TRANSNATIONAL FAMILIES - Wereld in Woorden

TRANSNATIONAL CHILD RAISING ARRANGEMENTSCOMMERCEANDCULTURESTOCKTRANSNATIONAL FAMILIESThe Transnational Child Raising Arrangements (TCRA) research programme is examininghow such arrangements are affecting the well-being of Ghanaian parents in the Netherlandsand children and caregivers in GhanaMigration is a topic of ongoing public and politicaldebate. It is also a social reality that is part andparcel of our global society. People increasingly livetransnational lives with children and parents living inseparate countries. The incentive for parents to do sois often a search for a better future for their children.Parents in Ghana have long been involved in childcarearrangements that promised their children betteropportunities. Often this meant leaving their childrenin the care of relatives who were better off, livednearer to good schools, or otherwise could offer anenvironment more conducive to bringing up children.Family bonds are strong in Ghana, and raising childrenis a responsibility shared across the extended family.www.tcra.nl

This cultural phenomenon has taken on a newdimension with the migration of Ghanaian parentsto Europe. Some manage to bring their childrenwith them, but most choose or are forced to leavetheir children behind. They are cared for by relativesor sometimes paid caregivers. The effect of thesemodern-day arrangements on migrant parents andon children and caregivers in Ghana is the focus ofthe Transnational Child Raising Arrangements (TCRA)research programme, an interdisciplinary programmejointly coordinated by Valentina Mazzucato andTakyiwaa Manuh, professors at Maastricht Universityin the Netherlands and the University of Ghana,respectively. The programme also looks at theinstitutions that shape TCRAs: schools and fosteringarrangements in Ghana, and family migration laws inthe Netherlands.Academically, the TCRA programme has developednew methods for migration studies as well as a betterunderstanding of transnational family relationships(see ‘Methodology’ box). The relevance of theprogramme to a country’s development lies in theknowledge it creates about how migration impactsfamilies, through the well-being of migrants overseas,and their children, who in the future will be taskedwith the development of their countries.CHILDREN: A STABLE HOMEThe effects of TCRAs on children who have stayedbehind in Ghana are researched by looking at theiremotional well-being, health status and educationalperformance. Nearly one out of every six children(16%) in Ghana’s urban centres has one or bothparents living abroad. If both parents are abroad,children are often left in the care of a maternalrelative. Migration of one or both parents does notneed to result in negative outcomes for these children.‘Children’s well-being will impactpositively on society as a whole.Ministries and schools in Ghanashould therefore pay moreattention to caregivers,who carry a huge responsibility’- Takyiwaa Manuh -SCHOOLSObservations from teachers in Ghanaian secondaryschools about children whose parent(s) live abroad:– Some children who migrated with their parentsare sent back to Ghana to get ‘re-educated’ afteradopting inappropriate behaviour while abroad.– These children find it hard to adapt to Ghanaiandisciplinary standards and challenge teachers’ andcaregivers’ authority.– There is no consistent evidence that TCRA childrenwho never lived abroad with their parents behavedor performed poorly.– Underperformance is due to emotional issues ora lack of supervision of schoolwork. Caregiversgenerally do not attend parent–teacher meetings.– Some children need special counselling services,but these services are currently offered only toa limited extent.– Some parents, despite the geographical distance,keep in close contact with teachers about theirchildren’s performance and progress.The most important factor is a stable and secure carearrangement. If children are transferred from onecaregiver to another more than once during theirparents’ absence, this tends to impact negatively ontheir self-reported emotional well-being and healthas well as on their school performance. A positiverelationship with the migrant parent overseascontributes to their overall well-being.PARENTS: MONEY AND MOBILITYMany Ghanaian parents in the Netherlands have oneor more children cared for back in Ghana. Often, Dutchmigration laws leave them with no other option thanto be separated from their children. Other parentsvoluntarily leave their children behind. They want theirchildren to be exposed to the Ghanaian culture andlanguage, and value the more disciplined attitude atschools in Ghana. Moreover, it enables parents to focuson their work and earn a good living, which is why theyleft their country and family in the first place.How does the separation affect the parents’ well-being?The research suggests that parents who live withouttheir children are worse off emotionally and health-wisethan those who have their children nearby. Interestingly,

Secondary school students inGhana fill out a survey for theTransnational Child RaisingArrangements (TCRA) programme.The programme investigateshow transnational child-raisingarrangements affect not only thewell-being of children who remainin the country of origin, but alsotheir migrant parents and theircaregivers.ERNEST APPIAHit is not the separation as such that causes this negativeimpact; rather, it is the fact that their earnings and legalstatus in the Netherlands do not allow them to sendenough money home, keep in close contact, returnhome regularly or bring their children over for shortvisits. Tensions can also arise in the parent–caregiverrelationship when remittances are lower than expected,with consequent worries about the care their childrenreceive. Documented migrants who earn more are lesslikely to experience problems in the care arrangementbecause they have the ability to visit home and makechanges to the care-giving arrangement when necessary.In other words, the migrant parents’ economic andlegal status – or money and mobility – have a strongimpact on the quantity and quality of transnationalcare, and by implication, on the well-being of both theparents and the children.METHODOLOGYThe TCRA research programme examines how TCRAsaffect children who remain in the country of origin, theircaregivers in Ghana and their migrant parents in theNetherlands. The research is unique in that it uses theSimultaneous Matched Sample method to include all theactors in both countries.The programme employs quantitative and qualitativemethods (e.g. a survey among 2760 school children inGhana and 300 parents in the Netherlands; in-depthinterviews with 54 school children, 30 teachers and20 caregivers in Ghana) and ethnographic case studiesthrough which the children, caregivers and parents of15 matched sample TCRAs are followed over a 2-yearperiod.The programme’s focus on Africa is an importantcontribution to the existing literature, which looks mainlyat transnational families from Asia and Latin America,where different family norms prevail.www.tcra.nl

MIGRATION AND FAMILY REUNIFICATIONAccess to the formal labour market and the possibilityto travel between countries are important factors in theproper functioning of TCRAs.‘People migrate, if not legally then illegally,’ saysValentina Mazzucato, co-coordinator of the TRCAprogramme. ‘Most Ghanaian undocumented migrantsin the Netherlands work. Policies need to recognizethat our economy needs these people and must createconditions for them to work legally. They would paytax, be protected by labour laws, and be able to travelto visit their children or have their children visit themhere.’The assumption that all parents want their childrento live with them in the Netherlands is false.‘Reunification,’ Mazzucato says ’is needed mosturgently by parents facing problematic child-raisingarrangements. And they are often the ones whoare undocumented or occupy low-level jobs. If theirsituation was more secure, they might well prefer theirchildren to stay in Ghana, where the secondary schoolsystem is considered to offer their children betteropportunities.’CAREGIVERS: WHO IS IN CHARGE?In Ghana, it is culturally acceptable to leave one’schild in the care of a family member or close relation.In fact, there are many positive values associated withfostering. Traditionally, the chosen caregivers werefully in charge of the child’s life. They wereresponsible both financially and emotionally forthe child’s well-being. The recent transnationalarrangements work differently. Migrant parentstravel abroad with the prospect of earning moneyand providing a better future for their children. Whileaway, they remain responsible for their children’smaterial well-being. They send money for their dailyupkeep and school fees. In exceptional cases, theyeven pay the caregiver.But an irregular or insufficient flow of remittancesmay give rise to tensions. The caregiver becomesoverburdened and the child, unaware of the parent’ssituation, may blame the caregiver. There is anothersource of strain: the regular contact that is possibletoday – through telephone, email, Facebook andSkype – between parents abroad and their children athome can undermine the caregiver’s authority. Indeed,parents in the studied TCRAs exert influence over theirchildren’s upbringing while the children – who areencouraged by their parents to spend maximum timeat school and doing homework – are of little practicalhelp to their foster parents. When mutual expectationsbetween the parents and the caregivers are not met,conflict and distrust may arise. This is exacerbatedwhen children – truly or falsely – report the misuseof remittances by the caregiver to their parents. Thissituation is stressful for both parties and difficult toresolve due to the geographical distance.THE RESEARCHThe TCRA programme is funded by NWO–WOTROScience for Global Development and coordinatedby Maastricht University, the Netherlands (ValentinaMazzucato) and the Centre for Migration Studies at theUniversity of Ghana (Takyiwaa Manuh and MariamaAwumbila). Researchers include Bilisuma Bushie Dito,Miranda Poeze, Ernest Nimfah Appiah, Victor Cebotari,Ernestina Korleki Dankyi and Djamila Schans. Theprogramme is conducted in close cooperation with theTCRAf-Eu programme funded by NORFACE. For moreinformation visit the programme website: www.tcra.nlOpen source article: Mazzucato, V. and Schans, D. (2011)Transnational families and the well-being of children:Conceptual and methodological challenges. Journal ofMarriage and Family 73(4): 704–712.COLOPHONText: Ellen Lammers, WiW-global research & reporting,March 2013Production: Contactivity, LeidenEditing: Mark SpeerDesign and layout: Anita Weisz-ToeboschPrinting: Drukkerij Holland, Alphen a/d Rijn