stage of application by us and
we undertake to abide by the conditions/arrangements laid down/suggested
by the Ministry of Defence.
Dated: …………………
( Signature of the Aplicant )
100

To
The Director General of Civil Aviation
DGCA Complex, Opp Safdarjung Airport,
New Delhi – 110 003.
Appendix ‘B’ to MOD LETTER NO.28(14)/2005-D(GS-III)
DUTIES OF SECURITY OFFICER DEPUTED TO BE ON BOARD THE AIRCRAFT
DURING AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY/REMOTE SENSING SURVEYS
1. The Security Officer shall be overall responsible for the conduct of the task in
accordance with the MOD clearance/guidelines.
2. The Security Officer will ensure the following:-
(a) BEFORE FLIGHT
(i) The Captain of the aircraft proceeding on survey flight has a valid
DGCA permit for undertaking aerial photography/aerial survey of
the area and the flight has been duly cleared by the Air Traffic
Control.
(ii) All the conditions mentioned in the DGCA permit are satisfied.
(iii) To check that the aircraft is not carrying any other photography
Sensor other than the one authorized/cleared by MOD.
(b) IN FLIGHT
(i) The photography is limited to the area cleared for
101

photography/remote sensing.
(ii) No Defence installations/VAs & VPs known to the Security Officer
are photographed/imaged.
(c) AFTER FLIGHT
(i) Obtain a certificate from the Captain of the aircraft indicating the
details of quantity of recording material i.e. film rolls, discs,
digital tape, etc. used during the flight. The recorded/Surveyed
data shall be dully classified as per initial classification in
accordance with MOD guidelines.
(ii) Submit a report to the Air Hqrs along with the traces/ maps/areas
photographed and the certificates mentioned at sub-para (c) (i)
above.
Note 1: When the Security officer can not accompany the flight due to paucity
of space, the film rolls/data storage medium will be signed by him
before and after the flight and duly accounted for.
Note 2: The flying agency is to ensure that the Captain of the aircraft is in
possession of the following to be shown to the Security Officer on
demand:
(i) Valid DGCA permit
(ii) A copy of the Ministry of Defence clearance
(iii) One set of Maps on which the areas of photography/survey is marked.
(iv) Proof of life insurance coverage for the security officer for an amount of
Rs.20,00,000 (Rupees twenty lakh only).
* * * * * *
102

S.I. Con… National Atlas Census R.L. Singh Aro-climatic
Regions
NORTHERN
ZONE
Western
Himalaya
GREAT
PLAINS
Himalaya Northern
Plains
GREAT
PLAINS
GREAT
PLAINS
Western Plains Punjab Rajasthan
Plain
-
Western Dry
Areas
Haryana Punjab Plain Trans-Genetic
Plain
Rajasthan Eastern Plains Arid Rajasthan Upper Ganga
Plain
Aravalli - Upper Ganga Middle Ganga
Plain
Regions Soils
Rajasthan
plain
Table App 11.1 : Identification of Meso Regions
Desert/
Greybrown
Above
MSL (m)
Cropping/
Farming

Land; VGL- Very Good Land; MGL – Moderately Good Land;
Table App 11.2: Meso Regions of India
Cartosat Data Utilisation for 1:10,000 Topographic Mapping
To meet the national requirement to develop Large Scale National Topographic Data
Base (LSNTDB) to support the planning development activities, ISRO/NRSC has
taken up the Large Scale Mapping (LSM) activity for creation of cartographic
geospatial database using high resolution satellite data under Cartosat data
utilization program. In pilot phase of LSM different mapping methods and standards
were established suite terrain relief (table -1) and also accomplished topographic
mapping of 6000 sq. km. on 1:10,000 scale covering 40 sites in different parts of
India.
No. Terrain/Type Mapping/Map updating Procedure
1 High relief areas and
metro cities
3D mapping from Stereo high resolution satellite
data
2 Relatively flat areas 2D mapping from monocular high resolution
satellite data
3 Moderately relief areas 2D mapping from ortho-image generated from
monocular high resolution satellite and external
DEM
4 Existing digital 2D maps 2D map updating using monocular high resolution
satellite data
5 Existing digital 3D maps 3D map updating using Stereo high resolution
satellite data
Table App 11.3 : Mapping Methods
104

Cartosat -1/2 datasets were used in many operational projects like Jaipur,
Hyderabad, Rajkot and a few towns of HP for preparation of 1:10,000 scale
topographic mapping. Further, a committee with members from SOI, NSDI,
ISRO/DOS, MOD was set up under DST’s OM No.SM/13/09/2008 dated 21.11.2008
fro assessing the technological suitability of high resolution satellite imagery for
preparation of 1:10K topographical maps pertaining to entire India. To demonstrate
the capabilities/suitability of Cartosat data, Chairman ISRO, Director NRSC has
suggested to take a operational project on 1:10K topographic mapping from Cartosat
data of Jagatsinghpur district, Orissa.
Brief Methodology
The area of extent for Jagatsinhpur district (3020 sq. km) covers 15 stereo scenes of
Cartosat-1. the parameters to be considered for the procurement of the data are :
1. Cartosat-1 Stereo orthokit product, Cloud cover or fog over the area of
interest: Less than 10%
2. Spatial reference : Horizontal is WGS 84 Ellipsoid and Vertical Datum
is orthometric heights and UTM Projection
105

GCPS
(GPS)
Field
verification
and data
colletion
Cartosat-1 Stereo Data
BLOCK ADJUSTMENT
(H. Datum:WGS84)
3D Visualisation & DEM Generation
(Stereoscopic Break lines &
mass points)
Post field corrections &
validation
Contours
10K Topographic
Geospatial Database
Applications
Figure App 11.1: Flow Chart for 1:10000 scale mapping using
Cartosat-1 data
AFT
Ortho
images
106

Table App 12.1 – SETTLEMENTS AND CULTURAL DETAILS
Level 0
(2D
Feature
Extractio
n)
Building
Footprint
Level 1
(Ground
truthing)
Building
Footprint
hidden or
missing from
Level 0
Attribute 1
Attribute 2
Attribute 3
(Class) (Sub-Class) (Ownership
)
Residential Central
Govt.
FinanceBa
nks
Farms
APPENDIX XII
DATA MODEL
Recreation
House Living State Govt.
Nationalized Bank
Private Bank
Chit Funds
Others
Poultry Farm
Dairy Farm
Vegetable
Others
Cinema
Theatre
PSU
NGO
Private
Attribu
te 4
(No. of
Floors,
Name,
Addres
s)
107

Business
Hotel
Hostel
Guest
house
Community Centre
Library
Club
TV station
TV Tower
Radio station
Film city
Film Studio
TV studio
Parks
Others
Trade Centre
Show rooms
Retail outlets
Service Centre
Cold Storage
Ware house
Others
Star Hotels
Other Hotels
Motel
Lodge
Dharmshala
Restaurant
Dhaba
Mess
Others
School / college
Working women
Youth Hostel
Others
108

IT Park
Others
Offices
Court
Police
station
Police
Outpost
/Chauki
Post Office
Telegraph
Office
Jail
Defence
Paramilitary
Forces
Govt.
Private
Semi -
Government
State Govt.
Central Govt.
Union Territory
Semi-Government
Embassies
Private
Supreme Court
High Court
District Court
Metropolitan/city
Court
Session Court
CAT
SAT
Consumer Court
CRPF
BSF
109

Religious
Antiquities
Utility
Center
ITBP
CISF
SSB
AR
Others
Temple
Chhatri
Gopuram
Mosque
Idgah
Tomb
Shrine
Church
Christian Memorial
Gurudwara
Buddhist Kyaung
Pagoda
Ashram/ Matha
Others
Palace
Fort
Cave
Battle field
Monument
Mughal Kos Pillar
Deserted site
Watch tower
Museum
Airline Booking
Office
RailReservation
Office
110

Educational
Institution
Bus booking
center
Marriage/Banquet
Hall
Telephone Booth
Milk Booth
Bill Payment
Centre
Post Box
ATM Centre
Public Toilet
Medicine shop
Courier service
Cable service
Cyber Cafe
Travel Agency
Any other
Nursery Govt./Privat
e
Kinder Garden Govt./Privat
e
Primary School Govt./Privat
e
Upper Primary Govt./Privat
e
High school Govt./Privat
e
University Govt./Privat
e
General College Govt./Privat
e
Engineering
college
Govt./Privat
e
Medical College Govt./Privat
e
Management
College
Govt./Privat
e
111

Other
Institutions
Welfare/reli
ef/health
care
Law College Govt./Privat
e
Biotechnology Govt./Privat
e
Finance Govt./Privat
e
Polytechnic Govt./Privat
e
ITI Govt./Privat
e
Others Govt./Privat
e
Coaching centre Govt./Privat
e
Aanganbadi
Dispensary/PHC Govt./Privat
e
Clinic Govt./Privat
e
Hospital Govt./Privat
e
Blood Bank Govt./Privat
e
Veterinary Hospital Govt./Privat
e
Veterinary
Dispensary
Govt./Privat
e
Cyclone shelter Govt./Privat
e
Old Age Home Govt./Privat
e
Orphanage Govt./Privat
e
Relief camps Govt./Privat
e
112

Fence (Type)
Table App 12.2 – HYDROGRAPHY
Level 0
(2D Feature
extraction)
Inland Waterbodies
STREAMS
RIVERS
Level 1
(Ground
truthing)
Rehabilitation
Centre
Social welfare
centre
Govt./Privat
e
Govt./Privat
e
Ambulance service Govt./Privat
e
Fire station Govt./Privat
e
Human rights
offices
Grave Yard
Govt./Privat
e
Others Govt./Privat
e
Wall
Fence
Hedge
Others
Attribute1 Attribute2
(Name)
(Classification)
Perennial
Non Perennial
River Bank (Classification) (Relative
Height)
Bank Broken
Attribute3
(Name)
113

Centre Line of
River < 3 m
River bed/ Water
Body features
Both banks > 3m
Reservoir
Lake
Pond
Tank
Abandoned
Quarry with water
River/ Stream/
Waterbody
features
River island
Water channel
Water Limit
Spring
Fountain
Waterfall
Rapid
(Classification)
Sand
Rocks
(Classification)
Thermal
Mineral
Extinct
114

Irrigation
Structures
Dam
Canals
Both banks >
3m
Canal Bank
Centre Line of
Canal

Canal Features
Communication
Works
(Location)
Viaduct On Road
Road Siphon On Railways
Cart/ Cattle/
Animal Pass
Distance Stone
on canals
Cross Drainage
Works
Aqueduct
Drainage Siphon
Super-passage
Level Crossing
Regulation
Works
Distributary
Head Regulator
Cross Regulator
Navigation Lock
Flood Gate
Tide Gate
Falls
Escapes
Sluice
Canal
Headworks
Weir
Barrage
Canal Head
Regulator
116

Table App 12.3 – Ocean Coastline Features
Level 0
(2D Feature extraction)
Coastal Water Bodies
Tidal Stream
Tidal River
Tidal River Bank
Centre Line of Tidal River
Ocean/Sea/ Gulf/ Bay
Lagoon
Creek
Estuary/ Kayal
Coastal Man made
features
Jetty
Level 1
(Ground Truthing)
Coast Line
High Water Line
Low Water Line
Backwaters
Coastal Natural Features
Coastal Island formed by
HW Line
Cliff along coast
Rock submerged with
danger line
Anchorage
Beacon, Steamer Signal,
Navigation Mark
Level 3 Level
4
(Illumination)
Lighted
Unlighted
(Classification)
Open
117

Pier
Light house
Lightship
Buoy
Tide Gauge
Table App 12.4 – TRANSPORTATION
Level 0
(2D Feature
extraction)
Road < 3 m
(Center line)
Level 1
(Ground
truthing)
Masonary
(Classification)
With Berth
Without Berth
(Illumination)
Unlighted
Lighted
Attribute1 Attribute2 Attribute3 Attribute4
(Class) (No. of
Lanes)
Express
high way
National
high way
State
highway
(Name) (Surface)
Black
Topped
Cement
Concrete
WBM
118

Road > 3m
(Both Edges )
Traffic island
Road
Infrastructure
Pavement
Traffic signal
light post
Traffic signal
Major
District
road
Other
District
Road
Urban
Roads
Rural
Roads
Village
Road
By-Pass
Service
Road
Service
Lane
Tunnel (Name)
Bridge (Bridge
Number)
Distance Stone (Number)
Causeway
Flyover Flyover
Subway
Cant (Elevated
Wall)
Embankment
Cutting
Earthern
119

Level Crossing
Speed Bump/
Speed Hump
Toll gate (Number
of
passages)
Pass
Speed Bump/
Speed Hump
Median strip Median strip
Tracks
Track
Infrastructure
Bridge
Distace Stone (Number)
Ford
Ferry
Transport
Utilities
Bus
Stop/Shelter
Car Park Car Park
Railway
Metro Rail
Overground
weigh station
or
Weight Bridge
Metro Rail
Underground
(Class) (No. of Lines) (Electrified)
Broad
Gauge
Narrow
Gauge
Other
Gauge
Single Line Yes
Double Line No
Multilne
(No. of Lines)
Single Line
Double Line
(No. of Lines)
Single
120

Mono Rail
Railway Siding
Railway
Infrastructures
Platform
Platform
crossing bridge
Station
Building
Distance
Stone
Bridge
(Station
Name)
Level Crossing (Control)
Railway
Embankment
& Cuttings
Air Port
RunWay
Manned
Un
manned
Tunnel (Number)
Electric Sub
station
Signal Cabin
Carriage
Shade or
House
Embankment
Cutting
(Height)
Aerodrome limit (Walled)
Yes
No
Double
(Underground
/Overground)
Yes
No
121

Air traffic
control (ATC)
Tower
Landing ground
limit
Landing ground
strip
Aerodrome
Helipad
Steamer
Service
Steamer route
Steamer
station
Steamer signal
post
(Walled)
Yes
No
Table App 12.5 - LAND COVER/ LAND USE
Level 0
(2D Feature Extraction)
Built-up Area
Level 1
(Ground
Truthing)
Attribute1 Attribute2
(Name)
Residential Area
Industrial Area
Commercial Area
Bus terminus area
Railway Yards
Air Port area
Harbor Port area
Institutional Area
Religious Area
Recreational Area
Attri
bute
3
122

Cultivation Area
Public/Semi Public
Area
Open Space / Vacant
Land Area
Other Area
Mixed Area
Mondi or bazar
Plantation Area (Type of Plantation)
Aquaculture
Forest Area (Density)
Scrub Area
Wastelands
Rann Dry
Coastal sand
unsubmerged
Sandy-deserted Land
Gullied/
Ravenous
Land / Broken
Ground
Broken
Ground along
Coast
Barren Land
Mining/Industri
al waste Land
Tea, Coffee, Spices,
Ruber, Cocuanut,
Arcanut, Citrus Wood
Land, Bamboo,
Casuarina, Conifer,
Cactus, Plantain,
Betelnut, Palm (palm
oil), Medicinal Plants,
Nursery, Fruits,
Avenue of Trees,
Grass etc.
Open
Dense
123

Inland Wetlands
Water-Logged
Marshy/Swamp
Ox-Bow Lakes
Reeds
Coastal Wetlands
Barren
Rocky/Stony
waste/ Sheet
Rock
Rann Wet Rann Wet
Marsh Vegetation Marsh
Vegetation
Mangrove swamp Mangrove
swamp
Algae Algae
Mudflat Mudflat
High Tidal Flat-with salt
encrustations
High Tidal
Flat-with salt
encrustations
Sand submerged Sand
submerged
Spit Spit
Bar Bar
Shoals Shoals
Beach Ridges Beach Ridges
Plantations on sand Plantations on
sand
Coral-Reef Coral-Reef
Rocky Coast Rocky Coast
Grass Land/
Grazing Land
Snow Cover
Quarries
Table App 12.6 : UTILITIES
124

Level 0
(2D Feature
Extraction)
Level 1
(Ground truthing) Attribute1
(Class)
Transmission
Line
Telephone Line
Telephone Line
Infrastructure
Telephone Pole
Cable Joint
Chamber
Communication
Tower
Telephone
Exchange
Telephone
Net_Junction
Power Line
Underground Line
Overhead Line
(Classification as
per Transmission
Voltage)
Attribute2
(Sub-Class)
(Transmission
Voltage)
Attribute3
(Ownership)
Extra High Voltage Domestic
(Classification_Usage)
Attribute
4(Name
with
Address)
125

Power Line
infrastructure
Pylon Pylon
Power Line
Infrastructure
Pylon Tower
Pole
Grid Substation Grid Substation
Electric Substation
Transformer
Electric Lamp Post
Electric Power
Plant
(EHV)
High Tension (HT) Industrial
Low Tension (LT) Commercial
Agricultural
(Classification)
Thermal
Nuclear
Hydel
Solar
BioGas
Bio Fuel
Wind Mill
126

Pipe Line
Pipe Line
Gas Pipe Line (Classification) (Gas
Transmitted)
Main Line CNG
Locality
Distributaries
Minor Distributaries
LPG
Water Pipe Line (Classification) (Classification
as per Usage)
Water Pipe Line
Infrastructure
Pump House
Water Treatment
Plant
Pumping Station
Main Line Industrial
Locality
Distributaries
Karez (Usage)
Navigation Lock
Commercial
Minor Distributaries Domestic
Used
Disused
Agriculture
127

Oil Pipe Line
Infrastructure
Oil Storage Tanks
Oil Refinery
Oil Pipe Line
Water Utility
Well
Tube Well
Hand Pump
Water Tank (Classification)
Man Holes
Sewerage Line
Main Sewerage
Line
Connected
Sewerage Line
Sewerage
Infrastructure
Man Holes
Net Junctions
Utility Stations
Ground Level
Overhead
Underground
128

Storm Water
Drain Line
Pumping Station
Sewerage
Treatment Plant
Sanitary Landfill
Water harvesting
structure
(Construction
Material)
Surface Drain Gutter Single
Underground Drain Stone Double
Slope Drain Paved
Storm Drain
Water
Infrastructure
Storm Drain Inlet
Storm Drain
Manhole
Masonary
Filling Station (Fuel)
Conveyor Belt Conveyor Belt
Ropeway
Solid Waste
Management
Solid Waste Site Solid Waste Site (Classification)
(No. of Lines)
129

Solid waste
collection points
Compositing Site
Dumping Yard
Landfill
(Classification)
Primary
Secondary
130

Table App 12.7 - GOVERNMENT/ADMINISTRATIVE/FOREST BOUNDARIES
Level 0
(2D Feature Extraction)
Level 1
(Ground Truthing)
International
International Bdy.
Line of Control
Line of Actual Control
International Boundary Pillar (Number)
Observation post
Boundary fence
State
State Boundary
Attribute1 Attributes2
(Name)
State Boundary Pillar (Number)
District
District Boundary
(Name)
District Boundary Pillar (Number)
Subdivision
Subdivision Boundary (Name)
Subdivision Boundary Pillar (Number)
131

Tahsil/Taluk/Mandal/Pragana
Block
Village
Revenue Village Boundary
(Name)
(Name)
Panchayat Boundary (Name)
Village Boundary Pillar (Number)
Urban Boundaries
Cantonment Bdy
(Name)
Municipal/Corporation Boundary (Name)
Constituency
Assembly (Name)
Parliamentary (Name)
Police Station Limit
Forest Boundary
(Name)
Reserved (Name)
Protected (Name)
Forest Boundary Pillar (Number)
132

APPENDIX XIII
AERIAL MAPPING USING PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS
FOR PROCUREMENT OF 1:2000 IMAGES FOR
GENERATING CRITICAL FACILITIES MAPS (CFM)
METHODOLOGY FOR AERIAL MAPPING USING FILM
AIRCARAFT AND CREW
The aircraft shall be maintained and operated in accordance with the regulations
of the Indian Government and the Civil Aeronautics Board.
The overall aircraft performance shall be adequate for the satisfactory completion
of all photography items and sub-items stipulated by the Proposal form and
Contract and according to the guidelines and accuracies contained in
specifications.
Crews having a minimum 400 hours experience in flying precise photographic
missions for aerial surveys shall be used. In addition, each crew shall have prior
experience (50 hours minimum) with the same type of aircraft to which the crew
is assigned.
AERIAL CAMERA
Each camera and its corresponding magazines shall have been calibrated,
tested, and certified by the camera manufacturer or by a calibration center,
133

ecognized internationally or approved by the camera manufacturer within the
past three (3) years.
The contracted aerial firm must provide the most recent calibration dates for its
equipment for each project. However, when there is any reason to believe that
the dimensional relationship of the lens, fiducially marks, and film have been
disturbed by partial disassembly or unusual mechanical shock, the camera must
be submitted for recalibration at the contractor’s expense.
Any camera used on a project shall meet the following minimum standards as set
forth by the USGS Calibration Certificate:
1. Radial Distortion: Average distortion for a given field angle is ten (10)
microns or less.
2. Resolving Power: Area weighted average resolution is sixty (60) cycles
per millimeter or greater.
3. Principal Point of Autocollimation: Lines joining pairs of fiducially
(collimation) marks shall intersect at an angle of ninety degrees (90 º ), plus
or minus thirty seconds (30”) of arc, and that intersection shall indicate the
true location of the principal point of auto collimation within twenty-five (25)
microns or less.
4. Filter Parallelism: The two surfaces of all filters used on the camera shall
be parallel to within ten seconds (10”) of arc.
5. Magazine Platen: The platens of all camera magazines shall not depart
from a true plane by more than thirteen (13) microns; that is, thirteen
thousandths of a millimeter (0.013 MM).
6. Stereo model Flatness: No test point in the stereo model shall have an
average departure from flatness of more than twenty-five (25) microns at
negative scale. The stereo model flatness test results shall be provided
for all camera-magazine combinations upon request.
134

7. Calibrated Focal Length: The measurement of calibrated focal length
shall be accurate to within five (5) microns.
8. Shutter Calibration: Shutter efficiency shall be at least seventy-five
percent (75%). Shutter speeds shall be accurate to within ten percent
(10%) of indicated value.
CAMERA CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION
Only rigidly constructed, single lens, precision cartographic cameras exposing
230 MM x 230 MM negatives, having a nominal focal length of one hundred fifty
three (153) millimeters, shall be used. The camera shall be equipped with a
between-the-lens-elements shutter and a vacuum or pressure device for holding
the film flat at the instant of exposure. The camera must produce at least four (4)
fiducially (reference) marks on each negative for accurately locating the principal
point of the photograph. A total of eight (8) such marks (one in each corner and
one on each side of the photographic exposure area) is preferable.
The camera shall be mounted on the aircraft so that all parts are within the outer
structure and that the camera is permitted an unobstructed view. The viewing
field shall be shielded from gases, oil, and air turbulence, but no window of glass,
plastic or other material shall be interposed between the camera lens and the
ground to be photographed.
CAMERA FILTER DESCRIPTION
An appropriate light filter with an anti vignette metallic coating shall be used. The
two surfaces of the filter shall be parallel to within ten seconds (10") of arc. The
optical characteristics of the filter shall be such that its addition and use shall not
cause any unacceptable reduction in image resolution, and they shall not
detrimentally alter the optical characteristics of the camera lens.
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FIDUCIAL MARKS IN NEGATIVES AND CALIBRATION PLATES
A minimum of four (4) fiducial marks shall be shown, one at each corner of the
format, and they shall be integral parts of the lens cone assembly. A total of
eight (8) such marks is preferable with each mark of the second quartet
appearing at the midpoint of each side of the format.
All fiducial marks shall produce well-defined images in aerial negatives and on
calibration plates so as to permit point plotting on the images with a precision of
twenty-five (25) microns or less.
TECHNICAL DETAILS OF FILM FOR AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
FILM TYPE AND SIZE
Only a fine grain, high sensitivity, high intrinsic resolving power photographic
emulsion on dimensionally stable safety film base shall be used. Outdated film
shall not be used. Unexposed and exposed film shall be stored, handled and
processed in accordance with the manufacturer's guidelines.
The film shall be suitable for photographic reproductions with sufficient
stereoscopic overlap for use in precision photogrammetric instruments to compile
planimetric and/or topographic maps and to measure profile and cross section
elevations and heights by photogrammetric means.
The film shall yield an image area of two hundred thirty millimeters by two
hundred thirty millimeters (230 MM x 230 MM) for each exposed negative. The
leader length and trailer length shall not be less than two meters (2 M) and one
meter (1 M) respectively.
FILM EXPOSURE
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Film exposure shall be in accordance with the manufacturer's guidelines. The
negatives shall be free from light streaks and static marks, and they shall have
uniform tone and a degree of contrast permitting land features and ground details
to show clearly in dark and light areas and especially so with respect to legibility
in shadow areas. Negatives which fail to meet the above requirements may be
considered unsatisfactory and be subject to rejection.
FILM DEVELOPMENT AND PROCESSING
Each roll of film shall be processed as soon as possible after it is exposed.
Special care shall be taken to insure proper development and thorough fixing and
washing in accordance with the film manufacturer's guidelines.
Film shall not be wound tightly on drums and shall not be stretched, shrunk or
distorted in any way during processing or drying. Film shall be free from finger
marks, dirt or blemishes of any kind.
LABELING OF EXPOSURES
All exposures shall be labeled to read easily from left to right. The labeling shall
be oriented so as to be read in the direction from project beginning to project
end.
All lettering and numbering shall be legible and uniform in presentation and shall
be rendered in symbols and characters five (5) millimeters in height and shall be
executed as follows:
1. First and Last Exposures: The first and last exposures shall be labeled as
follows:
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o In the upper left-hand corner: Date of exposure, time, focal length,
RF scale, and the flight height of the camera (aircraft) above the
mean ground elevation or some set datum
o In the upper right-hand corner: Project number, flight line number,
and the identifying number of the exposure itself.
2. Intermediate Exposures: All intermediate exposures shall be identified in
the direction from project beginning to project end. Exposures shall be
labeled in the upper right-hand corner as follows:
o Project number, flight line number, and the identifying number of
the exposure itself.
Each container should be labeled to show the corresponding municipalities and
counties, the legislated route designation, photographic scale, date of exposure,
and any applicable aerial number on the first and last exposure of each strip.
PHOTOGRAPHY METHODS AND GUIDELINES
FLIGHT LINE
The Contractor shall design the flight lines to insure full stereoscopic
photographic coverage. In general, flight lines shall be parallel to each other and
to the lengthwise boundary lines of the areas to be photographed.
WEATHER AND SUN ANGLE
Aerial photography shall be undertaken only when well-defined images can be
obtained. Photography shall not be undertaken when the ground is obscured by
haze, snow, foliage, flooding conditions, or when clouds or cloud shadows would
appear on more than five percent (5%) of the area of any one photograph.
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Aerial photography shall not be undertaken when the sun angle is less than thirty
degrees (30 º ) above the horizon. Shadows caused by topographic features and
sun angle shall be cause for rejection
TILT
Tilt shall not exceed four degrees (4 º ) in any negative. Any two or more
consecutive photographs displaying tilt in excess of five degrees (5 º ) are
unacceptable. Throughout the entire project, the average amount of tilt shall not
exceed one degree (1 º ). Any tilt in excess of the above criteria shall be cause for
rejection.
OVERLAP FOR FULL STEREOSCOPIC COVERAGE
Overlap shall be sufficient to provide full stereoscopic coverage of the areas to
be photographed. Where there is a change in direction of the flight line(s),
photographs taken at the beginning of the next flight line or segment of the same
flight line shall give complete stereoscopic coverage of the area contiguous to the
forward and back sections.
Overlap shall be provided as follows:
1. Boundaries: All the area appearing on the first and last negative in each
flight line or flight line segment extending over a boundary shall be outside
the boundary of the project area. Each strip of photographs shall extend
over the boundary not less than fifteen percent (15%) or more than fiftyfive
percent (55%) of the strip width.
2. Endlap: Endlap shall average not less than fifty-seven percent (57%) nor
more than sixty-two percent (62%). Endlap of less than fifty-five percent
(55%) or more than sixty-eight percent (68%) in one or more negatives
139

may be cause for rejection. However, consideration shall be given if, in
the case of a stereoscopic pair, endlap exceeding sixty-eight percent
(68%) was found to be unavoidable in areas of low elevation in order to
attain the fifty-five percent (55%) minimum endlap in adjacent areas of
higher elevation.
3. Sidelap: Sidelap shall average thirty percent (30%), plus or minus ten
percent (10%). Any negative having sidelap less than fifteen (15%) or
greater than fifty percent (50%) may be rejected. However, consideration
shall be given if the strip area to be mapped is found to be slightly wider
than the area which can be covered in one flight strip. In that case,
sidelap of up to seventy percent (70%) to take advantage of control is
permissible.
QUALITY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Photography shall be executed so as to minimize image movement at the
moment of exposure. Such exposure and the subsequent processing shall be
such that all negatives shall be of high quality showing all specified planimetric
and topographic features at stipulated scale
Negatives should be clear and sharp in detail and in average contrast and
without static marks, stains and other blemishes.
SCALE OF NEGATIVES
The flight height above the average ground elevation or set datum shall be such
that the negatives will yield photographic prints on paper or on dimensionally
stable polyester-type plastic or on optically flat glass plates to the scale
specified. Negatives departing from the intended scale by more than five percent
(5%) shall be rejected.
140

The flight height shall be six times the value of the intended aerial negative
scale. Accordingly, the photography (negative) scales and flight heights,
together with the corresponding contour intervals, all recommended for the
mapping scales, are shown in Table 2-1.
MAPPING SCALE CONTOUR
INTERVALS
PHOTO
SCALE
FLIGHT
HEIGHT
1:300 0.5 M 1:3 000 459 * M
1:500 0.5 M 1:4 000 612 * M
1:1 000 1.0 M 1:8 400 1 285 * M
1:2 000 2.0 M 1:16 800 2 570 * M
* For nominal focal length of 153 MM
Table B.3.1: Photography Scale and Flight Height Guidelines
141

APPENDIX XIV
NRSA EMPANELMENT PROCEDURE FOR 1:10,000
MAPPING
NATIONAL REMOTE SENSNG AGENCY
(An autonomous Organisation under Department of Space, Govt. of India)
Balanagar, Hyderabad – 500 037.
EMPANELMENT OF ENTREPRENUERS
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), an autonomous organization under
the Department of Space (DOS), Government of India is a premier organization
for the promotion of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System
(GIS) Applications in the country. With a constellation of Indian remote sensing
satellites in the orbit, NRSA provides a reliable satellite and aerial data products
and also the value added services. It is located at Balanagar, Hyderabad with
facilities for satellite and aerial data reception, archival, processing,
dissemination and offer application driven solutions. NRSA also has the
responsibility to carry turn key national level and user funded project for Ground
Contouring, total Station surveys, GPS operations, Field data collection & field
verification of geo-spatial Database, preparation of Geospatial Databases, both
two dimensional and three dimensional, ranging from 1:500 to 1: 10,000 scale
using image data such as stereo aerial photographs, high resolution optical
satellite data, LiDAR data and terrestrial photographs. NRSA has certain projects
in hand which need to be executed with very tight time schedule.
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To execute some of the important time bound projects, NRSA is looking forward
for short listing of firms for undertaking the specific technical job under the ‘Wet
Leasing Task’ (field survey and working on turn key basis at NRSA premises
following NRSA methodology manuals and quality parameters on accepted
commercial terms) . The details at APPENDIX – I for Field Survey Works and
APPENDIX – II for 2D/3DGeospatial Database Generation Works.
NRSA invites the firms which have necessary experience and proven track
record in the above areas on the formats provided in the enclosed document.
The received proposals would be processed through competitive process criteria
and short listed. When need arises NRSA will obtain quote for the projects from
the short listed firms. , NRSA would select suitable firm(s)to undertake the jobs in
that project(s).
Interested firms may apply for empanelment along with a crossed Demand Draft
for Rs. 10,000/- (Rupees ten thousands only) issued by a nationalised bank in
favour of National Remote Sensing Agency payable at Hyderabad towards
Earnest Money Deposit. The duly filled format along with DD and necessary
documents are to be submitted in a sealed cover superscribing “PROPOSAL
FOR SHORT LISTING OF FIRMS FOR FIELD SURVEY SERVICES AND
GEOSPATIAL DATABASE GENERATION SERVICES AT NRSA. The last date
for receipt of proposals Is 9TH OCTOBER, 2007 UPTO 1500 HRS..
You may obtain the documents from Senior Purchase & Stores Officer, NRSA on
all working days from September 20, 2007 to 8 th
October, 2007 between 1400
143

hrs. & 1600 hrs. You may also down load the details from our website
www.nrsa.gov.in.
HEAD, PURCHASE & STORES
REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL
(RFP)
For
Field Survey Services
National Remote Sensing Agency
Balanagar
Hyderabad – 500 037
1. Introduction
1.1 The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) invites proposals for
empanelment, from suitable firms which have the expertise, capacity and
experience in Ground Control Survey services such as Ground
Contouring, Total Station surveys, GPS operations, Field data collection &
field verification of geo-spatial Database.
1.2 The objective of this RFP is to facilitate firms to participate in the short
listing process by providing necessary information and guidelines for
submission of their offers.
1.3 Short listing of the firms will be based on :
Experience in carrying out similar works in the past
Availability of infrastructure in terms of appropriate survey
equipment
Trained manpower
Supervisory expertise
1.4 NRSA will send enquiries to the short listed firms from time to time.
NRSA will award Ground Control Survey work to the firms on the basis of
competitive bids received from the short listed firms. The selected firm
should provide hardware, software, media, surveyors and supervisory
manpower.
1.5 NRSA reserves the right to allot the work to one or more firms
depending upon volume of work, time schedule and other operational
needs, at the rate quoted by the lowest tenderer.
1.6 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) for data (input, intermediate and
outputs) in all the forms (hard & soft copies) will vest solely with NRSA.
1.7 It is the responsibility of the short listed Firms to arrange to submit
attested copies of character and antecedents verification reports issued by
the concerned local police station of their employees who are to be
deployed for doing the allotted work.
144

1.8 Payment, after completion of tasks, will be effected as per existing
NRSA procedures.
2. Technical Requirement
2.1 Task Components : Components of Ground Control Survey Services
are listed below:
Total Station operations
Ground Contouring (DT / ST Leveling)
GPS Survey operations
Field verification
Field Data collection
The above-mentioned activities have to be carried out as per the
time schedule, accuracy and other specifications mentioned in the work
order.
2.2 Input Data : Following inputs will be provided by NRSA in order to
carry out Field Surveys (as applicable to the task):
2.2.1 Aerial / Satellite hardcopy imageries (A representative
of NRSA will be also be sent to field with these inputs)
2.2.2 Distribution plan of GCPs for GPS Survey
2.2.3 Hardcopy of geo-spatial data
2.2.4 List of themes to be collected from ground for incorporation
onto
the Geo-Spatial databases
2.2.5 A form which needs to be filled up with detailed information of
surveyed ground features (specifications will be given at the time of
issue of work order) for developing utility GIS.
2.3 Quality Assurance Procedure: A dedicated Quality Assurance
Manager of the firm will have to look after the internal Quality Assurance
of all Ground Control Survey tasks. He should be authorized by the firm to
certify the quality of the data before submission to NRSA Quality
Assurance team. All the output
data generated has to be certified for its quality and meet the accuracy
standards mentioned in our work order. Resultant error budget for
measured / closing error at GCPs / check points should be presented in
form of table to NRSA QC team.
2.4 Quality Control Check by NRSA : A team from NRSA will carry out
quality assessment. Team will check samples and will also go through the
error budget tables prepared by the firm’s quality assessment team. If the
work is not satisfactory and not meeting the project standards & time
schedule, then the entire work order will be cancelled / repeated. In case
of repetitions, no additional cost will be entertained.
2.5 Deliverables
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2.5.1 GPS control points list with processed coordinates (both in
softcopy & hardcopy)
2.5.2 Leveling charts with computation sheets (including Double
Tertiary, Single Tertiary lines, Spot heights, Bench Marks etc)
2.5.3 Field verified Geo-spatial data
2.5.4 Field data collection of important landmarks in the prescribed
format.
2.5.5 Field data collection for any utility GIS projects such as for
Municipal GIS, Power GIS, Water & Sewerage GIS (List of
attributes to be collected to be enclosed with the work order).
2.5.6 All the field notebooks / charts / worked out material / field
sketches shall be submitted to NRSA.
3. Eligibility Criteria
3.1 The firms should have carried out Ground Control Survey work in the
past 3 years (2003-2004, 2004-2005, 2005-2006).
3.2 During the past three years, the firm should have carried out at least
3.2.1 A total of 500 line kms of Leveling for 1 / 0.5 m contours.
3.2.2 200 GPS points observations & processing for preparation of
Geo-Spatial Database in 1: 2000 scale.
3.2.3 200 sq.kms of field verification & data collection.
(Note: if a firm has experience in only one or two of the above,
the firm will be considered for shortlisting for those field survey
works only)
Please enclose appropriate documents / work orders for proof
along with license & invoice details for the survey equipments &
corresponding software
3.3 Firm should have minimum infrastructure comprising of
3.3.1 5 Geodetic / Survey grade dual frequency GPS receivers with
standard software
3.3.2 3 each Digital / Auto levels & Total stations.
3.3.3 Skilled trained manpower with 3 years of survey experience.
(Note: If a firm owns only one or two of the above, the firm will
be considered for shortlisting for those field survey works only)
Please enclose appropriate documents for proof along with
license & invoice details for the software.
3.4 The firm should be a registered firm and should be filing sales tax and
income tax returns for the past three years (2003-2004, 2004-2005,
2005-2006). Documentary evidence in support of this should be enclosed
with the application.
APPENDIX - I
146

Application form for Shortlist of Firms
for
Field Survey Works
(Attach separate sheets for any item where space is inadequate)
01 Name and Address of the Firm with contact telephone / fax and e-mail
02 Name of the proprietor or head of the firm
03 Firm registration details with date of incorporation
(Attach copy)
04 Surveyors who are on the rolls of the firm (Please attach additional sheets
4
a
4
b
4 c
4
d
as required)
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
05 Supervisory employees who are on the rolls of the firm (Please attach
additional sheets as required )
5 a
Name
Qualification
Experience
147

5 b
5 c
5 d
5 e
5 f
5 g
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
06 Field Survey operations experience (Please attach additional sheets as
6
a
6
b
required )
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
GPS survey (points)
Contour Interval
Any other matter
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
148

6 c
6
d
07
GPS survey (points)
Contour Interval
Any other matter
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
GPS survey (points)
Contour Interval
Any other matter
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
GPS survey (points)
Contour Interval
Any other matter
Turnover in last three years (please enclose IT returns/ audited accounts
statement)
Year
Company Turnover in Rs. Lakhs
Turnover from Ground survey works
08 Geodetic Dual frequency GPS receiver
configuration and number of such systems
09 GPS data processing Software packages names
and licence details along with number of licences
10 Survey equipment details (please attach separate sheet)
(please attach
separate sheet)
(please attach
separate sheet)
149

11 Other relevant
information
(please attach company profile, brochure and any
other material deemed fit)
REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL
(RFP)
For
Geospatial Database Generation Services
National Remote Sensing Agency
Balanagar
Hyderabad – 500 037
Signature of authorized representative
With Office Seal
Dated:----------------------
Introduction
1.9 The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) invites proposals for
empanelment, from suitable firms which have the expertise, capacity and
experience in preparation of Geospatial Databases, both two dimensional
and three dimensional, ranging from 1:500 to 1: 10,000 scale using image
data such as stereo aerial photographs, high resolution optical satellite
data, LiDAR data and terrestrial photographs.
1.10 The objective of this RFP is to facilitate firms to participate in the
short listing process by providing necessary information and guidelines for
submission of applications.
1.11 Short listing of the firms will be based on :
Experience in carrying out similar works in the past
Availability of infrastructure in terms of hardware and software
Trained manpower
Supervisory expertise
1.12 NRSA will send enquiries to the short listed firms from time to time.
NRSA will award 2D/3D Geo-spatial Database generation work to the
firms on the basis of competitive bids received from the short listed firms.
NRSA reserves the right to allot the work to one or more firms depending
upon the volume of the work, time schedule & other operational needs at
the rates quoted by the lowest tenderer.
1.13 Space with power and air conditioning will be provided by NRSA at
NRSA premises. Whenever work is awarded, the firm should be
willing to work within NRSA premises and follow all the applicable
security rules including rules regarding media handling.
1.14 The selected firm should provide hardware, software, peripherals,
media, furniture, technical manpower and supervisory manpower.
150

Necessary upgrades and modifications to the systems will need to be
implemented as per the requirements of the tasks.
1.15 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) for data (input, intermediate and
outputs) in all the forms (hard & soft copies) will vest solely with NRSA.
1.16 It is the responsibility of the short listed Firms to arrange to submit
attested copies of character and antecedents verification reports issued by
the concerned local police station of their employees who are to be
deployed for doing the allotted work.
1.17 Payment, after completion of tasks, will be effected as per extent
NRSA procedures.
1.18 Maintenance of the systems positioned at NRSA will have to be
carried out by the firms at their own cost. Hard disks and storage media
will not be permitted to be taken out of NRSA premises.
1. Technical Requirement
2.6 Task Components : Components of Geo-spatial database
preparation
tasks are listed below:
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generation
Orthorectification
Generation of 2D / 3D geo-spatial databases
Updation of 2D / 3D geo-spatial databases
Photogrammetric Contouring
After the orientation of stereo models, creation of geo-spatial
database has to be carried out. The geo-spatial database generation
should be carried out as per the data model / layer names defined in the
applicable work order as per the “Guidelines for 3D / 2D Geo-spatial
Database generation through Stereo compilation” document prepared
by NRSA which will be provided along with work orders. In addition to the
above document if there are any specific project requirements, a separate
document with specific guidelines / amendments will be issued. The
above-mentioned activities have to be carried out as per the time
schedule, accuracy and other specifications mentioned in the work order.
2.7 Input Data : Following inputs will be provided by NRSA in order to
create 3D geo-spatial databases:
2.7.1 Scanned aerial imageries
Run wise imageries (coverage as per the scale)
Image format –TIFF
Camera calibration file
2.7.2 Triangulation / Block adjustment files
2.7.3 Adjusted coordinates file
Image coordinates
151

Exterior Orientation (EO) file –( eg : PATB & SocetSet
format)
2.7.4 Satellite image data
High resolution satellite images with necessary ancillary data for
corrections or rectified satellite imagery
2.7.5 Area of Interest Map / Coordinates
File format – Autocad / tiff
Index diagram marking the area of mapping including the
restricted area overlaid with flight lines.
2.7.6 Field verification / data collection
Important landmarks names collected from field for
incorporation onto the digital maps
2.8 Quality Assurance Procedure: A dedicated Quality Assurance
Manager of the firm will have to look after the internal Quality Assurance
of all on-going mapping tasks. He should be authorized by the firm to
certify the quality of the data before submission to NRSA Quality
Assurance team. Each stereo model / models generated has to be
certified for its quality. The executing firm will form an internal quality team
to carry out the accuracy assessment. Resultant error budget for
measured error at GCPs / check points should be presented in form of
table to NRSA QC team. Features captured through stereo compilation
will be edge matched between the models & firms. The edge matching
should be within the stipulated acceptable limits. In case parts of a large
block is awarded to multiple firms, edge matching with adjacent data of
other firms must also be carried out.
2.9 Quality Control Check by NRSA : A team from NRSA will carry out
quality assessment. Team will follow the same steps as in the above
mentioned quality assurance procedure to assess a minimum of 25%
samples and will also go through the error budget tables prepared by the
firm’s quality
assessment team. The geospatial databases will be evaluated based on
the checklist mentioned in the “Guidelines for 3D / 2D Geo-spatial
Database generation through Stereo compilation”. For any noncompliance
with the requirement, the whole exercise of quality assurance
by the firm (internal QAS) and quality control checks by NRSA (external
QAS ) will have to be repeated. If the work is not satisfactory and not
meeting the NRSA standards & time schedule, then the entire work order
will be cancelled.
2.10 Deliverables
Sheet wise 2D/3D Geo-spatial database for the entire region as per the
index provided by NRSA and within the specifications in and specified
formats (DWG & DXF) will be accepted only after the clearance by NRSA
QC team. The base geo-spatial features and height information will have
152

to be in vector format in appropriate layers as per the specifications in the
work order. The 2D / 3D vector data prepared should be able to export to
GIS platform for usage in different applications.
2. Eligibility Criteria
3.5 The firms should have carried out 2D/3D Geospatial database
generation work in the past 3 years (2003-2004, 2004-2005, 2005-2006).
3.6 During the past three years, the firm should have carried out at least a
total of 500 sq km of 3D spatial data base generation in a scale equal or
better than 1:2500 scale.
3.7 During the past three years, the firm should have carried out at least a
total of 200 sq km of contouring with a contour interval of better than 2 m
through photogrammetric techniques
3.8 Firm should have minimum infrastructure comprising of (i) 5 Digital
Photogrammetry Work Stations (DPWS) with standard software &
hardware and (ii) 5 systems with 2D drafting packages. Please enclose
appropriate documents for proof along with license & invoice details for
the software.
3.9 The firm should be a registered firm and should be filing sales tax and
income tax returns for the past three years (2003-2004, 2004-2005,
2005-2006). Documentary evidence in support of this should be enclosed
with the application.
Application form for Shortlist of Firms
for
2D / 3D Geospatial Database Generation Works
APPENDIX - I
(Attach separate sheets for any item where space is inadequate)
01 Name and Address of the Firm with contact telephone / fax and e-mail
02 Name of the proprietor or head of the firm
03 Firm registration details with date of incorporation
(Attach copy)
153

04 Technical employees who are on the rolls of the firm (Please attach
4
a
4
b
4
c
4
d
additional sheets as required )
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
05 Supervisory employees who are on the rolls of the firm (Please attach
5
a
5
b
5
c
5
d
5
e
additional sheets as required )
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
154

5 f
5
g
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
Name
Qualification
Experience
Working in the firm since
06 3D Geospatial data base generation experience (Please attach additional
6
a
6
b
6
c
6
d
sheets as required )
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
Scale
Contour Interval
Any other matter
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
Scale
Contour Interval
Any other matter
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
Scale
Contour Interval
Any other matter
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
155

Scale
Contour Interval
Any other matter
07 2D Geospatial data base generation experience (Please attach additional
7
a
7
b
7
c
7
d
sheets as required )
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
Scale
Contour Interval
Any other matter
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
Scale
Contour Interval
Any other matter
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
Scale
Contour Interval
Any other matter
User Name
Work order reference
(attach copy)
Area extent
Period of work
Scale
Contour Interval
Any other matter
156

08
Turnover in last three years (please enclose IT returns/ audited accounts
statement)
Year
Company Turnover in Rs. Lakhs
Turnover from 3D Database generation works geospatial
Turnover from 2D Database generation works geospatial
09 Production systems (DPWS and drafting systems)
Hardware configuration and number of such systems
10 Software package names and licence details
along with number of licences
11 Other relevant
information
(please attach
separate sheet)
(please attach
separate sheet)
(please attach company profile, brochure and any
other material deemed fit)
Signature of authorized representative
With Office Seal
Dated:----------------------
157

APPENDIX XV
AERIAL MAPPING- LIST OF SOLUTION
PROVIDERS
KEYSTONE AERIAL SURVEYS, INC
Provides airborne acquisition and image processing services to clients
throughout North America. From collection of raw data to development of valueadded
products, Keystone offers complete image solutions tailored to your
specific needs.
Provide data for requirements including digital imagery, LiDAR, magnetometer,
thermal, or film, Keystone has the airborne acquisition capacity to fly your project
quickly and accurately. With decades of project management experience and a
growing IT department, Keystone is able to offer a complete range of solutions
from data collections of any size to high-quality derivative products and custom
software applications.
Keystone also offers an extensive library of imagery, including recently acquired,
high-resolution digital imagery of nearly 300 US cities, as well as historic image
archives dating back to the 1960s.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Airborne Acquisition
Keystone currently operates fourteen survey aircraft equipped with flight
managements systems, stabilized mounts, GPS, and several configurations of
sensors.
158

Image Products
To help you benefit from the full capabilities of our imagery, Keystone offers a
variety of derived products. Keystone can help add more value to what we
deliver.
Product List
• UltraCamX
• The Microsoft Vexcel UltraCamX
CONTACT DETAILS
Northeast Philadelphia Airport
Grant Ave & Ashton Road
Philadelphia, PA 19114
OPTECH
159

Optech a privately owned company, Optech is the world leader in the
development, manufacture and support of advanced laser-based survey and
imaging instruments.
With more than 250 staff worldwide, it offers both standalone and fully integrated
lidar and camera imaging solutions in airborne terrestrial mapping, airborne laser
bathymetry, mobile mapping, laser imaging, mine cavity monitoring, and
industrial process control, as well as space-qualified sensors for orbital
operations and planetary exploration.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
• Lynx Mobile Mapper for mobile surveys of urban, road, rail, and water
assets
• ALTM Orion airborne laser terrain mapper for corridor mapping
• ALTM Gemini airborne laser terrain mapper for wide-area mapping
• ALTM Pegasus airborne laser terrain mapper and technology platform
• ILRIS Laser Scanner for tripod-based engineering, mining and industrial
surveys
• CMS Cavity Monitoring System for safe, fast surveying of underground
cavities
• SHOALS Airborne Laser Bathymeter for surveys of coastal and shallow
water regions
• Rendezvous Lidar Sensor for space-proven autonomous spacecraft
docking
• Industrial rangefinders for level monitoring and object positioning
CONTACT DETAILS
160

Optech Incorporated Optech International, Inc.
300 Interchange Way 7225 Stennis Airport Drive.
Vaughan, Ontario Suite 400
Canada, L4K 5Z8 Kiln, MS 39556, USA
Tel: +1 905 660-0808 Tel: 1-228-252-1004
APPLANIX
161

Applanix Mobile Mapping and Positioning Solutions accurately and reliably
capture and measure the world around us.
The World Leaders in products and solutions for Mobile Mapping and
Positioning, Applanix lives up to every interpretation of the expression. Applanix
technology, in use by our customers all around the world, is measuring,
monitoring and modeling our planet Earth in virtually every environment
imaginable.
Whether sizing-up a particular fissure in the ocean floor or monitoring the effects
of seismic activity near an inland fault line; whether logging the straights and
narrows of a sky scraping urban centre or flying the coast of a hostile
environment; for mapping on the move, an Applanix equipped vehicle (for land,
sea or air) lets you see and capture your world with speed and clarity.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
* Airborne Mapping
o POSAV, o POSTrack, o POSPac MMS
* Land / Vehicle Mapping Solutions
o POS LV, o POSTG, o POSPac MMS
* Marine Mapping
o POS MV, o POSPac MMS,
CONTACT DETAILS
85 Leek Crescent Richmond Hill Ontario L4B 3B3 Canada
T +1-905-709-4600 F +1-905-709-6027
LEICA GEOSYSTEMS
162

With close to 200 years of pioneering solutions to measure the world, Leica
Geosystems products and services are trusted by professionals worldwide to
help them capture, analyze, and present spatial information. Leica Geosystems
is best known for its broad array of products that capture accurately, model
quickly, analyze easily, and visualize and present spatial information.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
o Leica ADS80 Airborne Digital Sensor
o Leica ALS60 Airborne Laser Scanner
o Leica ALS Corridor Mapper
o Leica WDM65 Waveform Digitizer Module for Airborne Laser Scanners
o Leica RCD100 Digital Camera System
o Leica RCD105 Digital Frame Camera
o Leica FCMS, Leica IPAS20 , Leica IPAS Freebird , Leica RC30
o Leica PAV80, Airborne sensor related software
CONTACT DETAILS
LEICA GEOSYSTEMS AG, Heinrich Wild Strasse
CH-9435 Heerbrugg, St. Gallen, Switzerland
FAIRCHILD IMAGING
163

Fairchild Imaging develops and manufactures solid-state electronic imaging
components, cameras, and systems. We are a company devoted to the creation
of electronic imaging technology, development of that technology to production
practicality, and manufacture to commercial success.
Fairchild Imaging offers custom capabilities in solid state electronic imaging
arrays suitable for diverse applications such as astronomical imaging, aerial
reconnaissance, aerial mapping, spectrographic analysis, star tracking, missile
seekers, dental and medical radiography, machine vision, x-ray diffraction and
other state-of-the art military, industrial and scientific measurement applications.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
o CCD Area Arrays
o Linear CCD Arrays
o TDI CCD Arrays
o CMOS Linear Arrays
o Line Scan Cameras
o Scientific Cameras
CONTACT DETAILS
Fairchild Imaging, 1801 McCarthy Blvd. Milpitas, CA 95035, Ph: 1 800 325-6975,
1 (408) 433-2500, Fax: 1 (408) 435-7352, E-mail: sales@fcimg.com
164

APPENDIX XVI
GROUND CONTROL POINT ACQUISITION- LIST OF
TRIMBLE
Trimble is a leading provider of advanced location-based solutions that maximize
productivity and enhance profitability. The Company integrates its positioning
expertise in GPS, laser, optical and inertial technologies with application
software, wireless communications, and services to provide complete
commercial solutions. Trimble is transforming the way work is done through the
application of innovative positioning. Trimble uses GPS, lasers, optical, and
inertial technologies, as well as wireless communications and application specific
software to provide complete solutions that link positioning to productivity.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
SOLUTION PROVIDERS
o GeoSpatial, Infrastructure, Surveying, Field and
Mobile Worker, Mapping & GIS, Utilities Field Solutions
o Fleet Tracking & Management, Precision GNSS + Inertial
CONTACT DETAILS
Trimble Navigation Limited, 935 Stewart Drive, Sunnyvale, California 94085
Headquarters Phone Number: +1 408 481 8000, Toll Free: 1 800 trimble (874
6253)
165

TOPCON
From survey to inspection, Topcon Positioning Systems, Inc., provides the
innovative positioning technology.
Topcon acquired JPS, Inc., of San Jose, California, a leading provider of high
precision GPS and GPS/GLONASS products. Adding the world’s best GPS and
GPS/GLONASS technology with the world’s most advanced surveying and
construction positioning instrumentation line-up.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Laser: Laser products have set the standards all other laser instruments are
measured by.
Optical: Optical instruments designed using our exclusive optomechatronic
technologies.
GPS: GPS+ has the ability to track not only both frequencies of all 24 GPS
satellites, it can also receive the signals from the 14 GLONASS positioning
satellites giving you precision accuracy around-the-clock
Reference Networks: Geodetic Reference Network reliably delivers precision
real time GNSS data where you need it
Mapping and GIS: Modular GIS mapping and navigation solution
Software: Topcon offers a variety of software and utilities for all your Machine
Control, GPS, and Surveying needs.
CONTACT DETAILS
Topcon Positioning Systems, Inc, 7400 National Drive, Livermore, CA USA
94551, Phone: 925-245-8300, Fax: 925-245-8599
166

LEICA GEOSYSTEMS
With close to 200 years of pioneering solutions to measure the world, Leica
Geosystems products and services are trusted by professionals worldwide to
help them capture, analyze, and present spatial information. Leica Geosystems
is best known for its broad array of products that capture accurately, model
quickly, analyze easily, and visualize and present spatial information.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
GNSS/GPS Systems: Leica Geosystems offers the ideal solution for every
GPS/GNSS application. Powerful GPS/GNSS technology for unmatched
accuracy.
GNSS/GPS Surveying Systems: GPS/GNSS surveying systems combine stateof-the-art
technology and powerful data management. They are the perfect
solution for all GPS/GNSS applications.
GPS/GIS Data Collectors: GPS receivers for GIS Data Collection and mobile
GIS.
GNSS Reference Networks: Whether providing corrections from just a single
reference station, or an extensive range of services from a nationwide RTK
network - innovative reference station solutions from Leica Geosystems offer
tailor-made yet scalable systems, designed for minimum operator interaction
whilst providing maximum user benefit.
CONTACT DETAILS
Leica Geosystems AG, Heinrich Wild Strasse, CH-9435 Heerbrugg, St. Gallen,
Switzerland, Phone: + 41 71 727 3131, Fax: + 41 71 727 4674
167

NOVATEL INC
NovAtel Inc. is a leading provider of precision Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS) components and subsystems. The Company’s vision is to provide
exceptional return on investment (ROI) and outstanding service to its customers.
An ISO 9001 certified company, NovAtel develops quality OEM products
including receivers, enclosures, antennas and firmware that are integrated into
high precision positioning applications worldwide. These applications include
surveying, Geographical Information System (GIS) mapping, precision agriculture
machine guidance, port automation, mining, timing and marine industries.
NovAtel’s reference receivers are also at the core of national aviation ground
networks in the USA, Japan, Europe, China and India.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Manufacture of full range of precise GNSS positioning products including GNSS:
o Receivers
� OEM Receiver Boards
� Enclosures
� SMART Antennas
o Antennas
� High Performance GNSS Antennas
� Compact GNSS Antennas
� Fixed Reference GNSS Antennas
o Inertial augmented systems
o Firmware Options
o Post-Processing Software
CONTACT DETAILS
1120 - 68th Avenue N.E., Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2E 8S5
168

SOKKIA
Sokkia Corporation is the United States subsidiary of Sokkia Co., Ltd., Tokyo, a
world-leading manufacturer of precision measuring systems. Sokkia's diverse
product line provides complete measurement solutions for surveying, mapping
and GIS, industrial measurement and construction applications.
Sokkia provides turn-key solutions for surveyors worldwide. Sokkia Corporation
markets Total Stations, Data Collectors, Digital Levels, and Lasers and a full
complement of field accessories through a nationwide distribution network. For
more than 85 years, Sokkia's complete line of surveying instruments, GPS
products and accessories have provided it's customers with quality found
nowhere else. With Sokkia's products, you will be sure to have long-lasting,
precise instruments for many years to come. Sokkia customers will continue to
see this rugged and reliable quality in 2007 with innovations in the GPS product
line, an expansion of construction-specific instruments and continued
enhancements on Sokkia's fully-tracking robotic total station, the SRX.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
o GPS: GNSS, Dual Frequency, Single Frequency, Reference Station, GIS
o Total Stations: SRX Robotic Total Station, SET X, Series 50RX
Reflectorless, Total Station, Series 50X Total Stations, NET1, NET05 &
NET05X 3-D Station, NET 1200 MONMOS, GPxX Gyro Station
o Software: Spectrum Link: Spectrum Survey Suite, GSR Reference
Station Software, IMap.
CONTACT DETAILS
260-63, Hase, Atsugi, Kanagawa 243-0036 Japan,
TEL: +81-46-248-0068 FAX: +81-46-247-6866
169

APPENDIX XVII
SATELLITE IMAGERY- LIST OF SOLUTION PROVIDERS
DIGITAL GLOBE CORPORATE
DigitalGlobe is a unique imagery provider because our founders were scientists
and GIS mapping users who wanted commercial access to a consistent and
rapidly expanding supply of high quality earth imagery and geospatial information
products. We are a responsive, flexible and easy to work with company that
understands what our customers require and value, a company that delivers
images and information better than anyone else.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Advanced Ortho Series
WorldView-2: Standard Satellite Imagery
WorldView-1: Standard Satellite Imagery
QuickBird: Standard Satellite Imagery
QuickBird: Ortho Ready Standard Satellite Imagery
CONTACT DETAILS
DIGITALGLOBE CORPORATE, 1601 Dry Creek Drive, Suite 260, Longmont,
CO 80503, Phone toll Free: 800.655.7929, Phone: 303.684.4000
170

NATIONAL REMOTE SENSING CENTER
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) is one of the centres of Indian Space
Research Organisation under the Department of Space, Govt. of India, engaged
in operational remote sensing activities. The operational use of remote sensing
data span wide spectrum of themes which include water resources, agriculture,
soil and land degradation, mineral exploration, groundwater targeting,
geomorphologic mapping, coastal and ocean resources monitoring, environment,
ecology and forest mapping, land use and land cover mapping and urban area
studies, large scale mapping, etc.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
� User Services
� Image Search
� Aerial Data/Mapping
� Geospatial Solutions
� Bhoosampada
� Disaster Management
CONTACT DETAILS
NATIONAL REMOTE SENSING CENTER, NRSC Data Centre [NDC],
Department of Space,Government of India,Balanagar, Hyderabad-500 037
Phone : 00 91 040 23878560 or 23879572 Extn:2327
E Mail: sales@nrsc.gov.in Website: www.nrsc.gov.in
171

GEOEYE
GeoEye, Inc. is a premier provider of superior satellite and aerial imagery,
location information products and image processing services. Our products and
services enable timely, accurate and accessible location intelligence that
translates into timely and vital insights for our customers, anywhere and at any
time. We own and operate a constellation of Earth-imaging satellites, including
the world’s highest resolution satellite, GeoEye-1, which provides our customers
with the highest quality and most accurate satellite imagery available. We
anticipate launching GeoEye-2, our next-generation satellite, in the 2012-2013
timeframe, to provide our customers with ongoing access to industry-leading
imagery.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Satellite Imagery Products
o Geo, GeoProfessional, GeoStereo
Aerial Imagery Products
o Digital Aerial Imaging, LiDAR Imaging
CONTACT DETAILS
GEOEYE, 21700 Atlantic Boulevard, Dulles, VA 20166, Phone: +1.703.480.7500
Fax: 703.450.9570, E-mail: info@geoeye.com
172

Nascent as the geospatial industry in India is, there are no giant players from the
industry. However, there are at least a dozen of major players and a score of
small players which, in terms of technological expertise, financial capabilities and
financial resources will be able to do value addition on the unrestricted OSM’s. A
list of the well known private sector players along with their addresses and
annual turn over is given below:
S.
No
1. Auto desk India Pvt
Ltd.
Name Location Turnover
2. Bentley Systems India
Private Limited
406, 4 th Floor, Rectangle-1,
Saket District Centre,
New Delhi-17
203, Okhla Industries Estate,
Phase-III, New Delhi
3. DigitalG to be F2, 2A/1, Vaishali, Ghaziabad-
201010
4. ESRI India (NIIT-GIS
Ltd)
5. IIC Technologies Pvt.
Ltd.
6. Infotech Enterprises
Ltd.
7. Leica Geosystems
Gepspatial Imaging
India Pvt Ltd
APPENDIX XVIII
TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING- LIST OF SOLUTION
PROVIDERS
8, Balaji Estate, Sudarshan
Munjal Marg, KALKAJI, New
Delhi - 19
6-3250/2 Raod No.1, Banjara
Hills, Hyderabad-500034
Plot No. 011, Software Units
Layout, Infocity, Madhapur
3rs FloorEnkay Square, 448A
Udyog Vihar Phase 5, Gurgaon
8. RMSI A-7, Sec – 16, Noida – 201301
9. Rolta India Ltd Rolta Tower A ,Rolta
Technology Park, MIDC,
Andheri (East), Mumbay-
400093
Rs 250 Million
Rs 250 Million
Rs 5425 Million
Rs 10-25 Million
173

10. Speak Systems Ltd B-49, Ec, Kushaiguda,
Hyderabad
11. AAB Sys Information
Technology Pvt. Ltd
12. Aaron Tecch-Pro Pvt.
Ltd
13. ADCC Infocad Pvt.
Ltd.
14. Adroitech Information
Systems Limited
15. Anantha Solution Pvt.
Ltd.
Tower 2000, Mancheswar
Industrial Estate, Rasulgarh,
Bhubaneswar-751010
B1/608, Satyam Appts, 20B,
Vasundhara Enclave
New Delhi - 10096
10/5, IT Park, Opp. VNIT,
Nagpur - 440022
D-194, Okhla Industrial Area,
Phase I, New Delhi
D. No:1- 60/1, Snehapuri,
Naccharam, Hyderabad-500076
16. Annova Technologies Block No 17A, SDF-1, VSEZ,
Visakhapatnam-530046
17. Applied Computer
Services Ltd.
18. Assurgent Technology
Solutions (P) Ltd.
609, 6 th Floor, Topaz building,
Panjagutta, Hyderabad-500082
C/O. S.T.P.I., Block-DP, Plot
No. 5/1, Salt Lake Electronics
Complex, Sectoor-V, Bidhan
Nagar, Kolkata-700091
19. Aurovision 5A,Readymoney Terrace, 2 nd
Floor, 167, Dr. Annie Besant
Road, Worli, Mumbai-400018
20. C.E. Info Systems B.44, Shivalik, Malviya Nagar,
New Delhi-110017
21.
22.
Cyber SWIFT
23. Compu Sense
Automation
24. Diamond Point
International
25. Disa Information
Systems Pvt. Ltd.
Merlin Links, 5 th Floor, 166B,
S.P. Mukherjee Road, Kolkata -
700026
404/405, ISCON Plaza, Satelite
Road, Ahmedabad - 380015
20 Ct Bed, 7 th cross, BSK 2 nd
Stage, Bangalore- 560070
10/C, !st Floor, M.G. Road,
Indore-452009
26. DSM Soft (P) Ltd. 5, Raja Street, T. Nagar,
Chennai- 600017
Rs 18.5 Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs 120 Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs 30 Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs 25-100 Million
Rs 10-25 Million
Rs 10-25 Million
Rs 10-100 Milligan
27. Earth Consultancy C-440, New Ashok Nagar, New Rs 10-25 Million
174

Services Delhi - 110096
28. East Collaborative
Strategiess Pvt. Ltd
29. Elcome Technologies
Pvt. Ltd.
X-1, 802 9b Main, HRBR Block-
1, Kalyan Nagar, Bangalore-
560043
A-6, Info city, Sector-34,
Gurgaon-122002
30. ENGECORC En-Geo Consultancy &
Research Centre, 59 Lamb
Road, Gwahati-781001
31 Fed Soft 28, Bhandup Industrial Estate,
Bhandup, Mumbay-400078
32 Fleet locator Flat 202, 2 nd Floor, 1-011-15,
A&B, CornerStone Appt.
Shyamlal Bldg, Begumpet,
Hyderabad
33. Group SCE India Pvt
Ltd
129 Railway Parallel Rd,
Kumarapark West, Banglore-
560020
34. Geo Infotech Plot 219 Baya Baba Matha
Road. Inix ix, Bhubaneshwar-
751022
35. GeoEdge
Technologies Private
Limitede
36. Genesys International
Corp. Ltd
SNV Chambers #483, IInd
Floor, Ponne Street,
Ciombatore-641012
73A, SDF III, SEEPZ, Andheri
(East), Mumbai-400096
37. INCA India C-22, Sector 57, Gautam
Buddha Nagar, Noida-201301
38. IndiGEO Consultants
Pvt. Ltd.
39. Info Genex
Technologies Pvt Ltd
40. Jishnu Ocean
Technologies
41. Kalyani Net Ventures
Ltd.
Apt #2, Raymond Court,
Jeevanhalli Main Road,
Banglore-560033
Suite #603, STPI, Maitrivanam,
SR Nagar, Hyderabad-500038
PL-6-A-15, Sector-1, Khanda
Colony, new Panvel
Industry House, S.No.48,
Mundhwa, pune
42. Kampsax India Pvt Ltd 121, Phase-I, Udyog Vihar,
Gurgoan-122016
43. Lepton Software C-115, Ist Floor, Phase-I, -
25-100 Million
Rs 250 Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs. 54.4 Million
10 Million
-
-
-
-
Rs 10 Million
Rs. 10 Million
Rs. 25-100 Million
Rs. 100-250
Million
175

Export & Rsearch (P)
Ltd
46. Luminous Engineering
and Technollgy
Services Pvt
47 Mascon Multiservices
and Consultants Pvt.
Ltd.
48. Manchitra Services
Pvt. Ltd.
49. Meghna Infitech Pvt.
Ltd
50. Micro Technologies
India Limited
51. Midwest5 Infotech Pvt.
Ltd.
52. Minecode Solutions
Pvt. Ltd.
Naraina Insdstrial Area, new
Delhi-110028
43 Community Center, Naraina
Industrial Area, Phase-I,
New Delhi
702, Galav Chembers, Nr.
Sardar Patel Statue,
Sayajiguj,Vadodara-390005
-
Rs 60 Million
B-52,Sector-63, Noida-201301 Rs 120 Million
101-A, Doctor House, Ellis
Bridge, Ahmedabad-380006
Plot No. 16, Sector-30A Navi
Mumbai, Navi Mumbai - 400705
70 Kanakpura Main Road, J.P.
Nagar, 6 th Phase, Banaglore-
560078
813, HSIDC, Udhog Vihar,
Phase V, Gurgaon-122016
53. OPSIS SYSTEM BD-327, Sector-1, Slat Lake,
Kolkata-700064
54. Pallavi Surveys H-NO: 3-10, Gokhale Nagar,
Ramanthapur Colony,
Hederabad-500013
55. PCI Software Pvt. Ltd. CB-55, Salt Lake, Kolkata-
700064
56. PCI Geomatics Private
Ltd.
6 Pashan Greens, Ramnagar
Colony, NDA Road, Pune-
411021
57. Pixel Group 8 th Floor, Vokkaligara Bhavana,
Hudson Circle,
Bangalore-560027
58. Prithvitech Consultants
Pvt. Ltd.
59. Proficio
Geotechnologies Pvt.
Ltd.
18/256, Indira Nagar, Lucknow-
226016
No-10,3 rd Cross, 4 th Main Aecs
Layout, Sanjay Nagar,
Bangalore-560094
60. PSM Associates Plot No : 1205/A, P.O:
Nayapalli, Bhubaneswar-
751012
Rs 10 Million
Rs 1069.155
Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs 80 Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs 5 Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs 10 Million
176

61. Regency Infotech Pvt.
Ltd.
62. Ridings Consulting
Engineers India Pvt.
Ltd.
63. Riddhi Management
Services Pvt. Ltd.
6-3-1113/2, 3 rd Floor, Point of
view Building, Begumpet,
Hyderabad-500016
B-128, Udyog Marg, Sector-5,
Noida-201301
FE 297, Salt Lake city, Kolkata-
700106
64. Sarmang Software 6/1 Hathi Barkala, Dehradun,
Uttarachchal
65. Satpalda Trading Pvt.
Ltd
1006 Kanchenjunga Building,
18 Barakhamba Road, New
Delhi-110001
66. SGS Infotech Pvt Ltd. 407, Udyog Vihar, Phase IV,
Gurgaon-122015
67. Sidus Infotech Pvt. Ltd. No-114, MIG, KHB Colony, 80ft
Road, Basaveshwarnagar,
Bangalore-560079
68. Sierra Atlantic
Software Services Ltd.
8-2-624/1, Road No.10,Banjara
Hills, Hyderabad-54
69. Sokkia India Pvt. Ltd. C-25 Ground Floor, Sector-8,
Noida - 201301
70. SpaGeo Technologies
Pvt Ltd
C-33, Indraprastha, Plot No.
114, I.P. Extn, New Delhi-
110092
71. Spatial Data Pvt Ltd. #151/3, Ist Floor 18 th Main, 11 th
Cross, Malleswaram, banglore-
560003
72. Spatial Developers 20- North Chandmari Road,
P.O: Nepukur, Barrackpore, 24
Parganas(N)-700122
73. Spime India
Technologies
74. Sumadhura Geomatica
Pvt. Ltd.
75. Sunsoft Technologies
Inc
76. Topcon Surveying
(India) Pvt. Ltd.
93/45, First Avenue, Indira
Nagar, Adyar, Chennai-600020
1-10-248, Ashok Nagar,
Hyderabad-500020
3121, 19 th Cross, R Road
Banashankari 2th Stage,
Bangalore
1079, Sector -19, Faridabad-
121002
Rs 25-100 Million
Rs 10-25 Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs 25-100 Million
Rs 10-100 Million
Rs 100 – 250
Million
-
Rs. 10 Million
Rs 10 Million
Rs 25-100 Million
Rs 25-100 Million
Less than Rs 10
Million
177

77. Trimble Navigation
India Pvt. Ltd.
78. VISIONLABS (India)
Pvt. Ltd.
SF-04, JMD Regent Plaza, M.
G. Road, Girgaon – 122001
2 nd Floor, 4 Motilal Nehru
Nagar, Begumpet Main Road,
Hyderabad-500016
79. WAPMERR India 26 C/1, Khijrabad, Behind Loins
Hospital, New Frinds Colony,
New Delhi
80. Weston Solutions
(India) Pvt. Ltd
524, Road No 27, Jublee Hills,
Hyderabad
81. Zymax Technologies 5, Shyam Palli, Ground Floor,
Jadavpuri, Kolkata
82 Navayuga Spatial
Technologies
Pvt. Ltd.
1259,Laxmi Towers, Rd #36,
Jublee Hills, Hyderabad-
500033
Rs 200 Million
42 Million
Table App 18.1: List of Topographical Mapping Solution Providers
Rs 10 Million
178

GIS software encompasses a broad range of applications, all of which involve the
use of some combination of digital maps and georeferenced data. GIS software
can be sorted into different categories. Below is a list of notable GIS software
applications. Please update the listing of software below with respect to the
different categories.
OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE
The development of open source GIS software has - in terms of software history
- a long tradition with the appearance of a first system in 1978. Numerous
systems are nowadays available which cover all sectors of geospatial data
handling.
DESKTOP GIS
APPENDIX XIX
LIST OF GIS SOFTWARE PROVIDERS
The following open source desktop GIS projects are reviewed in Steiniger and
Bocher (2008/9) :
1. GRASS GIS – Originally developed by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, open source: a complete GIS
2. SAGA GIS – System for Automated Geoscientific Analyses- a hybrid GIS
software. SAGA has a unique Application Programming Interface (API)
179

and a fast growing set of geoscientifc methods, bundled in exchangeable
Module Libraries.
3. Quantum GIS – QGIS is an Open Source GIS that runs on Linux, Unix,
Mac OS X, and Windows.
4. Map Window GIS – Free, open source GIS desktop application and
programming component.
5. ILWIS – ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System)
integrates image, vector and thematic data.
6. gvSIG – Open source GIS written in Java.
7. JUMP GIS / OpenJUMP – (Open) Java Unified Mapping Platform (the
desktop GIS OpenJUMP, SkyJUMP, deeJUMP and Kosmo emerged from
JUMP
8. Whitebox GAT – Open source and transparent GIS software
9. Kalypso (software) – Kalypso is an Open Source GIS (Java, GML3) and
focuses mainly on numerical simulations in water management.
10. TerraView – GIS desktop that handles vector and raster data stored in a
relational or geo-relational database, i.e. a frontend for TerraLib.
11. Capaware – Capaware is also an Open Source GIS, an incredible fast
C++ 3D GIS Framework with a multiple plugin architecture for geographic
graphical analysis and visualisation.
12. FalconView – FalconView is a mapping system created by the Georgia
Tech Research Institute for the Windows family of operating systems. A
free, open source version is available.
13. Geopublisher is a Java desktop application to create multilingial,
interactive maps and publish them online and offline.
OTHER GIS TOOLS- CLASSIFIED
WebMap Server
180

1. Mapnik - C++/Python library for rendering - used by OpenStreetMap
GeoServer
2. MapGuide Open Source – Web-based mapping server.
3. MapServer – Web-based mapping server, developed by the University
of Minnesota.
Spatial Database Management Systems
1. PostGIS – Spatial extensions for the open source PostgreSQL database,
allowing geospatial queries.
2. MySQL Spatial TerraLib is more than a spatial DBMS as it provides also
advanced functions for GIS analysis.
Software Development Frameworks and Libraries (non-web)
1. GeoTools – Open source GIS toolkit written in Java, using Open
Geospatial Consortium specifications.
2. GDAL / OGR
Software Development Frameworks and Libraries (for web applications)
1. OpenLayers – open source AJAX library for accessing geographic data
layers of all kinds, originally developed and sponsored by MetaCarta
2. GeoBase (Telogis GIS software) - Geospatial mapping software
available as a Software development kit, which performs various
functions including address lookup, mapping, routing, reverse geocoding,
and navigation. Suited for high transaction enterprise environments.
Cataloging application for spatially referenced resources
1. GeoNetwork opensource – A catalog application to manage spatially
referenced resources
181

OTHER GIS TOOLS- UNCLASSIFIED
1. Chameleon – Environments for building applications with MapServer.
2. MapPoint, a technology ("MapPoint Web Service," previously known as
MapPoint .NET) and a specific software program created by Microsoft that
allows users to view, edit and integrate maps.
3. Ortelius Vector-based map illustration drawing tools from Mapdiva, LLC,
reads shapefile information, for Mac OS X. Free Trial.
4. Eagle 2.0 Eagle 2.0 is a Web Based vector map Engine, computer system
capable of capturing, storing, analysing, and displaying geographically
referenced information; that is, data identified according to location.
DESKTOP GIS PROVIDERS
Note: Almost all of the below companies offer Desktop GIS and WebMap Server
products. Some offer Spatial DBMS products as well. ToDo: rewrite, so that not
products are mentioned but the product user groups i.e. application fields
1. Autodesk – Products include Map 3D, Topobase, MapGuide and other
products that interface with its flagship AutoCAD software package.
2. Bentley Systems – Products include Bentley Map, Bentley PowerMap
and other products that interface with its flagship MicroStation software
package.
3. ESRI – Products include ArcView 3.x, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS,
ArcWeb services and ArcGIS Server.
4. IDRISI – GIS product developed by Clark Labs, a part of Clark University.
Economical but capable, it is used for both operations and education.
182

5. Intergraph – Products include GeoMedia, GeoMedia Professional,
GeoMedia WebMap, and add-on products for industry sectors, as well as
photogrammetry.
6. MapInfo by Pitney Bowes – Products include MapInfo Professional and
MapXtreme. integrates GIS software, data and services.
7. Smallworld – developed in Cambridge, England (Smallworld, Inc.) and
purchased by General Electric and used primarily by public utilities.
8. Albireo Telematics Albireo Telematics is a leader in providing solutions
and services for the Geospatial & GIS, Defense and Homeland Security
and Engineering sectors.
9. Cadcorp – Products include Cadcorp SIS, GeognoSIS, mSIS and
developer kits
10. Caliper – Products include Maptitude, TransModeler and TransCAD
11. ENVI - Utilized for image analysis, exploitation, and hyperspectral
analysis.
12. Manifold System – GIS software package.
13. Netcad – Desktop and web based GIS products developed by Ulusal
CAD ve GIS Çözümleri A.Ş.
14. SPATIALinfo – Products include spatialNET, spatialWEB,
spatialOFFLINE, BILLINGsync, ADDRESSmanager, MAPupdater, and
spatialWEBSERVICES.
15. Dragon/ips – Remote sensing software with some GIS capabilities.
16. Everest GIS – Simple GIS application for surface mapping.
SPATIAL DBMS
1. Boeing's Spatial Query Server (Official Site) spatially enables Sybase
ASE.
2. DB2 – Allows spatial querying and storing of most spatial data types.
183

3. Informix – Allows spatial querying and storing of most spatial data types.
4. Microsoft SQL Server 2008 – The latest player in the market of storing
and querying spatial data. At this stage only MapInfo products can read
and edit this data while ESRI and others are expected to be able to read
and edit this data within the next few months
5. Oracle Spatial – Product allows users to perform complex geographic
operations and store common spatial data types in a native Oracle
environment. Most commercial GIS packages can read and edit spatial
data stored in this way.
POST GIS TOOLS
1. TractBuilder Drafting Tools – Tools designed for the ArcGIS user to be
able turn legal descriptions into polygons.
2. Spatial ETL Tools
3. Safe Software – Spatial ETL products including FME Desktop, FME
Server and the ArcGIS Data Interoperability Extension.
This is a comparison of notable GIS software.
184

LICENSE, SOURCE, & OPERATING SYSTEM SUPPORT
GIS software Free OpenSource Windows
Elshayal Smart
ACCUGLOBE
home
Map
Maker
Mac
OS
X
Linux BSD Unix Web Other
No Yes No No No No No No
Viewer(s) No Yes No No No No No No
Autodesk Viewer(s) No Yes No Yes No No Yes No
Boeing SQS Viewer(s) No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Cadcorp Viewer(s) No Yes No No No No Yes No
CAPAWARE Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No
CARIS Viewer(s) No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Chameleon Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes AMP No
Google
Earth Plugin
185

ERDAS ERDAS
IMAGINE
Yes No Yes No No No No Yes No
ESRI Viewer(s) No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No
GeoBase Trial No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No
Geomajas Yes Yes Java Java Java Java Java Yes No
GeoNetwork Yes Yes Java Java Java Java Java Yes No
GeoServer Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Java No
GeoTools Yes Yes Java Java Java Java Java No No
GGP GIS home No No Yes No No No No Yes No
GRASS Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes via pyWPS No
gvSIG Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Java Java No No
ClarkLabs IDRISI No No Yes No No No No No No
ILOG JViews Maps Viewer(s) No Java Java Java Java Java
Java &
DHTML/Ajax No
186

ITC ILWIS Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No
Intergraph [1] Viewer(s) No Yes No No No CLIX Yes No
(Vivid)OpenJUMP
GIS
Kosmo Saig
KOSMO
Yes Yes Java Java Java Java Java No No
Yes Yes Java Java Java Java Java No No
LandSerf Yes No Java Java Java Java Java No No
Manifold System No No Yes No No No No Yes No
Pitney Bowes
MapInfo
Viewer(s) No Yes No No No Yes Yes No
UMN MapServer Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes AMP No
Caliper Maptitude No No Yes No No No No Yes No
MapWindow GIS Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No
ThinkGeo Map Trial No Yes No No No No Yes No
187

Suite
My World GIS
home
Trial No Yes Yes No No Yes No No
Oracle Spatial No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No
Orbit GIS home
Ortelius Mapdiva
Serve &
Explore
Free
Trial
Panorama No No
No Java Java Java Java Java
No No Yes No No No No
"GIS Map
2005"
No
"GIS
Panorama"
Flash &
AJAX
Javascript
&
No
No No No No
PostGIS Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Vectorbased
map
illustration
drawing tool
for Mac OS
X
188

Quantum GIS Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Smallworld No Yes Yes No Yes ? Yes Yes No
SpatialFX |
ObjectFX
SpatialRules |
ObjectFX
No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
SPRING Yes No Yes No Yes No Solaris No No
STAR-APIC home
FME
Trial
No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Java-based
mapping
and imagery
toolkit
Java-based
rules engine
for spatial
and
temporal
data.
SuperMap home Viewer(s) No Yes No Yes No Yes ( Yes (AJAX Hardware
189

(COM &
Java &
.NET)
Solaris
& AIX
& HP-
UX)
& Flex &
Silverlight)
TatukGIS home Viewer(s) No Yes No No No No Yes No
Caliper TransCAD No No Yes No No No No Yes No
TerraLib
TerraView
MicroImages
TNTmips
Caliper
TransModeler
Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No No No
Viewer(s) No Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No
No No Yes No No No No No No
uDIG Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No
Acceleration
190

AvisMap GIS
Engine home
GIS software
Viewer(s) No Yes No No No No DHTML No
Free
(Gratis)
OpenSource Windows
Mac
OS
X
Linux BSD Unix Web Other
191

PURE SERVER - MAP SERVERS
Name Language WMS WFS WFS-
T
Spatial Fusion
Server
WCS WMC SLD FES Other
Java/C++ Yes Yes No No No Yes No
Included with CARIS Spatial Fusion
Enterprise.
ERDAS APOLLO Java/C++ Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No ECW, ECWP, JPEG2000, JPIP.
ArcGIS Server .NET/Java Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes SOAP, REST, KML
MapServer C Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
GeoServer Java Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Basic-wms2.py Python Yes No No No No No No Intended as demonstration only
Manifold System ASP C# Yes Yes No No No No No client and server
SpatialFX Java Yes No No No No No No Web-based client and server; REST, KML
192

MAP CACHES
Name Language WMS-C Other
ArcGIS Server .NET/Java No
SuperMap IS .NET .NET No
SuperMap iServer Java Java No
TileCache Python Yes
GeoWebCache Java No
193

MIXED
Name Language WMS WFS WFS-T WCS WMC Other
Geomajas
AJAX or
JAVA
Yes Yes No No No
Mapbender PHP Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Mapbuilder
PHP or
Java
Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Full vectorial editing capabilities, support for complex relation
models (1 to n, n to 1, inheritance) through Hibernate
Spatial, printing functionality through iT3xt and
OpenStreetMap compatibility.
A Geo-CMS that provides interfaces for displaying,
navigating, querying, and editing WMS, WFS, WFS-T, and
WMC data sources.
Set of javascript widgets that provide interfaces for
displaying, navigating, querying, and editing WMS, WFS,
WFS-T, and WMC data sources. Uses OpenLayers as the
rendering engine. Provides server-side script for saving the
map as a WMC document.
194

CATALOG SERVERS
Name
As a server
Z39.50 CSW 2.0 OAI-
MPH
OpenSearch
OpenSearch
GEO
RSS GeoRSS WebDav
GeoNetwork Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Name
As a client
Z39.50 CSW 2.0 OAI-
MPH
OpenSearch
OpenSearch
GEO
RSS GeoRSS WebDav
GeoNetwork Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes
195

PURE WEB CLIENT LIBRARIES
Name Language
ArcGIS Server
APIs
Javascript, Flex,
Silverlight,
Java
.NET,
WM
S
WF
WMS-Map Javascript Yes No No
S
GeoRS
S
Other
Yes No Yes JavaScript API accessible online.
allow the creation of dynamic maps including simple zoom
functionality and clickable googlemap-like overlays.
OpenLayers Javascript Yes Yes Yes support for navigation, icons, markers, and layer selection.
QuickWMS Javascript Yes No Yes
CivicMaps Tile
Engine
Javascript Yes No No drag and zoom. Intended for integration with Drupal.
196

SpatialFX
website
SpatialRules
website
APPS
Java and
Javascript
Yes No Yes
Java No No Yes
Name Language WMS WFS GeoRSS Other
Mscros
s
Web client/server developer API, drag pan/zoom, drawing
support, full DHS and MIL-STD-2525 symbology support.
Java-based rules engine for detecting spatial and temporal
conditions. Designed for a detect-response paradigm to monitor
large populations of dynamic objects with spatial and temporal
attributes.
Javascript Yes Yes No an AJAX Web GIS client
WorldKi Flash No No Yes
197

t
MOBILE CLIENTS
LICENSE & PLATFORM SUPPORT
gvSIG
Mobile
Name Language
gvSIG Mini
Open
Source
W. Mobile
Java
CLDC
Java ME - CDC Yes Yes No No No
Java ME - CLDC / Java
Android
Android iPhone Linux PDA
Yes Yes(JVM) Yes Yes No No
Yes OpenMoko,
Maemo
198

FEATURE COMPARISON
Name
gvSIG
Mobile
WMS-
C/WMT
S
WM
S
WF
S
GP
S
SH
P
GM
L
GP
X
Raste
r
Editin
g
Routin
No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
g
Social
Network
s
Others
Full vectorial editing
capabilities both GPS and
hand-based, SRS support,
custom froms for
alphanumeric attributes,
vector symbology,
thematic
client.
legend. SDI
199

gvSIG
Mini
Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No Yes Yes
Openstreetmap data +
other free tile services.
Integration with twitter,
weather, facebook,
namefinder. Off-line.
200

APPENDIX- XX
TECHNICAL BRASSTACKS OF SURVEY OF INDIA
As has been discussed earlier, aim of the National Mission is for generating
the National Topographical Database (NTDB) of the entire country on 1: 10,000
scale within three years through an innovative Public-Private-Partnership (PPP)
mode and the effort requires to be apportioned between the Survey of India and the
Private Players. Each of these steps and the method of their execution are as given
below.
1. Procurement of suitable Satellite imagery:
The following satellite imageries have been considered appropriate for the
generation of 1:10,000 DTDB.
a) Cartosat stereo satellite imagery with 2.5 m resolution
For forest area (6.24 lakh sq.km), too many details are not required. Hence,
cartosat stereo imagery is considered adequate for these areas. Quickbird PAN
sharpened (0.61m resolution) multi-spectral mono-satellite imagery may also be
used.
b) Worldview satellite imagery with 0.5 m resolution.
For the rest of the country (26.64 lakh sq.km.) Stereo Satellite Images with
approximately 100% overlap over the AOI are to be used with
- stereo metadata file (.STE)
- collection angles (Convergence Angle, BIE and Asymmetry)
- Tasking Order
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- Product Size (Worldview) will be
- Min size: 17.6 x 14km and
- Max size: Up to 17.6 x 28km
Each component is its own file and comes with its own Rapid Positioning
Capability, also called Rational Polynomial Coefficients (RPC).
2. Provision of Ground Control points
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is a realization of
International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS), which is a definition of geocentric
system adopted and maintained by International Earth Rotation and Reference
Systems Service (IERS). IERS was established in 1987 on the basis of the
resolutions by IUGG and IAG. The origin of the system is the centre of mass of the
Earth. The unit of length is metre. The orientation of the axes was established as
consistent with that of IERS’s predecessor, Bureau International de l’Heure, BIH, in
1984. The Z-axis is the line from the Earth’s centre of mass through the Conventional
International Origin (CIO). Between 1900 and 1905, the mean position of the Earth’s
rotational pole was designated as the Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP). The Xaxis
is the line from the centre through the intersection of the zero meridian with the
equator. The Y-axis is the line from the centre to equator and perpendicular to X axis
to make a right handed system. ITRF is a set of points with their 3-dimensional
Cartesian coordinates and velocities, which realizes an ideal reference system, the
International Terrestrial Reference System. Each ITRF is identified by the digits of
the year as ITRFyy e.g. ITRF97, ITRF2000 etc. The latest is ITRF2005 which has the
epoch 1st January 2000. For realization the different techniques are used: Very Long
Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR), Satellite Laser Ranging
(SLR), Global Positioning System (GPS) and Doppler Ranging Integrated on Satellite
(DORIS). Each has strengths and weaknesses - their combination produces a strong
multi-purpose Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF). ITRF is the best geodetic
reference frame currently available. The GRS80 ellipsoid is recommended by IERS
202

to transform Cartesian coordinates to latitude and longitude.
Densification of Geocentric Geodetic Datum
The number of stations directly realized by the geocentric geodetic system is
not enough for practical use. Worldwide there are several hundred realized stations
in ITRF and about twenty stations in WGS84. Therefore it is necessary to increase
the density of the local stations based on the given stations in each nation or area.
Examples of densification projects are NAD83 in North America, SIRGAS in South
America and ETRF in Europe.
International Scenario
Most of the international community is switching over to the geocentric
reference system. The GRS67, GRS80, WGS84 and ITRS are results of the efforts
to arrive at the best possible geocentric system. The developed countries have
already defined their datum on geocentric system. Some of the developing countries
are on the way of realizing their datum. At the XX General Assembly of the
International Union of Geodesists and Geophysicists (IUGG) in 1992, the
International Association of Geodesy (IAG) made the following recommendations in
its Resolution no. 1[IAG,1992]:
“1) that groups making highly accurate geodetic, geodynamic or oceanographic
analysis should either use the ITRF directly or carefully tie their own systems to it”
“4) that for high accuracy in continental areas, a system moving with a rigid [tectonic]
plate may be used to eliminate unnecessary velocities provided it coincides exactly
with the ITRS at a specific epoch,
It is clear that these recommendations allows for the use of other systems
providing they are carefully tied to the ITRS. It is also to be noted that in ITRF the
motions of the individual tectonic plates will cause horizontal coordinates to
203

constantly change in time. It is therefore necessary to specify which epoch ITRF
coordinates refer to and to account for tectonic motion when changing epochs.The
countries defining their own datum connect it with ITRF to comply with the above
recommendations of IAG.
Establishment of Indian Geodetic Datum 2007 (IGD-2008) Strategy
The ideal solution for the present scenario may be establishment of the datum
based on dense network of Permanently Operating GPS Stations. This provides the
users an easy and quick access to the control. Developed countries like USA and
Canada have thousands of such stations in the form of CORS and CACS
respectively. However, for a developing country like India, it is not practicable to
establish thousands of permanent GPS stations with facilities to transmit the
differential corrections. It requires huge amount of money to establish and maintain
such system. The best option of India is to have a balanced approach using available
Permanent GPS stations along with dense network of campaign mode stations.
Observation Techniques
In India, the only space-based technique available at present is Global
Positioning System. So, the establishment of IGD2008 will be based on the GPS
technique. In future, if VLBI stations are set up in India, they will be used as the
highest accuracy points along with the GPS stations to connect the Indian datum
with ITRF as other developed countries have also done.
Data Sources
Realization of a geodetic datum requires the setting up of an accurate national
network of control points. It should include all the continuously operating GPS
stations and the campaign mode ground control points. India has the data sources in
the form of permanent GPS stations, GPS stations at tidal observatories and
204

campaign mode stations of GCP Library.
Permanent GPS Stations
India has a dedicated network of 41 Permanent GPS stations out of which 5
are maintained by Survey of India and rest by other government and autonomous
organizations like Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Geological Survey
of India (GSI), Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG), Indian Institute of Astrophysics
(IIA) and several other organizations. These Permanent GPS stations have been
established to monitor of Geo-Tectonic activities in the country as a long term
program funded by Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. GPS
Data from all these stations is received in the National GPS Data Centre, Geodetic
Research Branch, Survey of India. All these stations will be used for realization of the
datum. All such stations can be termed ‘Continuously Operating Reference Stations’
(CORS).
Figure App 20.1: Indian CORS Network
205

Continuously Operating Reference Stations in India
Aizwal Dhanbad Kothi Pondicherry
Almora Gulmarg Kolhapur Port Blair
Anini Gangtok Leh Pune
Bhatwari Guwahati Lucknow Rajkot
Bhopal Hanle Mumbai Shillong
Bhubaneshwar Imphal Munsiari Tezpur
Bomdilla Jabalpur Naddi Trivendrum
Chitrakut Jaipur Nagpur Tirunelveli
Dehra Dun (SOI) Kanpur Panamik Visakhapatnam
Dehra Dun
(WIHG)
Delhi
Kodaikanal Pithoragarh Lumami
Table App 20.1: List of CORS Stations in India
GPS Stations at Tidal Observatories
In addition to the Permanent GPS stations, there are 14 GPS Stations
maintained by Survey of India at Tidal Observatories, which have been established
as part of modernization of Indian Tide Gauge Network. These tidal observatories
are equipped with real time transmission facilities through dedicated VSAT network.
GPS data is transmitted in real time to National GPS Data Centre. Few more GPS
receivers will be added to this network very soon.
Kandla Kawaratti Machhilipatanam Port Blair
Marmagoa Minicoy Vishakhapatanam Nancowry
206

Cochin Tuticorin Paradeep
Chennai Ennore Haldia
Table App 20.2: GPS Tidal Observatories
Figure App 20.2:
5.2 m VSAT Antenna at Geodetic &Research Branch, Dehradun for continuously
receiving data from remote locations
Ground Control Points Library
Initiation of the GCP Library project has paved way for the Realization of
Indian Horizontal Datum IGD-2008, as it was commenced for setting up of precise
and consistent framework of reference points in Geocentric Co-ordinate System
spread across entire country. Setting up of the GCP Library is planned to be
completed in three phases..
Phase I, 300 Zero Order (highest precision) Ground Control Points at spacing of
250-300 km has already been recently established in Geocentric Coordinate System
for the whole country. These Zero order Control points define the Indian horizontal
207

geodetic datum. GPS observations are carried out for 72 hours at these stations and
their locations are independently computed using 3 to 4 IGS (International GPS
Service) stations which define the International Geocentric Reference frame ITRF –
YY where ‘YY’ represent the epoch. The latitude and the longitude of the Zero order
Control points are computed using Scientific GPS software Bernese to an accuracy
of miliarc second amounting to 3 cm on ground. In addition to having precise
horizontal coordinates (latitude and longitude) , they are also provided with precise
heights above mean sea level using leveling – Job has been Completed
.
Figure App 20.3: Indian GCP Library
208

Figure App 20.4:
Design of GCP Library Phase-I Monument -Data Processing and
Adjustment
Connection with ITRF
As per the IAG recommendations, the datum will be connected with ITRF.
India has two IGS stations, one at Bangalore (IISC) and another at Hyderabad
(HYDE). In addition to these, the IGS stations available around the Indian
subcontinent Beijing (BJFS), Ankara (ANKR), Wuhan (WUHN), Lhasa (LHAS),
Poligan/Bishkek (POL2) and Kitab (KIT3) will also be used as fiducial points. The
Indian Permanent GPS Stations will be connected with these IGS stations to get the
datum in terms of ITRF.
First Adjustment
The GCP Library Phase-I stations were observed independently and the data
had been processed with respect to IGS stations to determine the coordinates in
terms of ITRF. These coordinates can be used for general mapping purposes until
the datum is realized. The network adjustment has to be carried now. As already
mentioned above, the GCP Library Phase-I stations were observed independently
209

and not in well defined network mode. For adjustment, a network was required to be
formed. When the Continuously Operating Reference Stations are included in the
network, hundreds of baselines are formed by the common observations among
CORS and Phase-I GCPs. By carefully selecting few hundred baselines out of these
baselines, a network of more than 300 interconnected triangles was formed. The
network is in such a way that all the GCPs and most of the Continuously Operating
Reference Stations are connected.
In the first step, all the baselines are being computed using Bernese GPS
Data Processing Software. The second step will be connecting the CORS to the IGS
stations. This is necessary to connect the Indian datum with the ITRF as per the IAG
recommendations. The CORS network will be adjusted and coordinates will be
computed on the epoch 1st January 2007, taking the IGS stations as fiducial
stations. This will be done using scientific GPS data processing software Bernese
5.0. The CORS will then be used as known stations and the GCP Phase-I network
will be adjusted. The slope distances will be computed using Bernese 5.0 and will be
reduced to ellipsoidal arc distances using a computer program. These ellipsoidal arc
distances will be taken as observables and the adjustment will be carried out using
ADJUST program developed by National Geodetic Survey (NGS), USA and freely
available on the internet. This realization will be based on ITRF2005 which has the
epoch 1st January 2000. Using the velocity model, the epoch of this realization will
be kept 1st January 2007.
Phase II, additional 2200 GCPs of First Order Ground Control Points will be
established at an average of 30 km spacing all over the country. GPS observations
are carried out for 6-8 hours at these stations and the base lines are computed using
adjustment software. The station coordinates are adjusted with Zero order control
points as per usual survey principle “whole to part” .the expected accuracy of
horizontal coordinate is in the order of 0``.002 amounting to 6 cms on ground. The
First order control points will be connected by leveling .Work is under progress. It can
be completed in 12 months, if top priority is given to this job and some
210

tasks/resources are outsourced and extra equipments are procured urgently.
Survey Reference Mark
Figure App 20.5: Reference Mark
Phase III (image control points) Each image scene will require at least five GCPs for
geo-referencing. It will require approx 25,500 GCPs at a spacing of 10 km (approx)
to cover 1000 scenes of Cartosat and 7440 scenes of Worldview.1-2 hours GPS
observations will be carried out at these points depending on the baseline length
from first order GCPs and will be processed in office using specialized software. If
require GCPs may be adjusted with zero order control points. The expected
accuracy of coordinates is in the order of approximate 25 cms on ground. Offsets for
providing GCPs are to be avoided. GCPs observation and adjustment should be
part of integrated network of zero and first order GPS network of triangles. Location
of GCPs can only be decided by marking them first on imageries after their
availability. This is a huge task and can be completed by outsourcing only. This
phase III job can be started after the availability of imageries and phase II GCPs
which ever is later. By employing 80 teams along with vehicle, the job can be
completed in 1 year time. By outsourcing some of the tasks this job can be
completed in 9 months time.
211

3. Block Adjustment
As it has been proposed to use digital photogrammetry techniques in
generation of the large scale maps, Survey of India will carry out block adjustment for
mapping and generate digital terrain model. Block adjustment is done to reference
the satellite imageries with the ground and bring all the satellite imageries in the
same national reference frame. Digital Terrain Model is created to remove the
distortion due to height variation from the satellite imageries and to create orthoimages.
DEM is a different product which can be subsequently used for terrain
analysis and it can also be used as an input in GIS data in unrestricted zone. The
fundamental concepts involved in block triangulation, DEM generation and ortho
rectification are detailed below:
Block Triangulation
Block triangulation is the process of establishing a mathematical relationship
between the imageries contained in a project, the sensor model, and the ground.
Once the relationship has been defined, accurate imagery and geographic
information concerning the Earth’s surface can be created.
The information resulting from block triangulation is required as input for the
orthorectification, DEM creation, and stereopair creation processes.
With the advent of digital photogrammetry, classic aerial triangulation has been
extended to provide greater functionality. Mathematical technique known as block
adjustment provides three primary functions:
• Block adjustment determines the position and orientation sensor model in a
project as they existed at the time of image exposure. The resulting
parameters are referred to as exterior orientation parameters. Block
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adjustment determines the ground coordinates of any tie points manually or
automatically measured on the overlap areas of multiple images. The highly
precise ground point determination of tie points is useful for generating control
points from imagery in lieu of ground surveying techniques. Additionally, if a
large number of ground points is generated, then a DEM can be interpolated
using the 3D surfacing.
• Block adjustment minimizes and distributes the errors associated with the
imagery, image measurements, GCPs, and so forth. The block adjustment
processes information from an entire block of imagery in one simultaneous
solution (i.e., a bundle) using statistical techniques (i.e., adjustment
component) to automatically identify, distribute, and remove error. Because
the images are processed in one step, the misalignment issues associated
with creating mosaics are resolved.
Satellite Photogrammetry
Figure App 20.6: Interior orientation in satellite imagery scene
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Figure App 20.7: Imaging procedure
For each scan line,a separate bundle of light rays is defined,
Where Pk = image point
xk = x value of image coordinates for scan line,
k f = focal length of the camera
Ok = perspective center for scan line k, aligned along the orbit
PPk = principal point for scan line k
lk = light rays for scan line, bundled at perspective center Ok
Exterior orientation in satellite imagery
Satellite geometry is stable, and the sensor parameters, such as focal length,
are well-known. However, the triangulation of scenes is somewhat unstable because
of the narrow, almost parallel bundles of light rays. Ephemeris data for the orbit are
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available in the header file of SPOT scenes. They give the satellite’s position in
three-dimensional, geocentric coordinates at incremental intervals. The velocity
vector and some rotational velocities relating to the attitude of the camera are given,
as well as the exact time of the center scan line of the scene. The header of the data
file of a Imagery scene contains ephemeris data, which provides information about
the recording of the data and the satellite orbit. Ephemeris data that can be used in
satellite triangulation include:
• position of the satellite in geocentric coordinates (with the origin at the center
of the Earth) to the nearest second
• velocity vector, which is the direction of the satellite’s travel
• attitude changes of the camera
• time of exposure (exact) of the center scan line of the scene
The geocentric coordinates included with the ephemeris data are converted to
a local ground system for use in triangulation. The center of a satellite scene is
interpolated from the header data. Light rays in a bundle defined by the satellite
sensor are almost parallel, lessening the importance of the satellite’s position.
Instead, the inclination angles (incidence angles) of the cameras onboard the
satellite become the critical data.
Inclination is the angle between a vertical on the ground at the center of the scene
and a light ray from the exposure station. This angle defines the degree of off-nadir
viewing when the scene was recorded.
A stereo scene is achieved when two images of the same area are acquired
by different sensors at different inclination angles. For this to occur, there must be
significant differences in the inclination angles. Satellite block triangulation provides a
model for calculating the spatial relationship between a satellite sensor and the
ground coordinate system for each line of data. This relationship is expressed as the
exterior orientation, which consists of:
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• the perspective center of the center scan line (i.e., X, Y, and Z),
• the change of perspective centers along the orbit,
• the three rotations of the center scan line (i.e., omega, phi, and kappa), and
• the changes of angles along the orbit.
In addition to fitting the bundle of light rays to the known points, satellite block
triangulation also accounts for the motion of the satellite by determining the
relationship of the perspective centers and rotation angles of the scan lines. It is
assumed that the satellite travels in a smooth motion as a scene is being scanned.
Therefore, once the exterior orientation of the center scan line is determined, the
exterior orientation of any other scan line is calculated based on the distance of that
scan line from the center and the changes of the perspective center location and
rotation angles.
Bundle adjustment for triangulating a satellite scene is similar to the bundle
adjustment used for aerial images. A least squares adjustment is used to derive a set
of parameters that comes the closest to fitting the control points to their known
ground coordinates, and to intersecting tie points.
The resulting parameters of satellite bundle adjustment are: ground
coordinates of the perspective center of the center scan line rotation angles for the
center scan line coefficients, from which the perspective center and rotation angles
of all other scan lines are calculated ground coordinates of all tie points
Collinearity equation and satellite block triangulation
Modified collinearity equations are used to compute the exterior orientation
parameters associated with the respective scan lines in the satellite scenes. Each
scan line has a unique perspective center and individual rotation angles. When the
satellite moves from one scan line to the next, these parameters change. Due to the
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smooth motion of the satellite in orbit, the changes are small and can be modeled by
low-order polynomial functions.
4. Digital Terrain Model (DTM) and Digital Surface Model (DSM)
A digital terrain model (DTM) is a 3D digital representation of the Earth's
terrain or topography. Automatic DTM extraction involves the automatic extraction of
elevation information from imagery and the subsequent creation of a 3D digital
representation of the Earth's surface. A DTM represents the elevation associated
with the Earth's topography and not necessarily the human-made (e.g., buildings) or
natural (e.g., trees) features located on the Earth’s surface.
A digital surface model (DSM) represents the elevation associated with the
Earth's surface including topography and all natural or human-made features located
on the Earth’s surface. The primary difference between a DSM and a DTM is that the
DTM represents the Earth’s terrain whereas a DSM represents the Earth's surface.
Figure below illustrates a DSM.
DIGITAL SURFACE MODEL OF AN AREA DTM OF SAME AREA
Figure App 20.8: DSM Modelling
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Figure App 20.9: DTM Modeling
Digital Photogrammetry allows for the automatic extraction of DSMs and
DTMs. In order to automatically extract topography only, specific parameters
governing the elevation extraction process must be specified. However, typically
additional editing outside of the DTM extraction process is required to obtain a 3D
topographic representation only. This process is referred to as DTM editing. DTM
editing techniques are used to remove invalid elevation points in order to create an
accurate representation of the Earth's topography and surface.
Imagery serves as the primary source of data input for the automatic
extraction of DTMs. DTMs can only be extracted if two or more overlapping images
are available. Prior to the automatic extraction of DTMs, sensor model information
associated with an image must be available. This includes internal and external
sensor model information.
Using OrthoBASE Pro, the interior orientation of an image must be defined
and the exterior orientation of the image must be estimated or known from another
source such as airborne GPS/INS. Without the internal and external sensor model
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information established, elevation information cannot be extracted from overlapping
images.
Why are DTM’s required?
Topography governs many of the processes associated with the Earth and its
geography. GIS professionals involved with mapping and geographical modeling
must be able to accurately represent the Earth's surface. Inadequate and inaccurate
representations can lead to poor decisions that can negatively impact our
environment and the associated human, cultural, and physical landscape. DTMs are
required as a necessary form of input for:
• Determining the extent of a watershed. Combining DTMs over a large region,
a DTM is used as a primary source of input for determining the extent of a
watershed.
• Extracting a drainage network for a watershed. Many GIS packages
automatically delineate a drainage network using a DTM, primarily a DEM, as
a primary source of input.
• Determining the slope associated with a geographic region. Slope is required
when designing road networks, pipeline infrastructure, and various other
forms of rural and urban infrastructure.
• Determining the aspect associated with a geographic region. Aspect illustrates
and displays the direction of a slope. Aspect influences the growth of
vegetation due to the availability of sunlight, the location of real estate, and
intervisibility studies.
• Modeling and planning for telecommunications. A height model is required as
a primary source of input for planning the location of radio antennas and
performing point-to-point analysis for wireless communications.
• Orthorectifying. The orthorectification process requires highly accurate DTMs
for the creation of map-accurate imagery for use in a GIS. Using DTMs
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lessens the effect of topographic relief displacement on raw imagery.
• Preparing 3D Simulations. DTMs are the fundamental data source required for
preparing 3D perspectives and flight simulations. Without DTMs, 3D
simulations cannot be created.
• Analyzing Volumetric Change. Comparing DTMs of a region from different
time periods allows for the computation of volumetric change (e.g., cut and
fill).
• Estimating River Channel Change. Rates of river channel erosion and
deposition can be estimated using DTMs extracted from imagery collected at
various time periods.
• Creating Contour Maps. Contour maps can be derived from DTMs. Using a
series of mass points, contour lines for a given range in elevation can be
automatically extracted.
In general, DTMs are a first generation data product derived from imagery using
the principles of 3D geographic imaging. Second generation data products such as
slope and aspect images, contour maps, and volumetric change analyses can be
derived from DTMs for use in various GIS and engineering applications.
Control for satellite block triangulation
Both GCPs and tie points can be used for satellite block triangulation of a
stereo scene. For triangulating a single scene, only GCPs are used. In this case,
space resection techniques are used to compute the exterior orientation parameters
associated with the satellite as they existed at the time of image capture. A minimum
of six GCPs is necessary. Ten or more GCPs are recommended to obtain a good
triangulation result.
The best locations for GCPs in the scene are shown in Figure below
5. Orthorectification
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Orthorectification is the process of reducing geometric errors inherent within
photography and imagery. The variables contributing to geometric errors include, but
are not limited to:
• camera and sensor orientation
• systematic error associated with the camera or sensor
• topographic relief displacement
• Earth curvature
By performing block triangulation or single frame resection, the parameters
associated with camera and sensor orientation are defined. Utilizing least squares
adjustment techniques during block triangulation minimizes the errors associated
with camera or sensor instability. Additionally, the use of self-calibrating bundle
adjustment (SCBA) techniques along with Additional Parameter (AP) modeling
accounts for the systematic errors associated with camera interior geometry. The
effects of the Earth’s curvature are significant if a large photo block or satellite
imagery is involved. They are accounted for during the block triangulation procedure
by setting the proper option. The effects of topographic relief displacement are
accounted for by utilizing a DEM during the orthorectification procedure.
The orthorectification process takes the raw digital imagery and applies a
DEM and triangulation results to create an orthorectified image. Once an
orthorectified image is created, each pixel within the image possesses geometric
fidelity. Thus, measurements taken off an orthorectified image represent the
corresponding measurements as if they were taken on the Earth’s surface (see
Figure below).
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An image or photograph with an orthographic projection is one for which every
point looks as if an observer were looking straight down at it, along a line of sight that
is orthogonal (perpendicular) to the Earth. The resulting orthorectified image is
known as a digital orthoimage (see Figure below).
Relief displacement is corrected by taking each pixel of a DEM and finding the
equivalent position in the satellite or aerial image. A brightness value is determined
for this location based on resampling of the surrounding pixels. The brightness value,
elevation, and exterior orientation information are used to calculate the equivalent
location in the orthoimage file.
After the block adjustment, digital terrain model and ortho rectified images will
be generated for data acquisition..
(a) Cartosat Imagery
Total Area to be covered = 6.24 Lakh Sq Kms
Area covered by one scene = 700 sq. km
No. of scene (including overlaps)
Geo-referencing, DEM generation &
= 1,000 Nos. (Approx.)
Ortho photo generation = Two days per scene
(b) World View Imagery
Total Area to be covered = 26 Lakh Sq Kms
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Area covered by one scene = 420 sq. km
No. of scene (including overlaps)
Geo-referencing, DEM generation &
= 7440 Nos. (Approx.)
Ortho photo generation = Two days per scene
Ortho mosaicing as per Sheet layout = One day per scene
Total of 1270 man months are required to complete the task. By using 140
photogrammetric workstations in double shifts, this task can be completed in 5
months time.
6. Feature Extraction and Database Generation
Feature extraction for 1:10 K mapping will be done from ortho rectified images
It is proposed to carry out feature extraction in PPP mode. Feature extraction is a
systematic collection of all details appearing on ground which are also visible on the
ortho rectified imagery by digitization into vector form, i.e. conversion of data from
raster to vector. The work is targeted for completion in 2 years i.e. 2008-9 to 2010-
11. Feature extraction will be carried out as per the standards set by Survey of India
as Survey of India is responsible for the Quality Control and Standardization of the
entire data base. Features will be extracted from ortho images to create Digital
topographical data base as per the data model list is enclosed. Feature Extraction in
restricted areas will be carried out in Survey of India premises. The feature
extractions in un-restricted areas will be carried out at the vendor’s site. Guidelines
for 2D feature extraction can be worked out.
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Figure App 20.10 a,b : Orthoimagery
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7. Ground truthing and Attribute collection
It is proposed to carry out ground truthing and attribute correction in PPP
mode by the same Industry which has carried out feature collection. After the feature
extraction, the topographical data needs to be verified in the limited manner to the
extend of picking up missing details on the ground, correction of misclassification of
features and also attribute information (Toponomy etc) is to be collected on ground.
Field verification will preferably be carried out by using latest techniques such as
Tablet PC integrated with GPS and attribute collection as per the list attached at
APPENDIX ‘A’.
The whole task of field verification will be completed in 2 years i.e. 2008-09 to 2010-
11.
Limited field verification for ground truth and attribute data collection will be carried
out simultaneously on paper plots covering area of 5Km X 5Km, one for each sheet.
The paper plots will be generated from the 2D feature collection and will contain all
features, point, line and area with feature IDs printed on each feature. Each feature
will be verified on the ground for the classification accorded to the feature during
digitization and if necessary the classification will be altered as per ground truth.
The important missing features such as main power lines, distance stones etc.
will be added as per list under level 1 of data model structure enclosed as
APPENDIX ‘A’. Dummy / Arbitrary will be given to such additional features collected
in the field. Attribute of each feature will collected as per list given under level 2 of
data model structure enclosed as APPENDIX ‘A’. The feature list given at a
APPENDIX’ A’ also contains all features with attributes, classified is Vital Areas, Vital
Points/Installation. After the ground truthing and attribute collection, the industry will
be required to submit the entire data base to SOI for security vetting. SOI will ensure
that all Vital Areas & Vital Points as finalized by MOD and National Map Policy are
removed from data base which is to be made available in public domain.
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APPENDIX- XXI
POSSIBLE PPP MODEL WITH SOI UNDER NEW MAP
POLICY
It may be opportune at this moment, for better appreciation of the constraints of the
SOI, to briefly dwell upon the various processes and procedures followed for the
generation of a base map by the SOI. The primary source for generation of map is
“Aerial Photographs” (AP’s). Securing AP’s itself is a tedious and time consuming
process. First a dedicated aircraft with special fitments has to be available. Aircrafts
are available only with the IAF, which insists for a rigorous security regime entailing a
slew of clearances. On the day of aerial surveys, the sky has to be cloud free. In fact
there is an extremely narrow window of 30 days or so, when we have cloud free days
within the year. It is reasonable and realistic to presume that aerial survey of the
entire country de novo can take a minimum of 3 years. In order to get a 3
dimensional view of each “scene” on the ground, which is a must for vertical
elevations of the ground (contours), we should have image of the same area from
two vantage points thereby enabling “stereoscopic vision”. The AP’s so obtained
have to be corrected for a series of noise errors for relief distortions. After completion
of all these processes, we get what are known as “orthophoto images”. It is from
orthophotos that we derive maps after extensive groundtruthing aided with the use of
Ground Control Points (GCP’s). A summarized version of this elaborate and
sequential process is given below.
(i) Procurement of AP’s
(ii) Providing Ground Control Points (GCP’s)
(iii) Geo-rectification of AP’s
(iv) Generation of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Orthophotos
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(v) Conversion of images from raster to vector form
(vi) Collection of attribute data
(vii) Ground truthing
(viii) Attachment of Attribute Data
(ix) Data archival, management
It is strict adherence to a well laid out protocol, consisting of hierarchical
verifications, that the SOI maps so generated are extremely accurate. While
accuracy is the strength of SOI, its bane is slowness. The country can’t wait for
decades for larger scale and updated base maps. It is impossible to flog the SOI to
run faster because of a number of inherent constraints. Firstly in survey and mapping
a lot of technological changes have already come and the sector continues to
advance technologically in leaps and bounds. New hardware and software, which
replaces human drudgery, fatigue and error are coming and getting obsolete by
newer ones. Government procurement can’t keep pace with this. Even when
procured, usage of these hard/software use constant and continuous training, which
a decimated and ageing organization (average age is above 50years) like SOI can ill
afford.
Opportunity cost of not having accurate and uptodate maps
It is said that geographical location is the fourth “driver” of any investment
decision, the others being cost, revenue and benefits. No prudent investor can wish
away the need of maps. If not available, he will make by undertaking own surveys.
Apart from causing delays and cost escalations, such maps are low quality and not
geo-referenced, which can’t be used by anybody else or even by the same investor
for his subsequent expansion. There is thus tremendous duplication of survey and
mapping in the country. If accurate, uptodate and geo-referenced base maps are
readily available, the investor can have the map of his “theme” generated
expeditiously and without costs. Such investors are umpteen and there are enough
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private players who can generate the “theme maps” out of the base maps. Therefore
infrastructure development and growth of GT sector in a country are synergistically
related.
The National Map Policy, 2005
The Government of India, taking cognizance of the situation prevailing in the
geospatial sector promulgated, in the year 2005, a National Map Policy for India. In
broad terms, it seeks to reconcile the concerns of national security and the needs of
sustainable development. The twin objectives of the NMP are (i) To provide, maintain
and allow access and make available the National Topographic Database (NTDB) of
the SOI conforming to national standards; and (ii) To promote the use of geospatial
knowledge and intelligence through partnerships and other mechanisms by all
sections of the society and work towards a knowledge- based society. To ensure that
in furtherance of the new policy, national security objectives are fully safeguarded,
there will be two series of maps called the Defence Series maps (on Everest/WGS
84 Datum and Polyconic/UTM Projection) and Open Series Maps in UTM Projection
and WGS 84 datum. The OSM’s are primarily for supporting development activities in
the country and will have no VA’s and VP’s shown. The Ministry of Defence shall
give a one-time clearance to these OSM’s upon which they become unrestricted for
use and value addition in the open domain.
The volume of work
The creation of the NTDB on 1:10,000 scale is a mammoth task. This is quite
clear, even mechanically going by the number of sheets required to cover the entire
country against each scale, as given below;
Scale No. of Sheets
1 : 10,000 1,32,000
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Lay out of sheets
1 : 25,000 19,343
1 : 50,000 5,060
1 : 250,000 394
1 : 1 Million 36
Figure App 21.1: Mammoth scale of mapping task
The SOI had a strength of around 28,000 employees during 1970s and 1980s
– the period in which the survey and mapping for the NTDB on 1:50,000 was
undertaken and completed. Assuming the same conditions and technology regime, a
rough estimate shows that SOI shall take not less than half a century to complete the
task of making the NTDB on 1: 10,000 scale. The assumption made above is not
true; technology has vastly improved – this is a positive change. But the negative
changes are too many. The strength of SOI has gradually reduced to 13000
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employees in 1999. The ban on fresh recruitment has further caused further
decimation - it stands as 7000 in July 2008. With every passing month it is further
reducing due to superannuation. Average age of existing employees has also
increased considerably. The overgrown employees can’t catch up with the
technological upheavals taking place in the sector. Secondly, the SOI is deploying its
considerable strength for discharging its sovereign functions like completion of
national priority projects like joint surveys of international boundaries, publishing of
OSM/DSM on 1:50K scale, village boundary database, large scale mapping for
metros and cities, preparing and printing of geographical maps, creation of high
precision GCP library, redefinition of vertical datum, geoid modeling, modernization
of Tide Gauge network for Early Tsunami Warning System, standardization of
geographical names and completion of various projects for Planning Commission
(NIC), NUIS, MOEF, 3-D mapping of Delhi, engineering projects like Hydro electric
project/tunnel alignment etc. It is abundantly clear from the quantum of the work and
that the SOI, by itself, will not be able to complete the work given its constraining
factors. Innovations in both technology and management are required to accomplish
the task.
Satellite stereo images to be used as inputs
The most crucial input in map making is availability of latest aerial
photographs. As mentioned earlier, it is a futile exercise to attempt expediting this
process. Alternatives need to be pursued – this is the technological innovation to be
employed. Fortunately, modern remote sensing satellite products are now available
which give stereo images and which have enough accuracy standards required.
Cartosat (Indian satellite meant for cartographic purposes with accuracy of 7.5
meters and resolution of 2.5 meters) and Worldview (US satellite for cartographic
purposes with accuracy of 1.5 meters and resolution of 50 cm) can easily replace
aerial photographs for generating the NTDB of 1: 10,000 scale. SOI has already
carried out trials using Cartosat have yielded positive and encouraging results.
Switch over to satellite imagery shall be the most revolutionary and path breaking
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decision to aid in the expeditious generation and regular updation of the NTDB.
Eliciting private participation
The management innovation, which can be brought about is bringing private
participation. Further, encouragement of private participation is a major objective of
the National Map Policy, 2005. Therefore in conformity with and in pursuance of the
NMP, the private sector could be pressed into a fruitful partnership with the SOI in
the generation of the NTDB on 1: 10,000 scale. The basic approach in the
partnership will be for SOI to retain all core (strategic) functions in map making, while
the repetitive, yet laborious and non strategic functions will be opened to the private
sector through a transparent and competitive bidding procedure. The PPP model
envisaged here will have the following components and structure;
(a) use suitable and appropriate satellite stereo images instead of aerial
photographs as the input for generation of maps;
(b) identify the principal steps of generation of maps from satellite stereo
images and divide these steps into core (or strategic) steps and into
routine (or non strategic) steps;
(c) entrust the core steps with the SOI and routine steps to the private sector;
(d) require the SOI to ensure quality checks at all stages;
(e) stipulate that SOI shall have ownership rights over the entire database and
the private party ownership rights on unrestricted areas in which it had
performed the steps as mentioned in (c) along with the SOI. It is more
appropriately to be termed as “co-ownership” rather than “joint ownership”.
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(f) envisage that the respective owners can do value addition, resell the data
complying with guidelines, rules and regulations as may be prescribed by
the Government from time to time. This may therefore conform to a BUILD,
OWN, OPERATE (BOO) model.
While it is clear that SOI can’t accomplish the task, still two more questions
need to be addressed. The first one is; why this can’t be done by the private sector
alone? There are also strong reasons for not giving this work entirely to the private
sector. Firstly there are security considerations. The MHA and the MoD are the main
arbiters in security perceptions. The country as a whole consisting of 3.3 million sq.
km has 1.1 million sq km as “restricted areas”, the maps of which can’t be handled
by any private person without express permission of the Government. The NMP,
2005 recognizes and acknowledges this fact. Information as regards the Ground
Control Points (GCP’s) are also important and sensitive information. Any person who
has details of all GCP information can make detailed maps of the country with data
from foreign satellites. Similarly, gravity data, tide data and elevation data has
defence implications. These items of information, important as they are, will be held
by SOI exclusively as part of its sovereign functions and can’t be entrusted with the
private sector. The second question is; how that the work that can’t be done by the
SOI alone or the Private Sector alone can’t do it when working in combination? This
means that it is important to see whether the arrangement leads to a win-win
situation. Consider the following facts. The attractive points for the private sector are
(i) That, the geo-rectified images are given to them free of costs (ii) That, they share
ownership rights of the completed data along with the SOI, which they can either sell
or perform value addition and customization, (iii) That, they do not have to suffer the
process delays associated with obtaining any licence or clearances for undertaking
geospatial data business. As far as SOI is concerned, the advantages are the
following. (i) At half the costs and in a fraction of the time frame, it is ready to
generate a TDDB for the entire country.(ii) There shall be no compromise in
accuracy, since quality control shall be with the SOI. (iii) There shall be no
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infringement of National Map Policy provisions or any threat to national security.
Rather, the project would be in furtherance of the NMP to promote a flourishing
geospatial industry in the country similar to the IT revolution that generated lot of
employment opportunities.
There will be a clear stipulation of roles and responsibilities on either side,
which are to be expressly incorporated in agreements to be signed between the SOI
and the player. Such agreement will include standard conditions like arbitration
clauses, penal clauses, security clauses and shall be prepared having regard to the
following:
(a) Apportionment of work between SOI and industry:
There are a number of sequential steps to be completed for the conversion of
stereo satellite images into corresponding maps. Some of these steps are the core
steps, which are to be executed by the SOI exclusively, while the remaining though
laborious, repetitive and routine are time consuming, resource intensive and critical.
The steps which are to be executed by the SOI and private player are enumerated
sequentially as given below;
(i) Procurement of suitable images - SOI
(ii) Providing Ground Control Points (GCP’s) - SOI
(iii) Geo-rectification of satellite images
(iv) Generation of Digital Elevation
- SOI
Model (DEM) and Ortho-rectified images
(v) Conversion of images from raster to
- SOI
vector form - Private player
(vi) Collection of attribute data
(vii) Limited ground truthing
- Private player
(fill missing details) - Private player
(viii) Attachment of Attribute Data - Private player
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Core Activities
SOI
Repetetive Activities
(Through PPP)
(ix) Data archival, management - SOI & Pr. player
A diagrammatic representation of this scheme is given below.
Figure App 21.2: 1:10,000 Database Generation Protocol
(b) Selection of private player
There will be strict pre-qualification criteria before a geospatial company will
be short-listed for undertaking the partnership with SOI. The prospective bidder shall
be a company registered in India with threshold levels of trained manpower,
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equipment, annual turn-over, experience in similar work etc, the details of which will
be given in the tender documents.
(c) Ownership of the final product and pricing of products
Specifications of the final product, to be supplied by the private player shall be
fixed in advance and given in the tender document. The final product shall be coowned
by the SOI and the respective private player. However, in accordance with
the National Map Policy, 2005, the private player shall have ownership rights of only
those data pertaining to “unrestricted areas” notwithstanding the fact that the private
player have contributed to making the data for the “restricted area”. Clauses to this
effect will be integral part of all agreements between SOI and the private player. The
respective owners can do value addition, resell the data complying with and subject
to such guidelines, rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the Government.
(d) Apportionment of areas among private players interse
It is less likely that a single private player will be able to complete the entire
work – division of work therefore among the players is indispensable. The proposed
model envisages neither an arbitrary administrative decision nor any type of random
lottery method for allotment of areas among the players. This has to be done in a
transparent and competitive bidding scheme. The total area of the country shall be
divided into say 10 zones, not necessarily contiguous in geographic terms, but which
are approximately equal in area and business potential. Areas within India are not
homogeneous from development point of view. For instance, areas in Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka are undergoing rapid infrastructural development and the
demand for GT products of these areas are in high demand. But GT products of
Chattisgarh and Jharkhand may not have high demand, since these are mostly forest
areas and development projects may not come here with the same gusto. So the
player who gets Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh gets more returns than his
counterpart working in the forested states. The private players have to bid for the
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ights of each zone on the basis of the price at which they will make available one
sheet of the area. That player who bids the minimum price per sheet of a zone will
become the L-1 for that zone. In this way, the efficiency advantage of the private
players due to competition is passed over the prospective map users. This scheme
brings in two advantages (i) there will be a spurt in geospatial industry due the
competitive prices (ii) prices of map products, which so far has been fixed
administratively get fixed through markets.
(e) Quality control
The strongest point of SOI is the accuracy of its map products. The National
Mission proposes that there should be no dilution in the brand equity of the SOI. The
SOI will therefore have the right to reject data which does not conform to the
standards laid down and the prospective private player has to redo the work to the
extent, which in the opinion of the SOI will be required to maintain accuracy
standards. The SOI, apart from checking the final deliverables shall have the right to
check the work of the private player at all stages pari passu and the private player
has to abide by the instructions issued by employees of the SOI. Strict provisions to
this effect will be incorporated in the agreements to be signed.
(f) SOI not to sell products at lower price
`It has been stipulated that SOI and the private players will be co-owners of
the final product. The price of the product has already been fixed based on a
competitive bidding process. The SOI will be debarred from selling the data at a price
lower than what has been quoted by the respective private player. Conversely, the
private player can’t refuse to sell at the predetermined price and jack up the prices,
because then SOI can sell the same at the above prices. This arrangement also will
form part of the agreement.
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DGPS uses a network of fixed, ground-based reference stations to broadcast the
difference between the positions indicated by the satellite systems and the known
fixed positions.
FEATURES:
• Accuracy in Millimeter range: Input voltage 12 –24 VDC.
• TCP / IP based on-line communication for Centralized data acquisition and
processing.
• GPS software and WINDOWS XP Server for data processing.
SPECIFICATIONS:
APPENDIX- XXII
SPECIFICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL GPS
(A) GPS Receiver:
1. Dual frequency GPS receiver with GLONASS tracking facility
2. Internal memory or removal card memory of minimum 256 MB – 1 GB
capable of storing minimum 180 days of data at 30 second sampling interval.
3. User selectable sampling rate in the range of 5 Hz to 1 min.
4. Recording of data at two sampling intervals simultaneously, so that the higher
frequency data can also be retained within the receiver.
5. The GPS receiver should be able to accommodate met-package so that met
data are automatically stored in binary file produces separate met file.
6. Should have total minimum 70 channels (GPS+ GLONASS) and should be
capable of tracking: GPS: L1-C / A, L2C – C/A & P.
7. Receiver should also be capable of up gradation to track GPS L5 and Galileo
in future.
8. Receiver should be equipped with display and control unit / panel.
9. Power Consumption not exceeding 5 Watt (receiver, Antenna, Controller
nominal) with external Battery voltage in the range of 12-16 volts D.C
10. Power Ports: Minimum two external physical redundant power ports with
automatic switching facility within 12 – 16 VDC, physical over-voltage
protection and polarity protection. The power ports should not be connected
internally.
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11. Remote monitoring and online data downloading capability directly through
radio modem / telephone line / Ethernet.
12. Data Ports: USB, Serial and Ethernet ports. The receiver must be able to
support met package as well as data I/O using VSAT simultaneously.
13. Operating temperature range –40 deg C to +65 deg C
14. Should be waterproof (IP66), shockproof, dustproof, humidity – proof (100%
or better) and condensation proof.
15. All necessary OEM power (2 sets per receiver) / data cables, as required.
16. Automatic power-on and data logging after power failure and keep alive
battery for storing the original configuration and parameter files.
17. Should be capable of tracking all available satellites to 0 degree elevation.
18. The product [specific model] should qualify the GPS calibration norms
conducted by any International Testing Laboratory, and offer must accompany
such certificate.
(a) Quality Control Statistics (10-90 degree)
(i) Receiver must have (observation recorded / observations expected) >99%.
(ii) MP1 (Multi-path on L1) and MP2 values < 0.8 m
(iii) Not more than 1 cycle slip per 20,000 observations on an average; i. e.
(total observations / total slips) > 20,000
(b) Functionality in short baseline processing.
(i) L1, L2, L3 precision < 0.5 min in N, E, 10 mm in vertical.
(B) GPS Antenna:
1. Antenna should be of geodetic quality and separate from the receiver.
2. Repeatability of Antenna phase center variation with elevation angle (10 – 90
degree) should not be greater than 0.2 mm horizontal and 0.5 mm vertical
(ref: NGS Report).
3. Multi-path reduction capability mechanism such that MP1 and MP2 values are
less than 0.8 m for 10-90 degrees elevation angle (ref: TEQC software).
4. Geodetic grade, high gain on all bands.
5. Antenna should have the following operational/storage specifications:
I. Temperature. –40 °C to +55 °C
II. Humidity proof
III. Vibration proof.
IV. Shock proof
V. Waterproof
VI. 100% sealed from sand and dust.
(C) Accessories:
1. Antenna Cable operational without amplifier.
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2. Forced-centering devices for accurate centering over the station mark, with
rustproof tribrach and tripod.
3. Industrial grade flash cards.
4. Surge and lightning protectors.
5. Solar Panel, 80 watts x 4 (four), with charge controller and voltage regular.
6. SMF battery for system power.
(D) Computer / Workstation:
Windows Xp, Intel Xeon, Dual CPU@3.6 GHz, 2 GB RAM, 80 x2 Bb HDD, USB,
Serial and Ethernet Ports, LCD Monitor.
(E) GPS data acquisition, control and analysis software:
1. Software for configuring receiver through PC, without Hardware lock.
2. Base station Software: The software should be able to perform all necessary
function of transferring data to card / external data logger / computer, remote
communication, remote configuration data processing.
3. Fully integrated software solution for all functionalities needed at the control
center of a reference station network.
4. Software should be capable of archiving all reference station data for post
processing services.
5. The RTK and DGPS both processors should be available in the Software
environment: (RTK) Real-time kinematics to provide data to high accuracy
users and DGPS to provides DGPS correction data to users requiring DGPS
accuracy for applications such as fleet management and mapping.
6. Conversion of the asynchronous serial receiver data to TCP/IP should be
done either at the receivers’ location using a Com-Server, or at the center
using a network router.
7. The application should take all connected reference stations and processes
the data in real time to produce correction parameters of all observables.
8. The VRS web server, software should provides information such as reference
station data, network status information like current tracking behavior of the
station, atmospheric activity (ionosphere & troposphere), via the Internet.
9. Software function for downloading the network-correction data to a multiple
set of single base station data for post processing.
10. Configuration settings should be defined via a built-in-wizard system.
Land Survey Specification:
• Complete land vehicle based (automotive/railway) Mobile Mapping
solution for producing color georeferenced video, Digital Surface
Models
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• Available with a number of options:
– LIDAR imaging for high-accuracy Digital Surface Models (Sick, Optech,
Riegl, others)
– Single or multiple video cameras
• Applications:
– 3D city model generation
– Bridge and pavement management
– Street side asset inventory, trackside inventory
– Sign condition assessment, Right of way data collection
– Property assessment for municipal taxation data records
– Situational awareness
– Earthworks monitoring, volume calculations
–
Key Benefits & Attributes:
• Generates positioning solutions for land based vehicle applications
– Integrated solution
• Asset mapping and video log solution
• Integrates POS LV positioning system, digital camera, data
acquisition and processing software and industrial computers
– Modular and expandable
• Add multiple cameras and LIDAR as required
• Move between vehicles for maximum productivity
– Easily Supported
• System can be installed and crew trained within 5 days
– Increase profitability
• Mobile collection is three times faster than manual methods
• High quality georeferenced data virtually eliminates reacquisition
costs
– Continuous, accurate position and orientation information under any
GPS conditions
– Cost-effective: data capture at normal highway speeds
– Produces precise, high-rate, real-time data
– Quick operational capability with installation, calibration and training
within 3 days
The ideal solution for:
– Public Sector street side asset inventory collection
– Transportation sign database construction and asset assessment
– Utilities and Public Works pole and transformer inventory
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– Real Estate video data property assessment
– Geo-referenced video of road infrastructure and buildings for security
and emergency services
– 3D City models and bridge management when integrated with LIDAR
Land Survey Is basically for following sectors:
� Public Sector
� Street side asset inventory for urban asset collection, trackside
inventory for rail applications (signs, track switches etc.)
� Transportation
� Sign database construction and condition assessment
� Videolog data / right of way data collection
� Utilities / Public Works (Telecom, Electric, Cable)
� Pole / transformer inventory
� Real Estate (Addressing, Assessment)
� Video data of property assessment for municipal taxation data records
� Public Safety (Security, Emergency Services)
� Geo-referenced video of road infrastructure and buildings providing
accurate spatial data for situational awareness
Configuration of System
Asset Data Collection and Analysis
• Digital camera(s)
• Land Survey System
• Data acquisition and processing software for:
– GPS/IMU Post Processing
– Image viewing and feature extraction
– Rack mount industrial computers
• 2-D scanning laser (for automated detection)
Specifications:
1. Land Survey System comprising
• Land Survey System with IMU(Inertial Measurement Unit)
• IMU Top Hat Assembly including
• IMU Power & Data Cable, 8 m
2. Land Survey Computer System
• Core POS Processor
• Inertially Aided RTK
• 12 Vdc (standard) power supply
• PC Card Disk Drive
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• 2 GPS Receivers, Dual Frequency, L1/L2/L2C GPS, L1/
• L2 GLONASS, OmniSTAR L-Band Corrections2 (GPS-16)
• 1C POS LV External GPS, comprising GPS-42
• 2 GPS Antennas, L1/L2, Zephyr-2
• 2 Antenna Cables, 10 m
3. Land Survey Accessories
• Land Survey Real Time Software Controller CD including Operation
Manual (notebook not included3)
• Shielded Ethernet Cable,
• Shielded Ethernet Cable, crossover
• External Power Cable for PCS
• Octopus Cable Assembly
• Flashcards, PCMCIA, Certified
• CE Declaration of Conformity
4. Distance Measurement Indicator, DMI
• DMI Encoder Assembly (hub size to be specified)
• DMI Data Cable, 8 m
• Quick Connect Lug Nut Collets, (Size A, AA, B, or C to be specified)
• Permanent Fender Bracket
• Set Ties
5. Land Survey POST PROCESSING SOFTWARE
• GNSS-Aided Inertial Processing Tools Set, for generation of postprocessed
Differential GNSS-Aided Inertial navigation solution
• Software for Post-processed Virtual Reference Station Module
• Inertially Aided GPS KAR Processing Technology
• Differential GNSS Processing Module c/w
• GPS Precise Point Positioning support
• GLONASS processing support
• Software warranty, service packs
Specifications for Airborne Survey System:
Direct Georeferencing of Airborne Mapping Sensors:- Measures translation
and rotation using Navigation Sensors, Measures range and bearing to points on the
ground using the Imaging Sensor, Computes position of points on ground to
corresponding points in the mapping frame without GCP ,Can be used with any type
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of Imaging Sensor (ie camera or LIDAR).
1) Key Benefits & Attributes:
• Provides an accurate real-time and post-mission solution for all motion
variables including sensor-specific Exterior Orientation (EO) parameters using
Direct Georeferencing
• Eliminates the requirement for aerotriangulation and a complete ground
control survey (often only check points for quality control are needed)
• Streamlines and automates the data workflow and quality control processes
• Allows for single stereo model mapping and single photo orthorectification
using an existing Digital Elevation Model
• Improves productivity in traditional aerial mapping applications, which
translates into operational time and costs savings, with increased accuracy
• Easily integrated with digital cameras, film cameras, LIDAR systems, SAR
systems, and digital scanners
• Ideally suited to inhospitable environments and rapid response applications
where ground control is not available.
2) Features:
• Import, manage and assess the data from your Airborne survey system and
GNSS reference stations
• Produce highly accurate position and orientation solutions from the GNSS and
Inertial data logged by your Airborne survey system
• Generate direct exterior orientation of each image taken by your UltraCam,
DMC, RMK Top, RC20/30, LMK 2000 and Applanix DSS cameras, and export
it ready for third party photogrammetry software
• Perform IMU to camera boresight and datum calibration
• Perform mission specific quality assessment and control of direct exterior
orientation, camera calibration and datum transformations
• Document and provide full reports pertaining to the solution performance of a
given mission
• Plan and manage complete DSS missions
• Develop DSS imagery
• Generate RapidOrtho products directly from DSS imager
3) Airborne Survey System Basically use for
Map inaccessible locations:
� Jungle, deserts, icebergs, polar regions, glaciers, coastlines,
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earthquake/disaster areas, landslide, minefields, oilrigs
� Corridor surveying with single flight lines:
� Power lines, highways, rivers, roads, railways, pipelines, telecommunications
� Sample survey for agriculture, forestry, geophysics
4) Technology
Airborne survey system provides the aerial survey and remote sensing
industry with a revolutionary method of georeferencing data. Direct Georeferencing is
the direct measurement of sensor position and orientation (also known as the
exterior orientation parameters), without the need for additional ground information
over the project area. These parameters allow data from the airborne sensor to be
georeferenced to the Earth or local mapping frame. Examples of airborne sensors
include: aerial cameras (digital or film-based), multi-spectral or hyper-spectral
scanners, SAR, or LIDAR. All Airborne survey systems integrate seamlessly with the
Air Flight Management System.
5) Application capability:
1. Aerial Camera Systems (Film Camera)
• Topographic mapping
• Producing 23cm square
• High resolution color, color infrared
• Aerial film cameras have been a standard
• Gyro-stabilized mounts, and various navigation
• Aerial film cameras are an efficient and complete photographic unit.
• Orthophoto production
2. Aerial Camera Systems (Digital Camera):
• Designed around CCD (Charged Coupled Device) imaging
• uses radiometric pixel resolution to generate standard perspective,
• high-resolution digital imagery. Producing four color channels in
• red, green, blue, and near-infrared, projects can now be
• undertaken in low light conditions with excellent results.
• Topographic mapping
• DTM (Digital Terrain Model) generation
• High-resolution digital imagery
• Orthophoto production
• Resource industry volumetrics
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3. LIDAR
• Erosion monitoring
• Topographic mapping
• Forestry ground and canopy measurements
• Bathymetry data generation for shallow water and shoreline mapping
• LIDAR Application
Airborne survey is the enabling technology behind LIDAR Scanning Laser
• Scan–to–scan geometric correction and absolute accuracy
• From 2 to 30 cm on the ground, up to 5 km at altitude
High-accuracy, super-fast Digital Terrain Models for:
• Photogrammetric applications
• Power line design and maintenance
• Cellular communication
• Floodplain Mapping
• Forestry
4. Synthetic Aperture Radar (all-weather capability)
• DTM (Digital Terrain Model) generation
• Environmental monitoring (oil/chemical spills etc)
• Deforestation
• Radar-based topographic imagery
• Reconnaissance, surveillance
5. Digital Scanner
• Topographic mapping
• DTM (Digital Terrain Model) generation
• POS AV provides geo-rectification of each scan-line
� relative accuracy to a few arc-seconds
� absolute accuracy to less than 30 arc-seconds
• Digital 3-Line Scanner
� Fore, aft and nadir line sensor
� 1000 to 24,000 pixels
� Panchromatic and Multi-spectral capability
� Full stereo capability
� Digital Terrain Models
� Orthophoto generation
� Mapping, feature extraction
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6) SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Airborne Survey system includes:
• Computer System (CS): Computer System. Rugged, low-power, light-weight,
small format, with built-in logging. Includes embedded state-of-the-art survey
grade GPS receiver.
Real-time firmware option for the POS Computer System(CS) to allow the
closed-loop error control to the inertial navigator to be turned on and off over the
SAR windows in real-time to produce a free inertial solution during the SAR window
that is smooth and free from resets and GPS error, suitable for auto-focussing.
� Temperature: -20 deg C to +55 deg C (Operational)
� Size, Std: 279 L x 165 W x 91 H mm
� (11.0 L x 6.5 W x 3.6 H inches)
� PC for POS Controller (Required for configuration)
� Pentium 90 processor (minimum)
� 16 MB RAM, 1 MB free disk space
� Ethernet adapter (RJ45 100 base T)
� Windows 2000/XP
• IMU: Inertial Measurement Unit. Rugged, state-of-the-art, small format, lightweight,
with high measurement rates.
Type Temp(Operational) Size (L x W x H) mm/in. Weight
IMU -20 C to +55 C 150 x 120 x 100 (5.9 x 4.7 x 3.9) 2.0 kg
• Optional Integrated Track Air Flight Management System: Mission
planning, pilot display, and in-air Airborne survey and sensor control for
maximum in-flight task automation and operational efficiency
• CPU - Fast processing with redundant data logging
• GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS) Receiver-State-ofthe-art
multi-frequency technology
1. ETHERNET INPUT OUTPUT
Ethernet (100 base-T)
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Parameters Time tag, status, position, attitude, velocity,
track and speed, dynamics, performance
metrics, raw IMU data (200 to 300 Hz, IMU
dependent), raw GNSS data
Display Port Low rate (1 Hz) UDP protocol output
Control Port TCP/IP input for system commands
Primary Port Real-time (up to IMU Rate) TCP/IP protocol output
Secondary Port Buered TCP/IP protocol output for data
2. LOGGING
logging to external device
Parameters Time tag, status, position, attitude, velocity, track
and speed, dynamics, performance metrics, raw
IMU data (200 to 300 Hz, IMU dependent), raw
GNSS data
Media External: Removable 1 Gbyte Flash Disk (2 supplied),
Media Internal: Embedded 1 Gbyte Flash Disk for redundant
logging
3. RS232 NMEA ASCII OUTPUT
Parameters NMEA Standard ASCII messages:
Position ($INGGA), Heading ($INHDT), Track and
Speed ($INVTG), Statistics ($INGST)
Rate Up to 50 Hz (user selectable)
4. RS232 HIGH RATE BINARY OUTPUT
Parameters User selectable binary messages: Time, position,
attitude, speed, track, PAV30 output, Yaw Drift
Correction
Rate Up to IMU Data Rate (user selectable)
5. RS232 INPUT INTERFACES
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Parameter Gimbal encoder input, AUX GPS Input (RTK,
NavCom Star-re, OmniStar HP), RTCM104
DGPS Corrections Input
Rate 1 to IMU Data Rate
6. OTHER I/O
1PPS 1 pulse-per-second Time Sync output, normally
High, active low pulse
Event Input (2) Two time mark of external events. TTL pulses
> 1 msec width, max rate 100 Hz.
7. USER SUPPLIED EQUIPMENT
- PC for POS Controller (Required for con-guration):
Pentium 90 processor (minimum), 16 MB RAM, 1 MB free disk
space, Ethernet adapter (RJ45 100 base T), Windows 98/2000/NT/XP
- PC for POSPac Post-processing Software:
Pentium III 800Mhz or equivalent (minimum), 256 MB RAM,
400 MB free disk space, USB Port (For Security Key), Windows 2000/XP
• Post-processing software bundle. Includes Carrier Phase DGPS processing,
Integrated Inertial/GPS processing, and optional photogrammetry tools for EO
generation, IMU boresight calibration and quality control.
• PC for Post-processing Software
� Pentium III 800Mhz or equivalent (minimum)
� 256 MB RAM, 400 MB free disk space
� USB Port (For Security Key)
� Windows 2000/XP
• Power Supply - Low-power operation
Airborne Survey Performance Specifications:
A) Airborne Survey Absolute Accuracy Specifications (RMS)
C/A GPS DGPS RTK Post-processed
Position (m) 4.0 – 6.0 0.5 - 2 0.1 – 0.5 0.05 - 0.3
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Velocity (m/s) 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.005
Roll & Pitch (deg) 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.005
True Heading1 (deg) 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.008
B) Airborne Survey Relative Accuracy Specifications
IMU-14
Noise (deg/sqrt(hr)) < 0.01
Drift (deg/hr) 1 0.1
Required Configuration
• IMU
� IMU-14 Power and Data Cable Assembly, 3 m
� IMU-14 Mounting Plate & Hardware
• Airborne Survey Computer System, PCS, including
� Core Processor
� 28 Volt power supply
� POS Realtime Processing Software comprising
� Strapdown Inertial Navigation Algorithm
� Kalman Filter
� Redundancy Management Software
� Embedded GNSS Receiver, Dual Frequency, L1/L2/L2C
� GPS, L1/L2 GLONASS]
� Support for external NAVCOM StarFire receiver or other RTK receiver
� Removable PCMCIA Disk Drive
� Internal 1 GB Flash Drive (autonomous internal backup)
• Airborne Survey External GPS,
� GPS Antenna Cable, 10 m,
� High-gain Antenna, GPS,GLONASS, LBand
• Airborne Survey Accessories Kit,
� BNC Adapters
� Controller Installation Software (PC not included)
� Power Cable Assembly
� I/O Analogue Cable Assembly with Industrial Ethernet Connector
� Industrial Ethernet Cable Assembly, RJ-45, crossover
� Event Cable,
� Industrial Ethernet Cable Assembly,
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• Airborne Survey PCS Firmware Option – Free Inertial Navigator
• GNSS-Aided Inertial Processing Tools Set, for generation of postprocessed
Differential GNSS-Aided Inertial navigation solution, includes
� Post-processed Virtual Reference Station Module
� Inertially Aided GPS KAR Processing Technology
� GNSS Differential GNSS Processing Module c/w
� GPS Precise Point Positioning support
� GLONASS processing support
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