MAXIMISING OLYMPIC DISTANCE TRIATHLON PERFORMANCE ...

Proceedings from the Gatorade International Triathlon ScienceII ConferenceNoosa, Australia, November 7-8, 1999MAXIMISING OLYMPIC DISTANCETRIATHLON PERFORMANCE: A multidiscuplinarypw3eapctiveConenvorsPeter Reaburn Ph.D.Grant Schofield Ph.D.Aaron Coutts M.HMScTriathlon Research InitiativeCentral Queensland UniversityRockhamptonQueensland Australia

Table of contentsPageSchedule of eventsRon Clarke - Maximising Athletic PerformanceDr John Hellemans - Maximising Olympic Distance TriathlonPerformance - A Sports Medicine PerspectiveDr Darren Smith - - Maximising Olympic Distance TriathlonPerformance: A Sports Physiologist's perspectiveIan Hellemans - Maximising Olympic Distance TriathlonPerformance: A Sports Dietitians PerspectiveBrian McLean - Maximising Olympic Distance Performance –ABiomechanist's PerspectiveChris Hill - Maximising Olympic Distance Performance – TheAthlete’s PerspectiveKieran Barry - Maximising Olympic Distance TriathlonPerformance: A Coach's PerspectiveRod Cedaro Using hypobaric oxygen techniques and hyperbaricintervention to level the playing field in olympic distance triathlonSally A Clark, Julie Dixon, Christopher J Gore, and Allan G Hahn - 14Days of Intermittent Hypoxia Does Not Alter HaematologicalParameters Amongst Endurance Trained AthletesJohn Hellemans - Intermittent Hypoxic Training: A pilot StudyDave Bishop - Reliability and validity of portable lactate analysers?Grant Landers - Kinanthropometric differences between WorldChampionship senior and junior elite triathletesB. Davoren and J. Gregory - The effects of three varied cycle legprotocols on self-paced run time trial performance.John Hellemans - Lactate Index and training loadIan Hellemans - Fluid losses and Voluntary Fluid Intakes in NewZealand Age Group Triathletes During the 1998 ITU WorldChampionship TriathlonAaron Coutts, Peter Reaburn, Kerry Mummery, and Grant Schofield -Sweat loss, Fluid intake and triathlon performance in hot and humidconditions.Asker Jeukendrup - Fat loading and Carbohydrate Loading inEndurance Athletes.361016202632424454626874881001021061162

Schedule of eventsDay 1: Monday November 8 th 19999.00-10.30• Opening address - Les MacDonald - President ITU• Ron Clarke - Maximising Athletic Performance• Dr John Hellemans - Maximising Olympic Distance Triathlon Performance - ASports Medicine PerspectiveMorning tea11.00-12.30• Dr Darren Smith - - Maximising Olympic Distance Triathlon Performance: ASports Physiologist's perspective• Ian Hellemans - Maximising Olympic Distance Triathlon Performance: A SportsDietitians Perspective• Brian McLean - Maximising Olympic Distance Performance –A Biomechanist'sPerspectiveLunch1.30-2.30• Chris Hill - Maximising Olympic Distance Performance – The Athlete’sPerspective• Kieran Barry - Maximising Olympic Distance Triathlon Performance: A Coach'sPerspectiveAfternoon tea3.00- Panel discussion: The above speakers will debate and discuss issuessurrounding "Maximising Olympic Distance Triathlon Performance".Conference dinner - Informal setting - venue to be advised3

Day 2: Tuesday November 9 th 1999National Park run and sea swim - meet in front of Surf Club 6.30 AMFree papers9.00-10.30Special session on hypoxic training• Rod Cedaro - Using hypobaric oxygen techniques and hyperbaric intervention tolevel the playing field in olympic distance triathlon• Sally A Clark, Julie Dixon, Christopher J Gore, and Allan G Hahn - 14 Days ofIntermittent Hypoxia Does Not Alter Haematological Parameters AmongstEndurance Trained Athletes• John Hellemans - Intermittent Hypoxic Training: A pilot StudyMorning tea11.00-12.30• Dave Bishop - Reliability and validity of portable lactate analysers?• Grant Landers - Kinanthropometric differences between World Championshipsenior and junior elite triathletes• Bill Davoren and J. Gregory - The effects of three varied cycle leg protocols onself-paced run time trial performance.• John Hellemans - Lactate Index and training loadLunch1.30-3.00Nutrition and fluids• Ian Hellemans - Fluid losses and voluntary fluid Intakes in New Zealand AgeGroup Triathletes During the 1998 ITU World Championship Triathlon• Aaron Coutts, Peter Reaburn, and Kerry Mummery - Sweat loss, fluid intakeand triathlon performance in hot and humid conditions.• Asker Jeukendrup - Fat loading and Carbohydrate Loading in EnduranceAthletes.Afternoon tea3.30 Workshop - Bill Daveron and Cedaro - Heart rate, lactate and powerouptput as training and monitoring tools.4

Maximising Athletic Performance….with air conditioningRon Clarke____________________The most important elements in anyathletic or sporting performance are:1. Skills2. Muscular capabilities3. Ability to absorb oxygen4. Mental concentration andconfidenceSkills and muscular capabilities are amatter of training sensibly, patiently andwith a purpose, combined with genericcharacteristics and appropriate upbringing.Mental concentration should bepractised as assiduously as the skilltechniques.Training, both for fitness and to enhanceskills, is too often approached haphazardly with no real purpose orconcentration. A plan should beestablished for any workout prior to itsstart, which should fit into an overallprogram. And the plan shouldincorporate a goal – be it distance/time,number of hills or efforts, or the drills.Whatever ….. fun runner or professional,it has always made sense to me thatwhen you practice you do so for areason.And I have always found that realconfidence comes from preparation.The better prepared you are the moreconfidence you will have to perform anytask.My favourite way of demonstrating thisis with comnective circles:The outer is what your body isultimately capable of – no onecan tell you where theseextremes are.The middle circle is what youbelieve your body is capable ofin its present conditionThe inner circle is what youactually achieve.As your fitness increases so do the twoinner circles expand towards the outerwith the ultimate, of course, having allthree over-lapping.The point being nobody can so controlthe mind as to free it of all inhibitions -have a look at someone having anepileptic fit, it takes three to four peopleto hold them down.There are many examples of howsometimes performance exceedsexpectations, especially wheninhibitions are overcome either by fear,or adrenaline, or determination.Examples:Ewry (Determination)Beamon (Adrenaline)Syme (Fear)For this reason I actually believe thePara-Olympics produce the mostamazing athletic performances of all.Because they know all about pain, andsuffering, and determination, and6

purpose. Interestingly they are also thefairest with the best displays ofsportsmanship.But I am here today to tell you about thethird essential requirement for successin sport.The use of oxygen has not beenunderstood sufficiently as yet, its valuehas most certainly beenunderestimated, but I can assure you allthat there is no more important elementin training than to enhance the ability ofthe body to absorb oxygen.Triathlon is the sport which hasadvanced most in recognising its valuepossibly because its participants needto be fitter than those for any otherOlympic Sport.In the main, these aerobic benefitswhich so improve performances, comefrom Hypobaric training, wherein theathlete is exposed to altitude, eithernatural or simulated, for extendedperiods of time so that their bodiesadapt to overcome this lack ofatmospheric oxygen by operating moreefficiently. Normally the process is astimulation of bone marrow byincreased EPO (which occurs when thebody is deprived of oxygen for a period)which results in more haemoglobin cellsbeing produced so that more oxygencan then be collected from the lungs anddistributed.Consequently, in my day, athletes likeSebastian Coe spent months trainingand living at altitude (Coe’s favouritelocation was St Moritz in Switzerland).More of this later.The other major use of oxygen is inaiding recovery and circulation.This technique is called Hyperbaricwhich means additional pressure.Ideally the pressure used should equatewith 2 atmospheres and needs aspecial reinforced chamber (as this istwice the normal pressure).Not only does this aid recovery frominjury dramatically, it also relaxes andaids the brain and its function, amongsta host of other benefits.I believe every athlete should, every dayimmediately after training, relax for 30minutes in a Hyperbaric chamber. Ihave no proof but I project that this alonewould improve performance by up to5%. The profound effect of Hyperbarictreatment can be seen in this shortvideo on some severely mentallydebilitated children suffering fromoxygen deprivation of the brain.[Video to be shown}Isn’t that amazing. Imagine the effect ontraining recovery and athleticperformance of fit and healthy athleteswhen it can have that sort of result withthe mentally handicapped.Now add that to the already enhancedperformance the use of Hypobarictechniques, and I calculate we canartificially produce another Said Ouvita,Damien Komen, or Haile Gebrselasse.In 1970, I predicted that for the next 5decades world distance running recordswill be the exclusive domain of themountain men.7

Ever since 1980, every world record,except for Steve Cram’s 1500 meters in1985, has been set by them.But the double whammy use of oxygentechniques in this way could level theplaying fields.Let me tell you more about the variousways we can tune up the haemoglobinvia the use of Hypobaric techniques andwhat we are doing at the Runaway BaySports Super Centre to facilitate this.We will be the only Sports TrainingCentre in the world to incorporate bothtechniques, that is have Hypo- andHyperbaric chambers.We will be the only Centre in the worldwhere athletes can book in and sleep ataltitude in normal hotel styleaccommodation.And we cater for all sports, in particular,track (there is a 400 metre 8 laneinternational standard tartan track withpacing lights – again a world first),swimming (a 2 metre deep, 50 metrelong, heated, 8 lane stainless steelOlympic pool as well as an indoor 25metre 3 lane facility), road cycling(outside of the Gold Coast withhundreds of kilometres of roads), andmany other sports. Our facilities includea 600 m 2 gymnasium incorporating freeweights, Keiser resistance circuit,Nautilus, the whole range of aerobicequipment, and a Pilates “Gym within aGym” (for stretching), spa, sauna,massage, hydrotherapy, and a fullyequipped sports medicine clinic withphysiotherapists, physiologists, sportsmedicine physicians, plus nutritionists,psychologists and chiropractors.No Sports Training Centre anywhere inthe world, matches us and we intend tocontinue to lead the way.Two of our accommodation lodges willbe fitted with special pump andmonitoring equipment so that theiroccupants can sleep at altitude, up to5,000 metres above sea level, 64 bedsin all.“Sleep High, Train Low” is a trainingprogram that has now been proven inmany places throughout the world as themost effective way of buildinghaemoglobin cells whilst retainingphysical strength.Add to this the effects from theHyperbaric Chamber and, as I say,we’re up with the Ethiopians, Kenyans,Moroccans, Algerians and Mexicans.We have also incorporated a Hypobariccubicle in the gymnasium to allowcyclists and runners to useergonometers and treadmills at altitude(as well we can alter the humidity), so asto give the option of training at altitude ifthey so wish, without the expense andtime needed to travel there.In addition, we have the Hypoxicator,which is a further unit designed both toraise haemoglobin levels and enhancethe capacity of muscle tissue to absorboxygen. This is a 14 day course thathas given us some spectacular results.Lastly there is the Cat Hatch individualHypobaric beds, and both Hypobaricand Hyperbaric tents that we can hireout.Believe me, get onto the Internet andstudy the research. Call us if you need8

more literature. If you are ready to takethe next step, and have the time, comedown to Runaway Bay.If you can’t get down for an extendedperiod, come and see us for aweekend, test out the theory, then workout how, in your particularcircumstances, you can incorporate theuse of oxygen into your programmes.I have no doubt had I been able to usethis stuff pre-1968, I would have won thetwo distance golds at the Mexico CityOlympics instead of finishing flat on myback at the end of the 10K.The fact I ran 6 th in both races cameabout from the four weeks or so I wasable to spend at Font Romeu in thePyrenees. I broke the 2 miles worldrecord, and ran the 2 nd fastest ever10,000m in gale conditions (the windblew our numbers off our singlets it wasso strong) en route to Mexico so theshort time I spent there helped me noend.There is no doubt about it … If you wishto reach the top, you have to incorporateboth methods … or go live in Kenya.9

Maximising Olympic Distance Triathlon PerformanceA Sports Medicine PerspectiveDr John Hellemans**Dr John Hellemans is a Sports Medicine Practitioner in Christchurch New Zealand. Hespecialises in high performance endurance sport and exercise prescription. He is a sixtimes New Zealand open and four times World Age Group Triathlon Champion.____________________Health Aspects of the TriathlonIt is well established that regularendurance exercise involving largemuscle groups can produce manyphysical and psychological effects.Swimming, biking and running are oftenmentioned as examples of acquiringfitness for health [1 - 2].Health-related physical fitness includesimprovements in:1. Cardio-respiratory endurance (linkeddirectly to a reduced risk ofcardiovascular disease).2. Body composition (obesity is a wellknown risk factor).3. Muscular strength, endurance andflexibility (eg. low back pain is oftenassociated with fitness deficiencies andmuscular imbalance in the lower backregion).In view of the relationship betweenhealth and exercise it makes sense thathealth-related fitness is relevant to all intoday’s industrialised society. Thetriathlon is a unique sport in that itencompasses all health relatedvariables and therefore can be used asa prime example of health-relatedfitness. This is especially the case withrespect to the short distance events (upto and including standard distance). Inthe longer distance events (½ Ironmanand Ironman) the health advantages arepossibly out-weighed by the stresscreated by prolonged exposure toenvironmental factors, combined withextreme fatigue.The triathlon is an endurance activitywhich uses nearly all the muscles of thehuman body. Cardio-respiratoryendurance is developed as well asstrength and endurance in all musclegroups. Apart from the health-relatedquality of the triathlon, it is also fun andan achievable activity for many as mostpeople can swim, bike and run. Thereare no complicated skill involved, as isthe case in many team sports.Just to finish a triathlon givestremendous satisfaction and thereforealso contributes to psychologicaldevelopment and self confidence.PreventionThe individual triathlete will be moreinterested in preventing illness and injurythan treating existing symptoms. Thethreat of over-training and injury is one ofthe limiting factors on how hard thetriathlete can train. Months of carefulpreparation can be severely disruptedby injury or illness.Training for triathlons means exposureto stress, both physical and mental, andit is likely most triathletes will have theirtraining interrupted at least once a yearthrough illness or injuries. Serioustriathletes know that the harder theywork, the fitter they become. At thesame time, they are more likely toencounter ailments that destroy theirfitness. The key for them is to find theright balance.Educating triathletes about the value ofclosely monitoring signals from the bodycan greatly assist in preventingproblems. Overwork - too much, too fast,too soon - is still the main cause of10

problems and injuries related to training[3 - 4].Taking a detailed and specific sportshistory can give us an insight into theathlete’s training habits, short and long -term goals and the equipment used.This information will form the basis onwhich to advise athletes when treatinginjuries or when dealing with potentialproblems.InjuriesIt has already been mentioned thatmany injuries are caused by errors intraining. High mileage and intensitywithout allowing for a suitable recovery,and a sudden increase in trainingvolume are the main culprits. Othercauses are errors in technique,inflexibility of muscles, unyielding runningsurfaces and structural abnormalities(table I).Surveys of triathletes show that themajority of their injuries are runningrelated [5]. This is no surprise given theconsiderable stress on legs caused bypounding on the road, and most injuries,therefore, affect the lower extremities,especially the knee, lower leg and foot.Common running related injuries areiliotibial band syndrome, stressfractures, compartment syndrome, tibialperiostitis, Achilles tendinitis and plantarfasciitis [6].In the treatment of those injuries,attention needs to be paid to the causesof the injuries listed in table I. Manyminor injuries can be helped by properfootwear, possibly including orthotics,and by paying attention to technique. Forestablished injuries, anti - inflammatorymedication, physiotherapy, acupunctureand, as a last resort, cortisoneinjections, might be required. Stressfractures are one of the few injurieswhich require complete rest from running(for approximately six to eight weeks).Often, however, triathletes will still beable to swim and bike in this period.Table I. Causes of overuse injuries:___________________________________________________________________Errors in training‘Too much, too fast, too soon’ is a frequentcause of injury.Errors in TechniqueFaulty EquipmentInflexibility of musclesRunning SurfacesToe running, for example, can lead to manylower leg ailments.Worn shoes, oversized bike etc.The main cause of ‘swimmers shoulder’(supraspinatus endinitis). Muscle inflexibilityalso plays a major role in many running injuries.Concrete and asphalt are hard on the legs.Structural abnormalitiesPees planus (flat feet), pes cavus (high archedfeet), rear foot valgum and varus, genu valgum(bow legs) and genu valgus (knock knees) canall contribute to running and cycling injuries.___________________________________________________________________11

Common cycling - related injuries,except for those sustained in crashes,are located in the knee, lower back andneck [7]. Chronic sprains and strains ofthe ligaments supporting the knees,together with patellofemoral dysfunction,are often caused by pushing too hard inhigh gears, excessive hill climbing, or afaulty placement of the feet on thepedals.Back pain is a frequently encounteredcomplaint in triathletes and cyclists.Most cases can be helped by adjustingbody position on the bike, either bychanging the seat position or the handlebar reach. If those measures fail or ifthere are neurological symptomspresent, further investigations arenecessary to exclude an underlyingorganic cause.A whole new condition following theintroduction of aerodynamic handlebarsis the ‘aeroneck’ [8]. This is neck painand stiffness caused by sitting for longperiods with the shoulders hunched, thearms tucked underneath the upper bodyand accompanying hyperextension ofthe neck. This unnatural position putstremendous strain on the cervicothoracicjunction. Time will tell what thelong term effects will be on this part ofthe spine. It looks at the moment asthough conditioning improves thesymptoms, at least in the short term. Aforward seat position combined withwidening of the elbow pads is still themost effective strategy for treatment andprevention.Swimmer’s shoulder (supraspinatustendinitis) is one of the few injuriesrelated to swimming. Swimmer’sshoulder is a good example of an‘overuse’ injury, where the repetitivemovement is the main cause of theailment. When the arm rotates -approximately 1500 times in a 3000mfreestyle workout - the supraspinatustendon can rub against the tip of theacromion, eventually resulting intendinitis. There is a direct relationshipbetween inflexibility of the shoulder andsupraspinatus tendinitis [9]. Thecondition can be difficult to treat.Symptoms sometimes respond to anupper arm strap, icing after a work out,different stretching exercises and theavoidance of hand paddles (In morepersistent cases, physiotherapy, anti -inflammatory medication, acupunctureor, as a last resort, cortisone injectionscan be tried.Injuries always need to be distinguishedfrom the normal aches and pains whichare part of training. These are usually notsevere enough to interfere with training.They appear early in the training sessionand improve as the session progresses.Alternatively, they can crop up at the endof a hard training session with quickrecovery on cessation of training.OvertrainingOvertraining, or staleness, is acombination of persistent physical andmental fatigue with a decline in trainingand racing performance. This is causedby too much training and/or not enoughrecovery. Outside stress (family, work,relationships) can also be a contributingfactor, as well as not allowing enoughrecovery time during and followingillness. The most common symptoms ofovertraining which can accompany adecline in performance are loss ofinterest, insomnia, irritability,depression, loss of appetite and weightfluctuations, fatigue, increased musclesoreness, illness (frequent colds, sorethroats, headaches, stomach ailments)and persistent increase (ten beats ormore) in the resting pulse rate. It isthought that these symptoms are relatedto a dysfunction of the autonomicnervous system [4].12

The precise mechanism involved in thedevelopment of staleness has yet to beestablished. One theory is that anincrease in training does not allowglycogen stores to reload fully betweentraining sessions, resulting in chronicglycogen depletion [10]. The answer tothis is to increase the amount ofcarbohydrate in the diet. Dietaryassessment of the overtrained athlete bya qualified dietitian or nutritionist isstrongly recommended to check oncarbohydrate intake and also to checkon other possible nutritionaldeficiencies.Nutritional deficiencies (eg. irondeficiency) and viral infections (eg.glandular fever) can mimic thesymptoms of overtraining. The treatmentfor overtraining consists of decreasingthe frequency, duration and intensity oftraining sessions for as long as it takesfor the symptoms to disappear. Someathletes need to have a complete breakfrom the sport to rekindle the desire toperform. Recently Intermittent HypoxicTraining (a method of altitudesimulation) has shown promising resultsas a treatment for excessive fatigue andover training [11].At present no sensitive or specific testsare available to prevent or diagnoseovertraining [4].The diagnosis is based on the medicalhistory and clinical presentation. Thebest way for an athlete to monitor signsof overtraining is to monitor subjectivewell being [14]. In addition, it isworthwhile to record resting pulse rateand weight on a daily basis duringperiods of intense training. This is bestdone early in the morning, just afterwaking.The fatigue associated with overtrainingis only one of a range of symptoms andshould not be confused with thetiredness which accompanies a solidbuild up towards a race.Dehydration and Heat IllnessDehydration is a well known conditionassociated with endurance events,especially in a hot environment. Heatillness (heat stroke, heat exhaustion,heat syndrome, hyperthermia) usuallyoccurs in combination with dehydration.Although it is more common in longdistance events it can also occur instandard distance events held in hotconditions. [12]Thirst occurs when the body losesapproximately 1% body weight. Whenathletes lose more than 2 to 3% of theirbody weight through perspiration, theirperformance will start to decline. When5% of the body weight is lost, mostathletes will show obvious signs ofdehydration and heat illness.Dehydration levels of 7% or more areextremely dangerous.Proper hydration before and during theevent is the main means of preventingdehydration and heat illness. The risk ofheat illness is significantly increased byhigh temperatures, high humidity, brightsunlight and lack of wind, all of which arefactors on which the body’s ability tolose heat depends. Excessive sweatingor possibly cessation of sweating,headache, nausea and vomiting, vertigo,and goose pimples are all earlysymptoms of heat injury.The early stages of heat illness cansometimes be overcome by slowingdown and taking fluids frequently.Advanced symptoms includeimpairment of consciousness with initialconfusion, disorientation, and ultimatelycollapse. This stage requires urgentmedical attention. The diagnosis isconfirmed by taking a rectaltemperature.Treatment consists of cooling the athlete(using ice packs) along with hydrationthrough intravenous fluids. Observationof vital signs and symptoms is essential.13

If heat illness is not treated properly,serious complications can occur, suchas renal failure, arrhythmia, coma anddeath. Research has shown that in welltrained and acclimatised athletes, theheat dissipating mechanism becomesmore efficient and, therefore, adequateconditioning, together withacclimatisation and paying attention tohydration, form the key to prevention.Some athletes can cope better with heatthan others because of differences inheat generation and heat dissipation.Glycerol loading has been used toprevent dehydration but research hasshown conflicting results and significantside effects can affect any potentialbenefits [13].Hyponatraemia (waterintoxication)Hyponatraemia is now considered oneof the more serious problemsassociated with endurance exercise. Ithas been reported to occur in athletesafter long endurance events such asultra - marathons and the IronmanTriathlon [18]. Although it may beasymptomatic, hyponatraemia has beenassociated with signs and symptomssuch as altered mental status, seizuresand pulmonary oedema. The most likelycause of hypotranaemia is acombination of loss of salt through sweatand retention of high volumes ofhypotonic fluids that have been ingested.Sweat loss can be as great as 2.8l perhour.The water intoxicated athlete is wellhydrated and has a normal temperature(in contrast to the athlete with heatillness). Often the symptoms do no occuruntil a few hours after the athlete hasfinished the event. The delayed onset ofsymptoms may be due, in part, tocontinued hypotonic fluid ingestionfollowing the race and increasedabsorption of hypotonic fluids from thegastrointestinal tract after the athlete hasstopped running.Treatment of hyponatraemia is primarilysupportive and includes infusion ofnormal saline. The risk can be reducedby planning a replacement scheme thatincludes a combination of water andglucose electrolyte solutions.References1. Shephared RJ, What is the optimaltype of physical activity to enhancehealth? Br J. Sports Med 1997; 31:277-2842. Hellemans J. Prescribing exercise ingeneral practice. New ZealandMedical Journal 957: 98 (790) 19853. Kuipers H , Training andovertraining: an introduction Med.Sc. Sp.Ex 1998; 1137-11394. Kuipers H, Keizer HA. Overtrainingin elite athletes. Review anddirections for the future. SportsMedicine 79: 6, 19885. Maynard M, et al. Injuries amongstcompetitive triathletes. The NewZealand Journal of Sports Medicine2: March 19886. James SL, Bates BT. Injuries torunners. American Journal ofSportsmedicine 40: 6, 19787. Mellion M.B. Common CyclingInjuries, Management andPrevention. Sports Medicine 11(1):52-70, 19918. Hellemans J. Personal observation,January 19889. Greipp IF. Swimmers shoulder: theinfluence of flexibility and weighttraining. The Physician andSportsmedicine 92: 13 (8), 198510. Costill DL, et al. Effects ofrepeated days of intensified trainingon muscle glycogen and swimmingperformance. Medicine an Science14

in Sports and Exercise 249: 20 (4).198911. Kolchinskaya, A Z. Hypoxia andLoad Hypoxia: Destructive andConstructive effects. Hypoxia MedJournal 3/9312. O’Toole M, Douglas P, Laird H L,Hiller D B. Fluid and Electrolytestatus in Athletes RecoveringMedical Care at an Ultra distanceTriathlon. Clin J Sp med 5:116-1221995.13. Inder W J, Swanney P M, Donald RA, Pritchett T C R, Hellemans J.The effect of Glycerol andDesmopression on ExercisePerformance and Hydration inTriathletes. Med Sci Sports ExSept 199814. Noakes TD, et al. Waterintoxication: a possiblecomplication during enduranceexercise. Medicine and Science inSports and Exercise 370: 17, 198515

Maximising Olympic Distance Triathlon PerformanceA Sports Physiologist's Perspective.Darren Smith, Ph.DManager, Queensland Academy of Sport Triathlon Program____________________This presentation will provide anoverview of the following importantphysiological issues for maximisingOlympic distance triathlon performancefor the elite competitor:1. Know the demands of the sport.The sport has changed considerably inthe past few years. Some believe thatthe swim leg is akin to a pool based1500 m while others believe asuccessful triathlon swimmer hasexcellent starting speed, then a goodthreshold pace and strong endurance.The bike, while now a draft-legal eventmay still be similar to a time-trial eventfor some athletes, while very much astochastic, skill based event for others.The run at the elite level is quite fast.Those athletes skilled enough to run atthe fast baseline speed required to be incontention now have to be able tomaintain contact during surges and alsoprovide a fast (or sprint) finish.2. Identify the physiological statusof the athleteAfter identifying the likely physiologicaldemands placed on the athlete duringcompetition, identifying thestrengths/weaknesses and areas thatneed improvement is a key issue. Beingable to identify these attributes canrange from the high tech laboratorybased physiological assessments suchas gas analysis, blood biochemistry andthe like, to field based testing of “testsets” or time-trials. Nevertheless, beingable to monitor training adaptations bysome reliable, and hopefully, validmeasures are an importantconsideration to athlete development.3. Plan training and racingschedulesThe value of a business or operationalplan to big and small businesses hasalways been crucial to their success.Equally, a plan for the development ofelite athletes would also appearwarranted. But despite this, many elitetriathletes in the past have not had asystematic training or racing plan. It isacknowledged that triathlon training,which includes a number of disciplines,can be difficult to plan for in great detailfor long periods of time. However, somegeneral plan that clearly identifies shortand long term goals, strategies forimproving weaknesses etc. shouldclearly be a helpful addition to the“business” of being an elite triathlete.4. Plan the sequence of sessionswithin the micro and macro cycleto optimise gainsBased on the fact that adaptation isenhanced by the appropriate balancebetween sport-specific training load andrecovery, it is crucial in triathlon to getphysical training, recovery, overallworkload, sports-specific skillacquisition and other aspects of life intothe right blend. Programming of discretetraining blocks is often not a science, butperhaps should be. Identifying the lengthof recovery necessary from various keysessions and working out whatcombinations of sessions can betolerated can provide great gains in16

triathlon performance. Increasing theintensity of some sessions can impactsignificantly on the trainingaccomplished on the subsequent day,which in the overall scheme of trainingmay not be ideal. Other sessions can beused for recovery, while still achieving anobjective (e.g. skill based sessions).5. Monitoring trainingWhen to train harder and when to take arest is a tough question for the coachand athlete to answer objectively. Someathletes rely heavily on being “in tunewith their body” while others use moreobjective tools such as performance in akey session or psychological ratingscale. Nevertheless, having an athletespecificwarning system is a crucialaspect of training and racing.Investigating the method(s) or signal(s)that work for each athlete makes the jobof a coach much easier, reducing muchof the guess work, and allowing for amore structured and efficient trainingprogram.6. Tapering for competitionThis is an extremely important aspect tooverall elite athlete development sincethe race arena is the place whereperformance is examined, wherenational squads are selected and wheresponsors notice athletes. However, thetopic of tapering for competition is anextremely difficult concept for manycoaches and athletes to get right. Thebalance between training volume andintensity, maintaining the “feel” for theskills of the discipline and getting yourmind ready for a good performance isan individual thing, and must bepracticed. The taper process can oftenbe interrupted by travel, unfamiliartraining environments and unexpectedinterruptions to the previous trainingblock.7. Coping with heat and coldMuch has been written about theadaptation to heat. It is well documentedthat athletes from colder climates canrace well in hot conditions if appropriateheat acclimation routines (and hydrationpractices) have been observed in thefew weeks leading up to competition.Less is known about cold adaptation,but as illustrated in a number of racesduring recent years, it may be just asimportant to our athletes performance atinternational competitions. Coldadaptation, which includesimprovements in manual dexterity, themaintenance of core body temperatureand the like, is also achievable if donein a systematic way leading up tocompetition.8. Race day strategiesHow many athletes do you know begintheir swim warm-up for a race in the last5 minutes before the start? If you askedthese same athletes at what time (ordistance) during a normal swim sessiondid they start feeling good or started toget into the “groove”, I can guess theanswer wouldn’t be 5 minutes or less,but instead perhaps 20-30 minutes or 1-1.5 km. Since the swim start of a race isnot a leisurely activity these days, andmaintaining contact with the swim packis crucial to elite racing, I would regardan optimised swim warm-up to be anecessary part of the elite triathletes’weaponry.The start of the run leg is a flurry ofactivity. Athletes are generally excitedabout the run leg, to the extent that manyappear to run out of transition with scantregard for the distance. It is well shownthat running economy is depressed bybetween 7-10 % following a tough bikeride. Similarly, it is also demonstratedthat athletes run the first kilometres of17

the triathlon run at an unsustainablepace. Considerable extra energy istherefore used to run very fast with aninherently inefficient running style. Runpacing, especially in races held in warmto hot environmental conditions, istherefore an avenue that I believe manytriathletes can improve on their currentrace performances.18

Maximising Olympic Distance Triathlon Performance: ASports Dietitian's PerspectiveIen Hellemans, BDietetics, NZRDNutrition is a key factor in maximising Olympic Distance Triathlonperformance. The role of nutrition is to maintain health, support training,maximise performance, enhance recovery and achieve optimum bodycomposition and weight. Triathletes and their coaches are advised todevelop nutrition plans for training and competitition based on currentscientific information, adapted to individual needs and specific training andcompetition situations. It is important that supplement plans are an integralpart of an overall dietary strategy, rather than being considered in isolation.Fad diets need to be avoided as they have no proven benefit and may haveadverse effects.____________________Nutrition is one of many factorscontributing to optimum triathlonperformance. It plays a critical role inmaintaining health, supporting training,maximising performance, enhancingrate of recovery and in achievingoptimum body composition and weight.Furthermore, nutrition can be andtherefore must be controlled for in orderto prevent or minimise the risk ofproblems which potentially lead toreduced performance. It is imperative fortriathletes and their coaches to be fullyinformed on current, science basednutrition issues and principles and todevelop personal nutrition plans fortraining and competition.Baseline nutritionProlonged, intense exercise exertsadverse effects on the immune system.The resulting impaired immune functionmay last between three and seventy twohours during which time viruses andbacteria may gain a foothold andincrease the risk of subclinical or clinicalinfection. Meeting baseline nutritionalneeds through consuming adequateamounts of foods from the core foodgroups assists in maintaining optimumimmune function as well as generalhealth and wellbeing.Training nutritionThe role of nutrition is a supportive one,that is, appropriate nutritional strategiesenable triathletes to physically cope withheavy training schedules all year round.The key nutritional requirements can besummarised as follows.Triathletes have increased energyrequirements to compensate for anincreased energy output.A high carbohydrate intake will providemuch of the extra energy and is crucialas muscle glycogen, derived fromdietary carbohydrate is the preferredexercise fuel in high intensity exercise.Triathletes commonly train more thanonce a day and are at risk fromglycogen depletion. As glycogenrepletion takes time, it is difficult torestore energy levels between trainingsessions. Consuming adequateamounts of carbohydrates at frequentintervals is therefore an essentialstrategy. This can be achieved byconsuming carbohydrate rich food atevery main meal and snack as well asbefore, during prolonged and aftertraining. Carbohydrate further appearsto play a role in immune function. In arecent investigation researchersobserved that a high carbohydrateintake reduces stress to the immune20

system in a group of triathletes.Recommended daily carbohydrateintake is 8-10g per kg body weight.Triathletes have increased proteinrequirements. Proteins have importantfunctional and structural roles in thebody. Protein catabolism may alsocontribute to total energy production,although this contribution is generallysmall. In endurance training protein isprimarily associated with increasing andmaintaining strength, recovery andimmune function. Daily proteinrequirements for endurance athletes are1.2 - 1.4 g and up to 1.6 g per kg bodyweight during high volume endurancetraining. Fat is an essential nutrient andneeds to be included in the daily diet.Too much fat will displacecarbohydrates and may contribute to anincrease in body fat levels, however, toolittle fat can have a negative impact onhealth and performance. Recommendeddaily fat intake is 40-100g, dependingon gender, energy requirements, trainingprogrammes and individual factors. Theimportant issues are to consume theminimum required amount of fat forhealth and to obtain fat soluble vitaminsand to consume mostly plant sourcessuch as plant oils, margarines, nuts,seeds, avocados, and to make sure thatfat does not displace carbohydrate.Once carbohydrate and protein needsare met, the balance of energy requiredcan be obtained from carbohydrate orfat or a combination of both. Theincreased requirements for vitamins andminerals, particularly the B vitamins,vitamin C and E and the minerals Ironand Zinc are generally easily metthrough increased consumption of highquality carbohydrate and protein foods.Adequate fluid consumption is critical inthe prevention of dehydration. A one litresweat loss increases heart rate by 8beats per minute and increases bodytemperature by 0.3°C. Scientists nowbelieve that no level of dehydration iswithout physiological consequences. It isimperative that triathletes meet dailyfluid needs by drinking at regularintervals right through the day as well asbefore, during and after training.Baseline fluid requirements are 4-5 litresa day and training increases dailyrequirements significantly. Fluid needsdepend on training volumes, frequenciesand intensities, environmentaltemperature and individual sweat rates.As there is considerable variation insweat rates, triathletes are advised totake pre and post training body weightmeasurements to assess individual fluidneeds.Timing of food intake is another criticalissue. Consuming carbohydrates andfluids pre training is important in toppingup energy and fluid levels whileconsuming carbohydrates, protein andfluid within thirty to sixty minutes posttraining enhances rate of recovery.Consuming carbohydrates and fluidsduring training helps prevent glycogendepletion and dehydration. The followingguidelines will assist in meeting dailytraining nutritional needs.• Consume three main meals everyday, designed as follows:1. Base around a staple carbohydratewholegrain breads and breakfastcereals, rice, noodles, pasta,potatoes, or kumara2. Incorporate fruits and / or vegetablesfresh is best, but can besupplemented with frozen or canned3. Add a protein sourcelean red meat,fish, chicken, eggs, pulses, soyfoods, or milk products4. Include fluids drink water. Fruit juiceor cordial optional• Depending on total daily energyneeds, snack on high carbohydratefoods between main meals• Consume 50-100g carbohydrates inthe two hours prior to training21

• Consume 500 ml fluid in the hourbefore training• Consume 500-1000 ml fluid per hourduring training, depending onintensity of training, environmentaltemperature and individualrequirements (pre and post trainingweight measurements showindividual needs)• During prolonged training sessions,consume 30-60g carbohydrate perhour. Using a sports drink is aneffective and practical way tosimultaneously meet fluid andcarbohydrate requirements.• Post training, consume one and ahalf times the amount of fluid lost insweat (If weight loss is 1 kg, drink 1-2 litres fluid). Start drinkingimmediately post training andcontinue to drink at regular intervalsuntil full rehydration is achieved.• Consume 1g medium to highglycemic index carbohydrates withinthirty minutes of finishing training andcontinue to consume carbohydratesat regular intervals to meet total dailyneeds.• Consume protein within in hour offinishing training. Although postexercise protein requirements havenot been quantified, it seemsreasonable to recommend approx.20g high quality protein.The following protocol will assist indeveloping individual training nutritionplans.1. Estimate total daily energy,carbohydrate and proteinrequirements based on trainingprogrammes, body weight andexperimentation.2. Calculate pre-, during- and posttraining carbohydrate, fluid andprotein needs3. Subtract total training needs (2) fromtotal daily requirements (1).4. Divide the amount of carbohydrate,protein and fluids in 3 over threemain meals and further snacks.For instance, an estimated nutrientrequirement for a 75 kg male triathlete is675g carbohydrate (9 g / kg) and 113gprotein (1.5g / kg) per day. Assuminghe swims early morning and runs at 4pm, his requirements are 50gcarbohydrate prior to and 75gcarbohydrate and 20g proteinimmediately after both sessions, addingup to a total of 250g carbohydrate and40g protein. If his swim session isparticularly hard and long, he mayconsume a further 60g carbohydrateduring the session. Total training relatedrequirements are 310g carbohydrateand 40g protein. His main meals needto provide a total of 675 - 310 = 375gcarbohydrate and 113 - 40 = 73g proteinwhich can be divided evenly overbreakfast, lunch and dinner. Similarcalculations can be made for varyingtraining schedules.A further goal of training nutrition is toexperiment with planned race nutritionstrategies and to achieve optimum bodycomposition.Competition nutritionPre competition nutrition goals includemaximising muscle glycogen levels,topping up liver glycogen and bloodsugar levels and optimising hydration.Nutrition goals during competition are toprevent energy depletion, dehydration,gastro intestinal problems anddisturbances in electrolyte balance,while the objective of post race nutritionis to enhance rate of recovery. The latteris particularly important when racingfrequently. The race nutrition plan isdictated by nutritional requirements aswell as by practical issues such aswhere the race is held, accommodation,access to suitable foods and availabilityof fluids at aid stations, and is thereforepersonal and may need to be adapted22

to different race situations.Nevertheless, the following generalrecommendations can be used indesigning a personal plan.Pre raceAs glycogen depletion has been shownto occur in endurance races of over onehour, carbohydrate loading may be ofbenefit. Carbohydrate loading simplymeans increasing usual dailycarbohydrate intake in the three or fourdays prior to a race without increasingtotal energy intake, and this is achievedby reducing fat intake. The increasedcarbohydrate will result in ‘superloading’muscles with glycogen, thus increasingthe body’s available energy reserves.Carbo loading can be viewed as anextension or exaggeration of the normaldiet and to what degree and how often atriathlete loads will be determined byracing schedules and previousexperience.The pre race meal is best consumedbetween two and four hours prior to thestart, depending on personal preferenceand race starting time. An intake of 200g of carbohydrate is recommended inthe four hours pre race. Fat consumptionshould be limited while protein may beadded in moderate amounts, dependingon personal preference. It is unclearwhether low glycemic indexcarbohydrates are beneficial and thechoice of carbohydrate food is thereforea personal one. Those triathletes whoexperience hunger during a race couldpotentially benefit from consuming lowglycemic index carbohydrates such asoats or mixed grain breads. Someathletes have difficulty tolerating solidfoods because of pre race nervousnessor when race start is very early, and aliquid meal such as Sustagen andsports drink or fruit juice in amounts tomeet carbohydrate needs are analternative option.During the raceAs glycogen depletion can occur in anOlympic Distance Triathlon, consuminga sports drink is beneficial. Volumesdepend on on environmentaltemperature and individual needs.Suitable sports drinks have acarbohydrate concentration of 4-8%,contain a mixture of carbohydrates withonly small amounts of fructose andprovide 500 - 700 mg sodium per litre.Recommended carbohydrate and fluidintakes are 30-60g carbohydrate (or 1g /kg) in 600 - 1200 ml fluid per hour. It isbest to start drinking in the swim - biketransition and to drink at regular intervalsduring the bike and run sections. Inpractice, most triathletes find it easiestto consume fluids on the bike. During therun section, when it is not possible tocarry one’s own bottles, the options areto have personal drinks at aid stations,to use gels and water or to use theavailable race drink in which case it isimportant to try the product prior to therace.Post raceEspecially when racing frequently,appropriate nutrition strategies are vital.Within 30 minutes post race, consume1-1.5 g high glycemic indexcarbohydrates and 1.5 times the amountof weight lost as sweat. A sodiumcontaining beverage promotesrehydration. A mixed meal, containingprotein as well as carbohydrate shouldbe consumed as soon as is practicalwith regular carbohydrate consumptionin the 24 hour post race period toachieve a total of 600g carbohydrate or10g / kg.Body compositionA triathletes physical characteristics aredetermined by genetic factors, theenvironment, and past and presenttraining and nutrition status. Elitetriathletes are generally tall, of average23

to light weight with low levels of body fat.Such a physique provides theadvantages of large leverage and anoptimal power to weight ratio. It isexpected that body fat levels vary tosome degree between the training andcompetition season. Typically, elite maletriathletes have body fat levels of 6-10%while female body fat levels range from11-18% . The New Zealand TriathlonAcademy uses skinfold ranges ratherthan percent body fat and current criteriafor sum of 8 skinfolds for Academytriathletes are 35 - 75 mm for males and45 - 100 mm for females. The rangeacknowledges the considerableindividual genetic variation in body fat.SupplementsIn addition to a nutrition plan, triathletesneed to have a supplement plan.Supplements are as the name suggestssupplemental to the diet and the needfor supplements viewed as part of anoverall dietary strategy, rather than inisolation. The potential role ofsupplements as part of a triathletesnutritional plan is fourfold:1. To supplement the diet in meetingtotal daily nutritional needs. Forinstance, a liquid meal supplementmay be used to help meet high totaldaily energy needs.2. To meet a particular nutritional needin a triathlon specific setting. The useof a sports drink during training or ina race is effective in the preventionof energy depletion and dehydration.Another example is the use of an ironand vitamin C supplement whentraining at altitude.3. To manage or treat a specificnutrient deficiency. When sufferingan iron deficiency, using a high doseiron supplement in conjunction with ahigh dietary iron intake, may bebeneficial.4. To exert a direct and specificperformance enhancing effect. Amultitude of substances are used forthis purpose, yet very few have aproven benefit. The only nutritionalergogenic aid which has been shownto enhance endurance performanceis caffeine. However, as caffeine is arestricted substance, it’s use as abeneficial aid to performance has tobe carefully plannedOther dietary regimens.Although such dietary programmes asthe ‘Zone’, the ‘PR’ programme and highfat diets are popular with athletes, thereis no actual evidence these dietsenhance triathlon performance. On theother hand, there is a large andincreasing body of evidence showingthe benefit of a high carbohydrate diet. Itcould be argued that the claimed benefitof these programmes merely resultsfrom the fact that any plan is better thanno plan.ReferencesHenson, D. A., Nieman, D. C., et al.(1999) Influence of exercise mode andcarbohydrate on the immune responseto prolonged exercise. IJSN. 9:213-228.Burke, L., Deakin, V. Clinical SportsNutrition 1994 McGraw-Hill BookCompany Australia Pty LtdSleivert, G.G., Rowlands, D.S. (1996)Physical and physiological factorsassociated with success in the triathlon.Sports Med. 1:8-18Frentsos, J.A., Baer, J. T. (1997)Increased energy and nutrient intakeduring training and competitionimproves elite triathletes’ enduranceperformance. IJSN. 7:61-71Jacobs, K.A., Sherman, W.M. (1999)The efficacy of carbohydratesupplementation and chronic high24

carbohydrate diets for improvingendurance performance. IJSN 9:92-115Applegate, E. (1999) Effective nutritionalergogenic aids. IJSN. 9:229-23925

Optimising Olympic Distance Triathlon Performance – ABiomechanist's Perspective.Brian McLeanBiomechanics Laboratory, Australian Institute of Sport____________________Optimum competition performance isdirectly related to maximising theaverage velocity achieved during therace. From a biomechanicalperspective maximising velocityinvolves optimising technique toincrease propulsive force production,optimising technique and equipmentto minimise the resisting forces thatlimit velocity and making tactical andtechnique decisions which conserveenergy or limit reductions in velocity.Biomechanics can contribute tooptimising ODT performance in theseways. However, given that there is adirect relationship between the abilityto train and the competitiveperformance, and that failure toachieve optimal training loads isprimarily due to injury, biomechanicsplays a secondary role in optimisingcompetition performance by helping tokeep an athlete injury free.Since triathlon is an endurance sport,high numbers of running strides,swimming strokes and pedal cyclesare undertaken on a routine basis. Asmall biomechanical inefficiency cansoon lead to injury once manythousands of repetitions areencountered in heavy training.Similarly, anatomical anomalies,technique faults, inappropriateequipment and equipment adjustmentcan lead to injury without largenumbers of repetitions if any of thesefactors introduce large forces to thebody. Specific training techniques canalso apply high loads to the body.Inappropriate use of these techniquesor incorrect management of theirfrequency and duration can lead toinjury. Biomechanics can play asignificant role in preventing injury,which can lead directly to enhancedcompetition performance.Mechanisms Of Injury InSwimming.The shoulder is the most common siteof injury in swimmers. Impingement ofthe long head of the biceps and/or thesupraspinatus tendons in the shoulderjoint is a common mechanismunderlying shoulder injury. Flexibilityand strength issues and how theserelate to movement patterns areprimarily associated withimpingement injury. Swimmers withreduced flexibility or with strengthimbalances, either avoid the shoulderpositions and movement patternswhich promote a technically efficientstroke, or they achieve the correctstroke pattern by compensating withundesirable movement of the shoulderjoint, putting it in a position that maycause impingement. In general, injuryprevention occurs if an athlete has theefficient movement which isassociated with performanceenhancement. Routine assessment offlexibility, the strength of individualmuscle groups and stroke technique26

can identify problems that lead toswimming injury.Performance Enhancement InSwimming.Swimming Velocity = Stroke Length XStroke FrequencyStroke length is the distance theswimmer moves through the waterfrom right hand entry to right handentry. The longer the stroke length themore propulsive force producedduring the stroke. A swimmer is moreefficient if he optimises the forceproduced throughout the stroke,producing a longer stroke length, thanby increasing the stroke frequency asa way of compensating for reducedstroke length. The complete stroke ofthe swimmer needs to be periodicallyanalysed, to ensure that inefficienciesin technique are not reducing thestroke length.As well as increasing the forwardpropulsive forces, swimming speedcan be increased by reduction in theresistive forces. Reducing resistiveforces is an effective way of improvingperformance because it requires noextra energy expenditure from theswimmer. The main component ofresistive force to the swimmer is dueto the shape exposed to the oncomingflow of water. It can be reduced byutilising better technique duringpropulsive actions and betterstreamlining during recovery. Anotherpotential areas where biomechanicscan improve performance is inoptimising the technique and strategyof slipstreaming in the wake of otherswimmers to conserve energy.Mechanisms Of Injury In Cycling.Cycling is a unique component oftriathlon because it involves theinteraction of man and machine. Theway the athlete interacts with thebicycle is influenced by its dimensionsand this influences the loads appliedto the body. The gearing system of thebicycle promotes high pedal ratescompared with swimming and runningand hence large numbers offlexion/extension and pedal loadingcycles occur. An athlete undertakingbike training of 10hrs/week willundergo over 50,000 pedal cycles inthe week. Any adverse loads placedon the musculoskeletal system even ifsmall can soon manifest as an injury.The most common site of injury fromcycling is the knee joint. However themechanism that underlies knee jointinjury is rarely located at the knee.Bicycle seat height, incorrect gearusage, biomechanical or anatomicalanomalies originating in the ankle orthe hip are primary causes of kneeinjury in cycling. The other commonsite of injury from cycling is the lowerback. Contributing factors to this injuryinclude seat height, inappropriatecrank length, leg length discrepancyand asymmetry of the riding posture.Optimising the dimensions of thebicycle for an athlete’s individual limbsegment lengths, flexibility andpedalling technique is a fundamentalaspect of reducing injury from cycling.Similarly, routine biomechanicalscreening of the riding posture andpedalling technique will identify27

iomechanical inefficiencies whichcould lead to injury.Performance Enhancement InCycling.The movement of the lower limbsduring cycling is defined andrestricted by the bicycle dimensions.Consequently, the development ofpropulsive forces in cycling isfundamentally linked to the geometryand adjustment of the bicycle.The riding position and posture affectsthe lower limb muscle lengthcharacteristics, the knee jointmechanics and the pedallingtechnique. These parameters have tobe considered to maximise forceproduction. Unfortunately, they interactsuch that the optimisation of oneparameter may have a negative effecton another. Hence, the biomechanicaloptimisation of cycling to maximiseforce production is not aboutoptimising individual components butabout balancing conflictingmechanisms to produce the mosteffective outcome.As with swimming, reducing the forcesthat resist forward motion can have asgreat effect on performance asincreasing propulsive forces. Themain component of resistive force isthat due to the size and shape of thebody as it encounters the oncomingair. Because the posture on the bikeis influenced by the athlete’s flexibilityand is defined by the points of contactwith the bicycle, bicycle dimensionsand adjustment is also the main factorinvolving the resistive forces. Since iteffects both the propulsive andresistive forces, the optimisation ofthe riding position is a fundamentalcomponent of optimising cyclingperformance.In addition to optimising forceproduction, technical and tacticalaspects also play a significant role inoptimising cycling performance. Thebicycle is essentially an unstablemachine and it is the rider that keepsthe forces in balance to keep it stable.The bicycle is potentially mostunstable when the additional forcespresent during braking and corneringact on the bike. Because the forces ofgravity and deceleration act on theCentre of Gravity (C of G) of the bikeand rider, the position of the C of Ghas a large influence on performanceduring braking and cornering. Theposition of the C of G is influenced bythe bicycle dimensions, the ridingposition and the technique of the rider.Optimising the position of the C of Gwill result in higher speeds throughcorners and less energy expended onkeeping the bicycle stable.Recent rule changes allowing draftingin elite level ODT have fundamentallychanged triathlon. Because theresistive forces encountered whenriding can drop by as much as 40%when drafting the dynamics of bunchriding greatly change the physical andtactical demands of the bike leg.Power output profiles associated withcriterium style riding c.f. time trialriding indicate significantly differentphysiological and technical demands.This has implication for theoptimisation of the riding position, theriding technique and tactical strategy.From an optimisation perspective,28

unch riding and the dynamics ofdrafting have changed triathlon froman individual sport to a team sport.The optimisation of ODT performancenow lies in the optimum use of teamresources to maximise theperformance of a selected individual.Mechanisms of Injury andPerformance Enhancement inRunning.The forces acting on the body duringrunning are higher than thoseencountered in swimming and cycling.Runners experiencing high impactloads are more likely to get injuredthan those with lower impacts.Consequently the attenuation andmanagement of the loads thataccompany running play an importantrole in remaining injury free.Running shoe construction has a largeinfluence on the foot and anklemovement patterns and the magnitudeof the loads transmitted to the lowerlimb during ground contact. Control ofthe amount of dorsiflexion andpronation with footwear appropriatefor an individual athlete can lessen thelikelihood of injury. Similarly, theoccurrence of injury is reduced byshoes with midsole construction andpressure distribution characteristicsthat lessen the transmission of impactforces. Training parameters alsoinfluences impact loads. Increasedrunning speed causes a linearincrease in impact loads. Runningdownhill dramatically increasesimpact as well as moving the point offorce application on the foot,enhancing the risk of injury. Contraryto common belief, running on grassincreases impact shocks up to 30%above running on asphalt or apolyurethane track surface.Routine biomechanical assessment ofrunning mechanics, appropriatefootwear to control the movementpatterns and reduce impact loads aswell as informed training decisionsthat limit the magnitude and frequencyof impact loading will help the athleteachieve their training goals by stayinginjury free.The relationship between techniqueand performance is not as strong inrunning as it is in swimming andcycling. Running techniques thatreduce braking forces during initialfoot-ground contact have not beenclearly shown to improve runningefficiency. However runners with largevertical movement of the body’s C ofG have a higher energy cost and careshould be taken to limit these verticalmovements.Potential areas where biomechanicsmay help optimise runningperformance is with investigation ofthe pacing and tactical strategy of thebike leg and its influence on thesubsequent run performance.Investigation of power output recordsassociated with the cycle leg may leadto the evolution of an individualisedriding strategy that optimises runningperformance.ReferencesKyle C.R. Reduction of windresistance and power output of racingcyclists and runners travelling in29

groups. Ergonomics 22, 387-397,1979Lafortune M.A, Valiant G.A. andMcLean B.D. The biomechanics ofrunning. In: Running, Hawley J.A. (ed)Blackwell Science Publishing, 2000(in press)Mason B.R. Where races are wonand lost. Proceedings of the 19 thAnnual International Symposium ofBiomechanics in Sport. Perth, July1999.McLean B.D. Anatomical andBiomechanical correlates ofperformance in cycling. PhD thesis,University of Queensland 1990.McLean B.D. and Blanch P. Bicycleseat height: A biomechanicalconsideration when assessing andtreating knee pain in cyclists. SportHealth Vol. 11:1, 12-15, 1993.30

Maximising Olympic Distance Performance – The Athlete’sPerspectiveChris HillElite Triathlete, Gold Coast AustraliaPreparation is not just the physical training in the months leading up to theevent. There are psychological, emotional, dietry, health and circumstantialcomponents that are critical to performance. A balance must be keptbetween these. An obvious but important factor is the sporting career of theathlete. Most elite athletes have dedicated themselves to sport from a veryyoung age. With this span of time comes wins and lossess and constantcompetitive experience. Understanding how an elite triathlete maximisesOlyimpic Distance Triathlon Performance is as complicated as it ispersonal. This paper will discuss these themes in the context of my careeras an elite triahtlete since 1991.____________________1. BackgroundMy triathlon career began in October1991, shortly after my sixteenth birthday.I competed in a Brisbane Milo eventover a distance of 300/12/3. I finishedeighth after coming out of the watersecond. I had been swim training sinceI was four so this was no real surprise tome. I had spent what seemed likeforever in transition; my bike was toobig and the distance of the run was tooshort. I knew my best run distanceswere 6km and above. This becameclear following my years in primaryschool as I had been beaten overdistances up to 4km. There was greatroom for improvement but I was hookedand I knew I would be more suited asthe distances became longer. I laterrepresented Queensland in the NationalSchools Cross Country Championshipsover 8km and was placed in a 5kmState Schools Athletics Championshipbut although I had achieved asatisfactory level in running racesneeded to be much longer whichOlympic Distance Triathlon offered.In the eight years since, I havecompeted in 51 Olympic DistanceTriathlons - four of which I did not finishdue to injury, sickness, or mechanicalfailure. I competed in:• 4 triathlons when I was 18 years ofage• 7 when I was 19 years of age• 4 when I was 20 years of age• 12 when I was 21 years of age• 15 when I was 22 years of age• 7 when I was 23 years of age, and• 2 so far at 24 years of ageMy introduction to olympic distancetriathlon was slow. I had competed infive olympic distance triathlons prior toracing in my first Olympic DistanceJunior World Championships andthirteen when I won the 1995 WorldJunior Championships.My early sporting career started withswimming. Apart from the long andregular eleven weekly sessions, Ilearned the finer points in stroke32

technique and learned to swim fast at anearly age.Whilst I never had a regular runningcoach I was advised to run long andslow. Rhythm was achieved by goodhead position and flowing armmovement. I was also advised toposition the ball of the foot under theknee to get the necessary lift.In my formative years, I had no specialisttraining cycling but I was given simpleadvice to spin on small gears to learnhow to pedal. In each of the disciplinesI practised these and other self learnedtechniques. Every second of everysession I concentrated on technique,following the adage “practice makesperfect”.I trained hard and often but I did notpush myself into olympic distanceracing. Race days were sacred.Mentally and physically, I was ready toexplode on race days. But the theorywas that I should not suffer the OlympicDistance until I was 100% ready unlessit might have an adverse mental andphysical effect on my performance infuture.I competed in another 16 triathlons inthe first two years of my triathlon career.It was not until December 1993, ateighteen, that I raced in my first olympicdistance triathlon. I competed in theCadbury National Junior Selection raceat Port Stephens. I won after taking thelead for the first time in the run leg. Untilthis time, my training mainly revolvedaround the particular sport on the schoolsports calendar (swimming Septemberto March, cross country running April toJune, and athletics July to August) but Ihad some introduction to triathlontraining with a triathlon coach. My twoyear preparation for olympic distancetriathlon had paid dividends.A question I ask now is would I be abetter triathlete had I been trained as atriathlete rather than specifically trainingin each discipline with specialistcoaching? For me, the answer is thatspecific uninterrupted training,especially in swimming, taught me torepetitively practice technique in eachdiscipline – which I still rely on today.Also, I ask how much does myperformance now, over the olympicdistance, at 24 years of age, dependon the platform laid in those years whereI was protected from the arduousness ofracing often in extreme conditions for1hour 50 minutes. It takes not muchmore time to run a marathon. I think myslow introduction was the rightfoundation.2. The CoachI have had four triathlon coaches(probably there aren’t many more inAustralia!) and there was a period whenI coached myself. I engaged a swimcoach and did my running, cycling andtransition training myself. Managed in adisciplined manner, this approach hasappeal as one can get very specialisedtraining in each of the disciplines and forme it meant I could live at home withappropriate meals and support.However, my racing performancesduring this period were mediocre.Swim sessions were unnecessarilylong, as were designed for swimmers.Running and cycling lacked the requiredquality and intensity although I raceregularly in cycle races. This approachto training is used by some of our elite33

athletes and highlights the infancy of oursport as it has not progressed to thestage where there are enough elitecoaches with the appropriatecredentials and experience to providetraining at the required level.A coach is important to me as I will trainmore effectively and as a resultmaximise performance in racing. Eachof the coaches I have had has been veryskilful and used different trainingmethods. From an athlete’s point ofview, some of the requirements foreffective coaching are:• the coach’s team is strong inelite athletes creating acompetitive environment• good programs and advice• general agreement with coachingphilosophies• training with minimum of injury3. Training, Preparation and RacingTriathlon offers a great challenge toathletes, coaches, high performancemanagers and others involved. It notonly has three distinct disciplines but itis connected by two others - “swim-bike”and “bike-run”. This adds complexity forthose trying to maximise performance.The “do’s and don’t’s” are not set inconcrete and opinions in maximisngperformance vary greatly. Maximisingperformances of course may meandifferent things to coaches and athletes.To some it will mean maximisingperformance in one critical race, or aseries of races. It will often depend onwhat are critical national selectionraces. Training through races may benecessary to be at a peak for aparticular race.My preparation involves careful trainingand racing at least eight weeks from therace where my performance is to bemaximised. This involves selecting leadup races preferably spaced at twoweekly intervals. In the final few days Iwill rest and make sure I am adequatelyhydrated.3.1 SwimMy triathlon performance is underpinnedby my swim and it has become such animportant element since the drafting rulewas applied to World Cup racing. I amnow pleased about my early educationin swimming as it is essential to makethe first bike pack out of transition to putoneself in the right position. I train about28km per week which is enough for meto be in the first group out of the waterafter a 1500m swim.My swim stroke is a great asset. I nowbelieve that had I not trained as aswimmer from a young age, I would befacing a difficult task to maximise myperformance at the elite level. I oftencompare the swim stroke to the golfstroke as it must be rhythmically andmechanically perfect to gain optimumeffectiveness. However, the openwater, turning buoys and the proximity ofother competitors can wreak havoc withyour stroke. Open water swim practiceis required so that breathing, headliftand stroke can be refined for racecircumstances. Also a good start isimperative to avoid the trouble in theback of the field. Finding a competitor’sfeet is a natural tactic unless leading.3.2 Swim BikeThis transition seems to have lessimportance than its counterpart as themuscles used are wholly different.However, maintaining the continuity of34

the race is critical. A good transition isessential to gain as many seconds aspossible.3.3 BikeI cycle about 400km per week with avariety of speed work, rolling hills, timetrials and strength work using thehinterland. The aim is to get the miles inthe legs. The triathlon distance isalways 40km - not a great distance for acycle race, but the shorter the race thegreater the speed and the higher thelevel of skill required in taking turns andsitting on a wheel. The technical natureof the courses has meant that I do drillpractice to improve the technicalaspects of my bike handling.Now drafting brings higher levels ofdanger, faster racing, but with someopportunity for physical relief whentaking a wheel. In the future, when thepack is racing and it becomes evenmore “cut throat”, I think we will seemore cycling surges and countersurges,especially from those withweaker run legs. There is now littleopportunity for a sole cyclist to stay infront of the pack since triathletes arebecoming proficient racing cyclists. It isthat part of the race which now carrieswith it the most tactics.3.4 Bike RunThis is critical as the legs are the centreof attention in both the bike and the runbut used in entirely conflicting ways. Itrain for this transition each week whichis imperitave to my overall performance.It is difficult to achieve this havingcoaches for each discipline.3.5 RunOne will argue this is the most criticaland it seems this is the discipline wherethere can be the greatest diversity ofopinion in training. Some will work onthe basis of the more you do, the betteryou get. If this is the case I can get a lotbetter. I generally run about up to 70kmper week when other successful athleteswill train up to 100km to 140km perweek. Perhaps as the sport evolvesmaximising performance will be in thelatter range.The 10km run leg comes after75minutes of swimming and cycling athigh intensity. I instinctively run intorhythm, adopt the right posture and try tokeep my leg speed up and just run fast.This is something that I concentrate onduring training. There is little time tothink – maximising performance is areflection of adequate training. If I get ina position to finish high in the field mymental attitude will naturally increase.There is often not much time for tactics.It is a case of running as fast as you can,reaching into the bank of training milescumulated from the years before.3.6 Weights and resistance trainingand stretchingMy personal view is that weight trainingwould be advantageous in maximisingperformance. But there is some debateabout whether the performance wouldbe maximised from an additionalsession of weights. Perhaps the timewould be better spent doing anotherswim/bike/run session. My regularprograms do not include weight training,with the development of strength comingfrom general training sessions throughmountain and hill climbing work. Myonly experience with weight training wasprior to winning the Queensland SchoolsChampionships. This was over thesprint distance which gave me the edgeI needed for that day. I had been doing35

weight training under a coach for eightweeks prior.I currently do strength exercises on aregular basis and stretch to preventinjury. These aspects of my training arelargely unstructured, but as I get older Iexpect there will be a greater demandfor me to use weights more regularly tomaximise performance.3.7 DraftingI have witnessed first hand the transitionbetween non-drafting and drafting.From my own point of view this has notmade too much difference to myperformances as a strong swim leg willput you into the race be it drafting ornon-drafting.. Disc wheels havedisappeared and aero bars have beenshortened as they do not have the effectthey used to.The paramount importance of the swimleg has not yet been wholly realised asthere are not yet enough brilliant 1500mswimmers to form a bike pack to alwaysform a bike pack of their own to takeadvantage of the swim lead. Generally,the good swimmer will be left to labouron the bike by him/herself or withperhaps only one other competitor untilthe pack is ready to hunt them down.They are then left totally vulnerable in therun leg. But when bike packs cometogether the race becomes a runnersrace as some will be are inclined to doless work on the bike whilst the nonrunners will do more. Drafting hasmade the race faster and a far moretactical affair.3.8 The CourseThe Olympic Distance Courses are nowoften technical. The swim can be in lapsso good positioning at the turning buoysis essential. The bike courses aretechnical around many laps whichdemands superior bike skills. Apartfrom triathlons I have often race incycling criteriums to learn the skillsrequired. The run courses are also lapcourses but this has a lesser effect onperformance. The courses can includehills and or be totally flat so thatpreparation may have to be specific tothe course to get a satisfactory result.This brings me to the question of what isthe adequate amount of training tomaximise performance at the OlympicDistance. I have never raced at atriathlon distance longer than this. I havenever trained or raced over themarathon running distance and onlytrained over a running distance beyondhalf marathon distance in recent times. Ihave relied on my technical and aerobicability to consistently maximise myperformances. This is complementedsimply by my getting older andphysically more mature. As a smallerperson I have always found it has takenme a little longer for my body to “catchup” so I can maximise my expectedperformance. I have been conscious oftraining to extreme where the onset ofinjuries could put me at risk or shortenmy career. I have not yet reachedphysical maturity.Training must now be directed to therequirements of drafting races.36

4. Olympic Distance versus GrandPrix/F1 DistancesOne of the great dilemmas for theprofessional triathlete is to balance thenecessities to earn a living and stillachieve the lofty ambitions of nationalselection for World Championships,Commonwealth Games and Olympics.In 1996, directly after winning the WorldJunior Olympic DistanceChampionships I raced in theInternational Triathlon Grand PrixSeries. At that stage in my career itwas a significant decision to make. Ihad earned little prizemoney orsponsorships even after winning theWorlds. The shorter, intense distancesof the Grand Prix style of racing do notwholly suit my strengths as an athlete.Yet at that time I had to reconcile beinga professional against my olympicdistance aspirations. During that year Iraced in five olympic distance events.After four years in triathlon, I hadcompeted in only 19 olympic distanceevents. In retrospect, it took anotheryear for my olympic distance form toreturn to some level of consistencywhich reflected the way I trained forthese events and my first year out ofjuniors, as well a the different style ofracing.The professional events such as theGrand Prix/F1 and Tri Tour events maynot wholly accord with preparation forthe institutional olympic distance events.This can be a dilemma for the athleteand coach as it may be impossible tomaximise performance in both in theone season. Triathletes do not havethe luxury of training with a taper for onespecific event in each year. Decisionssuch as whether to train through theGrand Prix/F1 Series, train for greaterspeed, taper for each race, or onlysome, are difficult. All becomesignificant decisions when Worldrankings and national selection hinge onsoon to be contested olympic distanceraces. You will notice some athletes dothe F1 Series, others do not. It is oftennot clear to the triathlete which is thebetter option or if both types of racingcan complement each other. I haveoften compared the two to be likesquash and tennis the games are alike,but nothing alike.I suppose my current view having racedin five Australian Grand Prix/F1 Series,one International Grand Prix Series andtwo Australian Tri Tours is that they donot necessarily in themselves prepareyou for olympic distance triathlon racingdespite the greater intensity. Although itprovides the opportunity to hone yourskills, gives you greater experience andyou learn to deliver under great physicaland mental pressure.5. Racing FrequencyIt is difficult for me to say what theoptimum number of races an athlete canrace in to maximise performancewithout risking injury and sufferingserious staleness. The frequency ofracing to maximise performance issomething I believe will depend on manyfactors for me. Having eight years oftriathlon racing in 51 races is mainly asa result of the influence of my mentors inmy early years of my career. As I havegrown older I have raced more. In 1998 Iraced 13 times and this was my mostconsistent year in olympic distancetriathlon. I certainly thought I couldmanage that number of races at thattime, and I did. I finished third in the ITUWorld Cup Series and at the end of the37

year I was ranked sixth in ITU WorldRankings. I raced more and myperformances improved. But I believethere comes a time when you have tostop racing, rest and build base again.In the Tour de France, the athletes raceevery day for three weeks over massivedistances and mountainous terrain.Compare this to an elite marathonrunner who would only run twomarathons a year. An acceptablenumber of races in triathlon to maximiseperformance and remain free of injury isnot clear to me. This may be anindividual thing but more likely sportsscientists, coaches and triathletesthemselves should know better as thesport progresses further.6. The Other Session –Rest/RecoveryRecovery between sessions is vital tomaximising training performance and Ihave no difficulty doing this after eachsession. Recovery is the session whereit is most difficult to measure its value. Iam currently allowed one day off perweek. My performances have beenbetter having the day off and my injuryrate has been much lower. Prior to thisI would not have a day off but my trainingwas not as high in intensity. Prior towinning the Junior WorldChampionships I was having onemorning rest/recovery per week.Often it can be difficult to reconcilewhether you should be getting a fewmore “miles” in the legs rather thanresting. I am sure some coaches woulddefine resting as under-achieving. Isuppose the effect of additional trainingcompared to resting can only bemeasured in the longer term.7. InjuryTo maximise performance I have tendedon the safe side with injury unless mycoach has insisted I train through. Priorto the World Juniors in 1995, I had anITB problem which lasted forfour weeks. I trained during this time.This injury came after an all day sessionat a much higher increment than theusual training miles. It was one of thefew times I trained through an injury.Early in my career I would rest for 48hours after an injury and this fixed mostproblems. I have relied onphysiotherapy for all my serious injuriesfrom the best physios. I now usemassage on a regular basis as aprecaution against injury.I have had three a major bike falls intraining which unfortunately goes withthe territory. Each time I have receivedimmediate medical attention andconcentrated physiotherapy. Coacheshave different approaches torecognising and treating injuries. Thelong term effects of injury should not bediscounted. Obviously maximisingperformance in Olympic Distance racingcan only be achieved when injury free.8. The Ideal Body Shape forOlympic Distance TriathlonFor me, the signs were clear early in mysporting life that I never had abundantspeed. My body size, weight and genesmeant that I was probably more suitedto longer distances. This makes mewonder what the essential aerobic andphysical characteristics are formaximising performance over theOlympic Distance. I believe a triathleteshould not be too big in the pecs and38

shoulders nor too big in the quads orgluts. This is just extra weight to becarried during the run. Yet swimmingand cycling develops these parts. Bodyshape is something over which one haslittle control. Just as a result of trainingyou naturally develop in the quads or theshoulders.Perhaps the best body shape is to lookas much like a runner as possible -narrow in the shoulders, not overlydeveloped in the quads, and very leanall over. However, this has to beachieved without losing strength in theupper body and legs required for the runand the bike. But, without a good runleg in Olympic Distance triathlon in awell balanced field of elite triathletes,you cannot win. Therefore I think someemphasis needs to be placed in theideal shape of a runner to maximiseperformance. Perhaps triathlon training,in the long run produces the idealtriathlon body naturally.9. Diet and SupplementsMy diet is fairly basic with pasta and fruitand vegetables as common elements. Itake little in the way of dietarysupplementation probably through alack of reliable professional advicerather than anything else. This mayneed greater consideration whenconsidering performance maximisation.10. TravelTravelling is part and parcel of being aprofessional triathlete and in some wayshinders performance. The dilemma ofthe triathlete is that he/she must travel toraces to earn money and/or worldranking points. One has to decidewhich races to target which hopefully fallnicely into training programs but as theraces set down in countries around theworld they will only coincidentally matchup with an athlete trying to maximiseperformance.11. ConclusionOlympic distance triathlon comprises aset of events the technical aspects ofwhich are extraordinarily complex whentaken as a whole. I believe it offersmore challenges than any other sport,not just because of the separatedisciplines, but as a young sport thenorms in respect of training,preparation, racing and recovery are stillbeing established. The currenttriathletes in some respects arepioneers, as are the coaches, sportsscientists and administrators each ofwhom has a role in contributing to themaximisation of performance oftriathletes.I have outlined my introduction to thesport and my subsequent journey todate and hope that this will contribute tothe general education one mightundertake in becoming an elite olympicdistance triathlete. I hope that theoutline of the historical record of myolympic distance races provides someinsight into the training and racemanagement for triathletes, particularlythose progressing through the juniorranks, and the subsequent progressiontowards high performance at the elitelevel of olympic distance triathloncompetition.My performances have been founded ona good technique in each disciplinewhich I believe to be the most significantfactor, apart from having the aerobicability, that has sustained myperformances.39

Guidance from high performancetriathlon coaches is essential inmaximising performance as well asspecialist coaching in each of thedisciplines in the formative years.Now that triathlon is an Olympic sportsignificantly more pressures have beenimposed upon all parties involved.From a triathletes perspective this hasmeant that making the right decisions tomaximise performance is much moreimperative especially given the limitedtimeframe in the life cycle of thetriathlete. I hope the comments in thispaper may contribute in a positive wayin helping triathletes maximiseperformances over the olympicdistance.40

Maximising Olympic Distance Triathlon PerformanceA Coach's Perspective.Kieran BarryElite Triathlon Coach____________________42

Using hypobaric oxygen techniques and hyperbaricintervention to level the playing field in olympic distancetriathlon: Literature review and study proposalRodney L. Cedaro (M. App. Sc.)Co-Director Sports Science/Medicine DepartmentRunaway Bay Sports Super CentreConsultant Sports PhysiologistChairman ITU Coaching CommissionEditor-In-Chief: Triathlon and Multi-Sport MagazineACC Accredited Level III Triathlon CoachWith thanks to:Mr. Bill Davoren (Co-Director Sports Science/Medicine Department, RBSSC. Gold Coast, Australia)Dr. John Hellemans (Sports Medicine Practitioner, Coach, SPORTSMED QEII Sports Stadium.Christchurch, New Zealand.)____________________1998 saw the cycling world rocked to itsvery foundations by the well publicisedexposure of the widespread use ofperformance enhancing drugs during theTour de France of that same year.Since then athlete after athlete in amyriad of different sports around theworld have “gone positive” as SportsDrug Agencies, and indeed lawenforcement agencies, worldwide crackdown on the use and traffic ofperformance enhancing drugs in sport.The UCI, in what could only bedescribed as a “knee jerk” reaction tothe scandal surrounding its show-pieceevent, Tour de France, introduced“blood testing” as a means ofdetermining the “potential” illicit use oferythropoitin (EPO) as an ergogenicagent. By setting an arbitrary figure of50% as a haematocrit “competition cutoff” (i.e. When an cyclist records a Hctgreater than 50% they are not allowed tocompete for “health reasons”), the UCIopened a Pandora’s box of potential“false positive” disqualifications fromcompetition being called against “clean”athletes.In a recent paper by Browne et al(1999), the authors concluded that bloodtesting as a means of detecting the illicituse of performance enhancingsubstances such as EPO is “not yetjustifiable in sport” (Browne et al, 501,1999).While not exposed to the sort of scandaland resultant media pressure of the UCI,the ITU has been able to adopt a moreconservative, mainstream approach todrug control within the sport of triathlon. Itwould however be naive to believe forone moment that a sport such astriathlon, which has its training basis inaerobic strength/endurance, requiresvoluminous repetitive training and offersthe elite of the sport a lucrative lifestyle,is immune to drug abuse.While various researchers andacademics have offered a myriad of“natural alternatives” to drug use forvarious athletes (e.g. Report of the RossSymposium on Muscle Development:Nutritional Alternatives to AnabolicSteroids. 1988), the last few years haveseen major advancements in sportsscience and bio-technicalinstrumentation that provide startling44

new possibilities in leveling the playingfield between those athletes who choseto avail themselves to illicit, and currentlylargely undetectable, performanceenhancing drugs, and those that wish tocompete “clean”.Without doubt, the areas of "hypobaric"or altitude training and "hyperbaric"therapy are the two areas that warrantfurther investigation as methods ofimproving athletic. While both practicesare thwart with much conjecture andsupposition, particularly in WesternSociety, Eastern Bloc countries such asthe then Soviet Union, have been usingsuch techniques with resoundingsuccess for more than a decade(Latushkevich et al 1993, Vorob’ev et al1994).It is the purpose of this discussion tobriefly review some of the more recentscientific research, pilot and casestudies in these areas to ascertain theirpotential worth as legal performanceenhancing practices as we headtowards the new millenium. Thispresentation will also outline an appliedresearch study to be conducted at theRunaway Bay Sports Super Centre(Gold Coast, Queensland) within thenext 6-12 months, to ascertain thepractical, tangible, measurableperformance and physiological benefitsand responses to these practices.Hyperbaric Therapy:Hyperbaric medicine is not a new areaof interest for the medical fraternity,indeed human physiological responsesto increased pressure gradients havebeen something that has interested themedical profession for hundreds ofyears - ever since man starteddescending to the depths of the oceanfloors for commerce and recreationalreasons (Mader, 1989). The use ofhyperbaric intervention however in thetreatment of various ailments (e.g.Burns, slow healing wounds, etc.), crushand compartment syndrome type injury(personal communication with Dr. IanMillar, Biophysical Journal (71): 1997)has a relatively short history (Hunt andPai, 1972).A considerable body of scientificevidence now exists that illustratessignificant improvements in the speed ofrecovery from a variety of ailmentsincluding; burns (personalcommunications with Drs: Millar andLarkins), wound healing (Hunt and Pai,1972; Anderson et al, 1992; Storch andTalley, 1988) as well as a number ofcommonly experienced sporting injuriesinvolving; ligament, tendon, muscle andbone (Vujuovic, 1983; Wilcox andKoloding, 1976; Abbot et al, 1994;Ashley L. 1994; Favalli et al. 1990.)When one considers that many of theinjuries athletes experience at a cellularlevel, particularly in those activities whichhave a large eccentric muscularcontraction component - such as running- are as a direct consequence of"hypoxia" (i.e. A lack of oxygen supply),it stands to reason that practices whichaugment oxygen supply to muscles thathave been worked in an anaerobicenvironment, may indeed speed the rateof recovery from one exercise bout toanother. It then follows, if an athletes'rate of recovery between exercise boutscan be significantly improved, the athletewill then be able to absorb greatervolumes and intensities of training whichwould potentially translate to improvedphysical performances (Nb. This is oneof the rationales for the use of anabolicsteroids such as nandrolone byendurance athletes – an improvedrecovery rate.).Studies of both animal (Staples et al1995) and human models (Staples,45

1996) suggest treatment with hyperbaricoxygen may decrease the inflammatoryprocess and actually modulate tissueinjury as a consequence of augmentedeccentric exercise (i.e. downhill running).Additionally, "interesting evidencesuggests that adjunctive treatment withhyperbaric oxygen therapy enhancesrecovery from soft tissue injuries,specially the type of injury seen mostoften in sports medicine. The mostimpressive results appear to begenerated by prompt treatment. Whenhyperbaric oxygen is initiated within thefirst 8 hours post trauma, the effectsseem to be the most dramatic." (Staplesand Clement, 1996). When oneconsiders that much of the post trainingresponse encountered by athletes aftera hard training session mimic soft tissueinjuries (e.g. Microscopic tears ofmuscle fibres and the resultant edema,leading to increased diffusion distancesbetween the cell and blood supply, as anormal result of training). Hyperbaricoxygen, the effects of which are oftenreferred to as “internal icing”, may wellhave a role to play in speedingrecuperation and decreasing theinstance of injury in hard trainingathletes.There are however some situations inwhich hyperbaric oxygen therapy mayhave complications and adverse sideeffects, particularly at higheratmospheric pressures (i.e. 3atmospheres): Grand mal seizures(Clark and Fisher, 1977; Clark et al,1991; Lambertsen et al, 1953) and evenat lower atmospheres (i.e. 2atmospheres) (Adameic, 1977; Clarkand Fisher, 1977; Stevens et al, 1991).Apart from these potential neurologicalbased problems there is also the risk ofnausea, tooth and sinus pain and blurredvision (Jain, 1990). Those peoplesuffering upper respiratory tractinfections, fever, etc. should be excludedfrom hyperbaric therapy until theyovercome such ailments. One group ofpeople that should be excluded entirelyfrom hyperbaric oxygen treatments arethose suffering from pneumothorax(chest trauma) (Foster, 1992).As yet there have been no controlled,scientifically based investigationslooking directly at the proposition thathyperbaric oxygen therapy speeds therate of recovery from one exercise boutto the next for hard training athletes,although the indications are (fromrelated areas of investigation) that suchtreatment may well have a role to play inspeeding athlete recuperation fromtraining.Hypobaric Training:It has long been recognised that forathletes to perform to their optimalcapabilities at elevations of 1400metres or greater such athletes musteither be born and trained in theseenvironments, or spend a significantperiod of time (3-4 weeks)"acclimatizing" to these rarefiedatmospheric environments if they are toperform to their potential. Thephysiological reasoning behind thisphenomena is quite simple, and relatedto red blood cell concentrations and thedecreased partial pressure of oxygenand has been well documented in anumber of classic scientificinvestigations (Buskirk et al 1969;Raynaud et al 1986; Terrados et al1990; Terrados et al 1988).46

VARIABLEPre IHT exposure Post IHT exposure* Resting heart rate (bpm) 35 28* Body weight (kilograms) 68.7 67.9* Skinfolds (sum of eightsites – mm) 32.3 29.3* Hematocrit 44% 51%* Performance time forfor 4km track time trialat fixed aerobic heart rateof 152bpm (mins/seconds) 15.25 14.56There is less decisive scientificevidence available as to the benefits oftraining at altitude for a period of time, togain the various physiologicaladaptations associated with suchenvironments, and then competing, atsea level, at a later date. Thoseinvestigations that have been conductedhave returned a host of conflicting results(Levine and Stray-Gunderson 1992;Mizuno et al 1990; Wolski et al 1996).One of the principal reasons often citedas a cause of this conjecture is the lackof including control groups in thesestudies. In recent times someinvestigators (e.g. Mac Dougall, Gamow- personal communications, Levine andStray-Gundersen, 1990 and 1997.) haveproposed the "sleep high, train low"theory of athletic training. The onlypublished investigations in which such apractice has been investigated are byLevine and Stray-Gunderson (1990 and1997). In these studies they found agroup living at 2500 metres and trainingat 1250 metres (hardly sea level)improved VO2 max, 5000 metre runtime (by 30 and 13.4 seconds in their1990 and 1997 investigationsrespectively) and increased bloodvolume by 500ml (1990 investigation)and red cell mass (Hct) by 9% (1997investigation). The control groups, livingand training at 1250 metres, showed nochanges in these aforementionedparameters. Unfortunately this study(1990) was thwart with a host ofshortcomings and as such the resultsmust be viewed with a degree ofskepticism.Reviewing the current literature reveals ascarcity of information pertaining to thisaforementioned area of investigation.When one considers that many of thenegative concerns often cited as beingcounterproductive to athletes remainingfor extended sojourns, particularly athigher altitudes, are as a direct result ofmodifications in body composition.Namely a loss of lean muscle mass,and/or changes in neuromuscularinnervation patterns, as a consequenceof not being able to train at a highenough intensity, due to a lack ofoxygen, to fully innervate type two, fasttwitch muscle fibres (Wolski et al 1996).It stands to reason that if the positiveaspects of prolonged hypoxic exposurecan be maintained (i.e. Increases inRBC (Sutton et al, 1988; Mairbauri et al1990), improved sub-maximal aerobicfunction (Vallier et al 1996)), whilst thosenegative aspects can be removed (e.g.Dehydration, loss of muscle mass, lowermaximal oxygen uptake etc.), thenathletic performance may well beaugmented.It has been theorised that by "sleepinghigh and training low" athletes may wellbe able to gain the positive EPO47

elease, which will produce the desiredincreases in RBC populations that willimprove oxygen delivery to workingmuscles, whilst avoiding the negativechanges in body composition andcounterproductive neural innervationpatterns that comes with extended staysat altitudes above 3000 metres.Until relatively recent times such apractice as detailed above would haveproven extremely impractical (i.e. Havingto transport athletes from high altitudeaccommodation to appropriate low lyingtraining facilities.). This however is nolonger the case. The advent of various,relatively inexpensive, portable hypoxicchambers such as the "Gamow bed"(Patented by Professor Igor Gamow ofthe University of Colorado at Boulder,USA), as well as purging sleepingquarters (bedrooms and tents) with 12-15% oxygen/nitrogen atmospheres, allallow athletes to sleep at the simulatedaltitudes necessary to stimulateincreased EPO releases, invoke thepositive skeletal muscular adaptationsto enhance endurance performance,whilst still training at sea level and hencemaintaining the intensity of exercisenecessary to maintain appropriateneuromuscular patterning.Intermittent hypoxic training (iht):the next frontier in altitude training.Introduction:Intermittent Hypoxic Training or “IHT”which has its origins in the Russianmilitary and space programs heralds thenew frontier in “altitude” training.Approximately 18 months ago this formof altitude simulation was introduced toNew Zealand sports by Dr. AlexeiKorolev.This method of “altitude training” – whichis claimed to be equivalent and evensuperior to conventional altitude trainingby being able to control the altitude“dose” – is achieved by exposingathletes to hypoxic air containing 9-16%oxygen (equating to an altitude exposureof 2,000 to 6,500 metres above sealevel) intermittently at 4-6 minuteintervals interspersed with breathingnormoxic air for the same periods, for60-90 minutes per session, once ortwice a day.Exposing the athlete to such hypoxicgases in the aforementioned manner,via a machine called an “hypoxicator”, isthought to stimulate EPO release andhence red blood cell production resultingin increased oxygen carrying capacitywithin the blood.Preliminary Research and CaseStudies:In a pilot study of a group of 10 eliteendurance athletes (swimmers,triathletes and runners), Dr. JohnHellemans (1998) found:1. Endurance performance overa series of performance tests(swimming, cycling andrunning) improved onaverage by 3.1%.2. Hemoglobin concentrationincreased on average by4.4%.3. Hematocrit increased onaverage by 4.8%.4. Reticulocyte count increasedon average by 28.7%Dr. Hellemans summarised the findingsof this investigation as follows:Ten endurance athletes were tested withthe method of Intermittent HypoxicTraining (IHT) in relation tohematological factors and performanceover a period of three weeks. Results48

show an overall improvement inhematological factors related to oxygentransport and performance. The resultsindicate that IHT is an effective methodto simulate altitude training. On the basisof the results it is recommended thatfurther research and testing is done inthe area of maximising outcome forindividual athletes. However in generalthe method of IHT can be stronglyrecommended for any serious athlete aspart of their training and preparation.A further case study was recently(August-September 1999) undertaken atthe Runaway Bay Sports Super Centreon Queensland’s Gold Coast. Theresults of this case study are indicatedbelow and occurred over a ten tofourteen (10-14) day period during whichtime the training of the athlete remainedconstant.The athlete involved in this case studywas an elite ultra-distance triathlete (Nb.Training performances prior to IHTexposure suggested that he has thepotential to record in the vicinity of 8hours for an Ironman distance triathlon)training 30+ hours per week. His weeklytraining comprises 25-30km per weekor swimming, 400-600km per week ofcycling, 100-120km per week of runningand two to three weight trainingsessions per week. This athlete’straining was not altered in any other wayduring the IHT exposure. All factorslisted above show tendencies toimproved aerobic function as aconsequence of a greater red cell mass– this is conclusively supported by a7.25 second per kilometre improvementin performance time for the fixed heartrate aerobic track run (Cedaro,Unpublished observations, 1999).Conclusions:On the strength of these findings of theabove mentioned case study, and thoseof Dr. Hellemans, the Sports ScienceMedicine Department of the RunawayBay Sports Super Centre purchased twohypoxicator machines (one four stationand one two station) for use by RBSSCTriathlon Squad members and visitingathletes to the facility.Study Proposal:Since these interventions (i.e.Hyperbaric therapy and "sleep high,train low" and IHT) are still relatively newareas of investigation in relation tooptimising athletic performance, thefollowing investigation will beundertaken at the RBSSC within the next6-12 months:Study Design:30 well trained, triathletes are prescreenedand tested for:* Performance tests (e.g. 1km. swimfor time, 30km. time trial, 6km track run)* VO2 max: Standard test protocols(bike/run)* Key strength/power indicators (e.g.Knee extension)* Anthropometric data (i.e. Height,weight, skin-folds, etc.)* Various blood parameters (e.g. Uricacid, Hct, RBCM, blood viscosity,plasma volume)They will then be divided into five evenlymatched groups of 6 and trainedequally, as a squad for five weeks by thesame accredited multi-sport coach, inthe same manner with the followinginterventions:(a) Group one acts as the control group,lives in close proximity to the other studygroups and trains under the guidance ofthe study coach. This group receives thesame coaching advice, nutrition,medical/physiotherapy support, etc. asthe other three study groups.49

1994 season. Vancouver Canucksreport, 1994.Browne A., Lachance, V. and Pipe A.:The ethics of blood testing as anelement of doping control in sport. Med.Sci Sports Exerc. 31(4): 497-501, 1999.Buskirk ER., Kollias J., Akers RF., et al.Maximal performance at altitude and onreturn from altitude in conditionedrunners. J. Appl. Physiol. 1967: 23(2):259-266.Cedaro R.: IHT: A case study(unpublished observations, August1999).Clark JM., Fisher AB. Oxygen toxicityand extension of tolerance in oxygentherapy. In: Davis JC. Hunt TK. editors.Hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Bethesda(MD): Undersea Medical Society, 1977:61-77.Clark JM., Gelfand R., Stevens WI., et al.Pulmonary function in men after oxygenbreathing at 3.0 ATA for 3.5 hours. J.Appl. Physiol. 1991: 71(3): 878-885.Favalli A., Zottola V., Lovisetti G.,Lovisetti L.: External Fixation andHyperbaric Oxygen Therapy in theTreatment of Open Fractures of theTibial Shaft. In: Bakker DJ., Cramer FS.,v.d.Kley AJ., Van Merkesteyn JPR.(eds.). Proceedings of the 10 thinternational conference on hyperbaricmedicine, 1990; 171-174.Foster JH. Hyperbaric oxygenationtreatment - contraindications andcomplications. J. Oral Maxillfac Surg.1992: 50(10): 1081-1086.Hellemans J.: Intermittent HypoxicTraining. Pilot Trial (unpublished,August-September 1998).Jain KK. Textbook of hyperbaric oxygen.Toronto: Hogrefe and Huber, 1990.Latushkevich LA, Zakusilo MP, ShaklinaLH.: The Efficiency Of Interval HypoxicTraining in Volleyball. Hypoxia MedicalJ.: 1993: 2: 33-35.Lambertsen CJ., Kough RH., CooperKY., et al. Oxygen toxicity; effects inhuman inhalation at 1 and 3.5 atm uponblood gas transport, cerebral circulation,and cerebral metabolism. J. Appl.Physiol. 1953: 5: 471-486.Levine BD., Engfred K., Friedman D., etal. High altitude endurance training:effect on aerobic capacity and workperformance. Med. Sci. Sport andExerc. 1990: 22 Suppl.: S35.Levine BD., Stray-Gunderson J. Apractical approach to altitude training:where to live and train for optimalperformance enhancement. Int. J. SportsMed. 1992: 13: S209-S212.Levine BD., Stray-Gunderson J. LivingHigh-Training Low: Effect of ModerateAltitude Acclimatization with LowAltitude Training on Performance. J.Appl. Physiol.: 83(1): 102-112, 1997.Mader JT. editor. Hyperbaric oxygentherapy: a committee report. Bethesda(MD): Undersea and HyperbaricMedical Society. 1989: 1-90.Mairbauri H., Schobersberger W., OelzO., Bartsch P., Eckardt KU., Bauer C.Unchanged in vivo P50 at high altitudedespite decreased erythrocyte age andelevated 2,3-diphosphoglycerate. J.Appl. Physiol. 1990: 68: 1186-1194.Mizuno M., Juel C., Gro-Rasmussen T.,et al. Limb skeletal muscle adaptation inathletes after training at altitude. J. Appl.Physiol. 1990: 68 (2): 496-502.51

Raynaud J., Douget D., Legros P., et al.Time course of muscular bloodmetabolites during forearm rhythmicexercise in hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol.1986: 60: 1203-1208.Ross Laboratories. MuscleDevelopment: Nutritional Alternatives toAnabolic Steroids. Ross Laboratories,1988.Staples JR., Clement DB. Hyperbaricoxygen chambers and the treatment ofsports injuries. Sports Med. 1996 22(4):219-227.Staples JR., Clement DB., McKenzieDC., et al. The effects of intermittenthyperbaric oxygen on biochemicalmuscle metabolites of eccentricallyexercised rats. (abstract). Can. J. Appl.Physiol. 1995: 20: Suppl: 49.Staples JR. Effects of intermittenthyperbaric oxygen on pain perceptionand eccentric strength in a human modelinjury (dissertation). Vancouver:University of British Columbia, 1996.Stevens WC., Clark JM., Paolone AM.,et al. Interacting effects of 2.0 ATA PO2and exercise on cardio-pulmonaryparameters (abstract). UnderseaBiomed Res. 1991: 18 Suppl.: 86.on performance and muscle metabolitecapacity in competitive road cyclists.Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 1988: 57: 203-209.Vallier JM., Chateau P., Guezennec CY.Effects of physical training in ahypobaric chamber on the physicalperformance of competitive triathletes.Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 1996: 73(5): 471-478.Vorob’ev LP., Chizhov Ala, PotievskaiaVI: The Possibilities of Using IntermittentNormobaric Hypoxia for TreatingHypertension Patients. Ter Arkh: 1994:66(8): 5-12 (In Russian).Vujouvic D. The influence of oxygen onfracture healing. In: Dekleva N. editor.Symposium on Hyperbaric Medicine:1983: Sep 7-9: Belgrad: 1983: 57-61.Wilcox JW., Koloding SC. Accelerationof healing of maxillary and mandibularosteomies by use of hyperbaric oxygen:a preliminary report. J. Oral MaxillolacSurg. 1976: 34: 370-375.Wolski LA., McKenzie DC., Wenger HA.Altitude training for improvements in sealevel performance. Is there scientificevidence of benefit? Sports Med. 1996:22(4) 251-263.Storch TG., Talley GD. Oxygenconcentration regulates the proliferativeresponse of human fibroblasts to serumand growth factors. Exp. Cell. Res.1988: 175: 317-325.Terrados N., Jansson E., Sylven C., etal. Is hypoxia a stimulus for synthesis ofoxidative enzymes and myoglobin? J.Appl. Physiol. 1990: 68 (6): 2369-2372.Terrados N. Melichna J., Sylven C., et al.Effects of training at simulated altitude52

14 Days of Intermittent Hypoxia Does Not AlterHaematological Parameters Amongst Endurance TrainedAthletesSally A Clark 1 , Julie Dixon 1 , Christopher J Gore 2 , Allan G Hahn 11 Department of Physiology and Applied Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport,Canberra., 2 Australian Institute of Sport, Adelaide.The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of intermittenthypoxic therapy on red cell production amongst a group of well trainedathletes. Eight rowers underwent preliminary testing and were pairmatched for VO 2max and performance on a rowing ergometer. In asingle blind design, with both groups sitting quietly at rest, thetreatment group (TRE) inhaled 12.20% O 2 while the control group(CON) inhaled 20.93% O 2 . The groups inhaled gas for 5 min and thenroom air for 5 min alternately for a total of 90 min.d -1 for 14d. Theperformance test was conducted twice before and twice after 14d ofIHT. A venous blood sample was taken at rest before and immediatelyafter IHT.During IHT there was a decrease in SpO 2 (p

Intermittent Hypoxic Training (IHT) isanother method of using simulatedaltitude. IHT was developed in Russiafor its use in aviation and clinicalmedicine but recently has beeninvestigated for possible applicationto sports performance. IHT involvesbreathing alternately a hypoxic gasmixture (equivalent to 5000-5500maltitude) and ambient (normoxic) air atrest. Each session consists of 4-6series of 5-min inhalations of a 10-12% hypoxic mixture with normoxicintervals of the same duration. An IHTcourse consists of 14-24 sessionswith gradually decreasing oxygenconcentration. The advantages ofsuch a method include the following:the possibility to control pO 2 in theinhaled hypoxic mixture across arange; the possibility to combine thehypoxic training with sport training atsea level (therefore not compromisingtraining intensity); the absence oforganisational and methodicalproblems connected with the removalto mountains, changes in the usualmode of life, weather and climate. Inaddition IHT is simple to operate,does not require the expense ofbuilding special altitude houses and isportable. IHT allows exposure to quitesevere hypoxic conditions withoutgreat risk of altitude sickness.The amount of literature on IHT andsports performance is limited andmostly unavailable in English. Thereare also very few studies whichmeasured haematological parametersafter IHT. A study by Latyshkevich etal. (1993) reported that twenty-fourdays of IHT decreased submaximaloxygen consumption, ventilation andheartrate during exercise toexhaustion. In addition they reportedthat athletes were able to producemore work after IHT, but did notindicate how long after the treatmentperiod the subjects were re-tested.More recently Hellemans (1998)reported on the use of IHT for two,one hour periods per day for aduration of eighteen days. Heobserved an increase in post valuesfor RBC, [Hb], Hct and number ofreticulocytes compared with prevalues. However, there was no controlgroup making the results difficult tointerpret.The purpose of the following studywas to investigate the efficacy of IHTin evoking a change in RBC, [Hb], Hctand reticulocytes amongst a group ofwell trained athletes.MethodsSubjectsEight rowers (6 females, 2 males)from the ACT Academy of SportRowing squad gave written consent toparticipate in this study which wasapproved by the Australian Institute ofSport Ethics Committee. Thecharacteristics of the group were age= 21.5± 5.6yr, VO 2max = 3.88 ±0.91L.min -1 . Subjects were pairmatched based on training history andlaboratory indicators of aerobic andanaerobic fitness and their coaches’evaluation of their competitive ability.One group was randomly selected tobe the treatment group (TRE, n=4)and the other became the controlgroup (CON, n=4). Each subject kepta daily training log of mode,frequency, intensity and duration. Thetwo males trained together in a pair55

and the six females all trained insingle sculls in the same squad.Experimental DesignIn a single blinded design subjectscame into the laboratory for 14consecutive days. On each occasionthey rested in a seated position for 90minutes and alternated every fiveminutes between breathing from theroom and breathing from a 2000LDouglas bag (Scholle Industries,Elizabeth, South Australia). For thetreatment group, the Douglas bagcontained 12.2% O 2 (simulatedaltitude = 5000m) while for the controlgroup it contained 20.93% O 2 . The O 2concentration inside the bag wasmeasured every fifteen minutes withan Ametek (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)O 2 gas analyser (model S-3A) whichhad been calibrated against alphagrade gases (BOC Gases AustraliaLtd) that spanned the physiologicalrange. Throughout the 90 minutes,heartrate (HR) and oxyhaemoglobin(SpO 2 ) were recorded via finger-tippulse oximetry (Criticare, Waukesha,Wisconsin) every five minutes.A resting venous blood sample wascollected prior to, and immediatelyafter the 14 days of IHT to measurehaematological parameters. Eachsubject underwent a performance teston the rowing ergometer (Concept II)twice before and twice after IHT toensure reliability.Haematological ParametersA venous blood sample was collectedvia a winged infusion set (21-G,Terumo, Elkton, USA) into a 4mlK3EDTA vacuette tube (GreinerLabortecnik, Kremsmunster). Redblood cell (RBC) count, [Hb] and %reticulocytes were analysed usingflow cytometric measurements on aBayer H*3 Haematology analyser(Bayer Diagnostics, Tarrytown NY,USA). The directly measuredpercentage of reticulocytes per20,000 red blood cells and RBC countwas used to calculate reticulocytenumber.Absolute reticulocyte count = RBCcount x % reticulocytes (x 10 9 .L -1 )Ergometer TestingThe performance test consisted ofthree 4-minute submaximalworkloads, four minutes of rest and afinal four minutes, of which the first twominutes was held constant and thefinal two minutes was an “all out” effortto complete as much work (measuredin distance) as possible. Thesubmaximal loads were determinedfor each rower based on their ownpersonal best time for 2000mergometer test. This was a modifiedversion of a national test protocol thathad been regularly performed by allsubjects. A finger tip blood samplewas taken after each workload andwas analysed for lactate using theRadiometer ABL 625 Analyser(Radiometer, Copenhagen,Denmark). The ABL System 625 wascalibrated daily against standards ofknown lactate concentration.Oxygen ConsumptionDuring the performance test themetabolic variables of oxygen, carbondioxide production, minute ventilationand respiratory exchange ratio weremeasured using an open-circuitindirect calorimetry system every thirtyseconds. The O 2 and CO 2 gasanalysers were calibrated using three56

alpha grade gases (BOC GasesAustralia Ltd) immediately beforeeach test. Heartrate (HR) wasassessed every 5 seconds with atelemetry system (Polar Vantage,Polar Electro OY, Kempele, Finland).Statistical AnalysesFor each dependent variable a deltascore was calculated (post treatmentminus pre-treatment) at eachworkload. The delta scores werestatistically analysed using nonparametric test (Mann-Whitney U) todetermine whether IHT produced aphysiological response.ResultsAs expected in the time periodswhere hypoxic gas was breathedthere was a decrease in SpO 2(p

95HR (bpm)857565Tre-hypoxicTre-normoxicControl55D13D11D9D7D5D3D1Figure 2. Heartrate response during 14 days of IHT comparing TRE and CONgroups.12001614Distance (metres)VO2 (L/min)RER10008004.543.5 60031.20 2.51.15 21.101.51.051.00 10.950.900.850.800.750.70Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 MaxStep 1 Step2 Step 3 MaxStep 1 Step 2 Step 3 MaxTRE- preTRE- postCON- preCON- postTRE- preTRE- postCON-preCON- postTRE- preTRE- postCON-preCON- postHeartrateLactate (mmol/L)121086420200175150125100rest step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 MaxTRE-preTRE - postCON - preCON - postTRE- preTRE- postCON- preCON- postFigure 3 (a-e) Change in (a) distance (m), (b) heartrate (HR), (c) oxygen uptake(VO2), (d) Lactate and (e) respiratory exchange ratio (RER) during exercise after 14days of IHT, comparing TRE and CON groups.58

DiscussionThis study did not find any increasein RBC, [Hb], Hct and total number ofreticulocytes after 14 days of IHT.Our results differ from others(Hellemans 1998, Radezievsky et al,1993, and Rodriguez et al 1999),however the present study was theonly one to use a control group. It isunlikely that the difference betweenour results an those of the otherresearchers can be explained by thetotal amount of hypoxic exposure towhich the athletes were subject.While both the daily duration (45 minvs 60 minutes) and the number ofdays (14 vs 18) was less than that ofHellemans (1998), he reported thegreatest change in thehaematological profile and physicalperformance occurred in a subjectwho reduced IHT to one session perday. This would be less than thedaily exposure in the current study.Furthermore, Radzievsky et al.(1993) used a protocol of hypoxicexposure (15 days, one session perday) similar to ours and yet reportedan increased [Hb].Rodriguez et al. (1999) reported asignificant increase in RBC and [Hb]after nine days of hypobaric hypoxia.The subjects in this study were notexposed to classic IHT but to acontinuous hypoxic stimulus(equivalent to 4000-5500m altitude)for 3-5 hours per day. Mean RBCincreased from 5.16 to 5.79x10 12 L -1and [Hb] from 14.2 to 16.7g.dL -1 . Itseems unlikely that these changescould have resulted from an increasein red blood cell production, sinceeven daily administration of 50 U.kg -1 recombiant erythropietin does notproduce changes of such amagnitude within ten days (Audranet al, 1999). In addition the subjectsof Rodriguez et al. (1999) showedno increase in VO 2max . An increasewould have been expected if redblood cell numbers were augmented(Audran et al, 1999.There is a substantial day to dayvariation in [Hb] (Martin et al, 1997)and reticulocytes (Schmidt et al,1988), and changes also occuracross the training cycle. Schmidt etal. (1988) reported that a single boutof exercise doubled the number ofreticulocytes one to two days later.An examination of blood reticulocytenumber across a group of rowersshowed that the values increased onaverage by 22% as the rowersmoved from an endurance phase toan intensive phase of training(Parisotto,personalcommunication). This fast responseof reticulocytes points to a washouteffect releasing prematurereticulocytes from the bone marrowrather than a stimulation of RBCMairbaurl, (1994). It is possible thatthe reported changes observed byothers may reflect a temporary effectof training and not a real increase inRBC production.ConclusionIt is well recognised that living at highaltitude (4000m or higher) is astrong stimulus for an increase inRBC mass (Wolfel et al, 1991).Using the method of IHT in thepresent study does expose theathlete to high levels of hypoxiahowever the interval approach andthe short duration of exposure wasnot enough to evoke a change inhaematological parameters andaccordingly there was no effect onVO 2max or ergometer performance.59

ReferencesAudran M, Gareau R, Matecki S,Durand F, Chenard C, Sicart M,Marion B, Bressolle F (1999) Effectsof erythropoietin administration intraining athletes and possibleindirect detection in doping control.Med Sci in Sports and Exer, Vol.31, No. 5, pp 639-645Ashenden M, Gore C, Martin D,Dobson G, Hahn A (1999a) Effectsof a 12-day ‘live high, train low’camp on reticulocyte production andhaemoglobin mass in elite femaleroad cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol, Vol80, pp 472-478Ashenden M, Gore C, Dobson G,Han A (1999b) “Live high, train low”does not change the totalhaemoglobin mass of maleendurance athletes sleeping at asimulated altitude of 3000m for 23nights. Eur J Appl Physiol Vol 80, pp479-484Hellemans J (1998) Intermittenthypoxic training: pilot trial. SportsMedQE11, New ZealandLatyshkevich L, Zakusylo M,Shakhlina L (1993) The efficiency ofinterval hypoxic training in volleyball.Hyp Med J, No 2, pp 33-35Levine B, Stray-Gundersen J (1997)Living high-training low: effect ofmoderate-altitude acclimatizationwith low altitude training onperformance. J Appl Physiol. Vol 83,No 1, pp 102-112Mairbaurl H (1994) Red blood cellfunction in hypoxia at altitude andexercise. Int J Sports Med, Vol 15,No 2, pp 51-63Martin D, Lee H, Victor J, Boston T,Parisotto R, Putland K, Anson J,Hahn A (1997) Biochemical andhaematological response to a 3-daystage race in female national teamroad cyclists. Proceedings ofAustralian Conference of Scienceand Medicine in Sport, Canberra,Australia, pp 234-235Radzievsky P, Shpak T, PolyshtchukN, Bakanichev A (1993) Thechanges of functional state andworking capacity of kayak-paddlersafter interval hypoxic training withtraditional sports training as abackground. Hyp Med J, No.2 pp30-33Rodriguez F, Casas H, Casas M,Pages T, Rama R, Ricart A, VenturaJ, Ibanez J, Viscor G (1999)Intermittent hypobaric hypoxiastimulates erythropoiesis andimproves aerobic capacity. Med SciExerc, Vol 31, No 2, pp 264-268Rusko H, Tikkanen H, PaavolainenL, Hamalainen I, Kalliokoski K,Puranen A (1999) Effect of living inhypoxia and training normoxia onsea level VO 2max and red cell mass.Med Sci Sport and Exer, S86:277Schmidt W, Maassen N, Trost F,Boning D (1988) Training inducedeffects on blood volume, erythrocyteturnover and haemoglobin oxygenbinding properties. Eur J ApplPhysiol, Vol 57, pp 490-498Wolfel E, Groves M, Broks G,Butterfield G, Mazzeo R, Moore L,Sutton J, Bender P, Dahms E,McCullocugh R, McCullough G,Huang S, Sun S, Grover R, HultgrenH, Reeves J (1991) Oxygen60

transport during steady-statesubmaximal exercise in chronichypoxia. J Appl Physiol, Vol 70, No3, pp 1129-113661

Intermittent Hypoxic Training: A Review*Dr John Hellemans*Dr John Hellemans is a Sports Medicine Practitioner in Christchurch NewZealand. He specialises in high performance endurance sport and exerciseprescription. He is a six times New Zealand open and four times World AgeGroup Triathlon Champion.____________________Intermittent Hypoxic Training (IHT)consists of exposure to alternatingperiods of hypoxia (9 - 14% O2inhaled through a mask) andreoxygenation with atmospheric air.1, 2The method originates in Russiawhere it has been studiedextensively in the areas of aviationand clinical medicine. 1Recently it has been applied in thefield of athletic performance as analternative to altitude training. 3For the purpose of performanceenhancement IHT sessions consistof six 5 minute periods of hypoxicair (9-10%) alternated with 5 minutesof exposure to atmospheric air. A fullcourse consists of 1 or 2 sessions aday for 15 - 20 days.Adaptations to IHT do not onlyinclude improvements in oxygenuptake, transport and utilisation butalso in neuroendocrine regulationand immunity. 4,7Kolchinskaye and others have donestudies on rowers, swimmers,cyclists, kayakers, skiers, track andfield athletes and volleyball players. 3A course of IHT showedimprovements in performance, VO2max, haematological values as wellas decreased heart rates andpulmonary ventilation, compared to aplacebo group. Athletes involved inthe studies also showed a lesserincrease in arterial O2 saturationduring exercise and an improvedlactate response.Of interest is that volleyball playersshowed a significant improvement inthe Vertical Jump test following IHT.One study showed a significantincrease in resistance to highphysical training loads measured byproducts related to activation of lipidperoxidation. 5It is acknowledged that theadaptation process to IHT is notnecessarily exactly the same asthose obtained during altitudehypoxia and that additional adaptiveprocesses might be responsible forsome of the more pronouncedeffects of IHT. 6,7Meerson describes the followingadvantages of IHT in comparisonwith continuous hypoxic exposure. 7:1. Avoidance of chronic stressassociated with continuousexposure to hypoxic air.2. Controlof the dose.3. The absence of thedisadaptation syndrome whichathletes experience when returningto sea level following altitudetraining.4. Increased activities ofantioxidant enzymes in the brain,liver, heart and other organs. (In62

contrast to suppression ofantioxidant processes under chronichypoxic stress)To have an optimal effect IHT needsto be done in conjunction withphysical training. Both types oftraining will expose the body tohypoxic stress. The adaptiveresponses to hypoxic hypoxia (viaIHT) and load hypoxia (via training)have a different mechanism but arecomplimentary. 8. Adaptive effectsof training are enhanced by theadaptation to IHT. 9.63

Intermittent Hypoxic Training, A Pilot StudyDr John HellemansDr John Hellemans is a Sports Medicine Practitioner in Christchurch NewZealand. He specialises in high performance endurance sport and exerciseprescription. He is a six times New Zealand open and four times World AgeGroup Triathlon Champion.____________________Intermittent Hypoxic Training (I.H.T)is a method of altitude simulationwhich originates in Russia. It hasbeen studied extensively for thepurpose of aviation and clinicalmedicine for many years and morerecently also in the area ofperformance enhancement in sport.Recently the method of IHT waspresented to New Zealand sport byDr Alexei Korolev, currently fromAuckland. The results of IHT areclaimed to be similar or superior tothose obtained when doingconventional altitude training. Themethod of IHT consists of exposingathletes to hypoxic air (9 - 11%)intermittently for five minute intervals,alternated by normoxic air, also forfive minutes for a total of one hourfor one or two sessions a day for atotal of 15 - 20 days.The effect of exposure to altitude airon endurance performance isthought to be related to an increasedproduction of red blood cells,resulting in an increased oxygencarrying capacity of the bloodIHT is done with help of anhypoxicator which is a machinewhich can extract oxygen from the airto any desired level, between 9 and16%. This is comparable to analtitude of 2000 to 6,500 metres.Normoxic (athmospheric) air has anoxygen concentration of 20.9%.Recently an hypoxicator wasinstalled in QEII Sports Stadium inChristchurch. This paper reports onthe results of the first pilot project onthe effects of IHT on performanceand haematological factors.MethodsTen athletes, consisting of four eliteswimmers, two elite triathletes, threeage-group triathletes and one runnerwere invited to take part in the study.All were well trained athletes in thefinal preparations for major events.The group consisted of four womanand seven men ranging from 16 to45 in age. The athletes wereexposed to 10% (first 10 days) and9% (second 10 days) intermittentlyfor five minute intervals, alternatedby normoxic air also for 5 minutes forone hour twice a day for a total of 18days. Athletes were instructed tohave a minimum of one hourbetween IHT and their physicaltraining sessions. All athletesunderwent performance testing inthe form of specific field time trials intheir sport, decided by the athletesand their coach and haematologicaltesting (Haemoglobin, Haematocrit,Reticulocytes and Erythropoetin)before, and after the period ofIHT.During the period athletes kept arecord of subjective perception inregard to muscle soreness, fatigue,sleep and performance.-Results and Discussion64

Results are summarised in Table 1.Performance improved by 2.9%,haemoglobin by 4.3%, haematocritby 5% and reticulocytes by 30.3%.Overall improvements for the groupare expressed in percentagescompared to the baseline. Only oneathlete did worse on theperformance test. The athlete whoimproved most (CP) also had themost marked haematologicalresponse. Of interest is that thisathlete did only I hour of IHT per daydue to time constraints. Thegeneral increase in haemoglobin,haematocrit and reticulocytes areknown to support improvements inendurance performance, making itless likely that the performanceresults are solely due to a placeboeffect. Haematological andperformance improvementsobserved with IHT are similar orsuperior to those observed in othermethods of altitude training.The findings suggest a significantstimulation in red blood cellproduction as indicated by a strongreticulocyte response. Theaccompanying performanceimprovement can be linked to thehaematological changes althoughother factors will play a role,including motivation, mood,conditions etc.No significant side effects wereexperienced by the athletes. Allexperienced transient lightheadedness during the first one ortwo sessions, to the extent that twoathletes had to remove their masktemporarily during the first hypoxicphase. All athletes reported asignificant improvement in subjectivewell being soon after starting IHT.Two of the athletes reportedexcessive fatigue during the secondhalf of the programme. Howeverthey were also in a high intensityphase of their training programme.One of the athletes reduced IHT toone session a day for a period offour days before returning to two.Not all athletes observed the rule tohave a minimum of one hour breakbetween sessions of IHT andphysical training sessions. Thiscould have resulted in anaccumulative effect of both types oftraining, contributing to excessivefatigue. Two athletes, who wereknown asthmatics, noticed that theydid not require to take their usualmedication during the three weeksof IHT.SummaryTen endurance athletes were testedwith the method of intermittenthypoxic training (IHT) in relation tohaematological factors andperformance over a period of threeweeks. Results show an overallimprovement in haematologicalfactors related to oxygen transportand performance. The resultsindicate that IHT is an effectivemethod to simulate altitude training.On the basis of the results it isrecommended that further researchand testing is done in the area ofmaximising outcome for individualathletes. However, in general themethod of IHT can be stronglyrecommended for any seriousathlete as part of their training andpreparation.Conclusions1. IHT is an effective alternativeto altitude training.2. Side effects are minimal orabsent.65

3. IHR is often accompanied bya general improvement inhealth and wellbeing(confirming its use in themedical field).4. There is likely to be anoptimal dose for anyindividual athlete. This needsto be established.5 Results compare favourablywith other studies done onaltitude training, in particularthe live high-train low model.6 Hypoxic training can beconsidered as additionaltraining. There is potential foroverload if the athletedoes not adhere to theguidelines, especially inrelation to recovery.7 Some athletes will respondmore than others,comparable with any form oftraining.8 IHT is user friendly and easilyaccessable. It can be used by4 athletes at any one time.9 Current cost of a course ofIHR is $385.00 per athlete,which is considerablecheaper than other forms ofaltitude training andsimulation.10 Of relevance are thesignificant health benefitsobtained through IHT, whichare unique for this particularmethod.Thanks to the Tom AndersonMemorial Trust and SouthernCommunity Laboratory for theirfinancial assistance with thisproject.The equipment was provided byHigh Pro Health.ReferencesMeerson, F.Z. CommonMechanisms of Adaption andProphylaxis. Mowcow Meditzina1973.Tkatchouk, E.N. RepeatedReoxygenation as the Main Factor ofInterval Hypoxic Training. “HypoxicMedical” Clinical ResearchLaboratory, Russia.Kolchinskaya, A.Z. HIT Combinedwith Traditional Training Schemes isan Effective Method in ProfessionalSports.Hypoxia Medical Journal1993, no. 2 pp29-30 HypoxiaMedical Journal 1994, no. 3 pp 8-14Knaupp, W, et alErythropoëtinResponse to Acute NormobaricHypoxia in Humans. J.Appl. Physiol1992 Sep; 73(3) 837-40Nickonorov Adaption to IntermittentHypoxia Enhances the Resistance ofAthletes to Competitive LoadsTsvetkova, A.M, Tkatchouk, E.NTheJustification of Interval HypoxicTraining Protoco lProceedings 3thInternational conference on HypoxicMedicine, 1998, Moscow . 93-94Meerson, F.Z. Adaption toIntermittent Hypoxia : Mechanismsand Protective Effects HypoxiaMedical J. 3/93Kolchinskaya, A.Z.Hypoxia andLoad Hypoxia : Destructive andConstructive Effects HypoxicMedical J. 3/93Pshennikova, M.G. Similarity andDifferences of Adaptions to HypoxicHypoxia to Physical Loads and their66

Protective EffectsHypoxic Medical J.3/9467

Reliability and validity of portable lactate analysers?David Bishop Ph.D.Western Australian Institute of Sport.Purpose: It has been suggested that lactate concentrations may provide aguide to an optimal training intensity. However, lactate concentrationsestablished during incremental exercise in the laboratory are not alwaysindicative of what is occurring during constant-load exercise at the sameintensity. Ideally, lactate concentrations should be measured during atraining session and immediately reported to the athlete to ensure that theathlete is working at the desired intensity. The purpose of this investigationwas, therefore, to determine the reliability and validity of a compact,portable lactate analyser (ACCUSPORT; Boeringer Mannheim, Castle Hill,Australia). Methods: A total of 224 capillary blood samples were taken from25 athletes who took part in routine laboratory testing. Seventy-three ofthese capillary blood samples were analysed in duplicate with theAccusport for determination of intraclass, single-trial reliability. Day-to-dayreliability of the Accusport was assessed by measuring knownconcentrations of aqueous lactate solutions every day for seven days. Thevalidity of the Accusport analyser was assessed by comparing the 224capillary blood lactate concentrations determined on the Accusport with thelactate concentration obtained using a MICRO STAT LM3 (AnaloxInstruments Ltd., London, GB). In addition, lactate parameters derived fromthe lactate concentrations obtained with the two analysers were compared.Results: The Accusport showed high single-trial reliability (R=0.992;Standard Error of Measurement (SE M ) = 0.2 mmol_l -1 ; n = 73) and highday-to-day reliability (R=0.997; SE M = 0.2 mmol_l -1 ; n=42). Despite a strongcorrelation between blood lactate concentrations obtained on the twoanalysers (r=0.96; n=224) the limits of agreement were + 1.9 to - 2.2 mmol_l -1 . Although the mean values for power output, HR and lactate concentrationassociated with the lactate parameters were not significantly different whendetermined on the Accusport or Micro Stat, some individuals did recordlarge differences between analysis methods. Conclusion: In summary, theresults of this investigation have shown that lactate concentrations can bereliably determined within a single trial and from day-to-day using theAccusport analyser. It is not valid to compare lactate concentrationsdetermined on the Accusport with lactate concentrations determined usingthe Micro Stat LM3 lactate analyser. Due to differences between theanalysers, it is recommended that to more precisely control trainingintensity in the field that a threshold should first be determined in thelaboratory using an established laboratory analyser (eg. Micro Stat). Bloodsamples taken at two to three workloads around the expected thresholdpower output should also be analysed on the Accusport. This would allowthe user to determine an Accusport lactate value at the threshold poweroutput determined using the laboratory analyser. As the Accusport hasbeen shown to reliably measure lactate concentration, this Accusportlactate value could then be used in the field to monitor training intensity.____________________To obtain optimal training effects,and to prevent overtraining, it isimportant to monitor and control theintensity of training. While many athletesuse a heart rate monitor, there are anumber of limitations that need to betaken into account when using heart rateto control training intensity. For example,a rider’s position on the bicycle maychange heart rate at a constant intensity.68

A more important limitation is theincrease in heart rate over time, aphenomenon known as ‘cardiac drift’.An alternative marker of trainingintensity is the lactic acid concentrationin the blood. Until recently however,lactic acid measurements have onlybeen available within the laboratoryenvironment. In order to be mostapplicable, blood lactate informationshould be made available to the athleteas soon as possible, preferably duringthe training session. The recentdevelopment of compact, portable,lactate analysers (e.g., Accusport andLactate Pro) now allows coaches,athletes and physiologists to gainimmediate measurement of lactateconcentrations in the field. It is commonpractice for results obtained in the fieldto be compared with lactateconcentrations determined in thelaboratory. Therefore, it is crucial thatthe two methods produce similar results.The purpose of this investigation was todetermine the validity and reliability ofthe Accusport analyser. Blood lactateconcentrations were determined on theAccusport and then compared with theblood lactate concentration obtainedusing a common laboratory lactateanalyser (Micro Stat LM3). Bloodsamples were analysed in duplicate toassess the reliability of lactatemeasurements obtained with theAccusport. Lactate threshold (LT)estimates obtained from the Accusportand Micro Stat were also compared todetermine whether the Accusport couldbe used to determine the LT in the field.ResultsValidity of lactate measurements.There was a strong correlation (r = 0.96;P

2Difference between repeated measurementswith the Accusport (mmol/l)1.510.500 2 4 6 8 10 12 14-0.5-1-1.5-2Mean blood lactate concentration by repeated measurements with Accusport (mmol/l)Figure 2.Variation in blood lactate concentrations determined on the Accusport asa function of mean blood lactate concentrationSingle-trial reliability.The Accusport was found to have veryhigh single-trial reliability (R=0.99; SE M= 0.2 mmol_l -1 ). In addition, 95% ofrepeated measurements on theAccusport were within 0.4 mmol_l -1 ofthe initial measurement (Figure 2).Day-to-day reliability.The Accusport was found to have veryhigh day-to-day reliability when usingthe same standard lactate solutionseach day for seven days (R=0.99; SE M= 0.2 mmol_l -1 ).Validity of lactate thresholddetermination.The exercise intensity, heart rate andlactate concentration corresponding tothe LT (first rise in lactate concentrationabove resting value), was significantlyhigher when determined with theAccusport than when determined withthe Micro Stat (Table 1).Table 1. Means (+ SD) for the power output, heart rate and lactate concentrationassociated with the LT for both analysers. Also reported is the mean difference anddifference range between the two analysers. *P< 0.05AnaloxAccusportPower output(watts)105.5 + 39.2120.1 + 48.1 *Heart rate(beats_min -1 )144 + 13150 + 10 *Lactateconcentration(mmol_l -1 )1.3 + 0.31.9 + 0.2 *Mean DifferenceDifference Range17.4 + 16.6-53.7 - 22.77 + 7-18 - 50.6 + 0.3-1.2 - 0.170

DiscussionConsistent with previous studies (2,5),there was a strong correlation (r=0.96)between blood lactate concentrationsobtained using the Micro Stat and theAccusport analyser. While theseresults suggest that the two methodsare strongly associated, a strongcorrelation is not a valid measure ofhow closely lactate concentrationsdetermined with the two analysersagree. To overcome this limitation, aBland-Altman plot was used toquantify the level of agreementbetween the two analysers. Thisrevealed that despite the strongcorrelation, 95% of lactateconcentrations obtained with theAccusport ranged from 1.9 mmol.l -1above to 2.2 mmol.l -1 below thelactate concentration obtained with theMicro Stat. This is similar to the limitsof agreement ( + 2.1 to - 2.6 mmol.l -1 )reported in a previous studycomparing the Accusport analyserwith a YSI 2300 Stat analyser (1).The Accusport can thereforeresult in under or overestimations ofthe blood lactate concentration (seeFigure 1) and hence training intensityin some athletes. While an optimaltraining intensity is yet to beestablished, it has been suggestedthat for continued improvements inendurance capacity, some trainingmust be above LT (4). Furthermore, ithas been reported that athletes whoperformed their aerobic training at toointense a level exhibited decrementsin performance (3). Caution thereforeneeds to be exercised if using theAccusport to control training intensity.Repeated measurements oflactate concentration with theAccusport on two samples drawn atthe same time showed high reliability(R=0.996) and a low SE M (0.2 mmol_l -1 ). While the Accusport does showhigh single-trial reliability, its reliabilityappears to decrease as the lactateconcentration increases. TheAccusport was also found to have veryhigh day-to-day reliability when usingthe same standard lactate solutionseach day for seven days (R=0.998;SE M = 0.2 mmol_l -1 ; n = 42). Thus, theAccusport analyser is able to reliablymeasure lactate concentration withinone day and from day to day.In addition to monitoring trainingintensity, Accusport analysers are alsobe used to determine LT in the field.The results of this study indicate thatthe power output, HR and lactateconcentration associated with LT isoverestimated when the lactateconcentration is determined on anAccusport analyser. This can probablybe attributed to an overestimation oflow lactate concentrations (i.e., < 2mmol_l -1 ) by the Accusport (Figure 1).Thus, it does not appear valid todetermine LT with the Accusportanalyser.Conclusions1) Lactate concentrations can bereliably determined within asingle trial and from day to dayusing the Accusport analyser.2) While there is a strongassociation between bloodlactate concentrations obtainedusing the Accusport and MicroStat analysers, 95% of lactateconcentrations obtained withthe Accusport range from 1.9mmol_l -1 above to 2.2 mmol_l -1below those obtained with theMicro Stat. It is not valid tocomparelactateconcentrations determined onthe Accusport with thosedetermined using the Micro71

Stat LM3 lactate analyser3) It is also not valid to determinethe LT with the Accusportanalyser. It is recommendedthat to more precisely controltraining intensity in the field thatLT should first be determinedin the laboratory. Bloodsamples taken at two to threeworkloads around the expectedthreshold should also beanalysed on the Accusport.This would allow the user todetermine an Accusport lactatevalue at the thresholddetermined using thelaboratory analyser. As theAccusport has been shown toreliably measure lactateconcentration, this Accusportlactate value could then beused in the field to monitortraining intensity.Snead, et al. Exercise training at andabove the lactate threshold inpreviously untrained women. Int. J.Sports Med. 13(3):257-263, 1992.5. Wigglesworth, J. K., V. J.LaMere, N. D. Rowland, and L. Miller.Examination of the reliability of a newblood lactate analyser. Med. Sci.Sports Exerc. 28(5):S59, 1996.References1. Clough, M., D. T. Martin, D.Pyne, et al. Interpretation of accusportblood lactate results - how do theycompare with YSI2300 stat values?The Australian Conference ofScience and Medicine in Sport. :82-83, 1997.2. Fell, J. W., J. M. Rayfield, J. P.Gulbin, and P. T. Gaffney. Evaluationof the Accusport Lactate Analyser.International Journal of SportsMedicine. 19:199-204, 1998.3. Mikesell, K. A. and G. A.Dudley. Influence of intenseendurance training on aerobic powerof competitive distance runners. Med.Sci. Sports Exerc. 16(4):371-375,1984.4. Weltman, A., R. L. Seip, D.72

Kinanthropometric differences between World Championshipsenior and junior elite triathletesG.J. Landers, B.A. Blanksby, T.R. Ackland and D.A. Smith*Department of Human Movement and Exercise Science, The University of WesternAustralia, Perth, Australia*Queensland Academy of Sport, Brisbane, AustraliaEighty-seven triathletes who competed in the senior or junior elitecategories at the 1997 Triathlon World Championships weremeasured on a battery of 30 anthropometric dimensions. Analysessought to clarify what physical differences existed between thesecompetitors at the highest level.Generally, the senior triathletes were older, faster, heavier and hadbroader shoulders than their junior counterparts. The junior femalesrecorded a greater sum of 8 skinfolds, endomorphy rating and hadless muscle mass than their senior triathlete counterparts. Thesenior males revealed significantly greater segmental lengths, girthsand breadths than the junior males. However, most of thesedifferences were removed when applying dimensional scaling to theraw scores.These results suggest that, while the junior males have not fullymatured, they already have many of the proportional physicalcharacteristics of the senior male triathletes. Hence, after fulldevelopment, they could possess similar morphology. In contrast, thejunior female triathletes are closer to the senior females in physicalmaturity, except for a greater sum of skinfolds and less muscle mass.A higher level of training may therefore alter these characteristics andpossibly improve their performance.____________________Development in a sport at the elitelevel can be improved by knowing thephysical, physiological andpsychological characteristics ofcurrent elite athletes and to isolatethose factors that contribute to highlevels of performance. Then, coachesbenefit by planning better trainingprograms when preparing theirathletes for competition. It alsoassists the junior athletes who haveself-selected themselves and who willone day be the elite representatives ofthe sport.During its relatively brief existence, thephysiological characteristics oftriathlon’s participants have beeninvestigated, but the physicalmorphology has not yet been subjectto vigorous inquiry. Laurenson et al.(1993), Leake and Carter (1991) andTravill et al. (1994) all have examinedsmall samples of classic distancetriathletes in terms of physique andbody composition throughcomparisons with individual sportathletes, or between different abilitylevel triathletes. Ackland et al. (1998)reported complete anthropometricdata for senior and junior elitetriathletes at the 1997 Triathlon WorldChampionships (TWC). Thisresearch was expanded to study intothe relationship of theseanthropometric dimensions with theperformance outcomes in this event(Ackland et al., 1999; Landers et al.,1999).This paper aims to examine further theage-related kinanthropometric74

differences of male and female elitelevel competitors at the 1997 TWC. Itis envisaged that these data couldhelp to improve training practices,possibly form the basis of talentidentification or allow a clearerunderstanding of the self selection inthe sport of triathlon, and improve theinterpretation of the body shape oftriathletes.MethodsEighty-seven senior and junior elite,male and female triathletes from 11nations who participated in the 1997TWC were measured. The sampleconsisted of 20 senior maletriathletes, eight of whom finished inthe top 20; and 29 junior maletriathletes, three of whom finished inthe top 20. The female samplecomprised 18 seniors, six of whomwere placed in the top 20; and 20juniors, of whom eight placed in thetop 10.Only volunteers participated in theresearch. All testing was carried outone week prior to competition tominimise disruption to their finalchampionship preparation.Testing protocolThe Human Rights Committee of theUniversity of Western Australiagranted approval for the study and allparticipants signed a consent formafter being informed of the studyrequirements. Data were collected atthe Department of Human Movementand Exercise Science, or at othersuitable accommodation sites using amobile testing unit. All equipmentother than electronic scales andstadiometer could be transported.For these occasions a mobilestadiometer and beam balance scalewere used.Personal details and demographicdata were obtained at the first teststation and anatomical landmarking ofthe subject by a criterionanthropometrist (ISAK level-4) tookplace. The triathletes then movedthrough five measurement stations.Separate stations recorded sevenskinfold thickness, height, weight andfive segmental lengths; two stationswere available for four girthmeasurements each and another forfive segment breadths. To allowcontinuous testing by theanthropometrist, a scribe was postedat each measurement station torecord the scores. The data werethen entered into a computer on anSPSS spreadsheet (SPSS Inc.) forsubsequent analysis.Standard measurements wereundertaken in accordance with thoseapproved by the International Societyfor the Advancement ofKinanthropometry (ISAK) andreported in Bloomfield et al. (1994)and Norton and Olds (1996).The same investigator was posted ateach station for the entire testingprogram. This strategy was adoptedto limit inter-observer variability and tomaximise the reliability of results. Thetechnical error of measurement (TEM)was calculated on a sample of 20subjects randomly chosen. The TEMfor all variables was within thestandards set by ISAK for level-2anthropometrists (Norton and Olds,1996).Data analysisData were entered onto aspreadsheet from which descriptivestatistics for each characteristic were75

calculated. Standard formulae wereemployed to derive brachial and cruralindices (BI & CI) (equation 1 & 2),relative sitting height (RSH) andrelative lower limb length (RLLL)(equation 3 & 4). Somatotype wascalculated using the Carter and Heath(1990) somatotype formulae, whileproportionality variables werecomputed via the phantom stratagemfor all measurements (Ross andWard, 1986). Body composition wasalso determined using the fivecompartment fractionation model(Ross & Kerr, 1991). The Phantomstratagem is a technique used toanalyse proportionality by removingsize and gender differences, andpermits analysis of results inparametric statistics.BI = radiale-stylion x 100acromiale-radialeCI = trochanterion-tibiale laterale x 100tibiale laterale heightRSH = sitting height x 100heightRLLL = trochanterion height x 100Height(1)(2)(3)(4)Data were initially split by gender andanalysis was by one-way ANOVA ofeach variable comparing the seniorand junior elite competitors. Tablescontaining all of the measures andderived variables were constructed formales and females separately, as wellas senior and junior groups. Due tothe large number of ANOVAconducted, the possibility of type oneand two errors exist. All results weresignificant at p

greater percentage of adipose tissuethan the senior females when the fiveway fraction results were comparedwith total mass of the triathletes.Senior male triathletes recordedsignificantly greater bone breadths forthe humerus, biacromial, chest andbiiliocristale sites, as well as theanterior-posterior chest depth,compared with their juniorcounterparts (Table 2). There were nosignificant differences in femurbreadth. Mean chest breadth of thejunior male triathletes was alsoTable 1 Body type: descriptive data & comparisons via ANOVA of seniorVs junior male and senior Vs junior female triathletesMale Triathletes Senior Junior sig Effectn = 20 n = 29 Sizevariable unit mean sd mean sdage y 27.5 3.9 19.1 1.1 *** 1.7height cm 179.8 6.2 175.7 5.6 * 0.7sitting height cm 92.8 2.4 92.1 2.9 nsphantom sitting height z -0.5 0.5 -0.1 0.6 nsheight, weight ratio z 43.2 1.0 43.3 1.2 nsmass kg 72.3 6.0 67.0 6.3 ** 0.79phantom mass z -0.4 0.5 -0.4 0.6 nsskin mass kg 4.0 0.2 3.8 0.2 ** 0.83adipose mass kg 14.6 2.1 14.3 2.6 nsmuscle mass kg 37.2 3.3 33.6 4.0 *** 0.88bone mass kg 9.0 0.7 8.5 0.8 * 0.64residual mass kg 9.4 1.0 8.1 1.1 *** 1.05skin mass / total mass % 5.5 0.2 5.7 0.3 nsadipose mass / total mass % 20.1 2.1 21.3 2.8 nsmuscle mass / total mass % 51.5 1.7 50.1 3.5 nsbone mass / total mass % 12.5 0.9 12.6 0.9 nsresidual mass / total mass % 13.0 0.2 12.0 1.1 ** 0.9sum of 8 skinfolds mm 47.4 10.4 51.5 14.8 nsendomorphy 1.9 0.6 2.3 1.0 nsmesomorphy 4.2 0.8 4.2 0.9 nsectomorphy 3.0 0.7 3.1 0.9 nsFemale Triathletes Senior Junior sig Effectn = 18 n = 20 Sizevariable unit mean sd mean sdage y 29.3 3.1 19.0 1.5 *** 1.8height cm 168.3 4.6 164.9 7.2 nssitting height cm 88.7 2.2 87.0 3.4 nsphantom sitting height z -0.1 0.4 0.0 0.4 nsheight, weight ratio z 43.2 0.9 43.0 1.2 nsmass kg 59.5 4.8 56.7 5.4 nsphantom mass z -0.4 0.4 -0.3 0.6 nsskin mass kg 3.5 0.2 3.4 0.2 nsadipose mass kg 14.5 2.1 15.3 3.0 nsmuscle mass kg 28.4 2.7 26.4 2.9 * 0.777

one mass kg 6.9 0.8 6.7 0.5 nsresidual mass kg 6.6 0.6 6.2 0.7 nsskin mass / total mass % 5.9 0.2 6.0 0.2 nsadipose mass / total mass % 24.5 3.0 27.0 3.8 * 0.7muscle mass / total mass % 48.0 2.2 46.8 6.1 nsbone mass / total mass % 11.6 1.1 11.9 1.0 nsresidual mass / total mass % 11.2 1.0 11.0 1.1 nssum of 8 skinfolds mm 62.6 13.8 73.1 17.2 * 0.64endomorphy 2.8 0.9 3.5 0.9 * 0.7mesomorphy 3.6 0.9 3.6 1.0 nsectomorphy 3.0 0.6 2.9 0.8 nsNote: * = p

Table 3 Girths: descriptive data & comparisons via ANOVAof senior Vs junior male and senior Vs junior femaletriathletesMale Triathletes Senior Junior sig Effectn = 20 n = 29 Sizevariable unit mean sd mean sdforearm cm 26.8 1.0 26.2 1.1 nsarm cm 29.1 1.3 28.2 1.8 nsarm flex cm 31.7 1.6 31.0 1.9 nschest cm 99.6 3.5 94.6 4.6 *** 1.03waist cm 77.9 2.5 74.9 3.8 ** 0.83hip cm 92.9 3.0 91.0 3.6 nsthigh cm 55.4 3.2 53.2 2.8 * 0.62calf cm 36.8 1.8 35.8 2.0 nsphantom forearm z 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.8 nsphantom arm z 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.8 nsphantom arm flex z 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.8 nsphantom chest z 1.3 0.6 0.7 0.9 * 0.75phantom waist z 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.7 nsphantom hip z -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 nsphantom thigh z -0.8 0.7 -1.0 0.7 nsphantom calf z -0.2 0.6 -0.2 0.9 nsFemale Triathletes Senior Junior sig Effectn = 18 n = 20 Sizevariable unit mean sd mean sdforearm cm 23.8 1.0 23.6 1.1 nsarm cm 26.3 1.7 25.8 1.4 nsarm flex cm 28.2 1.3 27.7 1.5 nschest cm 88.3 2.5 86.4 2.9 nswaist cm 68.2 3.5 67.6 2.7 nship cm 90.9 3.4 89.9 3.0 nsthigh cm 54.0 3.7 53.8 2.1 nscalf cm 35.5 1.9 33.6 3.2 * 0.68phantom forearm z -0.7 0.7 -0.6 0.8 nsphantom arm z -0.1 0.7 -0.1 0.8 nsphantom arm flex z -0.4 0.5 -0.3 0.8 nsphantom chest z 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.9 nsphantom waist z -0.7 0.7 -0.5 0.6 nsphantom hip z -0.5 0.6 -0.3 0.7 nsphantom thigh z -0.3 0.8 -0.1 0.7 nsphantom calf z 0.3 0.8 -0.2 1.6 nsNote: * = p

variable unit mean sd mean sdarmspan cm 186.2 6.7 181.1 8.3 * 0.64radiale-stylion cm 26.6 1.1 26.4 1.9 nsacromiale-radiale cm 34.3 1.4 33.3 1.6 * 0.68trochanterion-tibiale cm 46.7 1.9 44.5 2.1 *** 0.87tibiale-laterale cm 47.7 2.1 46.3 2.7 nsphantom armspan z 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 nsphantom radiale-stylion z 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.3 nsphantom acromiale-radiale z 0.0 0.6 -0.2 0.6 nsphantom trochanterion-tibiale z 1.2 0.5 0.7 0.5 ** 0.85phantom tibiale-laterale z 3.5 0.5 3.3 0.7 nsBrachial Index 77.4 1.7 79.6 6.0 nsCrural Index 102.0 2.8 104.2 4.9 nsRelative Lower Limb Length % 52.5 1.1 51.7 1.2 * 0.69Relative Sitting Height % 51.7 1.4 52.5 1.5 nsFemale Triathletes Senior Junior sig Effectn = 18 n = 20 Sizevariable unit mean sd mean sdarmspan cm 170.8 4.3 166.8 7.4 nsradiale-stylion cm 24.2 1.2 23.9 1.5 nsacromiale-radiale cm 31.8 1.3 31.1 1.6 nstrochanterion-tibiale cm 43.6 2.7 43.7 2.9 nstibiale-laterale cm 43.8 1.9 43.0 2.6 nsphantom armspan z 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.6 nsphantom radiale-stylion z 0.0 0.9 0.0 0.7 nsphantom acromiale-radiale z -0.2 0.5 -0.3 0.6 nsphantom trochanterion-tibiale z 1.1 0.8 1.5 0.8 nsphantom tibiale-laterale z 3.0 0.5 3.1 0.6 nsBrachial Index 76.3 3.7 76.8 3.0 nsCrural Index 100.7 5.0 98.6 4.5 nsRelative Lower Limb Length % 51.9 1.5 52.6 1.5 nsRelative Sitting Height % 52.7 1.2 52.8 1.0 nsNote: * = p

greater than chest girth (t= -5.20, p

levels of training in the seniortriathletes or different levels ofmaturity. No differences could berecorded for muscle or skeletalpercentage of total mass, whichsuggested geometrical similarity ofthese variables.Increased bone mass is related toincreased muscle mass and totalmass. The skeletal system is theframework for the body duringmovement. With greater muscleaction and weight bearing exercisethere is an increase in both musclemass and bone mass. This issummarised by Wolff's bone law(1884) which states that an increasedtraining effect will lead to increasedstress on the skeletal system andcause bone remodeling.Residual mass indirectly measuresthe mass of internal organs, such asthose involved in enduranceperformance. Organs such as thecardiopulmonary system are enlargedand become heavier with training(Douglas et al., 1986). However, abigger body also needs a largercardiopulmonary system. That is,bigger people have larger lungs andgreater blood volume. The questionremains as to whether the increasedresidual mass is a result of greatertraining, greater size, genetics(phenotype), a precursor for highperformance, or a combination ofthese. Douglas et al. (1986) showedthat higher level triathletes had asignificantly greater thickness of theleft ventricular wall of the heart thanthose triathletes who did notparticipate at such a high level.Residual mass was also shown toaccount for a greater percentage ofthe total mass of a senior maletriathlete when compared with a juniormale. This difference in percentresidual mass indicates where thesenior and junior triathletes are notgeometrically similar. It may suggestthat greater loads and greaterexposure to training lead to hearthypertrophy, increased capillarisationand increased total blood volume.This shows also that the variation inthe two scores is important indeveloping a senior triathlete.Various studies (Sleivert & Rowlands,1996; Rowbottom et al., 1997;Laurenson et al., 1993) havedemonstrated that physiologicalcharacteristics such as a superiorVO 2max play an important part ofdetermining success in a triathlon.Therefore, the variation in residualmass could be linked more closelywith training rather than body size.No significant differences were notedbetween the senior and junior males inendomorphy, mesomorphy orectomorphy ratings, or the sum of 8skinfolds. Carter and Heath (1990)through the summation of others(Alonso, 1986; Chovanova & Pataki,1982; Guimaraes & De Rose, 1980;Hayley, 1974; Thorland et al., 1981),have stated that young athletesshowed similar somatotype patternsat the time of adolescence to those ofadults, but are less mesomorphic.The similarities show a homogeneousgroup and emphasises self-selectionfor the event in terms of body type.There were no significant differencesbetween the mean sitting height of themale senior and junior triathletes.However, there was a significantdifference in mean height betweenthese two groups. Therefore, thedifference was in lower limb lengthand these long bones of the limbs fuselast in growth. These results suggest82

that the upper body or trunk hasdeveloped to maturity because ofsimilarity, but the limbs have not. Thiscould reflect the incompletematuration of the junior males.The male triathletes showed nosignificant differences between seniorand junior competitors in the scores ofadipose mass or sum of 8 skinfolds. Itcould be expected that, with anincrease in height, there would be anincrease in other variables such asmass, adiposity or skinfolds. With noincrease in skinfolds or adipose massof the larger triathlete, it could beinterpreted that the senior maletriathletes carried less subcutaneoustissue than their junior counterparts.However, this was not supported bythe finding that there was nosignificant difference in percentageadiposity between the two groups.Senior male triathletes recordedgreater bone breadths for humerus,biacromial, chest and biiliocristale,and anterior-posterior chest depths,than their junior counterparts. Thisrelates to the significantly greaterbone mass recorded by the seniortriathletes. No significant differenceswere found in femur breadths. Thatsignificant differences were found inbone breadths between the seniorand junior male triathletes, suggesteda lower level of maturity ordevelopment of the junior triathlete. Allthe breadth differences, except chestbreadth, were removed by applyingthe phantom stratagem, and revealedthat, proportionately, there was nodifference between senior and juniormale competitors. Theproportionately smaller chest breadthof the junior male triathletes alsosuggested a lack of maturity. Hence,there could be scope for moredevelopment via training as well asbiologically.The senior males recordedsignificantly greater chest, waist andthigh girths when compared with thejunior males. The senior males alsorecorded a proportionately largerchest girth. The raw and proportionalchest girth differences can be relatedto the greater raw and proportionalchest breadths recorded by the seniormales, with significant correlationbetween chest girth and chest breadth(r= 0.740), and that there isdevelopment still to come for the juniormale triathletes. The relationshipbetween the residual mass and spacefor internal endurance organs wasapparent via strong correlationsbetween residual mass and chestgirth, and residual mass and waistgirth.Senior male triathletes displayedsignificantly greater arm span,acromiale-radialelength,trochanterion-tibiale raw lengths, andproportional lengths of trochanteriontibialethan junior male triathletes. Asthe arm span consists of twocomponents of arm length and one ofbiacromial breadth, significantlydifferent arm spans could beexpected. As reported earlier, themean humerus breadth in the juniormale triathletes was significantlysmaller than in the senior triathletes.This was also the case whencomparing femur lengths. The juniormale triathletes recorded absoluteand proportionally shorter thighs, andthus, overall leg length, than the seniormales. As noted previously, sittingheights were equal but significantlydifferent standing heights wererecorded. With these variablestogether, height, sitting height and83

thigh length, it could be assumed thatthe junior triathletes were still not fullymatured.Senior male triathletes recordedsignificantly higher RLLL scores,which showed greater maturity. Therewas no significant difference in sittingheight or tibiale-laterale length, butsignificant differences were found instanding height and femur length.Further support that the RLLL scorefor the junior males would be smallercan be noted when the proportional(phantom) trochanterion-tibiale scoreswere found to be significantly smaller.Female TriathletesThe body types of senior and juniorelite female triathletes differed inmuscle mass, sum of skinfolds, andthe percentage of adipose mass inrelation to total mass. The heightsand masses of the triathletes in thisstudy (168.27cm & 59.47kg) weresimilar to those of previous studies ofhighly trained (Leake & Carter, 1991,162.1cn & 55.2kg; Laurenson et al.,1993, 168.8cm & 59.5kg) and elite(Laurenson et al., 1993, 167cm &56.4kg) female triathletes. Acomparison with the only somatotypedata found for classic distancetriathletes (Leake & Carter, 1991),demonstrated that the femaletriathletes measured in this study weresimilar in endomorphy, and recordedgreater ectomorphy and lessmesomorphy. That is, the femaletriathletes of this study were slightlymore linear and less robust. Thissuggests a changing shape over time.Possibly, the run leg is taking on amore dominant role than the swim legin the final outcome of the race thanpreviously. With the runner tending tobe more linear as a result ofintroducing drafting, mesomorphy hasdeclined, possibly due to thedecreased need for consistent poweroutput during the cycle. The femalesenior and junior triathletes showed nodifferences in mesomorphy orectomorphy but the seniors scoredsignificantly lower on endomorphy.However, the difference in thesescores was less than one unit. Forjunior competitors, this is consideredacceptable in preparation fortransition into the senior ranks (Carter& Heath, 1990).The senior female triathletes recordedsignificantly greater muscle mass anda significantly smaller sum of 8skinfolds than the junior females.Hence, the junior female triathletescould be nearly mature but require ahigher level of training as evidencedby a greater sum of 8 skinfolds andless muscle mass. High levels ofendurance training lead to hypertrophyof type-1 muscle fibers anddecreased fat stored (Wilmore andBrown, 1974). In weight bearingendurance events, a lower level ofbody fat is associated with higherlevel performances. Hence, thegreater percentage of adipose massto total body mass recorded by thejunior female triathletes could be oneof the reasons why their performanceswere not equal to those of the seniorfemales.Biiliocristale was the only significantlydifferent breadth measures betweenthe two categories of femaletriathletes. It should be noted that thegeneral growth trends of males andfemales are different. Females tendto mature at a younger age thanmales. Generally females havematured or are close to full maturity atthe age of 18 years. The average ageof the junior female triathletes in this84

study was 19.0 years, which is greaterthan the age of average femalematurity (18.0 y). Full maturity for themale general population is 21.0 yearsor greater and the junior maletriathletes were of mean age 19.1years. It must also be noted that thesenior triathletes, both male andfemale, reported mean ages greaterthan the accepted age of maturity andwere assumed to have fully matured(Table 1).Senior females were found to havesignificantly larger calf girths whencompared with their juniorcounterparts. This variation couldcontribute to the significant differencein muscle mass between the twocategories and suggested that juniorfemales retained some scope forincreasing muscle mass. This couldbe achieved through an increase inmuscle development in the lower limbwith training and/or maturity.No significant differences wererecorded for any of the indices orsegmental lengths between the seniorand junior female triathletes. Again,this demonstrates homogeneity in thefemale triathletes and could indicatesome degree of self selection.SummaryEighty-seven triathletes weremeasured before competing in theTriathlon World Championships inPerth, 1997. A series ofanthropometric, demographic andperformance variables weremeasured. Subjects were senior andjunior elite, males and females.Analysis of these data indicated thatthe senior male triathletes were moredeveloped and recorded larger valuesfor most variables than the juniormales. The junior female triathletesappeared to have reached maturityand recorded less morphologicaldifferences between the senior andjunior females when compared withjunior and senior males.A comparison of the male senior andjunior elite groups revealed that seniortriathletes were older, taller andheavier; recorded greater skin,muscle, bone and residual masses.Raw scores of biacromial width, chestbreadth, anterior-posterior chestdepth, biiliocristale and humerusbreadth were also significantly greaterin the elite competitors. Larger valueswere recorded for acromiale-radialeand trochanterion-tibiale, as well aschest waist and thigh girths. Whenmale variables were converted toproportional scores, most differenceswere removed and accounted for bygrowth and development. Hence,junior male triathletes could be "ontarget" to attain an optimummorphology. Those variables notaffected by scaling, were residualmass, proportional chest girth andbreadth, and can be changed throughincreased training.Senior female triathletes alsorecorded significantly largermeasurements than their juniorcounterparts for muscle mass,biiliocristale breadth and calf girth.The junior female triathletes recordedgreater sum of skinfolds and higherendomorphy which can be altered withincreased training. Junior femaleshad neared full maturity and moreclosely resembled the morphology ofthe senior females.Thus it seems apparent that the juniorathletes of both genders, through verysimilar morphological characteristics85

to those of the senior competitors, andhave successfully self-selectedthemselves for the sport of triathlon.ReferencesAckland, T.R., Blanksby, B.A.,Landers, G. and Smith D. (1998)Anthropometric profiles of elitetriathletes. Journal of Science andMedicine in Sport, 1(1), 53-56.Ackland, T.R., Blanksby, B.A.,Landers, G. and Smith D. (1999)Anthropometric correlates withperformance among worldchampionshiptriathletes.Kinanthopometry VI Proceedings , (inpress)Bloomfield, J., Ackland, T.R. andElliot, B.C. (1994). Applied Anatomyand Biomechanics in Sport.Melbourne, Australia: BlackwellScientific Publications, pp 40-92, 267-109.Carter, J.E.L. and Ackland, T.R.(Eds). (1994) Kinanthropometry inAquatic Sports; a study of world classathletes. USA: Human KineticsPublications Inc.Carter, J. and Heath, B. (1990).Somatotyping – Development andApplications.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.Douglas, P.S., O’Toole, M.L., Hiller,W.D.B. and Reuchek, N. (1986). Leftventricular structure and function byechocardiography in ultra enduranceathletes. American Journal ofCardiology, 58, 805-809.Hue, O., LeGallais, D., Chollet, D.,Boussana, A. and Prefaut, C. (1998).The influence of prior cycling on thebiomechanical and cardiorespiratoryresponse profiles during running intriathletes. European Journal ofApplied Physiology, 77, 98-105.Landers, G.J., Blanksby, B.A.,Ackland, T.R. and Smith, D. (1999)Morphology and performance of worldchampionship triathletes. Annals ofHuman Biology, (in press)Laurenson, N.M., Fulcher, K.Y andKorkin, P. (1993). Physiologicalcharacteristics of elite and club levelfemale triathletes during running.International Journal of SportsMedicine, 14(8), 455-459.Leake, C.N. and Carter, J.E.L.(1991). Comparisons of bodycompositions and somatotypes oftrained female triathletes. Journal ofSports Sciences, 9, 125-135.Norton, K. and Olds, T. (1996)Anthropometrica. Sydney, Australia:University of New South Wales Press,pp 27 - 75, 409.Ross, W.D. and Kerr, D.A. (1991)Fraccionament de la massa corporal:un nou methode per utilitzar en nutricioclinica i medicina esportiva.APUNTS, 18, 175-187.Ross, W.D. and Ward, R. (1986).Scaling anthropometric data for sizeand proportionality. In; T. Reilly, J.Watkins & R. Borms (Eds).Kinanthropometry III, Proceedings ofthe VIII Commonwealth andInternational Conference on Sport,Physical Education, Dance,Recreation and Health. New York: E.& F.N. Spon. pp 85-91.Rowbottom, D.G., Keast, D., Garcia-Webb, P. and Morton, A.R. (1997).86

Training adaptation and biologicalchanges among well-trained maletriathletes. Medicine and Science inSports and Exercise, 29(9), 1233-1239.Schneider, D.A., Lacroix, K.A.,Atkinson, G.R., Troped, P.J. andPollack, J. (1990). Ventilatorythreshold and maximal oxygen uptakeduring cycling and running intriathletes. Medicine and Science inSports and Exercise, 22(2), 257-264.Sleivert, G.G. and Rowlands, D.S.(1996). Physical and physiologicalfactors associated with success intriathlon. Sports Medicine, 22(1), 8-18.SPSS for Windows Release 8.0.0(1997), SPSS Inc.Tittle, K. and Wutscherk, H. (1988).Anatomical and anthropometricfundamentals of endurance. In; R.J.Shephard & P.O. Astrand (Eds).Endurance in Sport, theencyclopedia of sports medicine.Blackwell Scientific Publications.Travill, A.L., Carter, J.E.L. and Dolan,K.P. (1994) Anthropometriccharacteristics of elite male triathletes.In, F.I. Bell and G.H. Van Gyn (eds.)Proceedings for the 10 thCommonwealth and InternationalScientific Congress: access to activeliving. University of Victoria, Victoria,340-343.Wilmore, J. and Brown, C. (1974).Physiological profiles of womendistance runners. Medicine andScience in Sport, 6(3), 178-181.87

The effects of three varied cycle leg protocols on selfpacedrun time trial performance.Bill Davoren and J. GregoryTasmanian Institue of SportIn the past, the cycling portion of an Olympic Distance Triathlon(ODT) was typically performed at steady state power outputs.However, with the advent of drafting and the inclusion of smallerspectator friendly bike courses, the demands of the cycle leg havechanged. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effectof three varied cycle leg protocols on self-paced run time trialperformance. Subjects (n=4) completed an initial phase of testing todetermine baseline information. A 7.5 km run time trial on thetreadmill (RTT) was followed by progressive maximal run (RT) andcycle tests (CT) 72 hours later. The best run performance wasestablished using the RTT, whilst the individual anaerobic threshold(IAT), maximal power and VO 2max was recorded from the maximaltests. The subjects then completed three cycle leg protocols each of45 minutes in duration, followed immediately by another 7.5km runtime trial, with a minimum of 72 hours recovery between testingprotocols. This bike-run combination is referred to as a BRICK. Thethree protocols were conducted in a randomised counter-balancedmanner and included: a simulated draft time trial (BRICK DRT ), a selfpaced steady state time trial (BRICK ITT ) and a variable power outputtime trial (BRICK ITU ). Compared to the control RTT, the resultsdemonstrated for all BRICK running protocols significantly lower(p

the steady state time trial (Smith etal., 1997; Hausswirth et al., 1999).Hence, the effects of these changeson subsequent run performance arestill not fully understood.The cycle leg, represents the largestproportion of the total race duration ofthe ODT (>50%). With regard to draftlegal events, anecdotally the effectappears to have reduced theimportance of the cycle leg in theoutcome. The draft legal ODT hasbeen described as a ‘wet run,’ deemphasisingthe place of the cycleleg. The inclusion of tight streetcircuits has also changed the natureof the conventional cycle leg. Recentdata collected from the InternationalTriathlon Union race over theproposed Sydney 2000 Olympiccourse, reveals large variations inpower output, more in line withcriterium massed start cycle events(Smith et al. 1997).In contrast, the traditional 40 kmindividual time trial (ITT) eventrequires a steady state power output.Power at anaerobic threshold (AT)and maximum power, obtained froman incremental cycle test, arepositively correlated to 40 km ITTtime (Coyle et al., 1991; Hawley andNoakes, 1997).The effect of drafting on cyclingperformance has been assessed byPalmer et al., (1997). They comparedthe time to ride a 20 km ITT followinga 150 minute ride which was either ata constant load (58% of peak poweroutput), representing a draft ride, or avariable power output ride (meanpower of 58% of peak power varyingby ± 12%). Despite similar total workand heart rates, the 20 km ITT timefollowing the steady state draft ridewas significantly faster than thevariable power output protocol. In astudy on the effect of drafting during atriathlon bike leg, Hausswirth et al.(1999) reported a rise in cadence byapproximately 6.3%, a 47% decreasein blood lactate response (BLC) anda reduction in VO 2 of 14%. Thiseffect is not surprising given thereduction in energy expenditure of26% when behind a single rider andup to 39 % sitting in a group of riders(McCole et al., 1990). According toHausswirth et al. (1999) the effect ofthe draft bike leg improved 5 kmrunning speed compared with the nodraft mode (17.8 vs 17.1 km . hr -1 ) andfurthermore, increased thephysiological values of VO 2 , HR andBLC during the draft run leg.The decision towards a ‘draft-legal’and criterium styled cycle leg hasplaced a greater importance upon theassessment of the triathlete’sphysiological and psychologicalresponses towards running. Itappears that a draft cycle leg mayprovide for a psychological readinessand reduced physiological fatiguewhich may allow the triathlete to run ata higher intensity in comparison tothat which can be attained after avariable power output cycle leg. Thisis an important consideration giventhat it has already been wellestablished that the running portion ofthe ODT is the most difficult of thethree segments to complete.Given the support that a non draftcycle triathlon is more demandingthan a draft triathlon, the principalpurpose of this study was toinvestigate the effects of differingcycle leg protocols (variable poweroutput, steady state ITT and simulateddraft cycle protocols) on self-pacedtreadmill run time trial performance.89

MethodsSubjectsFour (n=4) male triathletes (ODT =2hrs) participated in this researchstudy (See Table 1). Each triathletecompleted a pre-test medicalquestionnaire and signed aninformed consent statement. Testingwas conducted just prior to thecommencement of the triathlonseason. All subjects had beenengaged in at least eight weeks oftraining in all three disciplines of thetriathlon when assessed as a part ofthis study.Experiment DesignAll subjects took part in five testingsessions at the Human PerformanceLaboratory of the Tasmanian Instituteof Sport. The test sessions werecompleted over a 14 day period.Subjects were asked to refrain fromtraining for 48 hours leading into thetesting sessions.All subjects completed an isolatedself-paced 7.5 km run time trial test(RTT) on day one. Seventy two hourslater the subjects completedprogressive maximal bike and runtests with 4 hours separating thetests. The subjects then completedthree bike/run tests (BRICK TEST) ina random counter balanced manner.Each BRICK test consisted of a cycleleg protocol lasting 45 minutesimmediately followed by a 7.5 kmself-paced run time trial. A minimumof 72 hours recovery was givenbetween testing protocols. The threecycle protocols were:• a simulated draft time trial (TT DRT );• a self paced individual time trial(TT ITT );• a variable power output bike timetrial (TT ITU ).Progressive maximal cycling test(CT)The CT was conducted on a LodeExcalibur Sport (v 1.5; Groningen,Netherlands) cycle ergometer whichinterfaced with a Lode BV Work LoadProgrammer (WLP). Subjectswarmed up on the ergometer for 10min at a power output of 75 Watts(W). The progressive VO 2 max andlactate test consisted of 5 min stagescommencing at 100W and increased50W until volitional exhaustion(cadence < 80 revolutions.min -1 ). Allsubjects performed the test at acadence between 85-95revolutions.min -1 . Maximum poweroutput was determined by using theformula:P@VO 2Max = P p + ( t f x (V f - V p / 5min)where P p is the power output ofprevious stage, V f is the power outputof the final stage and t f is the time (inmin) at final power.Expired gas was collectedcontinuously during the CT andanalysed with a Quinton MetabolicCart (QMC: Quinton ® InstrumentsCo, Seattle, U.S.A).At the completion of each 5 mininterval, a blood sample was takenfrom the finger to determine bloodlactate, pH and bicarbonate ionconcentration. Lactate analysis wasconducted using a Yellow SpringsInstruments (YSI, Ohio, U.S.A.) 1500LLactate Analyser and pH andbicarbonate ion concentration wasassessed using a AVL Omni (Graz,Austria) blood gas analyser.Heart rate (beats.min -1 ) was recordedby telemetry (Polar Advantage NV,Polar, Finland) during the last 15seconds of each 5 min interval, and90

the maximum heart rate reached byeach subject was recorded.Following completion of the test, allsubjects completed a 10 min warmdown at 50-75W. Data attainedduring this test is represented inTable 1.Progressive maximal run test (RT)The RT was conducted on acalibrated Quinton treadmill (ModelQ-65: Quinton ® Instruments Co,Seattle, U.S.A). Subjects warmed upon the treadmill for 10 min at a speedbetween 8-10 km.hr-1 . The RTconsisted of 4 min stagescommencing at 10km.hr -1 andincreasing 2km.hr -1 until 18km.hr -1 ,thereafter the velocity increased1km . hr -1 each minute until volitionalexhaustion. Velocity at VO 2max(V@VO 2max ) and oxygenconsumption variables: VO 2 (mL.kg -1 .min -1 ), ventilation (L.min -1 ) andrespiratory exchange ratio (RER)were recorded. VO 2max , maximalventilation and RER were determinedas the average of the highest twoconsecutive values obtained duringthe last increment.At the end of each 4 min interval, thetreadmill was stopped for 1 min and ablood sample was collected from thefinger in a heparinsied capillary tubeto determine blood lactate, pH andbicarbonate ion concentration. Heartrate was recorded during the last 15 sof each 4 min interval during theincremental test and maximum heartrate was also recorded.Velocity, VO 2 , heart rate, bloodlactate, pH, and bicarbonateconcentrations at AT was determinedusing the log-log transformationmethod (Beaver et al., 1985) from theprogressive maximum test.Run Time Trial Testing (RTT)The RTT was conducted on a singleday, with the same treadmill, gas andblood analysis equipment describedabove. The subjects completed a tenmin warm up at 10km . hr -1 . They thenselected a starting velocity (10-14km . hr -1 ) and proceeded to cover7.5km as quickly as possible, beingpermitted to self-select velocity at thecompletion of every minute. VO 2 wasrecorded between 1-3 (start), 14-17(mid) and 24-27 (end) min of RTT. Atthe 10 and 20 min blood sampleswere taken from the finger, whilst thesubject continued to run and analysedfor blood lactate, pH and bicarbonateion concentration. The sameprocedure was repeated immediatelyat the completion of RTT. Heart ratewas recorded continuously throughoutRTT. RPE was recorded at each 5minute period during the RTT and atthe end of the trial. The changes inrun velocity were recorded throughoutRTT. The same procedure anddistance of RTT was employed for therun portions of all BRICK protocols.BRICK TestingThe BRICK protocols were conductedusing the same cycle ergometer andtreadmill equipment describedabove. Every 8 min during the 45 mincycle test a blood sample was takenfrom the finger and analysed for bloodlactate, pH and bicarbonate ionconcentration. RPE was alsorecorded at this time. Heart rate wasmonitored continuously for the 45 minprotocol.At the completion of the cycleprotocol the subjects changed intorunning shoes and commenced theself-paced run time trial as outlined inRTT.91

BRICK ProtocolsBRICK DRT (TT DRT + run) consisted ofa series of intermittent sprintscombined with a draft simulatedeffort. The sprints involved 2 sets of24 efforts with each sprint lasting 10 sand ranging in intensity from 80 –183% peak power. The sets wereseparated by a 20 min draftsimulated effort of variable power(mean 67 ± 10% peak power).BRICK ITU (TT ITU + run ) required thesubjects to repeat intermittent 10 ssprints (80 – 183 % peak power) andrecover (150 watts) in a stochasticmanner with open cadence. Thesubjects then completed 3 sets of 30sprints continuously for 45 min.Sprints were randomised and thesprint power had to be reached andheld to be valid. BRICK ITT (TT ITT +run) required the subject to maintainthe highest power output for 45 min.The linear factor for the LodeExcalibur cycle ergometer wascalculated based on a cadence of 90rpm and factored by the subject’spower at individual anaerobicthreshold as determined by Beaver etal., 1985.complete the 7.5 km time trialfollowing each cycle protocol andRTT.Maximal physiological measures andsignificance of ANOVA between theRTT and BRICK DRT , BRICK ITU andBRICK ITT are presented in Table 4.No significant differences were foundbetween RTT and BRICK DRT, ITU or ITTfor run time, mean run velocity, bloodlactate, bicarbonate ionconcentration, perceived exertion andaverage heart rate. Significantdifferences were observed for mid (p= .0102) and end (p = .0024) oxygenconsumption (VO 2 ) values betweenBRICK DRT, ITU, ITT and RTT. Similarly,significant differences were recordedfor % VO 2max for mid (p = .0083) andend (p = .0015) between BRICK DRT,ITU,ITTandRTT.LF X = IAT watts/90 rpm/90rpmWhere: IAT = Individual anaerobicthreshold (W)X = linear factor for each individualAll values are reported as mean ±standard deviation and significancewas set at p = 0.05.ResultsTable 1 outlines the descriptivestatistics for the subjects. The mean ±SD for lactate, heart rate and VO 2can be found in Table 2 for each ofthe BRICK cycle protocols. Table 3outlines the mean time taken to92

Table 1. Subject characteristicsTest Parameters Mean SD –Mass (kg) 69.6 8.8Height (cm) 178.9 5.7Maximum Power (watts) 365 32.4V @VO 2max (km . hr -1 ) 19.5 0.40Bike VO 2max (L . min -1 ) 4.42 0.26Run VO 2max (L . min -1 ) 4.60 0.46Table 2. Bike Brick SummaryBrick Parameter Mean SD –ITT Lactate (mmol . l -1 ) 3.9 .09DRT 3.3 .86ITU 4.4 .58ITT Heart rate(b . min - 160 61 )DRT 147 4ITU 150 9ITT VO 2 (L . min -1 ) 3.603 .213DRT 3.145 .064ITU 3.349 0.38Table 3: Mean times for 7.5 km run time trialRun Mean Time (min) SDProtocolRTT 28.34 1.52BRICK ITT 28.41 1.34BRICK DRT 28.43 1.41BRICK ITU 28.42 1.1693

Table 4: Comparisons between physiological variables for each run time trialVO2(L.min -1 )Lactate(mmol.L -1 )pHBicarbonate ion(mmol.L -1 )Heart Rate(beats.min -1 )RPEStart Mid End Start Mid End Start Mid End Start Mid End Start Mid End Start Mid EndRTT 3.37(0.32)3.91(3.39)3.99(0.28)4.3(0.9)4.4(1.7)5.3(3.1)7.396(0.022)7.387(0.056)7.373(0.063)20.8(2.7)20.3(2.8)18.7(3.6)167(5)176(5)180(6)14(1)16 18(1) (1)BRICK ITT 3.33(0.17)3.62(0.16)3.74(0.24)4.5(0.7)4.6(1.2)5.1(1.3)7.397(0.030)7.404(0.033)7.392(0.032)20.3(1.4)20.4(1.4)19.4(1.9)167(3)174(6)179(3)15(1)16(1) (1)BRICK DRT 3.24(0.08)3.68(0.25)3.70(0.23)4.4(2)4.9(2.4)5.7(2.7)7.398(0.016)7.393(0.039)7.382(0.055)20.3(2.4)19.4(2.9)18.3(3.0)168(7)175(5)178(5)15(2)17(2) (1)BRICK ITU 3.19(0.26)3.55(0.30)3.67(0.16)4.1(1.6)4.2(1.9)5.7(2.4)7.394(0.026)7.393(0.034)7.363(0.047)21.0(2.2)20.2(2.0)18.6(2.6)167(8)173(6)179(7)16(1)17 18(1) (1)Bold values represent significant differences (p = 0.05)94

Mid Run VO 2ValuesOxygen Values (L.min -1 )4.243.83.63.43.23ITT Mid DRT Mid ITU Mid Run TTTest ProtocolsFigure 1: Mid run mean and SD for VO 2 values for all BRICK protocols and RTT.End Run VO 2 ValuesVO2 (L . min -1 )4.243.83.63.43.23ITT End DRT End ITU End Run TTTest ProtocolsFigure 2: End run mean and SD for VO 2 values for all BRICK protocols and RTT.95

DiscussionThe principle finding of this researchwas the reduction in VO 2 during the runportion of all three BRICK protocols. DeVito et al. (1994) conducted an isolatedincremental run test and one week lateranother incremental run test following a1.5 km swim and 40 km cycle leg andfound a 12% and 7.2% decrease in VO 2at AT and VO 2max , respectively. Thiswould equate to the same VO 2max beingachieved at a lower velocity due to thephysiological responses characterisingdecreased running economy. De Vito etal. (1994) made the assumption that areduction in economy would result in areduced run performance; however, thiswas not tested directly. In the presentstudy a reduction of 6.2 % in mid andend VO 2 values was found, without anydifferences between all BRICK run andRTT 7.5km time. Thus, despitereductions in VO 2 during the BRICK run,performance time and average velocitydid not decrease. This suggests atransitory improvement in economy.Studies conducted by Kreider et al.(1988), Hue et al. (1998) andGuezennec et al. (1996) analysedtriathlon pace over a 10 km run distanceand in addition investigated changes inoxygen consumption where they found amean increase of 0.44 L.min -1 (6.0mL.kg -1 .min -1 ), 0.24 L.min -1 (3.4 mL.kg -1 .min -1 ) and 0.25 L.min -1 (3.5 mL.kg -1 .min -1 ), respectively. The increase inVO 2 may be explained by changes inrunning mechanics whereby there is adecrease in stride length and increasein stride rate possibly resulting in greaterenergy expenditure (Hue et al. 1998).It is thought that fatigue processes maycause decreases in VO 2 during the runportion. Hausswirth et al. (1999)conducted a study on the effect of a draftlegal cycle leg on physiological andperformance parameters using elitemale triathletes. It was found that VO 2was higher and run velocity greater (17.1v’s 17.8 km.hr-1) during the run leg,following the draft legal triathlon(Hausswirth et al., 1999). This indicatesthat the athletes were more fatiguedduring the run after riding the non-draftformat and thus were not able to fullyutilise their metabolic systems. It isclaimed that glycogen depletion mayexplain the feelings of heaviness and berelated to reduced muscle fibrerecruitment (Wilmore and Costill, 1994).With glycogen depletion, slow twitch(ST) fibres fail to develop maximumtension and recruitment of fast twitch(FTa and FTb) fibres becomes reduced,decreasing muscle tension andultimately run velocity. It is also claimedthat hyperthermia may explain thereductions in VO 2 and run performance(Cade et al., 1992). The additive effectsof glycogen depletion, hyperthermia andpsychological trauma can affect fibrerecruitment and hence VO 2 . To achievepeak performance, athletes must learnto improve pacing, which may explainsimilar run performance, despitephysiological fatigue in the subjects ofthis study.Significant differences were expectedbetween RTT and BRICK ITT andBRICK ITU , with similar run timesexpected between BRICK DRT and RTT.This; however, was not the case as therewere no significant differences reportedfor run time between RTT and BRICK ITT,ITUand DRT . According to Palmer et al.(1997), 20 km bike time trialperformance was faster following a 150minute pre-ride at steady state poweroutput (58% peak power) versus avariable power output pre- ride (58± 12% peak power) (26:32 ± 1:30 min v’s28:08 ± 1:47). These results indicate forcycling, that improved time trial96

performance is expected following asteady state pre-ride at 58% of peakpower. This effect may be explained inpart by the recruitment of FTa and FTbfibres during the variable power outputprotocol, in turn causing morephysiological fatigue.In this research, the similar run timesbetween all protocols, despitesignificant variations in power output,may be explained by the subject group.The subjects may have had limitations intheir ability to increase running pace,despite varied pre-run physiologicalcost. Thus the subjects may haveemployed the same run pace strategyfor all run conditions. Biomechanicallimitations in stride rate and frequency,as well as a lack of run speed, mayexplain the similar run times. Furtheranalysis of the study by Hausswirth et al.(1999) reveals that performers withestablished running backgroundsgained the greatest time improvementsin run time after a draft cycle protocol.Thus, better runners appear to be ableto profit from reduced bike efforts andincrease run pace as a result. Thesimilar run times in this research may berelated to limitations in running andpacing ability but also the small samplesize. The implications for thecompetitive triathlete may be thatdrafting may not improve run times andindividual bike efforts could producefaster overall times. It also appears thatthe competitive triathlete could benefitfrom speed specific run training andpacing.This research on the effect of cycle legintensity on self-paced run performanceshowed no differences in run times,despite findings to the opposite in theliterature. The results indicate thesubject group may have running velocityand pacing limitations. Researchcomparing the effect of BRICK protocolson run pacing between competitive andelite triathletes is recommended.Furthermore, investigations are neededwith a larger sample size to measure theeffect of cycle leg intensity on run time.ReferencesBeaver, W.L., Wasserman, K. & Whipp,B.J.: Improved detection of lactatethreshold during exercise using a log-logtransformation. J. Appl. Phys., 59, 1936-1940, 1985.Cade, R., Packer, D., Zauner,C.,Kaufmann, D., Peterson, J., Mars, D.,Privette, M., Hommen, N. and Rogers,M.J. Marathon Running: physiologicaland chemical changes accompanyinglate race functional deterioration. Eur. JAppl Physiol Vol 65: pp 485-491, 1992.Coyle, E.F., Feltner, M.E., Kautz, S.A.,Hamilton, M.T., Montain, S.J., Baylor,A.M., Abrahams, L.D. and Petrek, G.W.Physiological and biomechanicaldeterminants of of elite endurancecycling performance. Med Sci Sportsand Exerc, Vol 23, pp 93-107, 1991.Craig, N.P., Norton, K.I., Bourdon, P.C.,Woolford, S.M., Stanef, T., Squires, B.,Olds, T.S., Conyers, R.A.J. & Walsh,C.B.V.: Aerobic and anaerobic indicescontributing to track endurance cyclingperformance. Eur J Appl Physiol67:150-158, 1993.De Vito, G., Bernardi, M., Sproviero, E.& Figura, F.: Decrease of enduranceperformance during Olympic triathlon. IntJ Sports Med 16(1): 24-28, 1995.Geuzennec, C.Y., Vallier, J.M., Bigard,A.X. & Durey, A.: Increase in energycost of running at the end of a triathlon.Eur J Appl Physiol 73: 440-445, 1996.97

Hausswirth, C., Lehenaff, D., Dreano, P.and Savonen, K.: Effects of cyclingalone or in a sheltered position onsubsequent running performance duringa triathlon. Med. Sci.Sports Exerc.,Vol.31, No4, pp. 599-604, 1999.Hue, O., Gallais, D.L., Chollet, D.,Boussana, A. & Préfaut, C.: Theinfluence of prior cycling onbiomechanical and cardiorespiratoryresponse profiles during running intriathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 77: 98-105, 1998.Kreider, R., Boone, T., Thompson, W.,Burkes, S. & Cortes, C.: Cardiovascularand thermal responses of triathlonperformance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 20:385-390, 1988.Palmer, G.S., Noakes, T.D. and Hawley,J.A. Effects of steady state versusstochastic exercise on subsequentcycling performance. Med. Sci. SportsExerc. Vol 29: pp 684-687, 1997.McCole, S.D., Claney, K., Conte, J.C.,Anderson, R. and Hagberg, J.M. EnergyExpenditure during bicycling. Journal ofApplied Physiology, Vol 47, pp 201-206,1991.Hawley. J.A. and Noakes T.D. Peakpower predicts maximal oxygen uptakeand performance time in trained cyclists,European Journal of AppliedPhysiology, Vol 65, pp 79-83Smith, D., Lee, H., Pickard, R., Sutton,B. and Hunter, E. Monitoring of the cycleleg within the 1997 Sydney ITU Triathlon.Unpublished report, (1997).Wilmore, J,H. and Costill, D.L.Physiology of Sport and Exercise(1994) Human Kinetics, Champaign Hill,Illinois, USA.98

The Lactate Index: Classification of Training Intensity Basedon Lactate, Heart Rate and Perceived Exertion.John HellemansDr John Hellemans is a Sports Medicine Practitioner and Coach based at QEII SportsStadium in Christchurch. He has a special interest in high performance endurancesports and altitude training. He is the founder of the New Zealand Triathlon Academyand the author of the book “Triathlon, A Complete Guide for Training and Racing”.John has extensive practical experience in altitude training as an athlete and coach.Current terminology regarding training intensity, based on energysystems, the relative percentage concept and ratings of perceivedexertion reflect confusion which exists amongst scientists and coacheswhen it comes to establishing desired training intensity zones.The first part of this presentation clarifies relevant factors regarding themetabolic, cardio-vascular and psychological response to increasingworkloads.The second part introduces the simple and reliable system called thelactate index, to establish training intensity zones for enduranceathletes.Based on the lactate and heart rate testing, combined with subjectiveperception, five intensity zones are recognised: easy, steady,moderately hard, hard and very hard. It is proposed that identifiedzones and related terminology will be easily adopted by sportsscientists and coaches when prescribing exercise intensity forendurance sports. This does not only apply to competitive athletes butalso to the general public who exercise for fitness and general health.____________________100

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Fluid losses and Voluntary Fluid Intakes in New Zealand AgeGroup Triathletes During the 1998 ITU World ChampionshipTriathlonIen Hellemans, NZRD, Bdietetics, Postgrad Dip SciSportsmed, Christchurch, New Zealand____________The adverse effects of dehydration onsporting performance are one of themost thoroughly investigated areas insports science. It is well established thatathletes can lose sweat in excess of oneto two litres per hour during intenseexercise in the heat. A one litre fluid losscauses core temperature to rise by0.3°C during exercise in the heat, heartrate to be elevated by 8 beats perminute and cardiac output to decline by1 litre per minute. It has been found thatsweat rates are highly individual and thatathletes do not voluntarily replace morethan 50% of the fluid loss incurred duringexercise. Most of the research in thearea of dehydration is conducted withina laboratory setting which may notaccurately reflect field conditions.Considering all of this, it is clearlyimportant that athletes assess theirsweat induced fluid losses and fluidrequirements in the field and that theydevelop appropriate individual fluidplans in order to maximise performanceand prevent problems resulting fromdehydration.The aim of this field study was to firstestimate sweat induced fluid losses inNew Zealand age group triathletesduring an Olympic Distance Triathlonrace and to secondly provide feedbackon fluid losses and fluid needs toindividual athletes to assist them indeveloping appropriate individual fluidplans for use during competition.MethodsSubjectsSix female and 15 male New Zealandage group triathletes volunteered toparticipate in a field study in whichsweat induced weight loss wasmeasured during the 1998 ITU WorldTriathlon Championships in Lausanne,Switzerland. Recruitment took place at ateam meeting two days prior to the raceand the aims and procedures of thestudy were explained at this meeting.At the World Triathlon Championshipseach age group spans five years, exceptfor the junior age group which is from16-19 years. The women’s racespreceded the men’s and the higher agegroups took place before the lower agegroups. The first race in which subjectsparticipating in this study competedstarted at 7 am with subsequent starts at10 minute intervals. The last start forsubjects in this study was at 9.30 am forthe 20-24 year old males. Table oneshows the age groups in which subjectsparticipating in this study competed.Study designSubjects reported to the New Zealandtent which was situated close to thestarting line for a weigh in approx. 30minutes prior to the start of theirindividual race and again as soon aswas practical, but within half an hour of,finishing. Subjects were weighed in theirracing togs and were dried offthoroughly with a towel before the postrace weight measurement. AWedderburn Tanita 1609 N set ofweighing scales was used. Outside102

temperature at 6.40 am was 12.5°C andhad increased to 16.6°C by 11.40 am103

Table 1. Age groups in which New Zealand triathletes raced at the 1998 ITUWorld Triathlon Championships.Age group Females Males65 - 69 - 150 - 54 2 145 - 49 2 435 - 39 1 230 - 34 - 125 - 29 1 420 - 24 - 2Subjects were instructed to estimateand report on the amount and type offluid consumed between the pre andpost race weight measurements.Fluid intake for each athlete wasreported on and recorded at the postrace weight check.Subjects were further asked toreport on urine output and bowelmotions between the pre and postrace weight checks. They wereinstructed to report on the frequencyof passing urine and to indicate ifthey passed a small, medium orlarge amount. A small volume wasestimated to be 100 ml urine,medium 200 ml and large 300 ml.Fluid loss (g) was estimated usingthe following equation:Fluid loss = reduction in body weight(g) + fluid intake (g) - urine output (g).Percent dehydration is defined asthe body weight loss which occurredduring the race and was calculatedas follows:Percent dehydration = (body weightreduction - urine output) / initial bodyweight x 100ResultsAll subjects lost weight during therace and mean weight loss was1200 g (range 200 - 2600 g). Meantotal fluid intake between pre andpost race weight measurements was1120 g (range 500 - 2500 g). Meanestimated urine output was 120 g.Total mean fluid loss (reduction inbody weight + fluid intake - urineoutput) was thus 1200 plus 1120 -120 = 2200 g. Mean percentdehydration (body weight loss - urineoutput / initial body weight x 100)was 1.4%.DiscussionA limitation of this study was that dueto it’s nature, fluid intakes and urineoutput could not be accuratelymeasured and had to be estimatedby subjects. However, as this studywas conducted during an importantinternational race it does providevaluable information on fluid lossesand intakes during such an eventand under specific climaticconditions. The results indicate thatdespite the perceived cooltemperatures during the first part ofthe morning during which the agegroup World Championship race104

took place, the triathletes in thisstudy did become dehydrated andhad not judged their fluidrequirements accurately. Asscientists now believe that there isno critical amount of dehydrationwhich can be tolerated withoutphysiological consequence, thesetriathletes would have benefited fromlarger fluid intakes during the race.As sweat rates are highly individualand because athletes do notvoluntarily meet their fluidrequirements, assessing fluid lossesin both training and racing is ofsignificant benefit in developingappropriate fluid intake plans forindividual athletes.ReferencesCoyle, E.F., Montain, S.J. (1992a)Carbohydrate and fluid ingestionduring exercise: Are there tradeoffs?Medicine and Science inSport and Exercise , 24, 671-678Noakes, T.D. (1993) Fluidreplacement during exercise.Exercise and SportsScience.Review, 21:297-330Broad, E.M., Burke, L.M., Cox, G.R.,Heeley, P., Riley, M. (1996) Bodyweight changes and voluntary fluidintakes during training andcompetition sessions in team sports.International Journal of SportsNutrition, 6,:307-320105

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The effect of fluid loss on Olympic distance triathlonperformance in high thermoregulatory stress.Coutts, A.J., Reaburn, P.R.J., Mummery, W.K., Abt. G.A, Humphries, B.and Schofield. G.Triathlon Research Initiative, School of Health and Human Performance, CentralQueensland University, Rockhampton, Qld. Australia, 4702.Acknowledgments – The authors thank Gatorade for providing product and equipment in supportof these studies. This research was made possible through a grant from the Rural, Social andEconomic Research Centre at Central Queensland University.The purpose of this study was to measure the effect ofad-libitum fluid intakes and sweat losses on Olympic distancetriathlon (ODT) . performance. Ten (3 female and 7 male) trainedtriathletes ( V O 2max = 58.4 ± 7.7 mL•kg -1 •min -1 ; Best ODT time =131.5 ± 13.3 minutes) completed two ODT’s (1.5-km swim, 40-kmbicycle, 10-km run), two weeks apart. The average wet-bulb globetemperature outdoors (WBGT out ) was 28.0 ± 2.8 o C. ODT relativebody mass change, sweat loss, sweat rate and fluid intake werefound to be 3.86 ± 0.76 %BM, 4370 ± 937 mL, 1886 ± 503 mL•hr -1and 1551 ± 550 mL, respectively. Run time was significantlyinfluenced by ad-libitum fluid consumption during and the relativebody mass change during that leg. Similarly, high sweat rate, highsweat loss but decreased relative body mass losses were allsignificantly correlated with increased bicycle leg performance.Although swim leg time was significantly related to ODT time, nomeasures of sweat or fluid intake correlated with swimperformance.______________________________The ODT requires participants toswim 1.5 kilometres, bicycle 40kilometres and run 10 kilometres.With the introduction of the ODT asan official Olympic sport, it hasbecome the major focus ofcompetition for many triathletes. Thecompetitive triathlon season inAustralia extends through thesummer months where typically theambient air temperature andhumidity are high. Additionally, theevent requires participants toexercise aerobically at highpercentage of their maximal aerobiccapacity for approximately two hoursfor most well-trained triathletes.Consequently, the risk ofhypohydration during ODT is high.Hypohydration causes greater heatstorage and reduces the athlete’sability to tolerate heat strain. Sawka(1992) suggests that heat storage ismediated by reduced evaporativeheat loss through sweating andreduced skin flow. Furthermore,hypovolemia is also associated withreduced performance in enduranceevents in hot and humid conditions.Previous laboratory research hasshown that triathletes lose between1.7 and 4.1% of body mass duringan ODT in hot and humid conditions(Millard-Stafford et al. 1990; Broadet al. 1997). These findings indicatethat fluid replacement is critical fortriathlon performance as enduranceperformance has been shown todecrease with hypohydration levelsgreater than 1.8% BM (Walsh et al.1994). Therefore, the aim of thispaper is to report on fluid loss duringODT. Furthermore, the results of the107

study will be used to present apredictive model for fluid balancemeasures and ODT performance.This will be done by constructing apath analysis of the effects of fluidintake and sweat loss on ODTperformance.MethodsSubjectsTen acclimatised triathletes (3female and 7 male) voluntarilyparticipated in the study. Theparticipants mean age body mass,maximal oxygen uptake, sum of nineskinfold sites and best ODT timewere 33.3 ± 6.7 (SD) yr, 70.9 ± 9.7kg, 58.4 ± 7.7 mL•kg -1 •min -1 84.3 ±31.7 mm and 2:11:30 ± 0:13:20(hr:min:sec), respectively.Participants were requested tomaintain normal training volume andintensity during the testing periodand to abstain from physical trainingin the 24 hours prior to each test.Similarly, participants wereinstructed to abstain from alcohol,coffee and products containingcaffeine during the 24-hour periodprior to testing. During the 24 hoursprior to each test, participants wererequested to drink two litres of a sixpercentcarbohydrate solution(Gatorade ® ) to ensure that they wereadequately hydrated and hadadequate glycogen levels.Prior to participation, each volunteercompleted a medical historyquestionnaire and a written informedconsent document. Theexperimental protocol was approvedby the Central Queensland University(CQU) Human Ethics ResearchReview Panel.ProceduresPreliminary measurementsIn the week prior to the exercisetestingperiod, each subject wasfamiliarised with the exercise testingprotocols that were employed in thestudy. To ensure that all subjectswere familiar with the exerciseenvironment, each subject wastransported around the ODT course.Anthropometric measuresPrior to the initial . V O 2max test, bodymass, height and the sum of nineskinfolds (tricep, subscapular, bicep,iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal,front thigh, calf and mid-axilla) ofeach participant were measured bya Level 1 Anthropometrist certifiedby the International Society for theAdvancement of Kinanthropometry(ISAK).Maximal aerobic power testingIn the week prior to initial testing,maximal oxygen uptake ( . V O 2max )was determined using anincremental treadmill test toexhaustion. The test was conductedon a motorised treadmill (Precor,USA). Maximal oxygen uptake wasmeasured using a Medgraphics ®Gas Analysis System(Medgraphics ® , Parkway, USA).The participants arrived at theHuman Performance Laboratory atleast two hours post-prandial.Following a ten-minute warm-up at70% of age predicted maximal heartrate, the exercise protocolcommenced at a workload of 10km•hr -1 . The workload wasincreased by one km•hr -1 every fiveminutes until volitional fatigue.Maximal oxygen uptake wasconsidered the highest oxygen108

volume recorded during the lastminute of exercise. Heart rate wasrecorded throughout the protocol viaPolar ® Vantage NV(Polar OY,Finland)..Following V O 2max testing, eachparticipant was provided with atraining diary and dietary guidelinesto complete over the three-dayperiod before each ODT. Theseguidelines were to ensure that allparticipants had similar glycogenand hydration status at the time oftesting.Experimental designPrior to the warm up, a measure ofnude, towel dry, body mass wastaken post-micturition. This wasrepeated at each transition and thenafter both ODT’s using electronicallycalibrated scales (Mercury,Australia) accurate to 50g.Participants were required tocomplete an ODT in an uncontrolledenvironment on two separate days,seven days apart. The 1.5-km swimwas completed in a 25-metreswimming pool, the 40-km bicycleleg was completed on an accuratelymeasured 10-km road loop, and a2.5-km road loop was used for the10-km run. Performance time wastaken as the total ODT time minusexperimental intervention time.Environmental conditionsWBGT out was measured at 30-minute intervals during each trialusing a heat stress monitor(QUESTEMP o 10, Oconomowoc, WI,USA).Fluid Intake and Sweat lossDuring each test, participants wereprovided with half-strengthGatorade ® for ad-libitum intake.Individual fluid intakes werecalculated as the difference in thevolume of fluid in each subject’swater bottle at the beginning andend of each test. Urinary fluid losswas measured using a volumetriccylinder accurate to 10 ml. Sweatloss (SL) was assessed using themethod of Noakes and co-workers(1988).Statistical analysisMeans and standard deviationswere calculated for each variable. Ahierarchical multiple regression wasused to determine if swim time,bicycle leg time and run leg time,and the sweat loss, sweat rate,relative body mass change and fluidintake were significantly related ODTtime. A multiple regression was alsoperformed to measure correlationsbetween sweat loss, sweat rate,relative body mass change and fluidintake for each leg with performancetime for each leg. Finally, a partialcorrelation was completedcorrelating total race fluidconsumption to ODT time whilecontrolling for sweat loss. An alphalevel of 0.05 was accepted asshowing statistical significance. Allstatistical analyses were completedusing SPSS statistical softwarepackage (SPSS Inc., Chicago,Illinois).109

ResultsTable 1. Mean environmental conditions ( o C), ODT performance time (hr:min:sec)Mean ± SDWBGT out ( o C) 28.0 ± 2.8WBGT in ( o C) 29.8 ± 2.6Relative humidity (RH) 49.9 ± 7.2Performance time (hr:min:sec) 2:20:47 ± 0:10:15Table 2. Mean relative changes in body mass (%BM), gross sweat loss (mL), sweat ratemL•hr -1 and ad-libitum fluid intake (mL) during each ODT ( _ X ± SD).ODTLegRelative BodyMass Change(%BM)Gross SweatLoss(mL)Sweat Rate(mL•hr -1 )Ad-libitumFluid Intake(mL)Swim -1.07 ± 0.36 783 ± 321 1975 ± 789 0 ± 0Bicycle -1.99 ± 0.72 2351 ± 602 2052 ± 621 899 ± 413Run -0.80 ± 0.85 1236 ± 435 1587 ± 621 651 ± 297ODT 3.86 ± 0.76 4370 ± 937 1886 ± 503 1551 ± 550Table 1 shows the environmentalconditions and performance timesfor the two testing days. Table 2shows the changes in markers offluid balance during ODTThe hierarchical multiple regressionrevealed that swim-leg time, bicyclelegtime and run-leg time allsignificantly correlated with ODTtime. No other variables significantlycorrelated with ODT time. Multipleregression failed to show any fluidbalance marker as a predictor ofswim-leg performance time.However, increased bicycle sweatrate, increased bicycle sweat lossand decreased relative body masschange were shown to besignificantly correlated to bicycle legtime. Furthermore, increased fluidintake and decreased relative bodymass change on the run leg werealso shown to be significantlycorrelated with run leg performance.A simple model was constructed todemonstrate the effects of changesin fluid balance and ODTperformance. Figure 1 shows a pathanalysis for the prediction of ODTperformance time from the fluidbalance markers monitored in thepresent study.110

Figure 1: Path analysis of the significant correlations between measures of fluid balanceand ODT performance.111

Figure 1 shows that path analysis ofthe significant correlations betweenmeasures of fluid balance and eachtriathlon leg time and ODTperformance. As expected swimtimes, cycle times and run timespredict 100% of ODT time (Y = 0.3(swim time) + 0.38 (bicycle time) +0.59 (run time) + 4.787 x 10 -13 ).Change in run performance timeswas predicted from run leg sweatloss, run sweat rate and run drinkintake. This model accounted for97% of the variance (Y = 2.545 (runsweat loss) – 2.776 (run sweat rate)+ 0.203 (run drink) + 2625.738).Similarly, bicycle leg performancetime was predicted using bicycle legsweat loss and sweat rate. Thismodel predicted 96% of thevariance (Y = 3.81 (bicycle sweatloss) – 4.315 (bicycle sweat rate) +4145.948). Furthermore, a similarprediction equation was developedfor swim performance time. Thismodel accounted for 86% of thevariance (Y = 2.988 (swim sweatloss) – 3.003 (swim sweat rate) +1429.502)Finally these prediction equationswere combined to provide apredictive model for ODTperformance using markers of fluidbalance (Y = 0.3 (2.988 (swim sweatloss) – 3.003 (swim sweat rate) +1429.502) + (0.38 (3.81 (bicyclesweat loss) – 4.315 (bicycle sweatrate) + 4145.948) + 0.59 (2.545 (runsweat loss) – 2.776 (run sweat rate)+ 0.203 (run drink) + 2625.738) +4.787 x 10 -13 ).A partial correlations showed that adlibitum fluid intake during the ODT issignificantly correlated withperformance time when sweat losswas controlled for (r = -0.501, p

leg. Previous research has shownthat fluid consumption is increasedwhen athletes are presented withfluids more frequently (Burke andHawley 1997).The findings in the present studyshow that although the athletes lostapproximately 1% of their bodymass during the 1500-m swim legthat measures of fluid balancecannot reliably be used to predictswim performance time. Sweatloss, sweat rate, relative body masschange and fluid intake did notsignificantly correlate withperformance time. The absence ofa correlation with performance in theswim leg may be due to its briefnature. Although the swim leg lastedapproximately 24 minutes, thethermoregulatory demand was quitehigh. Body mass changes of 1.07 ±0.36 percent and sweat rates ofapproximately two litres per hoursuggest that there was highthermoregulatory load. This findingis converse to the research of Broadand colleagues (1997) who reportedthat approximately 0.1% BM waslost during a 20-minute swim in hotand humid conditions. Theabnormally large sweat lossescalculated during the swim leg in thisstudy may have been due to thesubjects urinating in the pool duringthe swim, which would havecompromised sweat losscalculations.On average, the triathletes lostapproximately 2% of body mass atthe completion of the 40-km bicycleleg. These body mass losses havepreviously been shown to decreaseendurance performance capacity inendurance athletes (Sawka 1992;Walsh et al. 1994). Furthermore, thepresent results demonstrate thatbicycle leg performance time can bereliably predicted from measures ofbicycle leg sweat loss, sweat rateand relative body mass change. Inparticular, triathletes who completedthe bicycle leg with the least bodymass change had fastest ODT time.This finding highlights theimportance of drinking during the 40-km bicycle leg. Additionally,triathletes with the greatest sweatrate and sweat loss also significantlycorrelated with faster ODT time.This suggests that fluid balance iscritical for performance on the cycleleg. Therefore, it seems reasonableto suggest that performance isincreased in athletes who can bestprevent the deleterious effects ofhypohydration on enduranceperformance through maintaining thebest possible fluid balance. Thismay be achieved through greaterheat acclimatisation. Research hasshown that heat acclimatisation isassociated with increased bloodvolume, enhanced ability to sweat,earlier onset of sweating and anincrease in sweat rate (Maughanand Sherriffs 1997). Thesephysiological adaptations mayreduce the thermal load during ODTin hot conditions.The present results show that run legperformance time to be thestrongest predictor of overall racetime. This is particularly interestingas the race examined was nondrafting,which often allows athletesto enter the run leg in a group.Therefore, in drafting-legal races, thefastest finisher is often the best prefatigued10 km runner. However, innon-drafting events such as thepresent study, the run legperformance is a significantpredictor of ODT time because thefaster athletes have entered the run113

leg with greater total body waterwhich allows them to exercise at ahigher intensity. This is supportedby the relative body mass changeresults on the bicycle leg where thebest performers maintain a bodyweight closer to their euhydratedstate than the slower triathletes.Therefore, importance must beplaced on preventing negative fluidbalance during ODT in order tomaintain intensity. This ishighlighted by the finding that bicyclesweat loss was also significantlycorrelated with run leg time. Fluidintake on the bicycle is difficultduring the first 25 minutes of therace. The present findings suggestthat if hypohydration is to be delayedin ODT then fluid consumption in theearly stages of the bicycle leg areimportant.Similar to the bicycle leg results, astrong correlation was observedbetween relative body masschanges and run leg time.Triathletes who had maintained theirbody mass during the run leg werefaster, however, greater fluidconsumption during the run leg alsocorrelated significantly with run legtime. Relative body mass change isreflective of total hydration state andis the net product of fluid intake andloss. In the present study, triathletesentered the run leg hypohydrated byapproximately two percent of theirbody mass. Sawka (1992) suggeststhat once body water deficit exceeds2% BM, there becomes adisproportionate larger decrease inmaximal aerobic power with anincreased magnitude of body waterdeficit. Therefore, the athletes whoenter the run leg with the least bodywater deficit are better equipped tocomplete the run leg in a faster time.This may explain that athletes whohave a decreased body water deficitare better able to exercise at higherintensities and therefore completethe 10-km leg faster. Hence, thepresent results further support theneed for protection of body waterduring ODT in hot conditions.Furthermore, ad-libitum fluidconsumption during the run stronglycorrelated with faster ODT. Thisresult also suggests that fastertriathletes maintain total body waterfor longer than their slowercounterparts during ODT. This issupported by the current results thatindicate that when controlling forindividual sweat fluid loss, that thetriathletes who consumed the mostfluid during the ODT was faster.Taken together these results wouldsuggest that the best triathletescompeting in ODT have greatersweat capacity, however are alsotrained in fluid intake. Therefore,strategies for delaying hypohydrationare critical for increasing ODTperformance in hot and humidconditions. The predictive modelpresented can be used to highlightthe importance of correct hydrationmethods during ODT.Coaching ImplicationsThe present study highlighted thedeleterious effects of hypohydrationon ODT performance. These resultswould suggest that athletescompeting ODT in hot and humidconditions should take measures toprevent body water loss.Acclimatisation periods for longerthan 14 days should be undertakento best prepare the athlete forexercise in hot and humid conditions(see Maughan and Sherriffs (1997)for appropriate strategies).114

Furthermore, triathletes should betrained to consume as much fluid aspossible during the early stages ofthe bicycle leg to the completion ofthe ODT in order to prevent thedeleterious effect of hypohydration.These strategies should bereinforced at training. Finally, preeventhyperhydration with solutionssuch as glycerol should beconsidered to assist in thepreservation of total body waterduring ODT (Coutts et al. 1999).These strategies will aid the athletein increasing ODT performancewhen competing in hot and humidconditions.Hinson and L. J. DiCarlo (1990).“Carbohydrate-electrolytereplacement during a simulatedtriathlon in the heat.” Medicine andScience in Sports and Exercise22(5): 621-628.Sawka, M. N. (1992).“Physiological consequences ofhypohydration:Exerciseperformance and thermoregulation.”Medicine and Science in Sports andExercise 24(6): 657-670.Walsh, R. M., T. D. Noakes, J.A. Hawley and S. C. Dennis (1994).“Impaired high-intensity cyclingperformance time at low levels ofdehydration.” International Journal ofSports Medicine 15: 393-398.ReferencesBroad, E., D. Smith, G. VanEwyk, S. Beasley and A. Roberts(1997). Sweat losses during anOlympic distance triathlon. SportsMedicine Australia (SMA),Canberra, Sports Medicine Australia(SMA).Burke, L. M. and J. A. Hawley(1997). “Fluid balance in teamsports: Guidelines for optimalpractices.” Sports Medicine 24(1):38-54.Coutts, A. J., P. R. J. Reaburn ,W. K. Mummery and M. Holmes(1999). “The effect of glycerolhyperhydration on Olympic distancetriathlon in hot and humidconditions.” Journal of Science andMedicine in Sport In Review.Maughan, R. J. and S. M.Sherriffs (1997). “Preparing athletesfor competition in the heat:developing an effectiveacclimitization strategy.” SportsScience Exchange 10(2).Millard-Stafford, M., P. B.Sparling, L. B. Rosskopf, B. T.115

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Carbohydrate versus fat ingestion during exerciseDr Asker E JeukendrupSchool of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT,Birmingham, United KingdomAlthough it is known that carbohydrate (CHO) feedings during exerciseimprove endurance performance, relatively little is known about theunderlying mechanisms. One of the proposed mechanisms is basedon the observation that CHO ingestion during exercise maintains bloodglucose levels and high rates of CHO oxidation. Studies using (stable)isotope methodology have shown that not all CHO are oxidized atsimilar rates and hence they may not be equally effective. Glucose,sucrose, maltose, maltodextrins and amylopectin are oxidized at highrates. Fructose, galactose and amylose have been shown to beoxidized at 25-50% lower rates. Combinations of multiple transportableCHO may increase the total CHO absorption and total exogenouscarbohydrate oxidation. Increasing the CHO intake will increase theoxidation up to about 1.0-1.1 g/min. A further increase in CHO intake,however, will not further increase the oxidation rates (Jeukendrup et al1999a). There is convincing evidence that this limitation is not at themuscular level but most likely located in the intestine or the liver(Jeukendrup et al 1999ab). Intestinal perfusion studies seem tosuggest that the capacity to absorb glucose is slightly in excess of theobserved entrance of glucose into the blood and is thus a factorcontributing to the limitation. The liver, however, seems to play anadditional important role, in that it provides glucose to the bloodstreamat a rate of only ~1 g/min by balancing the glucose delivery from thegut and from endogenous glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis into thesystemic circulation (Jeukendrup et al 1999ab).In the last few years several studies have attempted to increase fatoxidation during exercise by dietary means in order to “spare” CHO.This could theoretically enhance physical performance. Ingestion oflong-chain triglycerides (LCT) pre-exercise may result in smallalterations in fat substrate availability, but no effects on substrateoxidation or performance were observed. Medium chain triglyceride(MCT) ingestion during exercise has been suggested as an alternativeway to increase plasma fatty acid levels. However, the contribution ofMCT to energy expenditure is only small because generally thegastrointestinal tract can tolerate only small amounts (Jeukendrup et al1995). Although one study showed decreased glycogen utilization andimproved performance with CHO+MCT feedings (Van Zeijl et al 1996)when larger amounts of MCT were ingested, this could not beconfirmed by follow-up studies (Jeukendrup et al 1998, Goedecke et al1999).____________References1 Goedecke, J. H., R. Elmer-English, S. C. Dennis, I. Schloss, T. D. Noakes, and E. V. Lambert. Effectsof medium chain triacylglycerol ingested with carbohydrate on metabolism and exercise performance. Int JSports Nutr , 1999; 9: 35-47117

2 Jeukendrup, A. E., W. H. M. Saris, P. Schrauwen, F. Brouns, and A. J. M. Wagenmakers. Metabolicavailability of medium chain triglycerides co-ingested with carbohydrates during prolonged exercise. J ApplPhysiol , 1995; 79: 756-7623 Jeukendrup, A. E., J. J. H. C. Thielen, A. J. M. Wagenmakers, F. Brouns, and W. H. M. Saris. Effect ofMCT and carbohydrate ingestion on substrate utilization and cycling performance. Am J Clin Nutr, 1998; 67:397-4044 Jeukendrup, A. E., J. H. J. C. Stegen, A. Gijsen, F. Brouns, W. H. M. Saris, and A. J. M. Wagenmakers.Carbohydrate ingestion can completely suppress endogenous glucose production during exercise. Am JPhysiol , 1999a; 276: E672-E6835 Jeukendrup, A. E., A. Raben, A. Gijsen, J. C. H. C. Stegen, F. Brouns, W. H. M. Saris, and A. J. M.Wagenmakers. Glucose kinetics during prolonged exercise in highly trained subjects. Effect of glucoseingestion. J Physiol , 1999b; 515.2: 579-5896 Van Zeyl, C. G., E. V. Lambert, J. A. Hawley, T. D. Noakes, and S. C. Dennis. Effects of medium-chaintriglyceride ingestion on carbohydrate metabolism and cycling performance. J Appl Physiol , 1996; 80:2217-2225118

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