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157
The City as a Stage for Reform
Darmstadt), taking the work of German mayors as an example,
demonstrated the progressive nature of the municipal sector in
Germany during the period under discussion. He argued that their
extensive activities were, in effect, definitive for the turning point
around 1890. Showing that a professional response to urban challenges
was firmly anchored in the urban bourgeoisie, Schott illustrated
this by reference to Adicke’s property and housing policy for
Frankfurt am Main, and the industrial initiatives of Beck in Mann -
heim. Andrew Lees (Rutgers University) explained how social
reforms in British cities were ‘read’ by German town reformers.
Among other things, it emerged that the German side indentified
British social reform as largely motivated by private philanthropy
which was not the concern of the state, and valued it positively. As a
consequence, differences in national traditions could, in future, be
classified under an exchange of experiences. Ina Zweininger-
Bargielowski (University of Chicago) discussed the British discourse
on hygiene conducted at different levels within the framework of the
reform movement. While the health of the wealthiest nation before
the First World War was under discussion, the origins of public
health were soon found in the private sector. Actors in the field of
reform had the task of informing and educating individuals in a way
of life that took greater account of physical well-being. Suggestions
for daily exercise and encouraging vegetarianism were among
attempts to make life healthier. The discussion stressed that the period
from 1890 to 1914 saw significant changes in urban life. A stronger
belief in progress combined with philanthropic traditions and municipal
engagement allowed the city to become a focus of activities
crossing national boundaries. Within this historical framework, the
issues of how individuals related to the urban space and what impact
technical and administrative knowledge had on them are of particular
interest to scholars. Discussants queried the equation of ‘bourgeois’
with ‘progressive’, and the new term zivilgesellschaftlich provided
only a conditional solution. Calls were made for further
research on failed urban reform projects, municipal power structures,
and the intellectual discourse on town planning.
Richard Rodger (University of Edinburgh) looked at statistical
yearbooks and the contribution they made to decision-making at
municipal level. He started by pointing out that unlike the states of
continental Europe, Britain did not use this medium. Rodger argued