Handbook of moral motivation: Theories, models ... - Sense Publishers

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MORAL MOTIVATION AND THE FOUR COMPONENT MODELthe individual choose? In his descriptions of the Four Component Model, Rest notestwo types of studies that help identify how the individual might promote the moralcourse of action.The first literature that Rest noted concerned general models of decision making.Focusing on behavioural decision theory (e.g., Rappoport & Wallsten, 1972), Restproposed that information on how individuals generally confront complex decisionmaking tasks might also help us understand how different claims on the individualare weighted and prioritized within moral contexts. Unfortunately, Rest found moreweaknesses than strengths in the literature which, he noted, failed to incorporateaffective processes that might be especially salient in moral decision making. Forinstance, Rest recognized that little attention had be directed towards understandinghow emotions evoked by situations altered the individual’s appraisal of the situationand action choice. Similarly, Rest noted the possibility of defensive operationsbeing particularly active in moral situations. These defensive operations could havethe effect of devaluing the moral basis of the situation and, in so doing, elevateother non-moral considerations (e.g., Bandura, 2002). Finally, Rest identifiedthe obligatory nature of moral decisions which were poorly represented in thesecognitive models of decision-making. For example, Rest highlighted the notion thatindividuals often indicate an overarching claim to: “do the right thing” that doesnot seem to benefit from a deliberative process. In addition to these concerns, Restalso noted that the developmental properties of the decision-making literature werenot particularly clear and very few direct applications to moral phenomena wereevident in the literature. He concluded (Rest, 1983, 1986) with the observation thatthe special nature of moral decisions was unlikely to be easily fitted within moregeneral models of complex decision-making.The second literature base that Rest used to inform his Component III processes wasmotivational models that explicitly address moral phenomena. These perspectives onmoral motivation were a diverse set of models that ranged from the sociobiological,behavioural, personality and social cognitive ones. Few of the models were supportedby extensive empirical work and fewer still had a developmental focus. However,Rest made much of the fact that cognition was involved to a varying degree withinthese sets of models, and that these cognitions were often influenced by, or wereassociated with affective processes. That is, for action to occur, Rest argued thatone must have some cognitive apparatus to recognize the moral goal and then someaffective processes to emphasize the value of pursuing moral goals . Although Restnoted the importance of the affective component of moral functioning, the integrationof cognitive and affective components is not fully explored in his writing. However,we would note that more contemporary models that seek to bridge the “gap” betweenaction and judgment are consistent with Rest’s overall view of moral functioning. Forinstance, models which emphasize the self system and suggest that the developmentof a moral identity is the integrating mechanism which brings together the variouscognitive and affective processes involved in moral functioning would be welcomedby Rest—particularly now that there are methodologies in place that can directly53
S. J. THOMA & M. J. BEBEAUassess moral identity (e.g., McAdams, 2001) and empirical support for these claims(Walker & Frimer, 2007; Rule & Bebeau, 2005).Research Programs Influenced by Rest’s Component IIIRest’s model has directly influenced three lines of research on moral motivation .Each line explicitly relies on the description of Component III to frame their researchquestions and methodologies. Two of these approaches focus on moral motivationdirectly and attempt to identify individual differences in the emphasis placed onmoral issues. The other perspective focuses on the decision-making process and theways in which moral information is either elevated or diminished.Models of moral motivation . There are two research programs which focusdirectly on moral motivation. Interestingly, both do so within the context ofprofessional populations. This focus is not a coincidence and much is made aboutthe advantages of working within these populations. The most important advantageis that professionals tend to be more aware that ethical considerations are explicit intheir roles and learn early in their training and socialization that one must be readyto provide justifications for their actions (Rest & Narvaez, 1994). This orientationto moral phenomena can be contrasted with general populations that may be moreor less experienced in considering moral issues and, thus, influenced by a broaderset of considerations—both rational and irrational. Furthermore, minimized in theprofessional setting is the potential emphasis on self-interest that can be at oddswith the moral ideals. Unlike the various roles assumed by individuals in the generalpopulation, the role of a professional tends to emphasize actions that benefit others.Of course, professionals vary in the degree to which their decisions are reflective,deliberate and resistant to self interest. However, the point is that within populationsthat are trained to reflect on the moral basis of their actions and place the interestsof the client before the self, the range of idiosyncratic factors influencing action is,if not reduced, at least open to challenge. Thus, the development of measurementsystems within professional settings is likely to emphasize the rational and reflectiveaspects of moral motivation and de-emphasize the irrational, intuitive, and impulsivefactors.An open question is the degree to which findings generated by these measures cangeneralize to non professional populations unconstrained by a professional identityand training (e.g., Walker, 2002). Clearly, one difference that researchers must addressin shifting focus to general populations is the measurement of moral motivation . Asdescribed above, the common moral perspective shared by professionals allows theuse of proxy measures that piggyback on the link between professional identity andmoral identity . The lack of a common moral perspective in the general populationshifts the measurement to more ideographic approaches that are sensitive to theindividual’s moral framework. To this end, projects such as McAdam’s narrativeapproach in assessing a life-story model of human identity, as modified by Frimer54
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MORAL DEVELOPMENT AND CITIZENSHIP E
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MORAL DEVELOPMENT AND CITIZENSHIP E
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TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction 1Kari
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TABLE OF CONTENTSV. A Simile of Mor
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KARIN HEINRICHS, FRITZ OSER & TEREN
Page 12 and 13: INTRODUCTIONexample, alcoholics had
Page 14: INTRODUCTIONKrettenauer, T. (2011).
Page 17 and 18: F. OSERRather, moral motivation is
Page 19 and 20: F. OSERmotivation. He is motivated
Page 21 and 22: F. OSERb) there must be a general v
Page 23 and 24: F. OSERenquire about how much each
Page 25 and 26: F. OSERmade, the possible effect of
Page 27 and 28: F. OSERaggressive behaviour (see Ga
Page 29 and 30: F. OSERor within such content. Inte
Page 31 and 32: F. OSERessay on a moral motivationa
Page 33 and 34: F. OSERNoddings, N. (1992). The cha
Page 36 and 37: THOMAS E. WRENI. “WHY BE MORAL?
Page 38 and 39: “WHY BE MORAL?” A PHILOSOPHICAL
Page 48: “WHY BE MORAL?” A PHILOSOPHICAL
Page 56: “WHY BE MORAL?” A PHILOSOPHICAL
Page 59 and 60: S. J. THOMA & M. J. BEBEAUprocess a
Page 61: S. J. THOMA & M. J. BEBEAUthe role
Page 65 and 66: S. J. THOMA & M. J. BEBEAUon author
Page 67 and 68: S. J. THOMA & M. J. BEBEAUMonson, 2
Page 69 and 70: S. J. THOMA & M. J. BEBEAUmodel, mo
Page 71 and 72: S. J. THOMA & M. J. BEBEAUPROI lite
Page 73 and 74: S. J. THOMA & M. J. BEBEAUthe frate
Page 75 and 76: S. J. THOMA & M. J. BEBEAUBebeau, M
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