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4 thir I?ulm[ttrd in puttidl ~ul~i/med oh thrjot the uwrtd o j the Peftre 01%eguitemmtjDOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHYIn SANSKRITPuHIMANSHU SHEKHAR ACHARYAUnder the guidance ofDr. RUTUMBA SASTRYProfessor and limed, Department of Sarnskr~tDEPARTMENT OF SAMSKRITPONDICHERRY UNIVERSITYPONDICHERRY-605 014. 4NOVEMBER - 1998

IN MEMORYOFMY FATHERLATE SRI SHANKAR PRASAD AC?SARYA

Prof. V,Kutumba Sattry,He4 D e p M of Sdrit,Pondichcrry Univnmily,PwdichepIydOS014.CBRTi FICATB'Ibis is to Certify that the thesis entitled ~l~;rt~thit&a : A ClYlllStdy, submitted to the Pmdicheny Univenrity in partial hlfilment oftherequkmsn$ for the ~wsrdd of tbs Dope of Doctor of Pbi1asophy in Sarmkit,is a record of reeesrch work done by Sri Ilimdu Sheldrsro Acbya, duringthe period of hisin Ihe Depatmed of bduif Pondiohsrry Uniwmity,under my qavirion md guihe. It bas not formed tho bssis fw Dward of myDegree/Diploma/ Associateehip or o h similsr titles of my lhbmsdy.Place - PondiohanyDste - W2.98.(M. vSupervieor

Sd Htmlnrhn Shckhp AchPrgqRcscscb Scholar.Dcpment of SanskrifPandicheny Univcrsaty,Pondicheny.DECLARATIONI hereby declare that the thesis entitled ~~hatkathiho;a : AClural Study, submitted to the Pondicherry University in partialfulfillment of the requiremen$ for the award of Degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy in Sanskrit, is a record of original research work done byme under the supervision and guidance of Dr. V.Kutumba Sahy,Professor & Head, Department of Sansiaif Pondichnry University,Pondicheny.?he content embodied in &is thesis has not been submitted inpart or 111 for any other diploma or degree of any other Univmity.Place Pondicheny.Date -2 I -12.96.

ACKNOWLDGEMENTI express my deep sense of gdtuL to my revered teacher Dr.V.hhmbaSastry, Professor 6 Head, Department of SanaltrifPondicheny University,Pondichemy, for his illustrious guidance in the preparation of this work It is hisguidence, encourgement md manifold help drat could render the present sheto thisworkI am highly indebted to Dr. Sstyapal Nmg, Professor. Deprcrtment of Sansht.Delhi University, New Delhi; Dr.C.Panhga Bhatta, Reader, Depadment ofSanskrit Pondichemy University, Pondicheny, Dr. B.KDalai, Reader, CXS,University of Poona; Mr. Keshab La1 Shah, Dr. Sagd Jain, and Dr. DaldahMalvania, for giving me constant help and encouragement.I am also ptefil to Dr, J.Krishan, Lecturer, and Mr. C.D, Beherq Lechrer,Department of Sanskrit. Pondicherry University, for their valuable suggestions.My sincere thrmks me due to Sri. Sempadanmda M i h Dr. Ashok KmwPanda, SMdada, G~mananda Bhai and DevabrataJi for their timely help and co-operation.

I am thaahi~l to the authorities of the following Libraries and ResearchInstitutes for allowing me to make we of their collections:1. AnandaRqqilai Libmy. Pondiche~y Univmily, Pondicherry.2. French Institute of Indology, Pondicheny.3. Roman Rolland Libwy, Pondicheny.4. The Adyar libmy md Research Cerrtre, Madras.5. Bhogilal Leherchand IntituQ of Indology. New Delhi.6. Sambalpur University libwy, Sambalpur, OrissaMy thanks w due to the non-teaching staff of the Department of Sanslnit,Pondicheny Univenity.I have no words to eqees my feeling of gratitude towards all my fsmilymembers for the love, affection, and iaspiration tha! they have exiended ?hey havemade me what I am now.Laat but not the leasf I am t h d to Sri 'Ihisgsrajan, a student of Sri SanlcerAtts and Science college, KaPchipum~, for his meticulous care in lyping the work.

TABLE OF CONTENTSPART. LChapter LDedicationCdcateDeclarationAclmowledgementINTRODUCTIONThe Subject, Natm and Scope.l%e Indian Narrative Litemlure.Namtirn LitenLurr of Non-Jainsr.The J ha Narrative Literatlre.The Cornon basin of Religious Literahre.Romantic Tales in Religious garb.'Ihe Jaim as Stoq Tellem.The Vim of Indologists on Jaina Writers.B~hrrtkath&odu - its Author, Date and Place.Notes aml Rsfmee.PAGE1-54Style, LPqsuqes, Namigs, -w,ModiGdcm of wcllbw~Stwim, mUuagea, Filpre of Speech, V&aim,w a d Pdinitioa, W t IutlwncbaNotw ad R&moa

PART. IL B~TKA~H&O$A - A C'ULmSTUDYCdapter.lIl. POLITICAL CONDITION 80 - 128Kjngahip, Duties of the king King md hi8 subjects,Consecration, Succession, Royal practices,Royal poseessions, Palace, Inmntes of the royal hamRoyal employees, Crime and Punistrment, Divisionof a kidom, Town plarmingNotes and ReferenceeC hapter.lV.ECONOMIC CONDITIONProductionExchaugeConerrmptionNotes and ReferencesChapb.V.SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CONDlTIONEntertainment, Education, Family life, Women,Marriqe, Prostitution, Cities, Castes and Tribea,Settlement of diaputee, Decdon on floor, Cwesof suicide, Rmour, Annomcanenf tbo& bed of

drum, Dying blenketa, Moral decay, Disease8 eodtheir cure, Believes, Articles of daily we,Muniscufgha, Munis, Vihiira, MGha, Tr'rfhathiina,Religious talk, Religious debate, Causes of renunciationDk#, Occult practices, Festivals, Rites, Pi]&,Sacrifices, &a,Notes and ReferencesReligious conversion,BIBLIOGRAPHY

ABBBBYIATrONS-OF3 - Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research InstituteB X - BffiatkathSkos'aDVN - D&gvaikSlikan$y&iHIL - A History of Indian Literature (Wintemitz)

PART ICHAPTER I

INTRODUCTIONIndia is a vast collntry with diffm in religion and custom, in fauna andflora, in art and architecture, in lsnguage and literature and even in men and mauner~.The tm~ty underlying the cultural diversity, however hae enriched the country as awhole anrl offmd an intensting hdy to Le scholar as also to the laymenJainim is an integral part of Indian thought and cullwe. its rich contribution toIndian literahre in general and narrative literature in partinrla~ is univmallyacknowledped Professor Wiemik rightly observes "It would take a fiirly bigvolume to give a history of all that be Jainas have contributed to the treasures ofIndia'".'Ihe Jaina writers were the prolific writers of versatile genius who haveermcbd almod every branch of lited. For the nch coniribution to the worldd v e litemhe in pneral and Indian narrative litemhit in particular, the Jainae3have been highly appreciated by scholm .In spite of their richness as well ae pciouaness lage d e r o f J h w&are lying untouched 'Ihey are indeed MI of materials wehl for the rewachm ofsooio-dbwl history, linguilcs, lexicons end othbl. bmches of I~~Iology, Aeprofsaw Ragbm obme8 '5hby display a stnlongly wide range oflmorp.ldp ad-4en amsdPg awermsa of detail# in every walk of life . All those acholm who have

worked on Jaina literatw have emphasieed on the critical of Jaina text?,psrticularly the narrative works. Profeseor Upadhye temarics "Criticsl eludi~ iodierent brunches of Jaina litereturc are still in their infancy If the w o h folowcritical and compmtive lines of Btudy, the result of their research will enviably eoicbthe fields of Indological study"'.The Subject, Nature and ScopeAs it is the caae with most of the Jaina woh ~~hatkafhiikos'a (BIM) has alsonot evoked much inrerest in the minds of scholrar of past and preseat. Few etudieahave been made in Us regard so far. Professor A.N.Upadhye has presented to w ahiqhly &enticedirion of the text BKK In its iatroduction he ha discussed thesigificance of the rext *om various aspects, which is a preliminary step toward anintensive and thorough &udy on the work His study is exhaustive h m the linguisticpoint ofview, but luka a detailed analysis ofthe work *om other nape&, particularlytiom socio-cultural point of view. Asim Kumm Chdterjee's article titled "IbeB~hutkathiiGo& of Harisepa" lacks a vivid &dy of the work and omite manyimportant points of hat6. Before the text cams into printed form, Rice,Naraaimbachya and ohera in their discussion about the migration of Jdn&ghathe soutb (Srsvsnabelgola) used only one story of it i.e., BhadmrShukuthLaka(No.131). Iha present edition of Upedhye wss publishsd in 1943 under Sm& Jainasmibe and even ttna iu out of print at pzaewt. O.C.Choudhury in his Jdna Shtp kiBrhaqd Itth6sa md Pandit Nalhnm P d in his Jain &hi& our Itihbto

introduced the work to the Hindi rsadm. 'Ihe kt BKK in of much significlmce forreasarchera $om the following poiom of view.* It is worth mentioning that the scholars who wrote on BKK focused on its socioculhrralimportmce and supgeded tha! Mer intensive research for thereconstruction of socio-culhual conditions of ancient md medieval India on tbebasis of the BKK deserves to be canied on. 'Ibis being a dated work of specifiedlocalily the various bib of information of culturai interest have a &atechronological value. though it can not be claimed that all ofthem belong only to theage and place of our author. For a student of Indirm folklore who occupies himselfwith the ddy of customs, rites, believes which are mnt in the society indifferent places and at different times, there are some points of interest in thestories of BKK. .kKChattejee remarka 'To up this work of Hariama is aninvaiuable source book for the &y of society, religion and hirnory dgeoyaphy ofthe early medieval periob'7.* It is considered to be the earliest among the Kuthiikos'u available and comprisesthe biggest number of bless. It might have been a model of geme of ~uth&&ssuch as those written by Srichandra (end of eleventh ce&yAD), Prabhachandm(end of eleventh cmtury AD), Nayanandi (ti. Imlmown) and Nemidatta (sixteenthcsntlPy AD).

a The influence of Pralait, the primary mode of codcation of the J h , isnoticed hugbod the work Use of popular expressions ir abundd. It ishquently enlivened by proverbs and colloquial usage of the comon people.Hence it is apotential ground for linguistic atudy of Sanskrit ussge.8 ?he work may be of interest for reserchm of History and Geography as we havesignificant references to some historical fact8 like the migration of Jaina Swighato Punnib territory in Decan (?40.131), the founding of five stupas at Mathura, thedescription of caves on the hills adjourning Dharasiva (modern Oamanabad) nearTura which according to the text B E irr situated in hhimdeia (story No. 56)Profeseor Upadhye while emphasizing on hrher research on these topics, marks.' It is an urgent need that these topics ehould be critically studied using all othersources; hen alone it would be possible to sepmte historical events from theirlegendary settings' 9* Illwintion of different concepts of Jaina Yoga is another interesting feature of thewok. It serves as an efective medium of teaching ethics and ideologies. ?beabundant infomation would certainly be intereatmg and usefil to a student ofIadian Religions in gend and of Jainism in particular.rThe work is of great potentiality of mabig a comparative aludy of many of ibd v e s that appemed and mappeared in Jaina literature in particular adIndian litsraturs in pd.

Being a dated work the form md the contents of these stories are w ea for mintenswe study of the gradual evolution of the different well-how leading fictionmotifi sl different atages of Indian litersturel0.r Like other narrative works the BKK also is embellished with sonoblesayings (subh+ta) quoted from various sources, not specified by the author. Acollection of such sayinga arranged thematically would be a valuable contribution11to the nlh literature .12r A kivya has been described ss an encyclopaedia of howledge . Thejustification ofthis statement could be ~llustrated by an analysis of the text BKKTke poet's rich awareness in various branches of howledge is displayed in thewok. Profeseor Raghaven, Winternib and Buhler have drawn the attention ofIndologists to the encyclopaedic nature ofsuch o aha works13.rThe definition and enumeration of different types ofhabitaiion class of people etc.are very important for the lexicographers.In the present duly we have restricted to the duly of the BKK fr om the socio.14culW point of view .

The thesis is broadly divided in to two par$. Part I comprises two chapwThe first chapter presents a detailed discussion on the Indian narrative litbt'abtre withspecial reference to Jaina d v e literature end the second chapter contab allterray study of the work BKK Part I1 deals with the m u objective of our presentthesis i.e., the reconstruchon of life of people in ancient and medieval India It consistsof four chapters, dealing independently with political, economic, and socio-religiousconditions of India during the period and the retrospect All the references to thcBICX are inserted to the body in bracket References to secondary sources of themater~als are accommodated m the separate reference section at the end of eachchapter. The references to the text BKK contains two numbera, for example (30.2).The first number refers to that of the story and the second one of the verse."As the active world is inferior to the rational soul so Fiction givesto mankind what history denies. and in some measure satisfies themind with shadows when it carmot enjoy the subdauce" - LordBacon.Stones gve us enktunment as well as knowledge. 'Ihey have also been usedas the convenient medium for educating religiow concepts, moral principles adethical norms. Evety colmtry ban ib own fables, legends, short stories for this purpose.In Greece. we have Aesop's fsbies and in Iodia lap nwnber of Puranic legends andstories, wailable in the P&catantm, Hitopadeda etc. Besides these cv*y country hss

its legends. Legends of Greece, Rome, Persia, India and China ure well-known Andthere are folk tales like De's fold tales of Bend etc. Some of them are p d d andohm are in cwrmcy as words of mouth 'Ibis foim of litemlure hss become aprecious cultural treasure and continue to ioepire people hmgeneration to gendoaIndians are proud of their rich heritage and cultwe which are ancient.MKrishamachari in his A histoty of Smkrit Ntermre says, Wo country exceptIndia and no laaguage except the S h t can boast of a possession so meid orvenerable"15. About the aotiquity of its litembe, the scholm fail to anive ut sdefinite conclusion kK. Wmder remmks -"The origin of litnmhtre in India is hiddenin aremote ant~quitv, of which the hardly reconoilable testimonies of archaeolow adancient legends give us at present but a very shadowy idea One cm merely take forgranted that dory-telliag and song are as ancient as h an society, and regard Iheearliest extent Iadiaa specimens of hese arts which antedate kivya by a busandyeara a belonging to a tradition, or a complex of traditions of incalculable age"16. Heopines that at the time of the origip of &yo,India waa extremely rich in narrativelita&e in the form of shod stories told in prose end more sophieticated storiss in17veme .0- of Indian NarrativeAbout the antiquity of Indian stories, Kieh opines that 6om the esrlird timnof the life of the vedic Indiaorr various lypee of Indian tales dated. In course of time

these stories were wed for a specific plnpose i.e, for inculcating useid Imowltdgs.Rofeesor Kieth considers this as an importrlllf event in the story literahae butexpresses his inability to say at what date this took place18. According to Wioternik,all sorts of stories existed long befm they found entry into tho literahpa and theyfound their place fvst in Prakrit li-l9.Professor AUGhatge is of the view that the storiea of Brahmanical wok, theBuddhist JBah and Jaina works all preeuppose a common heriee fiom ancientIndian folk lore, while mutual borrowiqgs though existent are late and easilydetectable2'.The theory of Indian originWith regard to the original home of stories. ncholm are widely divided intheir opinions. Some consider Greece to be the home land while some othmconsiders India to be the land of stories. Some of the important views m presentedbelow.Witz cmiden tales, fables and stories to be the mod valuableproduction of Indim minp. According to him these stories bad the Wua of a properliteralure moag the people of India in an earlier age aad those are older than mylitsrsture of other civilieed codries, He recognises the inxportance of Indian d v eliterature and sap "No other bmch of Indian omate poetry has exercised so grslt a

influence on foreign literalure snd haa become ao much impolCsnt for the worldliteralure as the dory literature' PProfessor J.C.Jain agrees with Wintemik ad considers India to be lhebuthplace of dories. In the evening agosfhi ofmen sib and listen6 to the stories toldby others to get relief from the day'e hard works. He quotes the view of Penzer, thelearned editor ofthe ocean of streama of stories that the warm tempsrature produces alaxity in habits which associated with the exclusion of women aod consequential23gatherings of men in the cool eveninga has given great impulse to the dwy-telliog .Dr.J.C.Jain is of the opinion that dories were utilized for giving relief to the tiredpassengem, merchants, kioge etc. end this is substantiated by the following verse of3,rhatkathdlokasafigraha of Buddhasvirmin -atha miitit mmaymtute raman[vakath$pathi /agacchm kancidadhvrinam asbcitapathaklamam.ll18.184Professor w'internib cmidm Indian land to be favourable for the origin ofstories end sayi . "It may be pointed out that in India there have been in all timesmnnberless idlers. Thousands of ascetics, mendicaatn and pilgrims have beenwandering them through out the cities and villages since c&es ago end hey hsvealways liked to athaEt the people towards themselver by telling Lorn stories and towhile away their own time in neireting among themselves etoriea, that have not alwq

een re~igious'~~. Howw8rhe does not athibute the origin of all stories to India dviews that Indian narrative l item hae also borrowed from other codes2'.Professor Jain puts forth another argument in support of the theory of Indiaorigin of stories. In olden days, nome people were earning their livelihood throughgiving different kinds of entntainment to the people. Am04 these, karhakus or story-tellers were important It was the duty of dory-tellers to tell stories to the kiq in nightwhen he was retiring from d d hectic activities and taking rest. 'The story tellers usedto press he legs and hands of the king while telling stories. 'Ihe king wmt asleepwhile listening to the dories. 'The queens also use to entertain the king^ tellingl6stories* . In Hemachandra's ~anhstaparva (3.18.186) also we hear of a ICUQ callingsome ofhis subjects everyday to tell him stories.29 30~enzer~', HH~ilson~, Hertel and Krishamnachsri also support thetheory ofIndian origin of stories.Penzer seys, "Nor should it be forgotten that India is the bw land of Romance,more so indeed h a Persia or Arabia for India's own history is a romance hdly lessexaggmated and enthralling than the tales them~elvee"~. Sir William Jones thiaks thaithe firat mod fablerr which appeared in Europe wsre ofIndian or Ethiopian ori@na.

hater arid othm however dress the iqoesibility of wsMliag that India gaveonly and did not borrow and insim on the impo-ce of westi-nating the possibility33of a literary origin for many fsvy tales current among the people .Migration :'he traders, merchants and towists were as if the ambassadors of our come.They developed our trade and cultural relations. Our heritage, thoughts, tradition aridstories crossed the country through them. Also foreigo cultwe aud stories came to Indiaand irdluencekthose of ours.According RpsDavid, the oldest Aryan fables dating !?om csnturies beforeChrist have travelled to diierent parts of Europe and have assumed modern shapes 34Dr.J.C.Jain h discussed in detail (relying on different sources) how these35stones had a long journey to different countries . ?he Indian stories found place notonly in the countries of Asia and Europe but also entered into A6ica These Btoriesindividually ns well as in entire book f m were h.rmslated into foreign laoguages arid36ttuned out to be the comon property of people of d'iermt countries .h e example of such a dary is the how parable '"The mm in ths wellt'. It hnswsndered many countries and has equaily served the case for the edificationBrahmins, Buddhist, Jaime, Mohammedaq Jew and Christim. The fpj. tale of the

lucky child who is saved fiom destruction by the fatal letter exchaDged nt the lastmoment is found in the story literature of east and west. The narrative litaaturb ofBrahmanas, Buddhist and Jainas also contain this fictionAccording to J.C.Jain, the Indian narrative literature penetrated into westprincipally through storiesl'B~arIaxnm and Josepht1 (Bhapvin and Bodhisstva),'Xalilah and Dimanah" (karkapka and damanaka) of Puiicat~tm which became17international . The stories of P&catmtm, the most famous work of Jndian narmtiveliterature were taken by the mvellers to Parsia and Arbia Filytho@ Greece they38reached Europe .Indian Narratives literature, broadly dassified :A.~.~~dahye~~ has presented m e*lve discussion on the d v e talesof India under following headhy:a Vedic and allied literatureb. Sraman~c ideology : aacet~c poetry.c. Early Buddhist literatured Jaina literatimi. Canonical stratumii. Post and pro canonical &ahmiii. Later tendencies aad types. 'Ihe BKK comes under thi~ category.

~eitb40 in his MATOT of Wht lttenrrure deal8 with kurha literam hlSsnsiait and Mt lmda follow@ hdnp.a Didactic fables - Pdcafmtm and ib derivative fom and fitopcrdehb. Byharkathiand its descendentsi. Shk11sani~taha ofBuddbaa6nhii. ?he Kaamiris Byhatkatha'iii, Qemendra's B~hafkathiimMfaan'iv. Somadeva's K~thrisaritsbgomc. The romantic and didactic tale - Vetlila@cavirkhn, dusaptati, SYnhmauv&n&kri. fansjgupanrr ofHemachmdra KarhZis o f ~ and Jinskirtti. i ~?be great romances - DasDasahmiracaritn, V&avadaft5, Harvanta and rida am bad.lie BKK may come rmder the 'b' categq.~'itemitz~~ has mads a sumy of the exieting narrative literdm of Miauder following groups -a A great mass of popular tales, atoriee and comical hces which are only p&aofthe collections, compiled for religious or secular objectives, These wmoriginally cirmlatirqjust orally. They ere composbd in popular dialects not inSanskrit.

. Collections of stories that wm made for religious propagando by somecompiler. To this category belong the Jritakas or other story-books of theBuddhist and Jaiw.c. N-ve works in Sansbt that pursue the objective ofteaching politicalprinciples and worldly wisdom Pan"cutmtm with its very large mber ofrecensioas and adaptations.d. Narrative works that offer crude entertainment in the form of fiction withintercalated stories, fvst in Praloit and later in Swskrit Brhutkufha and lateradaptations. the ~etrilapan~cuvrhk~. &asaptatletc. come under this class.e. Fictions and novels in Sanskrit prose - ~~~~manta, Vlismadafta'. 'heBKK comes under 'b' group.Style of Indian narratives:'Ihe usual form of the nanatlva work is the so called "Iutercalation". Within ah e d v e small stories are inserted and each of these stories can in btrn itselfbecome a h e for one or more other stories. In every kind of Indim nanative workwe find fauy tales. fables, and ndves placed beside one another Io thesenanatives we find tales, relating to the world of wonder, witch*sup^^being Supem&d element is cornonly found Aoimal stories which Bymbolicallydescribe the different behaviour ofmen are dso abmddy avdable.Clasritlcation of Bath&Katha's w stories are claesified in semal ways by Wtional texl writers mwell r modem scholars. We will discuse some of the important classifications of

doribs in the following diagrams basing on eevd sources as idwltifred in each cue.Ke come moss mainly three cate8ories of classifications vizi. Clasiifications as available in JainaPr$oit texte. ms is mom mleveot to usB K the tsxt under oar mdy, ie n Jaina work)ii. Classifications as available in Sanelait woriw on poeticsiii. Classificatiom mads by modern schollwI. The dassiiications as available in Prakrit texts:The various classificationn available in different Mt textn be pul in thefollowing diagrams.Story (kafha)on the brls of the thane on the br~s of cbctr on the bans of l m y q on the ban8 of It-IIIII I I IIFrWrd* W* Divine Hum Mixed Senhit Pdnit Mixed IIrntve Short Dialogue how Excellart MixcdIrIII

(stories with (rtorier with (rtorier with (atoriea with (ha) &ha) (&+ma) (samkiy)iescnption description description dcacription Iof ladies) of food) of placer. tom) of lunqs)IIII?leuant Unpleaamt leadingto lending toCanta (life history oftbe great)IKalpita (irflaeinary fiction)

IV i Wealth Happiness Liberation HealthStory (kathu)IEntire Short Dialogue Humorous Excellent MixedVirtue Wealth Plesm

11. Classiiications as given in the Sanskrit texts of poetics51E.1 CIPrrificatiow PI fomd h $igcirqpr& of ~hojr!story (WIlI.2. ClassifIration s fomd in K ~ j ~ h of mHemachmdraaten in total.To the above nine varieties, Hemachanh adds 'W&hii',IU. CIPrritlcaUonr s fomd in ~iJl@a&pqa of Viimithn 'and it becomes111. Clasaification~ by modern writers :IIL1. fie stories available in wry&,bhiya, drpr and tfkdhavc been classihd byG.C. Chouelhury into four categories viz Historical, half - historical, religiouand popular 54.iii.2. Dr.J,C.Jain classifies the stories into two varieties viz krilpika (didretic incheramr) andpw@lka (&stingthe thirst for howledge and llfilling the

53nligiout need) . He claesifibe the Jainn storiefl into nine vmetiea which are@6noted below' .Jaina kathnI57Keith calls the conversation story as kathdand narrative ae (5khydyyikd ,We shall discuss here only vikarhd md karhd with special reference to karhn sincethis classification is all embrasive aad relevant to our prenent study.Ihs clasification of stories into vikathd and kathd is based on theme (visaya)(some say on the basis of story.teller). This clansification is said to be fotmd in58Jgigama .W I L ~ M a rA vikath~ is so called because it is devoid of the characteristics ofkuthn. U isopposed to kathd and should be shuraeds9. It i~ d ehd r a story narrated by a Muniwith erotic heling and being a slave to attachment (@a) d &red (dvq)?

J.C.Jaia opines that the Jab and Buddbist S;Mla?u in come of timbdeveloped disiutcrest towards the dhamrnakpthri~~~. Buddhist monks wenmaking various noises while listening to vikutha Buddha prevePtbd them aidadvised them to listen to the stories related to charity, character and abstinence hsensual pleasures62. ?be Juinliciiryas also ordered the ~hmqas to abatain fiomlistening to such stories. Sthhririgdm enumerates four vik-dhis such as stri MhC,bhahkathd, deshkathri and m'iakuthi63. SlhLiin'guiitm -569 adds h e more suchas mrdukhnika, darhabhedini and caritrabhedini. In the Darin,aikZliku ni*,the stories regarding st$ (ladies), bhlrho (food), r&jd (lang), cara (thief), fanapfa(township), nqa (actor), narrtaka (dancer), #la(rope-daacer), musfih (wrestler)are treated as vikatht4. MwJaina texb imhucted the Jaina monks not to tell storieswhich are endowed with erotic sentirne.nt~, illusory concepts and inhhting material^.The stories ghould be related to penance (tap) and self control (n~.vm) and b ethe ability to generate a sense of distaste for worldly objects. ?be atories should beladen with sense, not too long and be devoid of such unnecessary fhg which areburdensome for the readers marring the very beauty and purpose of stories. 'Ihe storiesbecome Mtless (nirdosa) ifthe story-teller nanates them $king into consideration65place, time,person and his own ability .Whrtbr KathiS?A good stoty or a hhlI is d ehd by Kutuhala r that which does not give

much emphasie on grnnrmar md is eanily mhtood 6q In DVN, it hPP bem dehdas that whjch ie narrated by a person with a pure consciousness being endowed withpenance (t~par) and self-conk01 (wiyycrma) and whjch is me& tor b welfare ofdl67be@ of the universe .A kdha' i~ ~ \~~ifi%d into -i. Atrhakathb ii. Kihmkathhaiii. DharmakuthZiv.S&&rnakath?Haribhadm Suri has discussed the claseification of stories in detail in his warlt~amamccr~mh? Arthakuth; induces one to earn wealth, X.limakafhhd satiates mlecarnal passions, dharmakuthz impires a person to move on the spiritual psth mds-?a kda'has the combined effect on the listeners. But the ultimate pal of dlMthese Btories ie dham only .Haribhadm Suri considem arthPkothh ae the be& In his opinion hima ddharmakathd occupy the second and third poeitiws nspectivelyll. He describes indetail the various wajs of sStaining arthan. fn DVN, this hae bm dedt with incow of the d o n of hiesn. In these kuthds we often come pcro81 themsrchapts' ndveahw hvelliq through sea end land, blah$ pmlndip vrioim

types of business men, markets, commodities and their bsrgaining,purchasing aad74selling .Dr.J.C.Jain opines that since most of the followers of Jainim were merchaoh,75the Jaina stories told stories related to trade, businese etc. .Kiimakalho' :These stories deal with appearance, the ways to maintain if dress andcosmetics, various arts and expression of those which have been experienced through?6seeing, hearing and feeling . According to Haribhadra Suri, Kimakathi have k h asthe main element besides descriptions of the activities of love-messengers (ditT),namorous enjoyments, iduence ofKhadeva, various aspects of love etc. .DhPnnakotlto' :Udyotana Suri ~ves prominence to dharmakih?It is of four types such asuk;

they use examples (udiihaqa) illustratioas (drsfrit2ta) at~d similes (ymJ)). Theaestories are mmly concerned with reliion and ethics and are known as dhannakaha.In n~ydt~, bhqa, chipi and ~ka'of&aamagranthas, these dhadathkare abundant Among these Jn?rdharmakafhii, ~~&;Jradas$, Anterddasa,fipiikaslitra are worth mentioning.In order to make the stories interesting the Jaina authors had to incorporatelove stories dso. The author of the V&devdtl$d~ snys. "I am narrating dhannakarhiiby way of telling kErnakatha'just ns a pack gives his patient the medicines of bittertaste along with that of good ta~te"~~. Similarly Udyotana Suri in hvalyamiila saysthat Ilia religiow stories are related with ~rimai;istw. The readers should not think itto be useless because for the attainment ofdharma, k h is the instrument ,82S a r ~ kmha': aA story which may be in Sansluit and ~ ~ a b or ~ D&i+ ' a~aiiici,endowed with dl merits, embellished by he erotic ~entiments having all elegantcomtituents and kalipmm is called a, ~ ~ ~ a hIbew f h stories ~ . hm84combinations of prose and verse and Sanskrit and Pdmt , Thsse stories deal withall the b e mds of life - dham, arrha rmd Emu.

Kwalgamaa is considered as wmukatha'as it has the combination of allcharacteristics of various types of atories. fie karhriiroias have praised such stories.This Q e of stories are considered as most interesting and entertaining even though85dharmakath'is are considered as useful .Narrative Literature of nonJainas :Narrative literature with areligious bias was composed not only by Jaiw butalso by the leaders of other faiths, vir the Brabmanical and Buddhist religions. Theepics in SansGt viz, Mah'ibh'lrata and Riirniyqa, the Pueas and Buddhist Jiit$tsshave reliqious exhonntions and sermons throuqh narration of stories and leaen&.Jaina Narrative Literature :~ah'avyra preached his teachin~ among allthe sections of the sociery.particularly among the masses. Tne oldest portions of the caaon, as for example, theZc-hga and Sitra-!pig are supposed to be more or less contemporaneous withMahivira They are full of illudndions 6om worldly life and display of sometime, thebasis of popular narrative literature, legends and myths. NyZjadhamm-,comprises of popular legendary and myttucal dories. It is a good illushation of thewisdom of the Jainamonks who explained their dochines with the help of stories in alucid manner. Following the compilation of the principal texts. generations of teacbersand commentators have added illustrations of their own to inspire the people to faithand ensure in them right conduct Cornentorial literature, which is in both Prakrit sodSanslait remaine unexplored filly. It is full of mythe, legends and popular storiea

which originate *om the vast Indim story literature. Some of them nre purely a newcreation of the Jaina monks. Frequently enlivened by proverbs and colloquislisms of86the common people these stories clearly reveal their popular orilpin .To make diisrent concepts intelligible, the- authors have included many/illustrtltions even stories which are now a part ofthe Smqa cultural tradition Someof these texts notably the Vipika Siikawhich itself is the eleventh principal text (ariga)me wholly in story form In this particular Siitra ten stories illustrate the pleasantexperiences of life, each bunch explaining the operation of pious and impious karmaJaiua nmahe literature broadly durified :87below .The Jaina narrative literature is divided into ten categories which an notedNarratives embodied ini. canonical worksii, commentaries on canonical worksiii. counterparts of%iy~amd iWibhiirat3iv. Caritas, Pw@as and Mahip@@v, counterpart of Byhatkathivi. quasi historicalprabondhasvii, dhammkathGviii. cahpikk orna&potms

xcategory.kcthiiko&s - Bn* the ted under our present study comes under thisAiter the fialisation of the camon in the present form in the second council atVallabhi, the Jainas involved themselves in a prolific literary activity and this resultedin the composition of narrative ~itenture~~. Between eleventh to twelfth cenhny ADUie Jainakatha'literPture reached at its pick. At that time Chalukya in Gujurat, Pmmin Malwa Guhilot and Chauhan kings in Rajasthan gave patronage to Jainism. Theseprovinces became the centres of Jaina literary activity and during this period hundredsof Pari~C~mnrhas89were written . A.N. Upadhye, in his introduction to the BKK.classifies the post-canonical narrative literature into five types viz. (i)Bioghies ofthe 63 illustrious personalities (id~kT~urufas) described together in a book (ii)Life-story of a religious hero. e.g a rrrth?kara described independently in a bookform.(iii)Religiotu tale in romantic form, (iv) Semi-historical prabandha (v)Compildonof stories in the form of ~athikoh.Common Chmdcristica :The common traits of the post-canonical literature are mainly story-withinstovtechnique embodying fables parables and folk-tales. Tbey reveal popularwtsdom and religious exhortation explaining the details of Jaina dogmas. Maay of thestories emphasise on the law of karma and therefore describes previoue birth of a

hero. ?be hero of the gory naturally is a follower of the Jaina religion and eads his lifeas a Jaina mo& 'Ihis of course makes some of the stories dull. dry, and stereotypedReferring to this, Wintmik remarks "On the whole it is tather tiresome alwgg totollow the wanderings of some persona fiom one birth to anoher. he one alwayekilling the other the one going to heaven and other to bell or being reborn as ananimal, in one instance as a coconut palm. However we also meet with some90itlteresting tales, romantic love stories such ac; that of S&*' ,Purpose of Jlina Nmativm :All the Jina stories except historical episodes or personal accormte have areligious purpose. They inspire people to lead a pious life, They teach the way toattoin liberation, the ultimate goal of life. Hence they may not be very usehl forchildren but presumes certain degree of maturity on the pert of a reader. Jainapliilosopl~y is difficult to the eaeme md is intelligible to a hanW of scholars. Tobring it home to common people, Jaina teachers have used the medium of short stories.There are hundreds and even thousmds of short stories scnttered throu~$out the vastqmic literature and their commentaries.. 'They have been produced in different agesby men with widely divergent experience but all against the backdrop of a commoncanvas, which is Jainim.Snbjed matter of the Jab NPrntivm :In producing literature the writer leaves certain which are unnecwsgt,adds thq fiom his own imaginations,, imparts dialogues and mates in the pmcese

something which is noble, digrufied enchanting sod inspiring. These when hesrd andread goes shnipht to the heart The author displays in his writings a true replica oflife. "'Ihe analysis of personalities in these stories, the conglomeration of events, theclashes of selfish motives and interests, the display of bravery, the shape of endeavourthe depth of human life, quagmire of meanness, fear, squalor, impatience, lethargy,imbalance etc. which undermines the quality of life and places it on a very low91pedestal, these and many such thing dominnte these stories" . They have beenrepeated innumerable times to bring the misguided to the right path which is the path ofreligion. In spite ofthe repetition, they are not devoid offieshness.To be the subject matter of literature it is not necessary that the life of menonly with merits or high status is deserving of consideration. A life which has somevlqour in thinkine. and some mesqe for others becomes a worthy material and drawsthe attention ofthe writers. "Jaina stories in fact depict the life of men with a goldentinge as well as that with dark patches. Men with golden tinge are inherently good andthey are already on the right path as good examples for others. But even men with Ledeepest patches stand the chance of rehabilitation if they can be brought back to theright path. There are cases where aman has slipped from the right path. An account ofsuch men serves as a useful warning. Quite a number of stories uphold the cause ofwomen, the fallen, the down-trodden, the backward sections ofthe cor~lmunity"~~.

Jlina dam caplained:Jaina stories explain the Jaina dogmas with special reference to the law ofKarma The following concepts are generally found to be explained in Jainanarratives-Namokkba :Some stories illustrate the eficiency of Namokka which is simultaneously aform of obeisance and mantra to be repeated on the heads.The fievow :Some stories illustrate the merits of observing vows. They explain how theobservance of the five vows such as non-violence, non-lie, non-theft, nonaccumulationand non-sex leads to libetation or at least improves the qualiiy ofone's life. Some stories also teach how non-observance of these vows leads to thederailment kom the right path and suffering.Ren~aation, Role of h a & tranrmi@ion of soul :In almost all the stories. renuncidon has been upheld as the most laudablemeans for atkining ideal life.Renunciation ia cormected with the idea oftransm~-don of souls. 'Ihe idea ofj31smara (remembering one's past life) is alsoclosely linked up with the transmigrahon of the soul. One important theme of manyJaina stories is the abiliv of many monks to reveal the operation ofKanna effect in thelife of men In doing so , they have thrown light on the previous birth of the questionor.Lie a true seer, they tell the questioner where his soul will go when it is dislodged

fiom here. Not only monks, even lay men has Leu long memory revived at the eightof a familiar personality or scene or at the occurrence of some farmliar event lheyhad their past lives revealed to them and this smed as an inspiration to them torenounce this worldly life.Life of Mahi&# :A large number of stories are connected with the life Btory of ~ ahivh andthey are highly instructive to the reader. We lives of great teachers and monks havealways been a source af inspiration to others. When that is presented through themedium of sholt stones. they reach even the common peopleLeading Fiction - Motifs in Jaina Stories :Many ofthe Juna stories are Lokakathk (or popular origin) md therefore theyare full of kcri~inakc motifs. Tnese lokdahiic are of much importance for theresearchers of folk tales because in these stories the old motifs are replaced and newmotifs me introduced Winternik while emphising on the study of these motifs says"The individual stories in view of specific motifs and details should be selected forintensive study aad their @ualevolution should be marked out at its variousstf~ges"~~. 'Ihese rnotiE3 are not necessarily cormected with Jaina dopatic andreligion,

It is worth mentioning that when a certain motif or story is made popular by aparhcular religion, sirme is employed by the leaders of another religion for preachins94their own doctrines effecting necessary changes to give it a homely look .Bloomfield has taken much interest in the study of the motifs, braided in 10Indian narrat~ves. His bibliographical summary of leading fiction motifs with suitablecqtlons 1s indeed very usefil for researcllers of Indian narrative liternture9'. We arepresenting here the fiction-motifs listed by Bloomfield along with the new onesnoticed by us in course of our study. The occurrences of these motifs in BKK are alsonotedi. Rodamation by drum:Proclamation or advertising is done by beat of drum. This is found in manyJamastories. In BKK we find this motifin 57.210; 93.214.ii. Princea and hnlf of the kingdom:The offer on the part of a king, of the princess' hand and half the kingdomnoticed in many Jaina stories.(BKK.70.70)iii Miraculous cures:iv. Blta bit:Miraculous or skilful cures are common in Jainafictions.Poison isremoved by prayers charms or charmed water. (BKK - 10.88-96)Often the harm that one wiahes to do to another recoils on one's self aa aball thrown against a wall. 'Ihis is a popular fiction-motif, m d as Biterbit(BE - 65.5,72)is

v. Ltd~aow hr:The poprllar conception that the sss is a lecherous animal is reflected*specially in ritualistic texts and fictionvi Drems auguries:The reference to particular &earns and narntion of their significance areoften found in Jaina stories. Some dreams denote the birtfi of a noble sonof a son who is quite unexpectedly destined to become a king, Drinking themoon or seeing the moon is treated as an augury ofroyalty in Jaina stories. Itmay be noted t . fourteen kinds of dreams are elaborated in JPina literature.(BIX - 73.11-17)vil, W~cked ascetics:Kjpiliku are worshipers of iiva ofthe left hand ( hi), who carry skulls ofmen as ornatiiznts. They also use these skulls as vessel for enting mid drinking.They are engaged in evil and cruel magic. These k

x. Dohada or preplanq arhim:This is one of the most constant and hitful fiction motifs. In many stories wehear of the peculiar desires of pregant women It renges all the way from adesire to eat flesh of her husband to the desire to hear the instructions of a greatMuni. (BKK, 60.23-26; 106.153-157)xi. Human raaificer:Human sacrifices frequently appear in Jaina stories. The wild folk of themountains namely &varas, Bi~ilius, Puiiridas etc. are in the habit of offeringmen to the mother Goddess. The wicked ki?Uikas and demons resort tohumat] sacrifice to attain some wdyZ or some supernahlral power. In BKK wecome across this motif in stoiy 73 and 63.85-89.~. iibi motif:It is one ofthe standardmotifs offiction. The story ofKing iibi or ~iinaraoffering his own flesh in order to save other's life is found in many story-booksofIndian narrative literature. ?his motif is seen in the story 85 of BKK..dii. PlstnkurkutzIt refers to the sin of sacrificing a dough cock @~gahrhqu). 'Ihe Jainasbelieve that it is si&l to injure even the image of a living being viz apigaiurkuya or a cock made of dough This appears in many Jaina stories. InBKK we find this motif in 73. 11-19.

%rhr. Bleyhmt d* an hdr :?his is also an itnponnnt motif constantly appeming in Jaina stories. To selecta successor to the throne ha top royal employees release an elephant. In BKKwe tind !Ais motif in 56.258.xv. Immediate Renunciation:People suddenly developing o feeling of distaste for worldly matters aflerseeing some transient clouds in the sky, grey heir on their head etc. 'Ilia motifappears several times in BKJL~?. (57.574; 80.53.)mi. Threat by suicide:Threat offiuicide usually by entering into the fire or by starvation is one ofthecotistruit motif in Jaitia fictions. Love matters h ish tlie most fiequent occasionfor the threat. (BWi. 33,90)mii. Intimate Friendship :Friendship between prince and Ministefs son or Prince and other youthfulfriend appears in Jaina stories frequently.miii. Thiwm' trick :The thief# trick of dropping loot or prevent loot to an i~0cent so as to aveftsuspicion also appears in many Jaina stories.(BKK. 10.22-23m. usc or MU :Reference to Miiliki used for killing and giving life is found in Jaina stories,'Ibis is another fiction motifusually interwoven in Jaina stories.

sx Notion of fa!e :We notion that specific fate imposed by supernatural power is unchangeable isa psychic motifofIndian stories.xxi. Hiuihhaadra mota:The story of King Harischandra is another leading fiction motif. ?he storyoriginally occurs in M&a@heya pu@a and is found in many works of Indiannnrrntive litetahve now.xxii. Wdwd wman :The stories ofwicked women is another popular rmd constant motifbraided into the Jainastories. (BKFi.3.16; 335-6; 72.16-23; 86.25-26; 87.32-36)dl.Lo& opening rdmfc :Theft by the aid ofthe lock opening science or cham ia seen in manynarratives ofthe Jainas. ( BK 10.14;138.15; 63.182-187)dv. Radon of gift :Some divine personality or king will be offering a d to someone. Heinstead of accepting it immediately reserved iffor the future. At arightmoment ((suitable to his own convenience) he would a&for it.Common bash of Reiigious literatures:It is seen that the religious literature of all the three main religions if Indiapossess a Btriktng similarity with regard to fiome baeic doctrines, for example, thedoctrine of Karma So it is natlnsll that there Bhould be certain similarity in hestructun of narration or even in cue of certain motives of a narrative. '?he ha,

fibleg, and parables which are common to all the three religions mi@ have had acommon origin in the mass of popular Indian stories"*. When a certain motif or astory of a particular religion became popular, the leaders of other religions employedthe same story and motif in preaching their nspective ideology after briogmg98necesrrary changes .Romantic tales in religious garb - a new feature :In the post-canonical literature of the Jainas, we find romantic tales in areligious @. Such tales are basically love stories which describe the adventuresof a hero who is ultimately united with his beloved In the course of the n d o n theauthor incorporates several stories with a religious import Sometimes the element inthe form ofVidyidhara is also found The hero marries maidens who have superhmnpower. llese romantic tales throw light on the social life of contempomy period.The Jainas as Story tders:Tae rich contribution of the Jainas to the world narrative literature in generaland Indian narrative literahue in particular is universally acknowledge$. Thescholars who have worked on the Jiannnarrative literabe acknowledge -100* that the Jaiaa writem were the main story tellers kom middle age to today ,that they have preserved to us immerable stories that ohwise would have101been lost ,

that they have hkoduced to us mch unpdleled gems of etoriea which wo amath d tom any other source 102rathat while ninrating stories they go beyond the langs and their body ofcourtiers anddescribe the real life and manners of the wious classes of people 103that the Jainn stories. folk tales, fables, parables etc, are of importance for 'asolution ofthe problem ofmigation ofstories 104The Jaina writers always displayed their skill and efficiency aa storytellers.They brought necessaq changes in the theme of their stories suiting to the changingtaste of the people at different times. Initially people were amazed and delighted withthe supernatural stories of gods and goddesses in Brahmanical literature, but theycould not identify themselves with the cbzacters in the~e storieslO'. In course of timethey felt disgwted w~tli ewggerated elements and developed disintereat for such106stones . At this we the Jaina writers brought changes in their stories and gave atwist to the katha' literature by incorporating realistic, logical and non-aupernrdural107facts . Tney enlivened the stories the noble seyings (subh+ta), proverbs,dialogues, songs, riddles (prahellM), questions and answers examples (d.r$Lta),simile (upma') and satire (vyaigya). In order to make the stories more interestins andeducative they incorporated populer topics euch as rnagic, occult pticefi,nmtrovrdyZ, s nake-cm the art of thieves, wiow worships, trade, war, acting

dancing, cultivation ad no on As aredt the n d w litmiwe of JPiaos assumed108IUI encyclopaedic nabreThe language of Jaina religion was Praloit. The entire early litendwe, bothcanonical and pro.caaonical remained in Mt which wae the lauguage of the mass.'The Jaina teachers in course oftime realised that they could not discharge their duty ofpreaching religious principles through only one language by ignorii local conditionsand cultural environment, In their continuous bale with Brkqas, they found itnecessq to mnke themselves equipped with Sanskrit At that time Smskrit was thelanguage of learning and culture for the entire counhy. Hence the Jaina did not legbehind to cultivnte it By seventh or eighth cenhuy AD first Dimbaras and laterdvetihbaras began to use ~onskitlO~. Tbey did not rest content with explaining theirown teaching in Sanskrit and turned also to the secular sciences of the Briltnqas.Without entirely giving up P&t,they produced Sanshit works on p mar, lexicon,politics, metrics and so on besides the composition ofelegant krivyas. Thus they hardlyleft any branch of Sanshit literature, untouched Consequently the Jaina litmhm110turned out to be a repository of howledge . It is relevant to quote here the~ipficant remark of Professor Buhler, 'Tis litermy activity led them indeed, fmfrom their proper goal, but it created for them an important position in the history of111literature and culture" .

The views of Indologists on the Jaina writers and thdr works:Here we are recording some of the impor$nt views of Indologists on Jainawriters and meir rich contribution to Indian as well acl world literature. 'Iheaes~gnificant remarks of different scholars give an idea about the usefulness of the Jainaworks for the researchers of different brnnches of hdology.r"From the purely litemy point of view we are presented with one of the psimasterpieces of their voluminous katho' literature which is perhaps the most112famous co!ltribution ofJainas to Indian literature in general" - Jacobi .r''4scetic discipline, cultivat~on of knowledge and devotion to literary pursuitsproduced monp the Jainas a large number of polymaths who wen prolific andversattle".* .,In kurhEs and kzvyas and in conlmercial writing the Jainaa showed their allround en~dition so that the side ligkts thrown by Jainawritinge in these fields iwof immense culturd. historical rmd bibliogrsphical value".r "In grammar, prosody, lexicography, poetics and dramalurg, the Jainaa mademore or less common cause with Hindu writera".r '?he Jainaa have extended their activities beyond the ephm of heir ownreligious literatim to a far greater extent then the Buddhiata have done, snd thyhave memorable achievemoat in be neder science# to thou credit, in philosophg,-

grammar, lexicography, poetics, methemrdics, astronomy and astrology and evenin the ~cience 0f~o1itics"l~~.4 'There is ~cnrcely my province ofIndian litendm in which he Jaiass have not11sbeen able to holdtbeir own" .4 "It would take hly a big volume to give a history of all that the Jainas hawcontributed to the trewes of Indian literature"ll6.4 'The mass of narratives and books among the Jainas is indeed vast 7hey are ofgreat importance not only to the student of comparative fairytale-lore but alsobecause to a greater degree than other branches of literature. they allow us to catcha glimpse of the real life of the common people. Just a9 in the language of thesenarrative works, there are eequent points of weement with vernaculars of thepeople, their subject matter too, gives a picture of the real life of the most variedclasses of people, not only of Kin@ and priests, in a way which no other Indim117literary works, especially the Brahmanical ones do" .- Wintemitz4 'The Jaina writers have accomplished so much of impomce in grammar inastronomy as well as in some other branches that they have owned respect eventlom their enemies and some of their works are still of importance to Europeanscience"~uhler"*.

'The aanative liternbe of the Jaim ie connected with eevd problm, thechief of which are first. the problem of the migration of ~ torie~~~.Its ~olution isof equal importance for India and for the rest of the world Second purelylinguietic one whose solution cannot but produce reaults which will prove to be ofhdamental importance not only for the history of Sandait and other Indianlaugugte, but for the histoiy oflndian literature aa welllJ2'.'We ought to be pteful to the Jninas due to whom we owe the simple prose121suitable for the nature ofnarrative literahue in SanshP1 - Hertel ,"Jainn compo~itions were clever pointed, elegant, fill of satire of worldly122wisdom, epigrammdic, but not religious1' Dr. Pope .'There is hardly my branch of Sdit literature which is not enriched by Jainaauthors ad teachers"0 "Jaina works however were not only reproductive, they were really productive ofstories. They invented new stories and novels for the sake of their propagendabooks and literary story telling was taught in their schools. It ia nccessray thereforethat the various Jainanarrative texk in Smkrit, Prakrit, .~abM'a and the postIndo-Aryan languages should be critically edited and studied with a view to emichow knowledge ofIndian life litme ad laogusge" .-AN.U~~'~.

Byhatkathiikos'a: its Author, Date and Place:Mostly Sawlait poets prefer not to revealabout themselve~ in theirworks. 'Ihat is why in Sanskrit literdm a number of worke arc available to us whoseorigin is still in mystery and conhovenqr But it ia not so with the Jainas andBuddhists. Mmy of the works of Jainas and Buddhists contain the minute details abouttheir authorship, place and date of composition and thereby cany a chronologicalvalue for the researchers of socio-culhual history. The present text B$a&ahZko;a ora huge treasury of stories tough its panegyric vemes gives us all infonmhon about itsauthor, place and date. Tne BKK thus being a dated work of a specified localityassumes special significance and carries a weight of evidence. We find in the BKKgood amount of information of cultural interest which carries definite chronologicalvalue, though it cannot be claimed that all such information belong only to the age andplace of the author.Before unfolding the details, it is prerogative to present here the entirepanegyric which will be followed by an analysis revealing the information on theauthor, exact place and date of its composition,

chandoZank;rtl&y~~aknc~~ k&yagu kw~Zsato/wtfd vydkrpcwya tarkanipqast~-rthOYBdTpamr*//n&&'&truvictik~qo budhagqaih soyyo vi&idh&&~senZntobhurat?kiiratnrparamrrjl dpo babhiiva &tau /A//bhadmm bhi7ya~iniiniim nfmpivpyashn ~ - y a r p ~frrino &andpi jij@~ogati hitat&irm dohabh@Zn mm#MJ/ty/ano8~ bkwn ddamtftariim c ~ ( v Z t w . .same ikqytanfrr xltviifinavammYr@hl xantu moAtqpw/IW/

sateppstpstan vi~amp~~cr5sattpdhikp cd.%d5llasya satyqa pari~imamidav bhavet/n 2rlitf ;n'har$enircri!y@tam b.rhatkathiikoshn san@tm/(B~p.355)We receive tk followiq iPformatione fiom the above verses.Ths Author:% BKK is written by Hari!~ He ia C disoipls ofBhara$sma who is hedisciple of another whom tdm wan hbmi EduitWa of Pulniita%habin w&(vm.8fU. It stem being a mcetic h eif he sutbor ph to norrrd inbin gums instead ofpit,pwilpatr?.

Ibc sac#'Ihe BKK ie said to be wrim m Vadhamibrqmm (m4) wtdch isidentiiied ss Wadha in Kathiawar. VBT-ie the medieval oame ofwadhswan'l6.Professor Upadhye thowe light on Pun@ SSigtra to which HrPisepa (theauthor of BKK) belongs. Pun@ Viya of the territory of P~mn* is said to be inDak$r#vdha or south India (author himself says thi~ in his dories,l31.40; 135.1). It isto be identified with ancient kingdoms of Kamateka Professor Upadbye hinlm lhat aJaina Sarhghapossibly migrated to Gujurat and Kathiaw §om Pm@127which might have been known later as Punn-2a SathghaData :of Kam&On the basis of an analysis of the vme 11 and 12 of the panegyric, ProfessorUpadhye establishes the exact date of its composition and says ''It appsan tbst thebook was finished sometime between 15th October 931 to 13th March 932 AI~'~'~Cophaporrap Bda :?he author refers to the King Viniydqkla (vme. 13) who was ding overtb Pratihiira empire which included Var-llfav h in so& wu ~ovinh-IV (918 - 33 AD)".in 931 AD. 'Ihe contemporary

nle work :The BKK is considered to be oldest among the available kuth&&sin J imliteralwe and it has the biggellt amber oftalea (coP$iaing 157 etoriea in it) lM. Mostof the stories of BKK fall into the category of DhannakclthrT among the vsriowclassification of Jainakatha' litembe as it is intended to propagate Jaina ideology endinspire people to lead areligio-ethical lif?The stories are told in verse f m usinga very lucid and colloquial Saaaluit ?he verses are mostly composed in the meteranebh. The total d e r of verses is 12,500. ?he themes of the stories are $kenBorn the vast mass of Indian nwative literature and modified to suit to the Jainaideology. The stories possese all the characteristics of Jaina ns~~atives~~~. It iebelieved that this text has ita origin iaom a Pdrit comentary of the Prakrit tex!dhagavan'&iJhana'of SivSiya, a sacred text of ~~~Zttibarns'~~. In the panegyric(pms'm) of the BKK it is said that it is ;iriidhanoddh.na' or adapted kom Iradhanawhich stnnds for Bhagmai&hana(verse-8, p.335) That is why we come acrossfrequently P&t quotations and P&t words in ~anskritisedform~~~.

NOIXS AND BBFBRENCXS1. Wmbmitz, The Jainas in the Histov ofIndian Litemhtre, p.2.2. V. Reghavan, Introduction,The Adyar Library Bullotln, Vol. XXXVIL3. s ~ hViews ofIndologist on Jainas writem, pp. 39-414. The Adyar Library Bulletin, vol.mviii, Intro.5. BKK, Mo, p.113.6. 'The B$atkathkoh of Haripp" Journal of Otientul institute, Baroda,miiii,1979,p.7.7. Prkfi'yoti, 1982.83, p.98.8. kN.Upadtrye, lntrodution to BKK., p. 90.9. Ibid10. Ma, Leading fiction motifs in Jaina Storiel, pp. 30-35.11. Bloomfieid ha emphauised on a mewed attempt to rsemble in one placethe large number of new nTti ti cohued in several Jainanamtivewoh, PZrhanZthcuritn, The Life and Stodes of PirmanBh, p. 208.12, ,V?~as'cisrsrra L116 ; KEydmkiirn, V.4.13. V.Rn@aven, opcit ; Winkmi@ HIL, vo1.R p.570; Buhler, On the Indian Sectof' Jainas, p. 22.14. See tho cheptmr III, N, V.15. M Kri-, A History of Surskn't fitemm, Iotrodnction16. Jndlan Khyu Utemhlrp, vol.4 p.1.17. Ibid, ~01.1, p.190.

18. ARKeih, AMstov ofSMskrit fitemtun: p.42.19. HU,, vol.lB, p.334.20. "Nrrutive Litemre in Jaino Mombri ", ABOIU, vol.XVI, p.27.21. HlL+vol.III, p.331-332.22. Ibid23. Qwtedby J.C.Jah, Miesin krly Jdnism p. 91.24. HE, vol.4 p.364.25. lbid p.380.26. Prakrit Jnin Karha' SZhityo, p.3,27. Quoted by J.C.Jain, Ibid p.49-50.28. Essays. Analytical, Critical and Philological on Ujects Connected wtthhskrit Uterrrlure p.2.29. Hertel's view quoted by Wiemi& IQ, vol.lII, p.377.30. Mfiahwnachari, opcit31. As quoted by Mkrishnarmacheri,opcif p.420.32. Quoted by Peteraon, Hitoppde&, preface, p.vii.33. Quoted by Kieth, opcit, prefaoe, p.d.34. Quoted by M Ktishoamacari, opcit, Chsptsr xviii, p.411.35. J.C.Jain, opcit36. fm, vol.4 p.333.37. J.C.Jaia, Wiesin Early Jdnia p.91.38. p &c~~m, Tr. into Eog\iehby ~i.LChnndiramnai, b, p.i.39. AN. U*'r Introcbotim to BKK,40.~0pCit

41. Wintbmik, opoit, p.336.42. Slhiini5n'gdm adhyayana-3, uddehku-3, am-194; dlo DVN. pp.212-215.43. Han'bhadm Sui's SmtWtyakatha' (bhWkZZ, p.3.44. Li&~&hthhii, gZthC35-36.45. UdyotaaaSuri's Kuvda~a', p.22; a.C.Chsudhruy's Jaln mltyakGkZBhtItih&a, vol.vi, p.231; Udyotuna divides the last varity i.e, mixed (SanIn'r?a) irdourtha, kEw and dham46. SYhiinBgganStm, 4-2-282.47. DVN, glirha - 212-215; Haribhadm Suri, opcit SlhZk&>a&trta 3-3-194 omikthe variety mixed (sari*a).see Sth%Gg&ra 4-2-282.48. VWevuhlq$i, lvitbha X, pp.208-209.For Ls d-divieion of DhamduthI into four types49. See for a discussion on these varieties of stories, AKWerder's Indian K&Wtemhrre, v01.E. p. 188.50. Kuvalayd& 7.8, p.4; for a detail discussion, Ibid, p.544.5 1. Chapter XI.52. 8.7.8, p. 462-465. For detail discussion see V . M m , A Tresury of JalnaTales.s3. chpter,VL334-335.54. Jdn Shitya k6 Bjat Itihiiscr, vol,VL p.231.55. Pdrit Jain Katha' W~ltyq p.179.S6. J.C.Jain, lbid57. Kid& -it p.24258. Join Shftya MB&! ItfhiiE, volvi, p.231.

59. DW, gab 210; tlC.Chsudhury, opc& 52han1g&m -282.60.9'4% gdfhh-211, p.113,6l.'JWC.Jain, opcit,pp.lO-11.62. lbid p.11; VInayqifdq mahdwgga 5.7.15.63. J.CJ+ opcit, p.11; SthiinMgariSfm-282.64. DVN, gcithlI - 207.65. DVN. g(irhn-212.215.66. ~Tavdkathi,~athhd 39-40.67. opcit210.68. Nimgiitha', 3-188; Xaribhaddyaytti, p.106; Kuvaluydhof Udyo$na Sd.69. Sama&iityakathii (bhlrrm4) p.3.70. J.C.Jain, opcit p.53; V.MKullriani, opcitIatro.71. J.C.Jain, opcit. p.30.72. ,Smarridio&hii, p.3; J.C.Jain, opcit p.30.73. DVN, giithB- 3.189.74. Kwslqad~ p. 253.75. J.C.Jain, opcit p.49.76. DVN.giithii - 3-192, p.109.77. SamarlkN@athZ p.3.78. J.C.Ja& p.10.79. BKK, 46.73; 51.9; DW, nirylclrtl, gathz- 193 - 205; ~aribhadij$& 109 - 113.80. DW, giftha- 193-205; Harlbhrrddfik;, pp.109-113.81. VMemhi?di, pat& p.3; J.CJain, opcit p.15.82 KirvalayamUB 6, p.5.

83. Ibid-7, p.4.84. G.C.-, opcit,p.231.85. Ibid86. Wiutemitz HIL,vol.IL p.488.87. V.KKulkami, opcithko., p.xvi.88. kP.Jamkhedkar, Vcijudevahindi -A Whml my, pel.89. J.C.Jab, Prakrit Jdn Katha'ijitya, p. 110.90. HLI, v0l.L pp.503-504,91. MahendraI(lrmar, llre Jana Slortes, Preface, p.viii92. Ibid, p.ix In his context, Wintelnitz writerr - 'Vnlike the other type8 of Indianpoetical works, in tbis nanative literature the tendency in not to sketch only thestereo-typed figures, but we meet here quite often several types of people. ......And these men are not barely virtuous kings or bold wdors or beautifulprincesserr full of love, and venerable prisats, as in the epic aud mostly also in thedrama too but they are also people from 0 th sphene of life, viz famers, m dworkers, haden, artisans, and all sorb of people like jugglen, swindlers,mcales, selfieh Brihqaa, hypocrite, monk, harleta und promsees ofdoubt&llchamtef'. HIL. p.333.93. Quoted by AN.Upadhye, BKK, Intro. p. 87.94. AP.Jamkheb, opcit p.3.95. The llfs and Stories of ~~tS;anPh, p. 183.96, 'Ihia motf has been disoussed by Edgerto11 in his dole Taicadi* orC h a n khg by Divh wiP' JAOS, x q 1S8f

97. For diffbmt oaunes of immbdia remmciation, me ch@r Socio-biigiomWtiou98. kP.Jmr&edkar, opcit, p.3.99. For view of scholsrs lib Hertel, Kulld, Widmi& Updly, Buhlr, Jwbi,Raghavan on he contribution of Jainss, See section Views of IndologiQ on JabWritm, p ~ 39-41. .100.Hsrte1, On the Litemture of the Svetiinikms of Gyamt, pp.7-8. Also quoted byJ.C.Jain, opcit p.93.101. Hertel'a view quoted by Winknib in The Jarnas m the Histoy oflndimffterphcm,p.g; H7L, vo1.n p.467.102.Hertel'a view quoted by J.C.Jslo, Pmknt Jdn Kathii Shltya, p.167; also seeW i t q HIL, v01.Q pp. 467-468.103. V.M Kulkami, opcit b., p.xv.104. Hertel, opcit, p.llf; W i t q HU,,vo1.Q also V.M.hkami, opcitEminent scholars have shown in their studies that some of the stonea occur inother Indian and non-Indian literahw aud ha! they form a part of the commontreasrw of lmivereal literature, vide, Witz, KLL, vol.II, p.484 and 545;Hertel, opcit105. J.C.Jah, opcit, pp.8-11.106. lhi~hie hi ia tubstsnciated in the foilowiPg vsres of t&e JsiPa wok -PFclbaAdhactnt&ql.bh.&107. J.CJain, opcit p.109.{rtalvinna kath@tpw6?@prInanti cdfann tatha YYdhiinlln

108. Ibid, p.8.109. Macdonei, A history of Sanslrrit Litemture, p.26 ; W i@ RIL, vol.IUpp.331-338 ad vol.lJ, p.456; Buhler, opcit p.10; Bloomfield, Some Aspects ofJaina Shnskrit p.220 and The Life and Stories of ~&&niitha, W e ; kN.Upadhye, " ll~e Jaina contribution to Indian heritage", RBORI, vol. xvi, p.15;V.FQhavan, The Adyar Library Bullentin mxiii, Intro.; RC.Dvivedi,Contrlbdon ofJainism to Indian Wture, p.305.110. For the views of scholars on the all rotmd achievement of Jaiaa writers, i&,pp. 39-41111, h the Indian Sect ofJainas, p.22.112. Quoted by L. Alsdrof in his fonward to KuvdayamZlh of Udyotana Swi,p.m113. Tbeddyat Libmry Bdlehn, vol.xxxviii, inh.114, HIL, v01.Q p.570.113. Ibid, PP.463-464.116. The Jainas in the History oflndim Utemre, p.2.117. opcit, pp.524-525.118. On the Indian Sect of Jainas, p,22.119, cf V.MKulkerni'e same opinion, opcif ih., p.xv.120. On the titemre of S v e t ~ of m Gufumt, pp.llf121. Ibid; also quoted by Wintemih, HL, vol.EI, pp.331-332.122. Quoted by W i@ The Jainas in the Histogy of Indian Litemturo, p.3.123. " Jaina wnhibytio~ to Indian hedge" ABORI, void, p.16.124. BKK, &XI., pp.116-117.

125. A N.Upadkye presmb a list of Harisq's end entablidma fhst none of tbem ~sidentical with the present one, opcit pp.117-122.126. Ibid, p.121.127. Ibid128. Ibid, p.22.129. hid130. Yahvijaya's Jtnamtnrrkoia Singhi Jaina Serim, vo1.17, p.283;G.C.Chsudhury, Jdn Zhitya kE Byhat Itihc, vol.vi, p.234; Upadhye, opcit,p.90. Other ~uthiiko.& available to us are those written by Sri Chdm inrlpabhrk;, Prabhachandra in Sanskrit prose, Nemidatta in Senslrrit verse andNayanandi in ~pabhmrkh. Besides these, ~inaratnakosh mentione several othmbut their ~ scripl~ are not available.13 1. For varioue classifications of Kathd and their characteristics, supra pp. 14-24.132. Tbe characteristics of Jaina dves.See the section The Jaina NdveLiterature, q ~ a p.26. ,133. G.C.Chsudhury, opcit, p.235; Upadhye, opcit p.19.134. For h o e bhiirahe viise, v+Frpsf: vikur v?Z medarjja

CHAPTER II

BWTKAT~O~A - A LITERARY STUDYThe Jaina poets in all humility declared that their main mission is to explain the1religious concepts . But this spiritual mimion did not prevent them fiom dlizing theircreative genius and producing excellent literary masterpieces. Professor Keith9observes, 'The Jainas naturally enough aimed at vying with classical epic".Professor V.Raghavan also remarks '?hey vied with Brahmical authors in raconditeproduction in tom de force, the poems employing Aep and embodying ormultiple themes (anekasddhZna). And they not only excelled in thie line but even3averdid it" . They were the creators of litermy gem piled up in ocem like works ofpuri+and great epics. The Jaina writers belonging to some prominent order ofmonks possessed mission devotion and dedication in their literaty pursuits. 'hey laiddom some principles for the poets. Jinasena wrote that the poets should be wellversed in the dictum of !;irtras and should adhere to the style of peat poets. Possessedwith intelli~ence they should compose such poems. which should include4righteousness and virtue . Oratorical eloquence was regarded as the criteria for agood poet5. The Jaina poets adopted these principles with some variatiws mitable totheir ideals. 'hey also incorporated the conventional cwen$ of subject matter,descriptions, imageries and ornate poetic exprssaiona belonging to classical S d tlitemhe. Msny kuth&ukas of the Jaina commWes wm &qWy written dormas independent works and eometimw they were elaboratsd into ornate poems

WinteTnitz rightly remarks 'We mud not forget that in tho middle ages Jaina scholarsand poets have amost considerable share in the development of Ssnslait I- adlitemtmn 6.It ia seen thst Jaina writen have been criticised on a evd grounds. Ae V.KNagilr puts it, "Some common charges levied agaimt the Jaina writera and theircomposition are that their poetic pieces are miserably obsessed with Jaina religiousdogmas. that their themes are stereotyped, stale and concentric; that their poetic d issophisticated: their conservatism remains the spontaaeous outburst of emotions. It isalso said that the Jaina poets are copyists. The popular proverb that poet is born butnot made is amisnomer in the context of Jainas. 'Itis is why here pure nature poegv isa desider&nd"'.If we judge from proper perspective dl these charges will beproved to be baseless V.KNagar while replying to these criticim says, '2 is also anadmitted fact that religious art is concomitant to conservatism!'*. No doubt JaininsSanskrit worh are simple and full of Jaina dopas. but they do not lack a litmyvalue altogether. lie style may not be uniform throughout the work and they may lackthe channness of other gnat poetic works of Sanalait literahre, but in no way they cmbe i,gored As professor Hertel points out we are indebted to the JJainas for the simple9prose suitable for the nature of namtive l item in Sanskrit . ?he vocabulary, thelinguistic expression, the simplicity in their style, the d o n , the skiU handling andmod$cation of the well-known stories of Indian narrative litemhe, description ofdifferent people, places, even$ etc., are of exireme importsnce for research.

l'he BKK is one of such woks of Jaina Sanakrit lit-.carefil literary assessment In this chrrpta an attempt is made in this regardwhich needs a0 ?he text is found to be very simple. A reader finds diiculty in uoders$n@ onlywhen he comes across words which are not purely Sm!uit, but are de4a orSanskitised form ofP&t. A reader has to equip himself with technical terms ofJain Yoga and philosophy and populs usage to understand the text properly.0 In his stories the poet avoids repetition of a certain words and instead usessynonyms. For example, in the story Vidyullctridikath&aka he uses all thesynonyms for horse (70.33,34,35,36,51,57,68) and in the storyirhI.hw$ak=ikathrinaka, the synonym of snake (65.55,65, 75, 77, 79,8, and 27.21-28).0 Some vocabularies and expressions are repeated in the work which mar its poeticbeauty. lie words oflen used are - nandano janatamda, imdhl~adlrirrmkha,kandoi{adaidoca@ to;akag&tGgak;,to;ahrsfatanunrjl, bhaktihr~yatmuncjl,and nnilyenapnvc~it'im, But these repetitions do not denote poet's poverty invocabulary, as it is evident from the list ofvocabulary.'koughoul he work we come across certain types of expressions being m ped~n such caaes we feel similarity of idea garbed sometimes in a different set of

dvyapaAL@&hlibha'dti~rtmabhastda 7.81), svarejobhirdhawli~iiva~i(lO.6), dyotit~hbh2ala (10,16), nzhabhanr?abhlbha'mbhw1t~bhiirala(lo.98)~ar&jltasd~okayasbdhmd/t~~,(10.36)sitamuMasamiincibhod~tadyotitakhiiv~i (45.2),kirhvyZptmabhodhammg~araiij~tabhiitnla (45.4), maniidaplraplrrirriLashbh3ala (57.52). Here, Le idea isthe brightness of teeth, h e , appemce etc.* ?he author while describing the beauty of ladies usually we3 the followingadjectives -kandottadala!ocanii (6.3, 28.2, 78.215, 86.3 etc) nilotpaiadalE$kd (9.3,30.2) w~~~r*iohlocanii hunniloldocanii (43.5) padmapatrasm?insl.$ (8.3,55,129,46.113), uttaptakEn"canacchi (5.3) Ilttaptakscana-sh~mdYot~ta'nibarii (107) bElZd~tyatanuprabhl (12.1-2),gar~hiilasaiarinka' (55.139), kanako,pala' 94.3, 59,51),kmatkanakasadvar;a' (30.4). p7nonnatahcadvand (56.144),~attanEtarigagEm~ni (96.54), blhann~tahbln; (96.54), v~v,rddhakamalanana'(55.139), pmvuddhapadmasadvaktrZ (8.3), chi (16.2, 148. I),umuigav@oli 62.2, mukhantrj~tacandnka' (30.4), padnGAgipadmapEjzrkii(76.158)r While describing the beauty of ladies, he relies on simple comparisons like,kiiminiw manobhuv@ (47.2), nzginiva manoha? (55.266), na s'myap~ m-bhawt(29.2).

@ While describing the Merent mental &tea of the cbmtera, he wen c& fixedadjectives like mlitravrrktmaronrh ,-, (4.51,57,60,71), vihvalTbhiituet0ska(55.29), ~ k a t o s a s ~ (46.60), ~ a sandehafa@niinasa (46.119),,oinitdmsfhiMmiirlarandhirama (46.187), mdilasthi(vrdnaasa (52.25, 60,72), (72.78),kopashbhrEctaraktii~ (27.77), kopayanir7k;qa (11.48), krodharnkr+a(23.24), bhrkutibhTsan2llika'I ( , , (11.48,23.24), k;rpavadhiipanp&a (29.28).r While starting a story he presents the geographical details of the place and theninkoduces the main characters of the story with names si&ing their W e andattitude.For instance-Of come, stories numbering 61 to 70 are exceptions. Tnese stories start with adialogue (question3 and answers) batween husband and wife. lie man by way ofanswerinq the question posed by the lady, starts telling the dory. In some storieshe appeals to the readers to listen attentively and then narrates the atory, (63.1;102 (9).1; 102 (10).1)

* 'Ihe author usually concludes a atory tdlaag about highest epirihd succbaaattained by the main character and explain the cause of failure of o hm io thisregard For e xqle -vi~mccauras~~ ram raptvli rqa.!~ karmavinc~sbam /vidhina' rn.dm&cSdya babhiiva vivudho mahan NVidyuccm even though a thief could attain nddhr because he was eee eomdoubts or fear (sahki) But the Brahmin could not achieve the same as he weeendowed with the same i.e. doubt and fear..Mer the nnrration of a story the autl~or tells how a particular impomtspiritual event in the life of the noble character of the story had impact on thecommon people. Tne author indirectly advises the readers to follow the exampleset by the noble character of the story. For example,Hen &ornarrates how the mbme devotion of the hero could please the godand it brought him a reward in the form of a hiitu, Witnessing this achievement

people lmdertook vratas and became imups. By telling this, the &orindirectly advises us to follow the suitAt the end of a story and sometimes in come ofnwrdion the poet insem Jainateacfungs. He cites example of the main chmteri to justify the teachings. Hepresents quotations (noble say~ngs) fiom other texts also to substantiate theteachingMoat ofthe stones end in the attainment of the highest spiritual success by theman character of the story (4.69).?he poet shiiis to anew story dter the completion of one usually saymg -

The author links the present story with anew one through such expssiom andshifa to anew stoy.0 Ihe entanglement of stories (story within story technique) common to all narrativesis seen more or less in every story.The narration is intenupted by long lists of tmes (example 59.1.6), definitions ofdifferent types of wealthy men like ibhya etc, and various settlements likedronamukha mqda, kawafa etc (87.5-7, 94.14-17), division of time (99.14),description of target-shooting contest (stories 43,57,116) etc., merits of variousrites (i.e. upavisa -57.515-520) and so on which may not be interestin4 for thestory lovers.* Supernatd elements and exaggerated facts which are common in Lndiannmntives are seen in many stories (18.5. 52.6, 59.105, 65.60, 66.10-12, 66.98,71.23,80.36,89.6,93.85-86,158,181,96.6-7 etc.,)0 In spite ofthe simplicity, his language is elegant and beautiful. To quote few-movega vac4 irtv8 munigupto babhaa tamnu flayan akhino viib ghanakiila vii&hfi4About aprohtute-~~l~km~gafok~dhanaydkm~ra' (10.5)

While describing the s$ts of dilemma and indecisiveness of a cbaractss, heWrites -tad vaco vistamm irtvddadhau vismitamlnasa /supmti$hastada &inn@ ki&rttwjm,ityihadhih//to vva'ghra$ sm-pt itastiqhhrul dot+-/Ito lokapmbhutvam me ito vidyiisamagm //(19.31-32)The text is MI of lively descriptions which amact rsadef~ ahtion For example-Description of a city -&ha d h d h sudh&kldh s@iidmpi sbbhanaih /apa?ntrdhanas~-Tdhp~okas&vY~dh //pankhiitorqruh ranz.vruicaturgopu~mp~ /p~imlipikvdy&m,and@ manohaiuth //vrtr?nadhva~MdicibLimrSniivastwhpma?ntuih /rrij&ahputum crrkte suprafl$hita/i svavidyayZ // (19.51.53)Description of a yogi -atha prrishm yog7~~alni~ahat~ /jq'chrrtrlT.&@o ga$trirkqdi&vlt@ //Y Q I ~ P I N ~ ~ Q ~ M/&ahm-g&%ntogarigatratrm vy&hit@ //(%. 44 - 45)

sainyadvaymyip@tm @dnyonymahlrovam /n~nZ~~adyotwn vaitlllikakalmam //gajo gajena dagnastunaigena tutuiigmqi /mrna rathenu ca k$~mm biapn@i bhqa nqCi#am mahati mhyZte #ahgrc?ms bhaydayini /pcr~aladhv&ppuPPUnt~h2ale //knitpi vrfwu dhvasfah keniipi ca turatig@ /mtharthena mtha hyaih padtkopi padIWnnii //(33.117-121; 56.290; 67.16-21)Similarly descriptioa ofa.way&bam (57.43-57), ofa dog (34.17-19) etc.are interestingr The wthw's poetic ability i6 manifesbd occasionally in m e ornate wmw,composed carehlly, mch as

* N*:We come m w i d l e namee of paaona d plecw in BICK.Here areswns obstrvatim in thig nganli. Certain propor names such r ~aj- $bsigm,Kuhkibi an rgattd in ditIirent stories.ii ?he &orrefera to the proper names by splitting them into parla andplacing them in a Mamt order d l y for the compul8ion of the meter vizdaftinti sQa&iika' (45.3) by which he means to mention the m e aesiigaradaftE. Similarly, deshntrit vagariidikit for viigaradeh (2.3), frrtZntakanakiidlkr? for kanakalrrta', candtvpapcrdiki gtlhZ for crmdmguhii (1 6.2).I. He show atendmcy to repeat apett of the name, usually last part, wing itas an adverb or an adjective which incidentally bring in the charm ofyamakaor anlcprEtc. For examplemunrguptena gupfena (7,886) nmnovegena vq~nZ(7.90iv. In a story the poet pr&m to use all nynonpow bnas of a name. Forexample, in the story Wevakathh'inaka (29) the It@ iring named as VhdevaBut in cow oftime, instead of nticlcing to the name in the m e form, he goeson wiog the synonyms of it, NErQzy, Hari and eo onv. Some propa. mlea &ow P kit sod. For bx~mpk cliiirqa~ro (140.1),kekrry (84.3,12), wiimsi (67.3).

vi. SOID&W~the aanhop ia inteMpted by a long lia of mum of bdb@OM end unimportant chsractas in thc dory (57.22-24,SP.l-6,63.92-93).Thi6 obviously ~poile ths beady aPd causes fatigue fw are&.vii. Nmes are aymbolic of the appearance, n ab and attitude of the person orthe place concerned For example, Le names of a painter end hie wi& -C l t ~ r r a ( ~ Vl~ltiV ~ n h YJ

vtti.Sometimen he membm of a h ily bear limilar name6 with littlev~idiaa For empb m he story ~~iimehiid~~TkPrhiinp1.a, the name of theking is Viiildq queen ViiikiGend their m ~aih(8.2-5).Chnndalrdon:'he poet displays hie eldl1 in characterieafion We come across e evd typw ofcharacters in his stories. Tbe treatment ofwicked women which is common in dlJaina stories, is indeed lively. For example, we hear of a Purohita'e wife,amacted by the pmrronality of &ghin lending smtly a message to him tocome to her house. Men he came and inquired about her husband, aficnd of hi,she showed him the interior room and told that he wa~ asleep there. He wmtinside and found nobody. Then she expressed her intention and asked him toreciprocate. She threatened -yadi neccnasi miiriz bhho bh~z?itopi tato dpun /P@ayani te h2hram niimyn niyath naraih N(60.47)The poor 'eghin escapedtelling tb be was an impotent (60.47-49; d 33.5-6)Similarly t he description of a &$hin attracts reader's W o n (60.82-84).rMoMdion of Ma :The poet ie efficient in haadliDg the nadves, well hown in India aPrrPtivclitendwe. In som mea he 8kiMly modifier than to suit to the Jaina idsolom,(staibe No. 89,8493 d 11.131-140).

* MOHI :Various motih which are gouped under convdatiwal cgtions'O, mcb na Biterbit (Nos. 64, 72). Wicked ascetics (Nos. 19, 64, 93, 102) ibi motif (No. 85.7)pi$okur@a (No. 73) Elephent eelecting a heir (No. 56.258), Pregnancy whim(No. 56.155,106.129), Human swri6ces (No. 73), proclamation by drum (No.J7.210), Immediate causes of miation like a lwnsitory cloud, agny hsir etc.(57,452,574) are fmd in the dories of the BKK~'.Pealiiar lorn :We come across certain peculiar fom, viz %'pyati (a compromise betweens6m@ya and samipa' (93.212), m&qy (a compromi~e between naiinugya sndkrqar).* usyu :Some words are used in en ~musual #me. For example, devcin&i vdlbha (25.24,also dewpriya 73.133) is used in a positive sense where aa it usually mem afool in Shittea.ke&In the sense of hugsin& arigalagnam dadau (157.73) ordadau (70,69) m wed Similarly adhyea in the sense of s-a(53.7, 71.37) tnqjla[a in the smse of u hg (34.11, 55.297, 57.168, 58.13,73.44), maithunika in the eense of brother-in-law (12.38,47.8, 97.25), piifhr3xrin the some ofteacher. the wordflha with men (110.21), dyenapn'w~/tom(10,6,16.25,28.20), in the sme ofpoiow, ~IUW readd attndion

The author haa lm attitude of using both . vidhzya and kpG (105.49), dpaand mik (73.42). sadya end -& (127.227), sawa and M ahbhanm mdyuj~e ( 106.128) in one place.(68.631,Some other category of usages are gamanm na mepityate @ciryte) (7.48) inthe sense of inability to go, vi& no sphgam in the sense of inability to rpaep anduoderstand (10.87). vEkyam karomi 913.9) and NP kuromi d m (33.49)in the sense of obeying or cwying out the conmud, v idhh dudW (34.24)and gannun dadW (59.56) in the sense of allowing to do something swmatepiirayihrii (76.162) in the aense of making someone agreed with one'e ownopinion, and VI~CTSP sawari vidh@a (76.34)properly 1 absolutely.'sarasam' in the sense ofFew wall-kucrwn usages of Epics and classical S&t wwke noticedhm and there. Examples -'na bhso na bhav~pslyatr' (of Ra-t@y:ya?a), 'nu yayau na tasthau' ( of K WIO~~sarjlbhavm), 'mehajl navTkrfa.$' similar to that of 'kle/@ phalena hi marnuvatrim v~dharre' of Km"ras&havam.Msta :Mod of the verses contained in fhe BKK am composed in the meh anufflrbh.Besidm this, wnne'mes are compoad in a'rycr (10.53,12.147), uprjiti (15.16,32..28, 157.59), vasantatilakrr- (157.60), ~dtoypjrr? (157.5S), fndwrh(10.78,57.298,157.58), dodhakrr (57.6), upagin (10.54). Meny versw 9a found

to be fnOtrical1y Wty (22.36, 34.2, 47.48). In eome vmsa nome worde amrepeated delibomly for m'cd papow (67.3).Rgum ofSpcbQ:Occasionally his vmes are embclli&ed with different fipes of speeches. To-vote ~EWupnm- :anyonyapremas&bandh~&aastayo~ /babhiiva parami martrimyE~ghattayoFtva N (32.12).dhmayuminam yathii lauham malam tyajah savmtahlvratopavIZratoyena tathE p@rndam tyafet // (57.518)evam v~j%ya trim viirttlim satyena parivarjitrim /rohinj sidhutopeta'vajreneva s WaM /I (88.6).wkhena kamalam candmm nkiena kalavdlakr'm /jayand' kokir&'tsf ndhuded slrtiinayoh ll(33.53).UQrdykmanoveg@ vu@

The text is usually liberal in ib use of new words and exprerione.Lexicopphers andgFemmarians how some of these. Others are to be understoodmore or less through contea Here it is relevant to quote Professor Bloomfield'sremark on Jaina Sanskrit, "A number of words remain unclear and altogether12unintelligible" .@hrdicPlpM6:While commenting on the languags of Paricafuntm, Hertel nmarks, 'lbBrabmauis, Buddhiets and J a h wrote a Smkrit more or less incorrect andinfluenced by popular lenguage"13. His observation appears hue when we gothrough the BKK A number of qanian forms are noticed throughout the work 14Some important grammatical pbculilaitiea an recorded hen -

ka - nu&fajwnmda4?an,m~matmL?trpIt1(11.133) in place ofprramu(85.22) in place of@afaycmandan,m~shrhvi dahamn (55.285) in place of Shri'Mmntryiit4 ~n'rnatiujjay~nibahi~ (150.36,45)- here &e cons pod^ with theterm "&h@" ia peculiar :15?he we of 'kp' suffix with nouns as well as pronolms is folmd abundaatly .Examples:t(LG@ = t@ (2.37)take = te (69.28)tnakiim = mith (106.60)varakaka = varaka (93.153)fakkaka =?&a (63.97)bhZndda = bha@a (63.191)Gender and cases:Pemrliar fonns of words particularly in feminine gender and in some cPses(kah) are notewolthy -jritsman+forjlrtrsmom (127.250)manohan'far manohard (55.266)pu~son'forpum(l~urcT(57~55)dv&iarhihfor dWoshbh&h (157.16)~$JM fir nrrija

Tense :Roots :?he word 'llrdt'govm genetive instead of ablative (16.45).'Ihe peculiarity in the use ofroota iqcedain tenses is woA mentioningExamples -bhuvet (105.28) andsyaf (75.100) m used denoting psst tme.the we of certain roots ia peculisr vizvii- to undemhd or how (10.87)gat to speak (10.105)Peculiarities can be noticed in the following wages -labhisyurt for lapsyate (20.1), krir@ayata for kamyata (23.29, 25.27, and46.23) marvirm for rnriye (33.90), $sycipita!~ in the aense oflfik$t$ (35.7,1260).Suffures :?he peculiarity in the fom of following words with the use of differentsufGxes may be noticed .mipya for m@yiM (56.260)vy@yifvafva for vyqya (12.128)uccam for uccrSmyan (11.132)nindd for nlndanz (14.28)

Conjunction :Erroneow coqjunctiwe are noticed here and there. For example - adyampvafor aaydvaPrclLrit hdlaencn:Texts in Jaina Sawlait never escape Pralait influences. 'Ihis has beenobserved by Jacobi, Weber, Bloomfield and Tawny in their words. Particularlytext BKK being based on a Rakrit commentary of the Pralait text ~hagava~&iih~~of ~ viya, large number of Prskrit words as well as Mt back formations intoSmsloit are found Examples -thePraltrit words :ma (19.68) for the Sans!uit word apta, hcha (57.548) for Sanskrit wordkaksa. kajja (60.123) for the Sanskrit word kcrya, Qjavana (57.548) for theS&t word udyqana.Pralait back formations:bhdratevqe (6.1,57.471,59.1,78.222, 110.13, 115.1,134.26, 142.1) is theback-fodon fonn the M t bhdrahe vase which is bhnmre varse in hmkrit 'Ibisocm ee@y in the teaaryik-i or arjikd (4.43) hm the Pmkrit word aaiya.vi&rw;na (7.84,11.120,51.15,97.81) &am the PrPhit viuwqlkruiYiila (12.139) in sMt contraction ofkEhpt(51a.

meat@ %es f h (4.23) d l y spe1d as dkya ie &om the Rakit word dk.p b (7.95) i6 fom Pralait formphlisrrya, which is in S&t p-ftom living beings'. Similarly v a ! ~ - m (12.1) for vajMr,vayruirsaka (12.420 for vaya~yak grhilla (17.7) for gnahilla (possessed by ademw), hits (107.13,28.22) born iQita etc. are also noteworthy.Interchange of 'ya' and 'ja'I! is seen throughout the text Examples -jao foryrito (78.44,106.238), yamudagni forjamadagni (122.26),@njCiraforparlyrirm'(77.1).

NOTES AM) BgFERENCXS1. Padmapea, 14.106.2. A Mstory of hskrit littmture, p. 1423. The Pdyar Library Bulletin, vol.mviii, iho.4. &ipur@a, 1.74; KEvy8larikiira, 1.19.21.5. Adipurqa, 1.99.6. The Jaina in the History oflndian Litermre. p.82.7. Contribution ofJainism to Indian Wture, p.70.8. Ibid9. On the Literature of Svetabam in Gicjurat, alao quoted by Winternit& opcit.10. Bloomtield, PirhanZthacarita The Lifi ad Sories of Pa'rhanritha, p.183.11, For the occmces of these motifs in the B K See section Leading FictionMotifs in Jainn Stories. p.30.12. The Life and stories of ~a'rhatha, p.233.'Ihe language of the medieval Sansht texta composed by Jaina authors fiomGujwat ad round about are critically studied by scholars like Weba, Jacobi,Hertel, Bloomfield and Upadhye. 'Ihe readers may nfere to their wok8 for&tailed dincussion on various aspects of Jaina Sanalait

13. The Pan"catmtra text of Ptiyabhadra, pp. 31-36.14. Ibid p. 18.About such usages Hertel's observation is noteworthy. He Bays "Moa of the socalled anomalies in the works d lder Sanslait writers wt be regaded aecorrect language prevailing in their own time". Quoted by Wintemitz in TheJdnax ln rhe Hmry of lndian Literaxure, p.82.15. Panini enjoh 'ka 'mainly on four occassiona :i, in the sense of the word itself (svirtha).ii. in the sense of smallness (dpZrtha).iii, in the sense of similarity (scidrGa).iv. in the sense of contempt (hsci). (am 3.4.5)

PART I1BRHATKA~~KO~A- A CULTURAL STUDY

ks it is noted earlier, Jaina works particularly the story books of the JPiDP8are very much usehl for he recomction of the socio-cultural life in ancient andmedieval India To quote Hertel "ChataetMistic of Indian narrative art era thenanatives of the Jainas. They describe the life and the manners of the Wanpopulation in all its different classes, and in full accordance with reality. Hmcs Jainanarretlve literne 18 amongst the hugw mass of Indian literabe, the most preciouaiource'not only of folklore in the most comprehensive sense of the word, but also ofthe history ofhdian civilisation'''.While focusing on Le socio-culhwl importance oftha Jaina works of particularly western India writtsn during the medieval period (vkthe BU.), Stmiti IClrmar Chattffjee says 'The Jaina litmiwe of weatein hdia -Gujard Rajputna, and Malwa, during the medieval periods f om a quite distinctivething in the expression of Indian culture, and by its ex&ent and variety presents a7veritable embrass de rechesse"'h this connection, AM. Ghatge's remark^ is alsonoteworthy. He says " Their contribution to our knowledge lies in giving much neededinformation about the socio=cultural conditions of India in the middle age.society they represent, is, bugh formally one of Jain faith, is fairly typical of all the3people in those times and can be taken such, without eny serious mistake' .'Ibe

h come of the d o n of the stories, the Jaina writers lorn behind someclues flom which we can draw certain conclueions about the aocio-cultural hietory ofIndiaTheBE being a dated work of a epecified locality, the various bib ofinformation of cultural intenet have a definite ckronological value though it c a not beclaimed that all of them belong only to the age and place of our author, It is obviousthat the contempoq political, economic, social, sod religious environment of thepiace have greatly influenced his writinga. When we carefi~lly detect the fat$ fromfiction in his description we get a graphic account of the life of the people inmedieval and ancient Iudia Since the date of the work is well-nigh cedn one cancorrelate his data to a proper chronological contexL As it iis noted earlier, the authorof the BKK lived in Gujaraf during tenth cenbq AD. Mmy facts and even$recorded by bim are substantiated by the findinp of the modem scholm of thecultural hiaory of~ujlpat'.References :1. On the literahae ofthe Svet6hbaras of Oujurpt, pp,llf.2. R Rsview ofJdna Bnghi Series, the BKK, p 11 (A).3. 'Wdve literature in ~aina~ab@AEom, vol.xvi, p.43.4. See the notes end nfrmces at the end of each chspter.

PART IICHAPTER 111

POLITICAL CONDITIONThe BKK sheds welcome lipht on the political condition of dre period Weare recording here the details.Kingship1 :.4e we know from the BKK, monarchy was there all over. 'Ihe author in courseo f d o n of the stories recognises the good kings, appreciatee them end enumeratestheir good qualities. From this we cm have general ideas about en ideal !& Ibeauthor describes c e h kinp as being endowed with a number of good qualities.According to the poet aking should be heroic and capable of subduing all his enemies(5.3: 9.2: 21.1;23.4; 30.1; 55.3). Besides he should be modest (12.77),religious(46.72), generow(46.71-72), atfeetionate tomds his aubjects(46.71-72),wellversed in variousand sciences. ethics and other fields of knowledge(46.72;60.1; 91.1). K q Karkanda is advised by his father to be a king endowed with moralprinciples, devoted to the welfare of subjects and be fiee Eom any fear(56.336).DPtia 0tPking2 :The duties of a king ae laid down in many Jaina bxh are aleo recognised bythe author of the the BKK. Even though Harisena does not npec8cally deal with fhismatter any where, his opinion about an ideal king can be known hm his deacriptior'Ibe foremost taak before a k q ma to look after C eubjecte' w e h andhappiness. While appreciating the kings, the author wee so many adjectives nu& as

Srajp'ilancrtatparu(56.336), janat&mdaM.'(97.36),lokavZtsalysanipanna(46.71-72), A had to look atbr all sections of the society and mainbin proper balance ofthe h e pursuit! of life viz dharma, artha, and k h on their part llroughout thework. we hear of the kings engaged in many religious activities. 'Ihs k q Harisenaconstructed statues of Jina (iiniircii) in gold snd gema snd temples (jlnavehu) dlaround the cily(33.149). King Vasupala conshcted a temple (jiniyatana) which wasas hi@ and beautiful as mountain(20.2). King Slnyaprabha decided to comtmct atemple uinirlaya) and statues of gold and gem(56.326). King Devarati is heard ofgiving & to the chaste ladies ind lames(85.46). We hear of a king named VadevaofDwavati visiting ajinZyatana to enquire about the well-being ofmis, mere heaaw a saint Jivandhara gown too weak He immediately took his physician there whoprepared ~pecial type of tablets (vajhka) and dishibuted in each house of tho&a'~akas.?he mis took four hanhl of butter milk after takins the v~aka mdattained good health and spirit (29.3-10). King Dhanada was a great patron of Jainareligion. He was telling religious stories even in the roynl assembly. He also adornedall the villages and cities with temples (jinFiyatana 46.73-75). King Pakssasanamaderm armouncemeat of non-violence (amHrigho~qB) boughout his kiom saying thatanybody killing jivas would be hanged within eight daya (74.6). A msrchant.violatedthis and was prosecuted(74.11). A Buddhist k q named Jayssena of Sraventi not onlycomterted to Jainim but also p d all his feudal kin@ etc, to adopt Jainism Hedecorated the whole kingdom withfiniiyatuna. The king had to b e a violen! attackfiom a Buddhist tang for the conversion and not chgqhie s$nd in ~ itb of wedwarniPgs (156.7).

'Ibe luog had to see the merchant carrying on bir business moothly in thekingdom. We hear of a group of merchaata coming tom other lringdomn and seekinghis permission to start a business (55.203).?he lung encouraged persons wellversed in various arts by giving awards.Aanouucement was made regarding the award for particular achievemen$ (128.5). Hepakonised the artists. We find a painter coming fiom a disiard place to Vaisali andapproaching the king for accomodation(55.184).?he ldng should also be concerned with the will and woe of the people. Wehear of the king being persuaded by his queen taking pity on a poor msn who wascollecting wood with much pain at night(105.3). Similarly people of particular hillyarea wen repeatedly attacked by tigen and the king had to go to the spot along withhis soldiers (139.64).Dlaiqg an egernal aggession, we hear of s king asking his subjects to deposittheir rice etc, to the royal granary for safety. Probably it warr situated at a secret place.A h the enerny's deparhrn people were asked to take back their respectivedeposits(38.5-6).Besides pr~t~oting life and plmoperty of the people and matdainiPg law mdorder, he had to sab that proper justice waa given to the offidem. A de$iled3discussion an various crimes aPd punisfmunt will be there in the following peges .

We come across several htauces of kings indulging in llmrriea and vicesnedecring even their primary duties (91.4-14f.King md hir mbjcch:From Harisena's narration, we can have an idea about the relationship thatprevailed between the king and his subjects. We her of king Syodh being vnymuch accessible to his subjects. As he returned eom a foreign jolmey, the citimcame to see him King enquired about their wellbeing saying "ksenwnbhavarsmCha~a ..." The subjects replied "kuizlam sarvadtuva nah ..."( 63.24-26)Even thou& king were endowed with enormous powers they were consciousof the public opinion. Often they were compelled to take a decision only becawe ofthe public criticism. We hear of the king Srenika sentencing his own son to death inspite ofknowing thai his son was innocent It was because public opinion was againsthim. Later on he himselfdiaclosed before his son who was saved midowly by hisspiritual merits -"may~j'~abhajlZt karttwn prabandham mZqam sutd' (10.31)Similarly we hear of a king raising his sword agninnt Nagadatta in spite ofhowing that he waa noble being (47.18).

me lang if folmd to be immoral or negligent in his duties, was ddhrmd andpunished Iastaaces ma found in this ngrd The feudal king baaished the Icing,minister and the priest because of their injustice done to a guard (tddm). Later theyenthroned the prince (63.146-147). King Devarati was dethroned and baaisbed f omthe city along with his queen for his too much indulgence in luxuries, et$chment towives and negligence in his duties. Later people enthroned the prince Jayasena aa theirkii (85th story). 'lle lower royal official like feudal kings, the ministers admahattaras wed to lead with the support of the public opinion in the impeachmentprocess (85.6-8;115.13).Rumour against the royal family ofien grab the whole ciiy. People oftenbelieved on those nrmollrs to be hue and raised their voice against royal families. Wehew of the people of the city of Sauri suddenly developing a suspicion about thecharacter of the queen For that the queen had to go through an ordeal before thepublic to show that she was moral ( 88.3-9). We come moss the subjects and thefeudal kings of Rajagha protesting against their king We hear of the king tsking allcare to remove the misunderatanding eom their minds. He gave clarification to thepeople and hied to justify hia action (9.23).Consemtion ( abh+eku) :According to a d o n by the author of the Vimdd@, (a work in twoparts written between 6bl0th AD.), the W c e ofabhrseki Med with U@ha (he5first king of the people who had the divine eanction) .'Ihe abhfpka e m was a

sort of sanction given to the king by hie subjecb. As it is &scribed in the Bm itwas held on a day which was very much auspicious fiom the ashological point ofview(55.20). All the royd officials wm present(46.63-64). 'Ihe pmon who wasbeing enthroned had to sit on the throne placed in the &th?lnwdapa)(56.263-265).Harisena was made seated on a catqka decorated with gem of five colouir. He was6then sprinkled with holy water poured from the golden pots , kunkwna etc, appliedgarlanded and saluted. All hailed him victory (33.132-133). Trumpet and conchwcharged the whole atmosphere (33.131; 46.63-64). Mahatluras gaveof gold,silver, horse, elephant to the people ( 56.265). Then a turban @%a) wan tied to hishead ( 46. 63-64; 56.263-265).7This consecration ceremony was also performed in cae of the crown princeand 6eAhln (60.34). While resorting to rapas, king Amitagati, Kanakaprabha etc.conducted consecration ceremony of their eldest son as ktng and the youngest son asprince (yuvariija 93.176; 97.93-95). We also hear ofthe consemtion ceremony of thech~ef queen (mah~evif. King Visakhadatta iwited all his relatives, friends, kqsand offered title the 'Mahadevi' to his most favourite queen Buddhimati (14.25).Saccudon :Khgship was hereditray in character. 'The usual practice was to crown thealdeat eon as the king and youngeat as the prince Cyuvamja) (92.176). hen adied or wmted to abandon the drone to do taprrs, be wes bdhg over the kingdom.We hear of king Dantivahana srPrcndaing hie son to the minisbnr 4 feudal hag

efore lewing the palace. He did thi~ to train him in administration before theconsecrarion ceremony. King Yasodhara having a feeling of mciation gave thekingsiup to his eldest son As he did not accept, he offered to the next son But whenhe also rebed, the youngest amongst all was given the offer. He agreed and ascendedto the throne (56th story).King Yasodhara with his two sons went for tapas. The youngest son of the kingwas ruling the kingdom Suddenly he died from make bite. Due to lack of a successor,the ministers sent men to those m i s (former king Yasodhara and his sons). Aflerpresuation the second son of the king came back to the palace and ruled over till hewas blessed with a son (46.64). Similarly we come across several other instaoces ofkings and princes returning to the palace discontinuing fapas;ava (78.127).rUter the death of the adminiskiltor of the Simhala lung Gaganah: brought hishvo grand sons. In order to select the best successor, he conducted a test He asked thecook to serve the two boys vi~dnna. 'Ihe elder one took the food and apprehended thathey would die as they had been given poisonous food But the younger son interpretedit in a different way i.e, vldjam annam. So he remained unagitaied Then the, kingselected him as the adminishitor of Sinhala (6.12-27). Going a@the dpractice king Jinacandra gave the &one to that son who demonghted more excellencein fighting King P r d a in stead of choosing his son as his successor gave thethrone to the second wi€e'a son called Cii7dapuh-a (55.93). Whea he becametyramucal and lawlessnerrs spread every where, king Srenilca, formerly tb hngdethroned him and himself took over the reign again (55.96-105).

In case of the lack of the successor after the death of the hg,generally ldngsand miniatera wen releasing an elephant which had to select a accessor byconducting the abh~seka. After being decorated and worshipped to the accompanimentof music the elephant moved in search of a successor to the throne. ?he royal officerswould accept the person on whomsoever the elephant would pour water 50m goldenpots. ?he person was brought to the palace. Then the royal officials were conductinganother abh~seka and formally handing over the kingdom to him (56.254; 98.4349).There is a saying "power compb and absolute power cormpts absolutely". Ithappened in case of Chilatapuka (55th story). Similarly Pumachandra wbo retumedback tom tapdcacar)i was offered kingship. Mer ascending to the throne, he becameextremely merciless and all his divine virtues disappeared (78.127).Royal Pnftica :Kings were keeping contact with the royal oficials and the pdace throughmessengers (lekhavriha) when they remained away f?om the cqital. Kinghilahapadma after seeing a huge Jinalaya with one thousand pillw at a place wanted asimilar construction in his own kidom From there itself he uent a letter to hisminister inmcting them to arrange one thousand pillm ( 24.940).Birthday ofthe king was also celebrated which wan known as varpvanlhrrnafivasa. During this occasion golden pots were wed to cwdud his abhlgeka. A Iwglife for the lang and prosperity for the kingdom was wiuhed by dl. For the prosperity

ofthe kingdom a rijyavfldhyabht;eka was conducted by the queen She drew circleon he ground with flowers, unboiled rice etc., sang auspicious songs, conducted theabhiseka with golden pots on the king garlanded him and then hailed bim victory(85.30-31).There are many references to the kings going to sport garden @mmoda vana)along with the inmates of the royal harem (139.4), The kings are referred as going tothe forest for hunting during their leisure (141.46).~uring .&kiapaksa ofKlrltika month kauxidhahotsava was held Tne ladieswent to pramodoavrina and rejoiced. The -mden was _rmarded by the royal guardsand the king specifically made an announcement that any male person entering into thegarden would be punishedRoyal Possrsionr :Hers is a list of possession of the king, queen and other royal officials whichare referred to in the BKK.iMNl ma :llis is often referred at several places in the texts. Queen Cheleaa is said topossess anecklace ofpearls which was illuminating all the places by ib biilliaoce. Itis also said to be very precious (10.6).

svpm&aaa :We hear of kings honouring the people by offering golden seats rmd cloth(flar?b~a.wa;var?@.ta). King Dhanasena honoured Supratistha, a BhQavataPanvr@~aka. by making him seated on asvamapaffa (19,42). AB per the king's ordera teacher (upahyEya) was offered so m y preciow objects along with agolden seat(24.18).Cuyh :lhis is also fequently referred to in the BKK. It is said to be adorned withBeins of five colour. Tne victoriow Harisena who defeated the enemy was madeseated on a catyka and then abhrseka was conducted (33,132)~daudasbrotna:Nuvanidhi:King Harisep is said to have fourteen gems (cmrdashratna). (33.137)These are sud to be the precious wealth of king Harisena (33.137).+u@bhiirtqrani :Queen Pachnavati is said to be adorned with sixteen ornaments 56.159).Svar@umbha :king,We hear of golden pots wed in the consecration cmouy (abhiseka) ofHarh@ardSInkw@wa :9'Ihe lionseat (harivisfam) was one of the signs of sovereignty , It iedescribed to be made of gold and gems (66.94)

Y~~ : (63.41).Rabrap8dM :It ia #aid to be brought f om Utkdpatha and presented to minister by the kingJitasa!n (81.81).~atnadi>a :The chambers of the king of Uijayini were said to be illumined by ratnudip.Tnese may be lamps decorated with gems enhancing the beau@ of palace (73.29).Gajdblrata :A necklace made of gems of elephants, wes one of the preciouspossessions of king Purnachandra (78.148).MWa :It waa one of the royal insignias, We hear of mukuta being made with rubygem (105.266).~~martcilrrira : (153.7)Vlstrnu :We hear of akhg having a bed (vl$aara) made of elephat's !mk (78.147).Mq~idarpcqra : (108.8)S~ar~asba- :We hew of ~~s wife Jyamati combing hair with thie (127.6).Ma$kqdcJa : Ear riog decorated with gems. (19.79)KrpwW+- : (106.142)K&qa : Bracelelz. (35.22)Rllbzukuhbd11: A type of cody bidet

I! is repeatedly rehdto in the text We hear of a king purchasing it fiom amerchant coming &om Irttaripurha (106.14; ~$56.136; 126.223; 150.10).Bh@@&dBll@@ab:We come across the store houses or treamrre houses o f b , said to be full ofwealth. All the precious treasure of the royal family were kept here under thesupervision of a bhqdzgiirika (78.90,99; 102 (9). 6.i i v : ~Queens used to go out of the palace on palanquin (kvfk;) (60.53).Mwid Ilullmeah :Several musical instruments were also there in the palace. We hear of king'smen going in search of suitable woods like kvmi etc, for making a bhet? (102(7). 9). In a car festival arranged by the queen Urvila, lute, flute, tnrmpet, metal bell,(kmiila), mrdruiga and Mrdda were used (12.139).Mredlnneotu :Kings were also in the possession of large number of cows, homes andelephants. We hear of King Harigem surpassing any others in this reapect(33.135,139). The horns ofthe cows were rendered agold-cow (33.138) . We alsoknow about ha richoees of the king when the poet describes abord the kingspreaeutation of precious gifts to the Yach during their consecration ceremony wwhile honouriq apmon for his service (56.265 ; 27.32). We also know about theseprecious posseseim being handed over to he princes by the langs during their

emmciatiw (78.124). Besides, we have nference to rearing ofpeacocks aud dogs inthe palacerr (73.24-28).In the BKK we come across various description of palaces and theirapartments. Those were decorated with gold gems (57.425; 118.4) etc. Many of themare said to have a number of storeys (,81 ;73.12). King Vampala's many-storeyed(bahubhwka) palace n#racts our attention We hear about seven-storeyed palace(sapta-bhlirmka) of king Yasodhara Some palaces are described as sky-creepers.Some are described as shinning like kasa flowers. Curtains in the palace enhonced itsbeauty (78.213).Apartment inside the Palace :Tne royal palace comprised no many apadments, each meant for a particularpmpose. Details follow :RrtfrZnamqdqa:It was the assembly hall where the king was sitting on his throne. (19.42;35.19). Thia is said to have pillm ddecorated with gems (56.262). It warr ale0horn as sabha' or sabhirmpdapa (25.17; 74.30; 66.83). King Mahapactma isdeecribed aeated there and tahq to miniatem. Here the ions passes tho judgement forvarious crimes.

Bh ~anmq%a :It was meant for Inng'a dining (63.190).DQyma@pa: (73.119)It is also referred in the BKK without much details. Probably royal dressmaterials were kept there.~mrtrushd:%is was the place where king was consulting his ministers who are said to bewellversed in mantma (mantrakovldc). King Magadha of Campa had three ministersand when he needed their conrmltatioa came to muntrala (57.32)Bk&da :It was king's treasure home. It is said to be full of gems and kerns(drav~?as), It was also horn as bh@das'Ula'and bh@digcira (78.99).AntpIIpwa :%a was an important Ppmtment of the palace where queens and their femaleattendants were living. Entrance to this prnt ofthe palace was restricted (67,21).VeT:We hear of pools (vripi) inside the palue meant for the water-sport of thequeens (102.(8).4-6).

Swaiga :It seema palace# were having subterranean pusages connecting some distantplaces, Tnese were utilised by king and others for escaping secretly and safely dmhgdangerous circumstances, arising out of enemies' attack, accident offire etc. Of comewe hear about the elopement of princess Celanii with her lover through such aaubtemean pasage (97.4).Prmnodauana'Ihe palaces were also equipped with pleasure gardens. We hear of a !unggoing there with all the inmates ofthe royal harem (139.4).Bhilrd&a :We hear of under ground chambers in the palace (61.4)Inmnta of the royal harm :'he queens, princesses, their fiiends (sakhi) attendants, mwes (dhdtnki),11Bervants (cetika'), hunchback (kubjikd) and vzmana were the inmates of the h ak .Entrance to the royal harem was vpry much restricted. We hear of Sacivas of the kinghaving access to thnt apartment . Tney were sent by kbga whenever they wanted tosend any message tom the court We hear of Jaha m i s coming for alm beingallowed inside. We hear of a mi being attracted by the beauty of a princess while hewas insids the palace for alms (98.99-109).

Only on the particular occasions queena and other hates wen coming out ofthe palace. We hear of the princess of Sindhunadadesagoing for water porn to a lake.As queen Rohini wae conftaed in the harem, she was unaware of the bad nimollrspreading against her all around the kingdom. She heard about it late and tuned upset.Tnen she came out of the palace to inquire for hereelf Here are the details about theinmates of harems.Kings are said to have many wives (91.2; 102 (8).3).One amoqgst all thequeens who was most beloved to the king was given the title Mahidevi (55.229). At aspecial ceremony this ~pecial designation (padavt) was conferred by the lung in thepresence of all feudal hags and queens (12.112). An auspiciouepattai2 was tied toher on this occasion She commanded respect tom all other queens. She acted as thehead of all the inmates of the harem ( sa~vant+ pu~niqvlkii 46.80). Kuig wee sometimes influwcedby her in the odminihtion For example, &om her palace Mah-adevTSundari saw a poor man collecting wood with much difficulty wd pain at night, tmedsympathetic and euggested the king thus :IZhi?yemampmbhrite1smd pradehi vividham dhanam /yena daridqwlkena qr&ate pama jrihrcit I! 105.13.The king also took neceseq steps in this regard

'lbey were attendants ofthe princess and quem. 'lbey were moving eeely inand outside the harem ?hey acted as messenger of the queens aud princess. We hearof agoup of ce(ika'who acted rls the mediators in the development of the love.&iimbetween the princess Celaui of Vaisali and amerchant (55.210).Dh hiDharis were the lady servant of the queen and princess. They were muchclosa and intimate to them, They are described by the poet as abode of virtues(gyrldhzra 600.), wellversed in all rule8 (vidhikovida), expert in knowing the statesof mind (citteigitakov~dZ 57.66), wellversed in all languages (sarvabh&Gsukushlli), expert in shras (sanasktra'rtha kovidri 78.30).We hew about skilfulness of the &had' Sumaqgala in apprehending the personhaving secret relationship with the princess (98.108). Dhiifris were also in charge ofbringing up the children (97.160). This is why they were termed aslokupiilWkdhiin$ (57.100). We hear ofdhhritnCentrusted with independent work^'^(127,4647), Sukosalakumara was taken care by five dhari3, Sunlmcli was feed@milk, Ndti was for ramaFa, Slwati was giving various foods, Suprabhg wasconductiq his batb and Mehala waa for dccorehng him with various o msnb(127.4647).

We hear of these royal aervants accompanyii the princess in and outside thepalace. We hew of princess Suld entering into the svayahhlra accompanied by hersakh7s. (76.192)Kubjakq Vhna :14They were also inside the harem rendering service to the inmates (73.52).Royal employm :Harisqa Suri often names at a time a number of royal officials in differentorders under various contexts 60m which we can have m idea about their real statusin the court Reference to those royal officials are collected and presented here aa theyare in the text.r srlrnantamantrino mkhyZntahprMlahdta@ (52,23)* sacfvas&mtotalava~a'dipBjit~ (63.147)@ namsl2ro nqvo mt&urohitan,pTdayafi (64.85)* npamah~h[hln mantzpuriday@ nrpafi (70.117)* siimantasacivan~ hi talavargapurodar&i s&nantaprakrakrtin8m ,..(57.5)a sktamantripo mukhyrl davargajl purodh* (85.5)dha s~tas&ghdt~purohitamahattar$ (85,42)

As it appears feudal Idngs, ministers, i~hhs, pumhitar etc, were wry iPnuential inthe royal c od Here is a detailed discussion on these employws,13Feudatories ( shmfa) :?he word srZmmta means 'being in all sides'. According to Prof GopdLallanji, towards flfb century, the word meant neighbowkg langs. But later on thesubordinate mien were called Sihwtas. During the medieval period they wore nolonger a class of subordinate mlm rather a privileged nobles enjoying laudedproperty16. 'Ihe feudal kings referred to in the the BKK seemed to be the subordinaterulers only. It has been also noticed that the author of the BEX not only refers to theevents contemporary to him but also of the pastIn theBKlC the kings are refened as senred by feudatories, (mah5samantasevita) (63.47; 72.28). lhey were helping the king in administration remaining incharge of certain areas1'. fiey were said to be in charge of s numba of villages andwere also kaown as cakrahipa (35.2). They were hctioning according to thedirection of the king and hihis is wfiy Le author sometimes called them as the servautaof the king (55.3). They were appointed by the king In case of their death, it was theking who selected the suitable successors (35.5), Even though this poet was heredim,the king had authority to take final decision in the qpointmmt If the person supposedto succeed was not competent enough and wo*, he was deprived of thisopporhmity. We hew of young Vamdeva not taking intmst in his education ofwmh *chwas gonorally imparbd to the sona of feudatorie~. And as Vssudcvl

lacked knowledge in the science of war, he could not succeed his &or,a feodPl k qAs his father passed away all his property and privileges were taken away by tbe kingand given to the person who was well-!rained in dis field (story N0.35).We hear of Pudatories often raising their voice against the king We comeacross the feudal kings of Raj*of Magadha launching their proted out side thepalace and the king taking all the care to remove their misunderstanding (9.23-32).Similarly as the pr~yantav~started rebellion (kpbha), the king of Patsiiputra askedhis minister to subdue them by giving wealth (143.7-9)18A king had ministers headed by one chief minister (mahdmmtri) to advisethe king and assist in the administration (11.3; 56.281) . ?hey were generally very19learned, disciplined sincere and mostly Brahmin by caste (52.38; 56.281; 81.75).?hey were expert in the science of statecd Harisena describes them as'gudhamatmprayogajna (139.60)ingitdovifa ( story No.ll), mantmkavida(85.4)'. Subuddhi, the minister of M&m is said to be endowed with mah8mmtm(63.4). We hear of the ministers of the king Pradyotn, interpreting the signifimce ofthe king's dream. The saw a bull in his dream and his ministers were prompt to saythat he had been afather (35.33).Ministers were acting as political advisers. There was a special chambercalled mantrm'ara'in the royal palace where the king wed to meet them (57.32-39).'Ibe ministsra also played an impom role in the family life of tbc k q We Ls of

the ldng coasulting his ministers regarb the &age of his da&m. ?beministers suggested asvayanibara and the king accepted the suggestion (85.4).?he ministers acted aa moral guides to the k i King after prohibiting the e&yof any male into thepmmododylSna, he himself wanted to go there during K d imahotsava, a celebration specifically meant for ladies only. At that moment theministers warned him of the severe damage it would bring to his nputation (63.18).The ministers could initiate the process of impeachment against an erring kingKing Devarati of Saketa was negligent of his duties being too much attached to hisqueen The ministers tied to bring him to right path. But the king did not listen tothem Seeing the king being overpowered by hia enemy the ministers along with theroyal 05cials dethroned him aod tied the rZjyapa/!a to his son called Jayasena (85.4).The ministers were the source of inspiration and encouragement for the kings duringcrucial moments. We hear of the minister Vdi consoling the disappointed k i P hwho was robbed by his enemies. He assured him that he could subdue the enemy bymeans of his intellect 'vd;karorm &nun svabuddhyli dhrratcim vraja' (11.74).Ministers were taking the responsibilities of the palace and its inmates whenking moved to the battle-field with his senZpati and the army. We hear of the !mg ofthe Hastinagape sending messages and orders to the ministers and the queens onimportant mattera when he was away fiom the palace (23.78; 24.10). It in wodbmentioning here that the ministers wsre also subjected to plmiehmsnt for their guiltMinistem Sumati ma&hd an evil plan against the &$hin. When he was proved

to be guilly, king seized all his properties, humiliated him in public ad bm@d'him@om the city (82,40).Print ( purohlta):We do not get much information about this royal portfolio. From the Jaina tcxbcontemporary to the present one we how that their main ikction was to advise theking on religious matters and act as the officiating priest in religious ceremonies likemariag?etc.As we know tom the the BKK, the priest were supposed to be intelligentBratunins wellversed in Vedas (46.113; 60.37; 78.91). Ile post was heredie. Itseems they were very much close to the king. They were also concerned with thekings' personal problems. When the king Sagara gets disappointed after his proposalof maniage with Sulasa was rejected, it was Purohita who consoled him and carriedout plans to get Sulasa for the king (76.175-181). Knowing that the priest was easilyaccessible and having a good influence over the king, Somadath, a Brahminapproached him and asked for his help to have an appointment with the king for hisengagement (vamcnm) somewhere (12.8-9). The priests were also subjected topunishment for offences. We hear of Sribhuti being banished for committing h d andcheating the people (78.87-88).~oj&+h :We get very little information about the portfolio-nTjwkghin. They were21acting ae the W cid advisns to the king . 'lheir appointment was aleo hereditary

(105.206-157). At a special ceremony the Gjmreghi portfolio was bestowed Apatta was tied on hie head We hear of Mewa being appointed as per his traditionand when he leaves for tapers, he tied the turban to hie son in front of the kiq(105.256-257). &e$hins are referred occasionally as having maay wives. &$hinMedaja is said to have thii two wives.32Mahattara :Monier Williams dictionary gives us the meanings ofthe word hfabha - theprincipal, chief oldest person, the most respectable person, chamberlain, a courtier,the head of the villages.In the BKK at some places it is used as a synonym for minister (56.265;82.2,35). A.N. Upadlye in the list of vocabulary in his edition of the BKK gives themeaning as a chief officer.In theBKK also the word has been wed in more than one sense. ?heMahuttara of Palasskutapma appears to be the head of the same village, He isdescribed as very wealthy. He was the owner of a lot of cows and was sending onethousand pots of ghee every year. Here the poet calls him a agrqT also (21.4). Itseems he had a very good social status as we hear of him manying the daughter of asaciva (21.5).

It appears tom the author's nanation of their activities at some other placesthat they were very powehl officials/execufives translating each order of the kinginto action. Here the word has probably been used in the Beme of minister. Theoutstationed king Mahapadma sends a letter to the palace and immediately afh thelekhaka's interpretation the Mahattaras in the kingdom plunge into action (25.19).Besides they were busy performing several other hctions. We hear of the gold,silver, gems, horses, elephant etc, beinggiven to the beggarsCylIcakas) duringcoronation of the king Karkanda (56.265). Mer the death of the king Devarati whowas childless, the feudal kings (scIm~ta), mahattara (here probably used in the senseofministers) released the royal elephant to select anew successor to the king (85.39).Tal$a :In the BKKthe words like iirak;aka, dqdapiishka, talavarga arealternatively used in the sense of a guard (63.29,49, 66, 147; 74.3-8; 102 (9).7). Theword 'tairira' is the de$a form for the idavarga. Harisena Suri uses both the thesewords in the context along with the other two i.e. a'rakpka and da?dap&hka. In thedictionary of Monier Williams the word talaraka is found with the meaning 'a bodyguard'. Talllras were the royal employees in charge of security ofthe life aad propertyof the people and the maintenance of the law and order just like ow modem police .Some were fimctioning as the body guards of the kings (33.21; 63.36).In case of any theft and other crimes, the ldng edmted them to qprehepd theculprit We hem of them miccss~Mly apprehending the thieves who would be sellingthe stolen objects in the maricst etc, or hiding in eome place. They were employing

various &ill in doh so. We also hear of them to be always vigilant and bringiag thocrimes and the culprits to the notice of the king who was empowered to proesclde(47.11-12). 'Ihey were described aa very firioua in appearance and creating a emme offear amongst the unsocials (45.3). We hear of a talZra taking a thief tying his hdswhile a drum was beaten to humiliate him in public (57.174-175).Mer a thief is caught by the taln'ra, it was up to the king to punish or pardonhim. The taihrus had no authority to take a decision in this regard We hear of araiilra expressing his inability to release the thief as he had been arrested by an orderof the king. Of courae we hear of them being partial towards some people . 'Iheguards released the son of ~ie;e~fhln even though he was caught red-handed (69.9).There are also reference to their misuse of power and atrocities on the common people(74.17-29).Gr-&nakEp : (grwauda in deiya and ga+a in Kaunda) :A griunakau was the head of the village. He was directly responsible for thewelfare of his village23. We hear of sudika, a gnima@a of ~alas'agrhaconstructing a big tank which was fill of lotuses and echoed with sound of chakrav&birds. He also constructed huge temple adorned with flags here pratima' of Du@was worshipped (71.5-7). lhey had a very good social status. At many places thepoet describes hem as wealthy persons and establishing relation through h e g ewith persona ofhigh seshrs (86.7; 71.3). We hear of Jiialita, agr&nuk?a, giving hisdmghter iamwiage to aking(135.141).

'Ibene g ~ uwere s probably leading a simple life living in the village inspite of their ablmdrmt wealth We hear of the daughter of the village head Jinapalitafetching drinking water bom a distant well herself (135.7).Ddd Vacohara :We hew of kings exchanging their messages through messengers orambmsadors (vacohara or dtita) (33.101,102,104).Before lunching an attack over a kingdom, the kings used to send a'messenger' warning the opponent king either to meet their demand or be ready forthe battle. Here re some instances. King Gnagadhara wanted to marry the daugbr ofking Indradhanu and gent a message. The messenger arrived in the palace of kingIndradhanu and read the message : dehi mahyam sutDh no cetsatigrcim3ya bhavadnrtam'. King Inrfradhanu said to the dita : 'anayci svayamevayatit grhw kimkammyaham ' (33.102-105). Similarly the king of Aagadesa wants the king ofKalinga to come wih his wny immediately. Being displeased with this the king ofKalingareplied to diitP :Kim tvatpmsZdato @y&kim gal@ kim htnuigtm@me mth+ kim capad24 yenavari V&I hratpafih N (56.284-289)fi&aenerally mmsooseary intdmce or aupraascy of a fmign kiq led to oraihugh messeslgprs resulting ultinrptely in a wa: We duo hear of tho U

messengem being lnnniliated and abused (khallb) by the kiriga (56.290 ; cf 67.11).To &milisto akin$ his men-rn disfigured rad sent backL&mZha:%ere were also the royal messengers hctioniog only inside & kingdomKings were keeping contact with their queens and royal employees thrd theseieirhavahas (the canier of letters) while beiq away from the palace. 'Ihe usualpradice was to tie the letter to his neck (23.14).Dviirapala:Toere are hquent references to dvlrwa (69.93), also called dvari (55.1861and hvarika (60.103; 85.58), pading at the @a of the palaces. We hear of thesedvarapiilas standing at the seven gates of the palace of Champa (60.93). They were~biotly hbucted to check the persons and their belongings while entering to thepalace. And form this even the employees of the royal h were also not spared Wehear of dhiirrT. mterinq to ths palace wih some clay statues covered with cloth waschecked and verified (60.94). We ale0 how the story of the ewco dvImpElas beingdeceived by the cihhtf in an interestbj way (60.93). It was the duty of cheivBraplVus to infonn the king about the dval of sny guest 'Ihe pest was asked towait at the gate till the king gives pennilreion (56.355; 85.58).LekhakaHe is mid to be aEputha (23.17 ; 25.15) h olw tbe &ice of tbe clair orreader. We k ofthem reading d explaining the Iolteni mod by the king while kaPg

away &om the palace (25.15,26). 'Ihe Iettm were intqmted by tbcm befom all toproyal officials snd the long's relatives eeated in apsrticular order (24.15-16).We come across the interesting atory of a lekhuku being baniahed by the hngas his misinterpretation of the later's letter led to the blindness of his son Sinba 'Ihsoutstationed king Virasena instructed his ministers in a letter to educate his son namedSinha saying : 'sinhamndhyZpya : But the lekhh took it for ' sinhamandhZIpaya 'meaning 'render Sinha blind' and the minister acted accordingly. The king prosendedhim after rehaning fom his tour (23.31-32: cf24.38).P@haka- UpZdhyiija?here is a reference to a teacher who waa responsible for the propereducation of the princess. They were given high reeped and nice treatment KingVasupala of Vinita did not forget to write to his ministers to take special care of the@,iithaka (teacher) when he was out of the &ition. He asked them to serve him verydelicious and nlrhitious foods every day (24.12-16).Dh#nq-@clka:l%ey acted aa the legal advisere to the king KtPg took sugption from vipmsand dharnaapZlJhakus in the royal court with regsrd to the type of plmishmenl that wasto be given for diffefent crimes (46.123.133).We hem of aparivajaiar eloping with the h@er ofa priest who boughtthis to the notice of the king By the king's order, tdara mated the parivqaka md

presented him before the king, 'Ihen king Jed the dhamhaka md vpnr ebcdtbe proper p~mishmento be given They mggested:Bdmuqasya yarhd &ambhiim)Zh napat& dhnrvam/Tu!hZym mEryat&n bh@a dharmo hi rrmnubh~tgh //(146.132)Immediately as per their words, he waa hanged 6 om a dried hein the herd potmd(146.133).Ymdi-:n~e kiq were accompanied by a group of bards -(vandfi.mda) wbo s qylspicioua songs and hailed him victory during the lang's victory over the enemies inthe battle (108.112.149.70; 33.129). We hear of them accompanying the lung all the'4time where ever he went'( 56.303). ?hey exaggerated eveqtbng in their songs ofpraise for the kings and this is why the adjective '~Qashrtikiinnu!~' is wed for them(73.13).PrPr&itrUla :PMbhlttikas were there to blow the h ~ &(bin?) ~ t to cowv the lnng royalemployees md the people the end of the night We hear of kiag keepinghimself busy $Udne to his queen throughout the night d nd b eearb mwniag thsound of thep&hiitthhs trmnpa prompted him to leave the palace immediately pndmeet b lgcwti~ Vgimn~~ (10.32-33).

We hew of the cooh siipakaras in the royal palace. Ley were experiencingboth praise md abuse kom their masters for their work. We her of the cookBrahmuh facing the wrath of the king as he served the piyasm too hot (52.4-5).On the other hand the cook of the king, GarigEdhara, waa rewarded for his excellentpreparation ofmsa! (78.199 cf 91.16; 78.199; 115.6,79; 148.3 ).Hau$aka :We get references to elephant drivers termed by the author alternatively asb~~%baka, ridhor~a rmd rahaka'6 (33.65,66; 57.424). Subduing the royal elephantwas considered as rm act of bravery and strength. We hear of a king rewardingArkakirti and Harisena ae they akilfilly subdued the royal elephant (G~ahastlasdefeating the elephant drivers. fie soldiers with elephants in the royal army weredso called rohaka.Vm@a :We do not get much details fiom the ahor about this royal employee. It seemathey were looking a h the fomd and i$ valuable resources. Often the munis werecoming to j maveh constructed in the forest Ibe vunapllus were informing thektngs about their arrival (57.186-187). ?hen kmgn along with their h ily membmwere going there to do worabip of the m ~ (57,1371. s

U#iin@Ia :The ro-val employees wera in chrnge of the king's hinits - orchards, We hear ofthe huge mango-grove $ken care by a irdy&apiJa who was specially appointed by theking. we also hew of him bringing hits for the lung (102(6),7).M W i :We hear of amqipciri in the palace of the lung Bhupala of Kmambi, he wasconducting an enquiry about a missing #em (102 (10).8).siidhanika:Beside8 the dharmapghakas, these royal employees were dso assisEing hehng in legal matten. As we see, dharmapqhakas suggested the king regarding thetype of punislnnent to be glven to a crimlnal where as these sadhanlku wereestablishing the charges of crimes against a criminal. me king was authorised to issuethe order ofpunishment We hem of a sidhatllka establishing the c h w of cheatingand theft (asavaconkiiviida) agrunst a rneasurer(mapuka) of rice. Theresfter the lungordered for chopping of his tongue md hands before all the people(sanhasta)anasZ@iqh) (126.116- 17)Vaicfra :Kiq of Kashi is said to have a physician We also hem of rgral physicisns inmany stories. 'Ihis post was hereditxy. If the son! of the physician8 were consideredinoompetmt aad not qualified, the Ling'could appoint eombody else (102 (3). 3-4)

Prdhiira :Pratiharas were here in the palaces to attend the kings' call. Tney were alwayener the kings in the royal assembly2' (91.5; 106.32). Ifthe long wanted to send fwsomebody or convey some message to a somebody inside the palace, he relied on tbepratiha'ra standing in eont ofhim (91.5; 106.32). Tl19 had close access to the haremWe her of apratihrra entering into the private chamber of the lnng to inform himabout the arrival of a sahu (91.6-10) . At that time the lung was busy decoratingthequeen's face . In fact the king had instructed him earlier to inform him only in carte ofarrival of a siidhu otherwise he should not be disturbed (91.6). But he was so m~~cbengrossed in the affair with the queen tha! the dutifilpartiha'nr had to besr his wrathfor the disturbance (91.12).Rm~avi~n'linr~:Reference to a specialist in gems (rafnavtjt7finakovida) who was in the courtof the king of Ujjayini is worth mentioning (153.2).Wlqdagiirika:JhZndagZnkas were in charge of the royal treasure. The author hae not givenmuch details aboui this royal employee (143.10-11).N* :Refnancw were thaa to the royal astrologers (naimittika) who wereconsulted by the kiug on several occasiom viz duriag selection of suitable successor

to dous Po&, the d a g b of grincssr, Won of ouspicioua day for a~cepdirg toc b ne ac2' (57.1-g),~allinrStk0 :'Ibey were the heads of anall villages of wild tribes exishPg in the foreat(55.7). lley were respecting the king vety much We hear how king Praarenika wastaken much care by the Pall%~tha Yamadq+i of Kilnduk&@i as he was accidentallycarried away to the forest by ahone (55.10).We also hear of a head of Bhil tribes (bhilldhipa) paying courtesy visit to theking (56,354-356). He lnfonned the lung about the location of amqdicent jrnwain the foreet (56.361).Bhqqmura :'Ibey were probably the lower officials like prdhlms. We her of the Icingdiq them to search and find out his teacher who was at some unknown place(22.23).S&&i :In the cdurmigasenC of the kin& the soldim with chariot were called thefimthl (56.301)We have rehces to kanNar# (97.104) md rupab$a ( msfda )(126.95,124) but without details.

Crime and Punishment :Aa we infer from the nanstion of the poet, there was a systsmatic judiciary toildministsr juntice in the kingdom. hug was the eupreme authority to prose& orpardon a criminal. ?he royal judiciary comprised other members like dhamrop?hakaand siidhanika who assisted the king in judicial matters. This has been disclursed inthe following pages.fie guards (talIru) were responsible for apprehendq the culprits mdbringing the crimes to the notice of the lung. Various punishments were given fordifferent crime^. Here are some instances.Murder :We hear of four ministers of Uijayini being baaished fiom the oity for theirattempt to murder a Jaina mi (11.56). Somasarma, the royal priest, was given thefivefold punishment @&cada~da) i.e. kham'rohapa, pacavilvabandhana,.wRanabhramqa, khalikama, svadef17dapasanz?a; as he mdefed am! (56.209-210). This five fold puailihment have been repeatedly referred to in the BKK.Similarly for murdering a child, the poor merchant V h m punished (45.31). Hisproperties were seized He warr disgraced (kdrkapa) sd bsniahed from the city.m:For theft also ssvsral ptmi- wen pronomced 'Ihb aon ofthb s'nghin

wul caught red-handed by the fdbms. He was taken outsids the city with hin hnadstied A drum was beeten to humiliate him in public (57.174-176). Similarly a thiefwas caught while he wae dealing the necklkiof the queen & wee hsPgcd pn ohft~(62.11-22). hikCs were in the fimeral ground and the culprit was tb themwith hands tiedInmmpaaace :A lekiraka 's misinterpretation of the letter ofthr outstationed kiq led to theblindness of the young price. For this he was made seated on an aas (kham) fivevrvlas were tied, taken around the city and Mly bished tom the city (23.25-32)Violation of code of conduct :A person going apmt the code of conduct of his community or religion wassubjectad to punishment We hear of apanv6jcrGo, a follower of Bhrr'gavata religioneloping with the daughter of a Srenthrn being punished He was baaged on the tree inthe fimeral ground with the rmggestion of dharmap?hh and vipm (46.123-133).Similarly Sivabhuti, a Brahmin, wee benished kom the city with the allegationthat he was drinking liquor in a marriage party organised by a liquor-vendor (31.25-31).h d :Sribhuti, a prieat, opened bh@@r~sall a r d tbs kinglorn and wacollcctiPg gold etc. kom people. People relying on him deposited their meas wealthbut the priest betrgred thnn. A person after the derdh of hi8 Edher, wed to w i h

the amom! depoeited by his late father, the miachievoue priest denied of acoeptirig myamount from his fsther. I& truth came to light and the priest wa banished (78.87-88).Similarly a -a w skiwly measuring more corns didmtiq the mindsof the sellers by telling stories. It was noticed ad king ordered chopping up hiatongue and hands in the presence of all people (126.115-117). Probably to humiliatethe culprit and create wmness of the severity of punishment for mch mimes, theprosecution were mads in public.VlolaUon of orders, tda aud mounmmt :During particular occasion, the lung ofvaranasi made an anuolmcement of nonkillingof animals or non-violence (amiirighosanZ) for eight days. But a merchantaddicted to non-vegetarian food could not reaist his passion aad killed a sheep. Kqordered for his imprisonment in tied condition (69.9-11).A rich &$hinwas accused ofhundred crimes. ?he king seized all his wealth(76.2-3). Without tdwg the royal permission a stone digger (44) was selling goldpieces which he found while digging a tank as per the order of the kmg (104.30-46).He was caught by the guards end taken to the king's cout Ofcome the lang somehowwas convinced of his innocence but the s'nghin Pin- who purchased hmhim was intprisaaed (104.30-46).

During k~nvrhotsava, a festival particularly for Idea, an ~molmcawQtwan made that my d e entering into the p&ody%a,the place of the helebrationwould be smtenced to death But later an the paneionate kiq himself ww about toviolate thie but warr restrained by the minister (63.13).Rdigiow oUmw :Probably the rulere who were the heict followers of Jainisism could nottolerate any body going qaimt their religious tradition. We hear of two pmnsfollowing Jainism being punished for killing animals. King ordered to throw hem intoa lake fill of crocodiles (74.39). 'IZlirc may be fictitious but religious biaa of kinpwere quite obvious.We hear of Parvataka being brmished for interpreting the meaning of the worduja for ' agoat' and supporting the sacrifice of goats (76.154).Beonomic offmc~ :It has been discussed under financial conditionGeneral obrmation :Instaaces are available of the hocent people be@ puniahed becanse of theb~aeed and whimical judgement of the kb. We hear ofthe Brahmin named SivabWattending the feast otgaaieed by his fiend a liquor-vendor. He waa drinhPg milk'Ihe men without vsrifyiPg the fa&. accused him of $hng wine snd by Cor& ofthe lung he wan disped beaten and banished h the city (31.25-31). gingofPihlipuim mggewted his minister to put down the rebellion ofb neighbouiPg kiq

@mtymtav[ss2%h@a) by distriblding wealth. In come of the h e the haw weutvacant by repeated amka and the didbution of the wealth. The kine witbout myproper tbkbg ordered for confining the innocent minister along with his frmrily in aclosed well (andhdgm) for eight years (143.14). Also refmccs are there to lriogsreconsidmng the judgement, already pronounced if tho ianocence of tho a wed isproved 'Ihe person or persons responsible for saving the innocent §om pmimishmePtwere rewarded Surasena who was dhct witness to rn incident saved Dat$ h nprosecution by providing a concrete evidence proving his innocence. King who hadpassed the sentence of death on the basis of an allegation of Datta's wife reversed hisjudgement and rewarded Swaaena (87.28-43).Women were also subjected to severe punishment for committing crimes. Forexample. Sindhumati offending a Jaina mnr was prosecuted. Her head was shaved,five vrlvas were tied placed on aa ass, beaten and banished fiom the city. A dnimwas also beaten while she was taken out (57.209-210). Of course we come across anexception When afase allegation was made agmt JimdaQ king ordered for thearrest of her husband instead of her (64.64).And the royal officials were also not spared Porn prosecution as it is seen inthe above discussion Of course cases offavolnitism aud conuption in judiciary arerefmed For example - the son of a ireghin was caught several times red-handedwhile indulged in theft But king relessed him becauae of hie closel.elationship with5're:hin. At last he wwned &ghin to pnvePt him otherwise he would hava no o hway but to prosecute (69.12; cf 59.8).

We her of M~askerhm assuring a culprit of later's release in case hemarries his daughter. ~hghin was worried as nobody liked to msrry hie daughter.As soon as the culprit Qave his consart to many as per the asmce, ~kgh~ninfluenced the king and got him released (57.177- 179). A Hinh king assured a thief ofhia release in case he would accept vrata f om a Vlpm (74.3436). ,4160 we hear ofBuddhadasa riving enough wealth as bribe to the king to get his work done (68.52).We also come across many instances of kinp taking disciplinary action apainsttheir conscience only becauee of the public criticism (lok-adaD (10.21: 47.11-18). It is wordi mentioning that before the hearing of a case, the ldng administered theoath for telling the truth ( satyena ifiv~tarn k.mZ 65.83).As we saw. the vid~{as. stTdhanika, dharmap?hhaka, pancS!cWa, had alsoxtive roles in settling dispute and adminisbation ofjwtice.We heard a number of punishmenta given to the criminal. Amongst them the?urica,iapph have been repeatedly referred to. Probably these paiicadqda or fivefold punishments were pertially or at a time given to a mminal depending uponserlouaness of acrime (11.139; 24.38 57.209; 57.307: 106.116).Division of a kingdom30 :To eaaure convenience in administdon a ldngdom wss dividedhubdivided into parte each known by a perticular name. We get n fmce to such adivisions and their respective namea in the BICK 'Ihe auit~or while introducing th4d

main characters in a story often gives the details of the placea where they characterslived and incidents occurred Also he referred to several types of settlement incourse of his narration which am how by differeat names. From auch &tails, wehow about the then conditions of the kingdom and their units and ~ub-lmi$~~. Hereare certnin examples eom the BKK.iii,iv.aha jambumari d vb vke bharatanhnllvrsave gandhamiriinyiini v l]a.vdhtt/(78.222)atmiva bhtrate ksetrejambudv';oopdak;te/viinSjanapadiih~e nrZn&ihanasamanv~te/l(97.1-2)l3e author of the BKK also quotes eom some other sources md defines the'2various units and sub-units of a kingdom in the story Sak~mikathllnakam'

qcdyudrivesfltam helm karvupnudrina'/&a? pPMcabhtrCkiimam gn5@& ca mqudakam 17partanam mtnmambhitih sisindhuveIbm.rt~2 /dm?&omabhlqm sunniveibi nagopan // 94-14-16.We also come to how that people belonging to a particular caste or a hibe ora religious sect living in a particular area The names Tapasapdit (33.41)Srahmapiiviisa (55.31), Bhillapallr (57.7), hdhalap?aka (3.3), PZy@akrr(73.75), Marangap?uka (73.111), sugest this htTown- planning :Prof. V. S Agrawd says " The art and architecture of a period inspire thepoets oi'that period and strike their imarination to serve as model for his elaborate andminute description"33. In the present work of Harisep we find the huth of thilstatement, we come across detailed description of cities and amenities availablethere. I! seems the cities were ideal in respect of t~wn-~l&' and architectuns. Henare the details :Beautification of citim :It seems much attention was paid towards the beautitication of the cities. Allcities are said to be adornedwithrows offlap (19.21-22; 22.41; 51.2; 55.13; 57.270;78.197; 118.2). ?he innumedie barmsrs of the city are described as obshucting tbe

sun-rays. The cities were also decorated with arches (towa 106.150; 19.51-53)canoples (vrrha 55.13 1 four ormental gates (gopumdvim 19.21-22: 22.41; 51.2;57.70; 118.2) and colour6~l cloths spread here and there (19.21). Beeides these, thebeauty of the cities were enhanced by gardens (a'rrtna) lake (sum) circular a d oblongreservoir of water (vcipq, river, temples, shops, markela etc (19.51-53; 56.59; 98.44,98.96: 138.13).The cities are repeatedly referred to as having palaces @rlisr?da) and mansions(sauda). Those were probably in a row. ?hose are said to be coloured snd whitewashed(19.21-22; 78.213; 93.168). The palaces of Ayodhya are said to be shininglike kasa flowers (78.213). 'he buildings of the city created by muni Supratisthathrough his yogic power (purakZnnlv1dyq were looking as white as nectar (19.51-53).Safety emurtd :Ramparts @dMm 19.21-22; 63.82-86; 118.2) gopura and moat @arikhU19.21-22 91.51-53) were around the cities to ensure safety and avoid fear of attackti-om !he enemies 34hdtiu nailable :Shops :Large number of shops wen then dealing in various commodities (56.59;98.96 and 138.13).

Park! :Templa ;Reference to b e d l park are also found (56.259; 98.96; 138.13).Temples were there when people could wonhip . (56.259; 98.96; 138.13).Cremation Grouud :r/@-:35It was situated out side the city . (56.259)Circular and oblong reservoir of water for !he use of the people wereconstructed llollose are said to be nt the end of the village and endowed with steps(sopiina) and paved with stones (61.32).U@&inavana :llie ple~m gardens were there where various celebration likeklaWimahotscr:a were held and religious discourses took place (139.4)

NOTES AND REFERENCES1. lie Jaina tradition in agreement with the Buddhist and the Hindu traditionaccepts kingship as a necessity arising out of decadence in moral value of thepeople, AL.Batham, "Ancient Indim lungship" Indicq vol.L, No.2, p.119.2. A h g should charmelise his activities bough eix attitudes mach at peace(sarrdht), war (vtgruha), remaining encamped (&ma) and marching b&a),double - deal (dvadhlbhZva) and seeking protection fiom a more powehl lung(samEsiaya), Arthas'rzstra VE 1.2.3. Seepp. 113 - 118.4. A king should avoid seven vices such as drinking, dice, women, Inmting, harshtongue, cruelty, and unjust seime, Manm4ttl , VII.51.5, kP Jamkhedkar, Viwevahl~di -A Cultural Wy, 11.14.6. Sprinkling with water brought fiom various places like ponds, river, and variousQpea of mrds fom a psrtof the nr]aslSya cmony described inBrsbmanical literature, me hpuha Brdjrnqta (3.4.1-28).

7. 'Ihe crown prince appesrs to have been at C head of the lid of royal offidali~.He was highly educated sad helped the kwg in general administration, VasudevUP*Wp.62.9. Bharata says that the gods and the kings ehould be shown as seated on finhiiranqsee h@u'htm, Chapter XXl.215.10. Palace architectures and other descriptions on palaces, see V.S. Agrawal, TheDeeds of Harsha p.244.11. B h d gives a list of inmates of the royal harem They were eighteen in numberincluding queens of various grades, A@u&m,XXN.29-32.12. 'Ihe custom of wearing a fillet @a) made of gold on the pmt of mnhMevi ormahrp has been referred to in V&amihira'strhafscuiJlrtr~, mter XXN.13. All these female servant8 had specific duties to discharge in the smooth nmning ofthe administration of the palace, @Ycrs'htrs XXIV.44-64.14. 'Ihsre were also kubjikiis en!mted with the work of preparation and distributionof unguent~, h@ymhra, XXIV.62 - 64.15. 'Ihe institution of ScEmMta belongs to Oltpta civiliantion which oontirmed o anintegral part of the polity of medieval period ?his institution originated severalcentwies befm Baua Medieval litembe is 111 of reference# to Shznta e an

active inutibdion TI medieval polity may be said fo be based on m t a8ystem. fie origin of the institution probably goes to Kusaua age. It is possiblehat the foreign emperors % shka d e were not able to maintain directcontact with people and hence took the help of intermediate rulers, appointed asslmmtrrs. Baua mentions various classes of smta such as mahEm~ta,ZptuL%WIta, pmdh&asZtmta, k.pahrisL%WIfa, prahshta. ?be codeof behaviour prescribed for the scimantas included their presence in the royalDarbar fiom time to time and to render different kinds of service. See for iinthmdetails The Deeds ofHarsa, appendii 9 p.256.16. "Sainanta, its varying signiticauce in ancient India" Pachrjyoh, 1963,pp.Zl-37.There was an inneuing fragmentation and hereditarisation of local power underwhat has variously been termed "the samanta system or Indian feuddism",Tapan Ray Chaudhury, The Cambridge Ecomonic History ofIndia, vol. I, p.46.From the ninth century to middle of tenth century AD. Guhillas occupied theposition of feudatories of powerlid pratiha'ra empire, Vasudev Upadiyya,p.13.17. Tie near relations or kinsmen act as feudatories to the king and aslisted him at thetime of emergency, Vasudev Updhyaya, p.65.18. 'Ihe word muha'is used in many official titles in early medieval age, Ibid, p.45.19. Ibid, p.49.

20. Illlring 700 - 1200 AD, the priest found a place among the royal official4 Ibid,~ $ 4- 46. 521. For details on the role of Stesfhrn in the administration of the king, seeMotichandrs, So'rthavcihrr p.24.22. Similarly lady servants called Mahattari wen then in the palace to take cars ofthe harem and to p et the king,Iv?ydsfm, XXIV.58-59.23. Tne village headman was the most important officer in the villages and all othersare mentioned as subordinate to him in the Vdlabhl inscriptions fom Gujurat andSaurash-a of the sixth seventh and eighth cenhries. Tne platerr mention the officersaccording to their gales and the u d order is r@rapatl, vipzyapah,gtG'muk?a,a'yktika, niyuuktika, adhrkc~ka, nmhattarid~na, samanujn'apati,'Ihe arrangement of public fares, festivals and shows, the management of templeproperty ad other matters wen left to the villagsrs who managed everythingunder the guidance and supervision of village elders (griimayrddha), MRMajumdar, pp. 173-174.24. Bards accompanied the king in tours and wars, Vdevahindi, IL145.25. According to Kautilyathey were paid, ~ rthddm, II.27.26. ~as$aku, rIdhorqia are also referred to by B-@a and Kautilya, for details seeV.S Agmwal, p.160.

27. Bharata dates thatpraffhiim had to report t~@e king rmy work cmected withsandhi and vigmhq Was'czn'nr, m45960; pratihtm hction as themasters ofpdace routioe and state decorum. Several prarihdras wm governedby one mrrh@ratih2im. Above all mah@ratiha'as, one official calledmahdauvtPrika remained, V.S Apwal, P. 160.28, In the inscription of 1200 AD, the astrologers have been mdkied along withthe phyaicirms, V. S. @wal, p. 47.29. For details see p.83,30, d $m@rama$an7:athii; p.77. URMajumdar records the division of akingdom and says 'The desa or country wa~ usually divided for administrative. . . purposes into divisions called mqndaias i.e. district which was again mb-divided into smaller portions called visaya.As we meet with in Gujuratinscriptions, a vrsaya consisted of a number of villages. l'be lowestadministrative unit was the village. Cultural History of Gujurat, p.171.

34. Description of the gopurus of a city being equipped with & hive weapons isalso to be met with in Sorigam literature, The Tamils Eighteen Hwrdred yearsAgo, p. 130;?he excavations at Kausambi and Ujjayin have brought to ligbt th existence ofsuch ramparts @rEka'm) and moats (parikha), The Excavation at Kuambi,p.27 & pp.38-39; see similar description in other Jaina texta of the same periodV&~dmah$di, I; B.B.Datta, Town Planing in Ancient India, pp.99-100.35. Cremation ground was away &om the city, ~rth&istm, IL11.4-21

PART I1CHAPTER IV

ECONOMIC CONDITIONIn the BKK enoughmaterial is available to sdsfy the well-lmownpmeten of economic conditione such as production, commption and exchange.Throughout the work we come across the deecription of cities, towns, andvillages as filled with wealth and agricultural pro&& (56.106; 71.2; 138.39;139.46), adorned with Jaina temples (seura jinayafana) many storeyed colossalwhite buildings (dtasaudha), marketa (viikha), hth (v@i), and garb (a'&19.5 1-53; 56.259; 98.44; 98.96; 127.53; 138,13). Frequent references are there tomany a type of occupations mch an business in different commoditie~ cultivation and1cattle-rearing . We come across gmaies all over the kingdom whm agriculturalproducts were preserved for safety as well as meeting exigencies of b e (38.5; 93.3;273.136). We her of the we ofvariow coins . Refemces ngardhg the use of mebds,gema, jewels, and various wnemmts and erticlea M d with goma ere abundantly3found. We come across the generous, Iwriws exhwgmt kin@, their bmployee~ ,mious classes of buainesmw and lk precious belor&housed (bh@$rir&o~a 63.30; 78.90, 99;inclllding thsu fmam87.3-9). We find a Snalhin'~ howedecdd with golden mplicau of'dcsr, home, elsp$ant a ndyw (104.6-7).

?birr is all bout the brighter side of economic scenario. La ue have a glmca ati$ dark sspectl. We hesr of people shicken with poverty to evil andmischievous means of esmiag euch as cheating, he!?, robbery, murder, proetitldio&4 5gambling, and ao on . We come acroaa poor and blind people living on a h . 'Ihenis arefmce to a part of a village @?&a) where only poor, began, and blind menwere living (3.3). We hew abou! the nahwl calamities shattsring the backbone of thekingdoms time and again (131.34,37,47; 6: 146.4). We hear of the people ofKr$paft~a h the hk$pzpatha starving due to severe famine. No ,rice wae in tbeetock in any of the granaries. Similarly & to lack of rain, Uijayini is said to be u~~dersevere famine for twelve years. The kingdom wss devoid of crops and wealthEverything was robbed by the lung pad tfia thieves. People migrated to &p&66All these descriptions must not be neglected simply $king them ss imaginaryor fiction, They bear testimony to the prevailing financial conditions of the people andtheir advancement in bade, business and agriculture. It testifies the standard of livingof the different sections ofthe society. If we canfdly detect the fkcts *om the fictiomcertainly, a clear pichin of he contmpmy economic conditim of the society willbe revealed Hm is an attempt in this regardProduction :Agladh: Falmsrmdwrlrb:h the We h d dmncts to fields with di&d crops lh y m (61.23)ad gatidh&i (60.19). 'Ihere were also wells in the Ian& probably for idgation

why the enemy has to return back disappointed After his deparbpe, people were askedto take their reepective deposits not touching othen (38.5-6).Men of other Occupations :hhmm(mritsika, dhTvara)We get refwences to fishermen and Leu equipmenta for fiahtng. We hear of afisherman selling fishes in the market (vihkha 28.29-30). In Eamthyqlw, we comemoss the particular shops dealing with various kinds of fishes (28.32; 29.32-33). Wealso come across a villw of fishermen on the bank of the river Sip (72.1). forcatching fishes net @re@am, jda 9.15; 9.7) and for keeping them caskets @i,talra)were wed 'Ibere is also a reference to a dhTvara busy in collecting pearls at a placewhere ariver is joined with the ocean (105.61). So kom all these &!ails, it is knownthat fishing was accepted as a meana of livelihood by some people.Potta ( RalIliia, kunibliakiira)We come across a potter and his wife engeged in pnpmtion of pots( w m , bhQfa 58.57,64). We hear of d&h of a potter being worriedbecause the pots, eedy prepared and kept outeide the house for b ag, were aboutto be @oiled by the sudden rsiahg (98.57). 'Ibere is also reference to kiins (m)when dried poltorim were bumt (98.117). We come across a patter cm$ngbh@#aka h. me village to another snd selling than to the ladies wen on lorms(120.2-5).

Particulr communities like P9a (an out caste, cQdrfla) or hhba ( a lowcaste person) were earning thei bread %om make-cw ?hey used to enmaio thepeople by playing with snakes (nagaHdd 27.17). 'Ihey were also saving the liws ofvictims of snake bite. They were capable of exhting poison with the help of msntraa.Hence they were known as v~qh&ns or vijada (27.32; 126,111-112) We hear ofthe snake channers being rewarded with fees @Mro$ka) in the form of gold,villapa, clcphant, homes etc. for protectingthe lives (27,32; 126.111-112).Physiaanr ( vaidya or bhisak)The physicians offered their service end in exchange received fees (Pa'ritoGka10.89; 13.6; 29.5) At many places we hear of them being rewarded by the wealth,crops, gold etc. (13.15.18; 29.17).mimm :8We her of ladies dealing in milk, md, and other mik produots . 'llwy werehown FIE Gopi. They were collecting these milk products %om the Gokula andwondering §om village to village to #ell them. Probably some of these aopis whowen nnming large scale businesa in this field had to pay am8 proportion of theirprofit to the king. We hear of'Nandagiving 1000 pota of ghee to the king (21.29-33).

In the BKK we get references to the rearing of cow, bufaloes, pate, sheeps,horses, elephenta, camels. A detailed description regarding the rearing of cows iefound in the BtOry fi&uvahwnanakuthanaLa (21.9-20). Ashoka, a v i l l who ~ ~is said to be m owner of lot of cows (uekagoh!mayaLa ) used to pneent oneLowand pots of ghee to the king every year (21.6-7). Besides kings were refened ashaving goMas taken care by a gokulanZtha (5.7). specially appointed for thispurpose. A reference is there to a qecial type of food called $alakacows (21.13). Besides, throughout the work we hear of mnhi$paripZI&agiven to theplpdzra (60.8; 121.48), Ilmaka or chelikZpaaka (73.81) sheep shepherd ( wika74.9-lo), cow herdsman (gopza or govatsqaripalaka (56.7941; 60.4), horse10keeper saptmiiyaka or a.6jap'ilaka (70.53; 105.312) and elephant driver (hm>akaor a hova 33.65-66).orPeople who were working m shepherd or herdsman etc, were generally poorand living in cottages (60.560. lley were taking the cows and others cattle to thepadures (kaccha) in the midst of base fore& (60.56). ?he owners of the cow rindbuffaloes were announcing through beating clnrms when they needed somebody to look&r their cattle (70.21-23). Before Cir appohmt, tho tmm and ccwditim weretixed & we see S ~ r r m was appointed es horse keeper (sqtinapka or&piil&)with the condition that he would be given two horaes aAer a period ofthree yean (70.21-23) We hear of a &osrhin baving a herd of buffaloes Pad twokeepers (ma) to look &rLem (121,S). We also come across a

where homes, elephaats md camels wore trained (127.52). At few place8 we get'- reference to the rearing of dogs and hem at home (73.113).Pl--~tll~ ( h~dlko) :Tbm is areference to selling offlower and garlands in the msrket (30.28-20).We hear of a Maika going to the villages for selling flowers (56.182). Probably thisprofession was confined to aparticular community.Llquor-vmdor ( RPIIPq saq+io)We come across many times people resorting to the business of liquor. Wehear ofMhadra, adm by caste becoming very rich by selling li(luors(31.2).Pninta ( &&a)We hea olv yuinbr engaged in his atdliiri. Kiqq once comes there, midmthe paintings to be real ones (12.2; 12.14). Generally references ere found to thepain- made on thr floor paved with gems (rnqrk~mabhiimi (78.4)) and (pala(55.193)Stone dlggcr ( a&)Some people who are skiffil in digging tank, well etc, were called da. ?beywere using narrow qade (khanada) aud spade (kuddaka) to dig he emtb(104.8-11). We hear of thousan& of $as being rewarded by the kmg for digging a& td (104.8-11).

U@ah :The heads ofthe villages wen having some servants dose only work wrrs tomeasure the rice ctc, dunq the purchase. Thsy were called m@atu . We hear of astatemhead (rogrtruda) purchasing crops (dhZnya) fiom two merchants, while his@aka was misappropriating in measurement by diverting the attention of the sellersthrough telling stories. Later on he was fond guilty and puaished by the ldng(126.114-117.).Sailor (N&ika) Fm~manThese people livcd on canying people across the sea or riva by their boats(70.61; 108.20). We hear of a sailor demanding a price mom than whd was fixedbefore 6om amwchant in the midst of a deep sea (70.61).GolduPlth (suvqokiiralkal&)We hear of a goldsmith preparing a crown for the king He was fixing vaiousems a180 in it (105.264). ?he Bfavartahara of the queen could not be repaired byany goldsmith and at lad au extraordinmy goldsmith named Alasbar could do(153.9-10).SbnarpcdnW ( &hvd~d, &dn'a; &iku@ 56,377,383,143)?hese people were skilled in precious Hone work^. They knew all derailsabout various stones. We hear of s king dutg a dyshvijhi to remove a granthi6om a j~nasimhcis~a since it mwed the beauty. But he explained to the king thepossible damage it would came to the whole sbuctun. The king cwstructed k e

(layana) through the done workers (dEhtja). ?he &orcalled tviitka, used by thcst stone v~orkm (56th story).refers to the implementThese people are said to be abode of arts (kallTdhara). They prepared Wesout of clay. We hear of a king entrusting a Lepakara to make a pratima' of~h'vajinedra Being dissatisfied with his work he called mother ltpakara andwamed him that he should accept the job if knew the science (vijn'cina) well. 'he artistassured him, remained under strict discipline regarding food etc, till the successfulcompletion of the work. He was rewarded and honoured wannly by the krqg (20thstory).~lnccrr ( I M ur~rtriko, ~ n+q s'milIrgn) :I'Ihere is a reference to a rope dancer in the story Sivavarmiivrpmkafhiinaka,We hear of his daughter, well veraed in the art, was moving to towns presenting herdmces on the rope (varatra. She was adorned with various ornaments. Tnnnpet(Grq was one ofthe instrument played mning the performance. 'The dances were heldin the mid-day (80th. story). We also hear of n

LM rmmt ( &am&&3 .,We hear of a woman worker of aSreghin canying water in pots fiom the riverYamuG (106.4-15). That was her only means of livelihoodAlso when Sreghin Sagaradatta expired his wife resorted to bh,rti to earn herlivelihood (12.82).Barber ( n$ta)(81.36-37).We fuld reference to a barber who was doisg naki2akarma of the princessW~llamnn ( rq'ako)me author refers to awashennm without giving much details (108.12) .Traveller ( d&k)Some people were moving Born plwe to place in gewh of some means oflivelihood. For example Samudradat$ came as a labourer tom mother city rmdworked as horse keeper (qtinqyaka) in Pal&aku@ha He irr mentioned in thestory as adehka (70.53).Hpntg:A particula clasa of people mostly living in the foreat like sivaras or kit20were reewting to hu- to em their livelihood We hear of a hara presenting the

,'tusk and gems ofelephmt to aSre$hhmI39to fond and killing ram (m?{hmka 26.106.107).(78.145-146). We come across people goingVagdnalt-idla. ( s2mLk.u)We hear of a person selling vegetables end purchasing his &siredcommodities with the money he earned (127.27).Wooclell~:We come across people going to forest for hunting as well as collectu~g wood(126.106-107). Two poor men in Ujjayini were eaming their livelihood by bringingwood f om the forest and selling them (149.2-3).13Generally people ofthis profession were Brahmim , well-versed in differentar&&strns including astrology, s'akund~drn etc. It seems many of them were pakonirred14by the kings ale0 . We see them often accompanying the king (57.285-287). Atseveral places in the ted we I~ar of them predicting hhw evenb and warning of theupashha. We see an ashloger predicting a 6esThin that he would be profited by alakh of dinars (110.18) . He was forecaeting about a princess that the pmonmarrying her would be the ruler of the earth (61.2). We hear of a lang taking tbecwddon ofahhximimh in chooeing his euccessor (55.16).

?his profession was also conlinued to confiae ~rdmhq~'. 'h teachen werealso wellversed in various ;&mlike six &gas, four Vedas etc. (15.1). ?he teachersused to conduct vrnin~~~ te~t to know the intelligence of their disciples (76.3-12).The stories such as dyitcikhy'inakakathEnaka (No.39),piishkadyiitakathZraka (No36), kapardaLadyiitakath?ihaka (No.40) refm togamblers, their style of playii and various technical facts in gambling. It seems somepeople considered it w means of livelihood end were very much addicted to itPrortuuru - ( sqiikii, par&d) 17Poor women oilen resorted to prostitution to get rid of the !&Yerigs ofpovetty. It was seq the city harlots subdued the rich persons in the city by theirbeauty rmd p e . .aer extracting all their property, they discmded rmd trappedanother. Even people &om noble family were losing their sense of morality md fallingprey to their Me.c (93.52-55).'Ihiatr, Robbm ( tusk47r4 dqu, IPnialkga) ,(10.15; 101.4; 138.32)People stricken with poverty resorted to some other means of livelihood liketheft, robbq etc. We repeatedly hear of mercharbs, teachers, etc. being at&ncked,robbed up and Rome times killed on ths way of their jomney (101.4). 'lhese incidmbtook place mostly in the fme$ and oceans. Besides the thieves are said to be

14 1equipped with so may Buperpnhwl powers. They were wll-vmed in cuumustmaad knew mrmy &ills (138.43). A thief named Vidyuccw is said to be expert inusing magical collyrium and pill8 (Gjmasiddhi and gqimddhi, 10.4; 138.15).Similarly we hear of athiefbeing able to hypnotise (mhma) the guards and break thedoors throwing mustsrd seeds (10.4-IS), Another wae said to be well-versed in sixty.four arts and he could change his forms f om time to time (138.3-6).Bql~m.We hear of ap?uka, (a part of the city), in Ujjayini where only people withmiseries and poverty only lived (3.3). There in the market (hala) , a poor blind manis referred as begging in a peculiar way. He was holding a mat on his teeth striking hischest eequediy and singing lovely sang (3.5). We come across a vegetable-sellerhaving no other way but resorting to beg&away by a security guard (127.76).as all his property were forcellly takenBIuiuernnw?his class of people were mostly finaacially sound and had a good stahrs inthe society. In the BIE, we come across three classes of businessman viz (a) thosewho cmied their goods for selling and wonder fm place to place. For instance thetwo merehab dealing in wheat and gwn (126.93) and another merchant coming allthe way Eom d@?@atha to Ujayini to sell eigbt dazzling natn~os(126.223-224) @) those who went to distaoce place across the sea Io this cstegorywe can take for example thirty-two metebuts ping abroad (101.2). (c) ?boss whowm pammdy settled at a place Mi in ypriow wmmoditiw. For vie, in

142the stwy cou&h&& a 'esthin sells ratnas etc. in his own shop (102 (9).13;~£107.16-17).The businessmen who want to start their business at a new place had to seekbe prior pmission of the authority (55.203). We get acquainted with variousclasses of wealthy men in the story viravat~kath&aka (No.87). ?he poet classifiesand defines various cadres ofwealthy men in the following wgr.a) Dhya :It refers to that wealthy man whose vast mass of treasures when assembled a! aplace remain above the umbrellas held in the hand ofhis menb) bcbhja :It refers to a wealthy man whose wealth d en assembled a! a place remainabove the umbrellas held by the person sitting on the bull.c) P+akcbhja :It refers to a rich mau lose precious wealth when assembled will remainabove all the dqdas and chatras of the king put together at one place in an order.He should be also renowned and endowed with all virtues (87.3.9).It is a well-known hct that in dl the ages businearnen are only concerned withtheir wealth and it maken than very mch mem-minded Afkr the death of hi^d.lgbbsr, jytkiA PPmrb&lrP is a&j he f k k of the bride-groom to rsbnn bad

l43the wealth which he had gim as dowry. We see the two :mghinr qmolliqg dmthe bride is on the death-bed (30.15-22).Probably, eome s'reghins wm employed in the royal court to look after he18hcial mmrs of the kingdom . Such s'reghins are frequently referred to in theBKK (55.97,255 ). Even though sea-trading and bwhess were carried on by peopleof a particular conmnmity, still we find instances of Bmbmh und*taking this19profession (16.2-6) .Swtrndrar :We come across the merchant bavelling across the sea to dis$nt islands like20Bnha1adv';aa (93.6), Svamadv$a, Yavanadvlju (No.93) etc. ventwing all soh ofdangerous situatioas and natural calamities. All though this sea-kdmg was mainlyconfined to the claesee like gre$hrns, reference is there to a Brahmin well-vmed inVedas and V e f i resorting to sea-trading leaving his mcestral occupation (16.2-6). Many of these him an described as collecting the capital either by bornwingloans or canying with them the precious ornaments and wealth of their h ily for theirtrade (16.2; 55.205). Dtning their jomey, they were canying bh@das (55.205;93.96) probably to cany capital in thcm in the form of c oh and comditiee dduring rehpn journey the hms. Before e$rtiog their joumey, the trsdsrs wed to~asemble pt a place end chalk out a detailed propme of their jouwy i.e, wherethey should go md pd d sod b y lhsyd ransol (70.17-19). 'Ihb hdm ofahily wsre w d y m i d by their moth abr thqir dun h abroad (28.32).

144?he hdm had to b e lot of obntacles on the way both man-made and d lheywere atlacked by thieves and were rendered penniless. O&n they wem killed residingthe miscrsants21. We come across the story of a group of merchants kidnspped bythieves ( day). All of them were killed except one (101. 4-6). We her of somesiirrhavllhas loosing thcir way in the deme forest on account of diversion fiom thed mot %aled to their enormous euffering due to hunger and thirst Referencesare there to the boats drawn into the deep sea while carrying them. Those boats rndescribed as adorned with banners (93.72) which probably were considered as theiremblems or trade marks or s ip of auspiciousness. We hear of a Persian merchant 22getting a woman in exchange of wealth (102.80) and it bears testimony to thecommercial relation of our Indian traders with the Persians.Ordeals In the o mIn the story titled CiNdattpkathhZinaka (No93), we get a clear picturs of thesea-trade and various ordeals faced by the merchants. Chdatb took all theomamsrds made of gold and gem of his wlfc and went for tradii with his uncle toGkivemapura of Utkalade6a which is said to be full of wealth Tnqt purchased cottonpaying lot of wealth but all that was blnnt by wild fire. It was too much for a businessman who was new to the business. Still Chdatta without loosing hie heart proowdedtowards East He travelled on a horse through the land 'Ihe home died on the wqr.Somehow he reached the city of Pnyarigu where he met his fiend S&with him he dated advsnhrous jotmy on a boat (vodhistha) to YQW&&ADet$ and&Ihere hey wad h m ow isld to mob md nd I& got eight mm of gold cob.

OP the w y BgsLl midodm shettered them 'Ibe boat cwyiae than endwealthsaok in the deep eea With the support of a broken piece of the boat(wdhiflhuphalaka), they crossed the ocean of Sin& d reached ~~During his jomey Chdab had to halt at several places for rest He stayed in thehouses ofhis fiends. While moving h n one island to another in aearch of wealth, hechanged boats seven timee (93.63-78).Above is the story of a merchant even though fictitious which gives us someglimpses about the hardship that the merchants undertook on heir quest for wealthExchange :MPrkeb and Shops :In the BW the cities like Ujayini, Silkeke$ etc. are described as MI of shopsand markets (3.5; 35.21; 121. 23-24). The shops an referred as ma (76.42;121.23-24 ), viJkha (76.33; 109(9).13; 104.26-30; 107.16-17; 121.23-24),vithhZrga (76.14) aod the markets are known as hga and khqta (93.5; 35.22). Wehave areference to a msrket town at the foot of a mountain which is called Ematan(17.6). In these shops and markets various objects like gold (104.26-30), ornamente(35.22), plan& (30.29), fishes (29.32-33; 76-33), pm8 (76.33-45), ghee (76.33-45), gems (102(9),13), vqdablse, m&a were sold snd Nii wss used forweighmg 'Ihbn ars refsrsacea to & placea whic&k mownod for dsaiq inpsrticular commodities For example, in the city of (&3atqm in ~Uialadeh,

cotton was sold (93. 65). Similarly Paladbpm is referred as rich in crop sadwealth and is said to be a bwiness centrw (71.2). From b e @criptione, it eeanrrthese cities were in no way infaior in respect of bwinees and trade to my of themodern cities.Dqm in the Me of usurorr of quality :We hear about two customers, Vm and Narada bating the quality of cq&before purchase. Tley were moving $om shop to hop testing cqakas andprnposefully passing comments depreciating their quality. In this process, !beyconsumed cqakas to their heart's content and at last left fhe place without purchaee(76.25-26).Bsr~DininZAt another shop, the same customers are heard of bar@& with theshopkeeper while purchasing ghee (76.36). Also at one place we hear of a sailor(nlivika) and amerchant busy uegotiatiag the price (No.70).Mdh of BxrhqeReferences are there to the use of various cob serving aa the medium ofexchange such an kupardaka (otherwise known ae a@76.17'19'23) dram (Greek24 'silver cob dmk-hme which in equal to four kcis or six pence (104.13-30), dimr(Persian cob 63.89)' ~akkar~ (14.26).

We hear of a poor Brahmia selling hie aon in exchange of we lekh &us(63.89; 110.18; 143.42). We hear of a kug presenting his queen one hundredpkkumwhile declaring her es bin narrhi5dmi (14.26). Reference to a s'nghin's eonpurchasing ninety eight pieces of gold paying two drama only.Persons holding different occupations were duly rewarded for the labow theyinvested and services they rendered Before doing the service a talk between theamployer and employee took place. 'Ihe terms and conditions were fixed We hear ofSamudndatta being agreed to work as a horse keeper on the assmce that he wouldbe given two excellent horses after three years (70.21-23). Refermcta are there tophysician vardyas, snake-charmers, painters etc, being rewarded with handsomeamom! of fee for their services. 'IZle fee (piin'toqika) was in the form of bothcommodities and coins. We hear of a king offering gold, h-ems, rice, village, city,elephant, horse to a snake-chmer and in exchange he wanted him to save the life ofhis son tom snake-bite (27.33; 29.17). A hunter wan givenpa'nto,rika by the kingsince he brought a mys$l stone collected in the forestThe author tries to establish thst unless we tab care and give proper hatmentto the smanb d labom, we can not nm my bwiness sucwssllly. Scimcy oflabour m&bm a lot in my busineaa. As Nenda did not well the Qopnq nhe could

not get milk, gbee snd curd em though she had llarg number of cow and obviourlyfailed in her wo* (21.18-27).Many persons lmdertaking bade and conrmerce had to s$rt their business onloans. We hear of a Brahmin named Somasarma borrowing loans tom mother richperson to start his sea-trade (16.6). Pmons unable to repay their loans due to theirfailure in business were subjected to harassment by the givers. Somasam beingrobbed up by the bandits on the way, decided to become ayarl, having no dtemativebefore him to repay the loans. Once he happened to visit to his city and was caught bythe person who had given him loans. He tbreatmed Somasma that tmless he clearedall the debts, he would not be dlowed to leave be place. Vay soon the two weresurrounded by a vitista who gave the wonderful judgement to settle the dispute. 'Ihevihga said that since he was ayati he should repay the lorn selling his most preciouswealth i.e. dham. Helpless Somasma requested Vimdatta to collect the wealLtom his son wbo was capable of dealing with all those matters (16.15-18).Refemncce are there to a mrmber of bh@da;d~ cDnstructcd throughout thekingdom Those are said to be kll of wealth. Royal priest Sribhd collected from theetlbjech gold and dcpo~itcd them in these bh@d&&. People nlyiq on himd d their mess wealth for saving But ths priest betrayed them ?bc

interestiDg story of a merchant being deceived by this priest amacts our attentionSumitra deposits in Sribhuti's bizriyddcila five precious gem. After some days hedied His son came to withhthe amount and the mischievous priest said to him ''Idon't know anything about your gems. Those might have been $ken way by somep~icicu". &er on hth came to light md the priest was prosecuted for committinghid (78.50-88).Tmsuru, buried unda the gronnd for safety:There are references to the wealth kept buried under the earth probably toensure safety (78.57). We hear of Jinadatta buying a copper jar fill of manlmtnasac. w~ie his son saw this. Later on he took it out and buried somewhere else(102.100-102). We also hear of thieves burying their stolen wealth underneath theearth (138.4).But* :The exchange of goods for goods is called saner. References to barter systemare abundant. For example the king of Kausambi was fascinated by an extraordinaryhone and purchased it fiom a merchant in exchange of a seven storeyed building andhalf of his kingdom (70.17). A merchant selling a piece of mqi in exchange of hisdesired commodity (107.16-17).ParQahip:We come across a basinessrmm and a merchaat carrying on Leu activitieswith perfect harmony sad co-operation Partnership in trade and commerce is referred

to in the text BKK. ?be hidm were moviag to d i d islprds in groups. We comeacross the iagtaoce of thuty two merch havelling together (101.2). We hear oftwo brothere, Sutamih aud Surachendra, having become poor with the death of theirSeesfhin-father endeavouriag to recover fiom their poverty. They set out on trading toSinhaladvipa aad after twelve years they m e d back with precious wealth (28.6-7). A reference to the &eSthin whose close fiendhip is described by the poet asabhedya du'If'Ifmaimpi ' (not to be broken wen by evil people) is worth mentioning(55.257). We also hear of Sagarabuddhi, a very rich merchant of U'ayini,23accompanied by other two merchant going to Dak-$?@atha to seek his fortune.Bconomlc oKencnWe come across several instances of crimes related to hcial matters endpunishments pronounced by the authority. References .to hd banking by the priest(78.50-88) and misappropriation in measwing the coma by a m@ak have been26mentioned earlier . A stone-digger while digging atank by the order of the luag got abox 111 of gold pieces. Without informing the king he wa~ selling them in he marketHe was caught by the royal gu&end taken to king's court (104.30). ~ 6~hinPinikagabdha was imprisoned along with his family as he had purchased some piecesof gold 6om him (104.46).Conaumption :From the BKK, we come to how about he cons~lPlption of various food ibms,drinks, and we of precious cummtn d other mticiea Already mbr political

condition b precious belongings of the royal family have bem mentioned (see thechapter on political condition). AII these details give us m idea about the life that thepeople were leadii It throw ligM on the economic condition ofthe society also.Here is a list of those food items, drinks, cosmetics and ornaments which arerefmd to in the BKK It is worth mentioning that we are familiar to many of theseitems.Food:The author ohn describes the food to be endowed with six tastes({adrampeta 98.80; 105.32) In Jaina texts foods are classified into four varietiessuch as khajjii . to be chewed, pejjii - to be dnmk, bhojfa' - to be eaten by27swdlowing, lejjha' - to be eaten by licking28asbkavartinT ( a sweet meat) (7.75; 56.228)kdjiikr? (157.41)k&-m (68.13)khin'ka' (preparation of milk and rice 10.71)rniini~a (20.16-17)khajuka (7.76)whitdnqda -fried with bee (73.70)khaJabiiniiriz khiI3. (7.76)k h d v d i (mad)(husked pulse) (24.37)3 a - (24.35)&a (wed in milk 7.65; 31.25)gh&-irikrr' - pulse p md and eed with clsrified butler (7.75)

gh.rtaprrnzka - a sweet prepared of flour, m i4 cocomrt, and ghee.(7.65; 24.27; 56.228; 64.33)t W a - (68.13; 24.28)dadhi - (taken with rice also 139. 92)ddhik$?a~~a~~lnokcr - (12.34)p?iyctsa - (3.28; 5.7)W r i k E - a thin bread (7.75)p-ra - (7.75)pihkZ - (7.75)- (7.68)mqdaka - (7.75; 140.18)d h u - (20.16-17)modaka - (72.95)l@uku - (21.15; 35.15; 72.97)bahuvidhabhakta- ( 7.75) varieties of cooked-rice referred to in the BKKare as follows :dadhibhdta - (7.67; 139.920mudgas~~odana with ghee (19.56).&ibhakta - 24.16)br?kibhakta - (24.34)flmabhaktu - (66.8)cftukabhrrha- (129.43)vlt&ncr - afood said to be specially prepared 'Ihis mme~ beauty,nourishment, atm@ sod (6.120).

Drlnkr:siilmaka - (19.56)sfkha - boiled rice (12.82; 72.37)~ITjcSfcth (129.43; 127.43)takm - said to be prepared h m ripen kaptrtha having deliciousdugdha - withd y a - (31.23)Comdia:omamcntr :pebe enwing beauty and etrength (17.3-4)anulepa 433.18)h&ma - (22.31)gandhodaka (10.24)svaniimrZlikiiZguIiratn~ - (56.136)katikqa - (139.52)@twarttCh~m - (153.7)kundala - (81.7)gaj&W8ra - (78.148)n'pum - (99.10)paHcavaryzmqi - (69.48)drJk - (87.38)md~&bhampa - n58)in~d Lrkuru (7.68 ), with&a (31.23)Mots ornmnsP$ 400 the chqk on political condition (royal pomssiws).

NOTES AM) BBPBRENCBS1. I& pp. 130 - 145.2. Infta p. 146.3. Sltpra pp. 88 - 91; 97 - 112.4. b pp. 140 .- 141.5. Ia6a p.141.6. A 8evm fsmine of 6imilr type took place &rig 10th ceniany AD in Wur*M.R hdajudw, p.627. Kautilya mentiom that the people of Sawash were best qiculturie$..&has'hfm chapter i; lndian AnHquary, viii. p.141; MRMejumdar, p. 173;also then is awll-known Gujlwti proverb :utth 6eH madhyam vepZr hanlgha' n&r!.8. ?be people of Gujlwt wed to have lot ofmilk-products, MRMajmdar, p.173.9, bid,10, ~mrtilya's~rthos'cistm dm h to it, chspterJl.30.11. See KC.Wdhar, Social Dfe in Ancient Indla, p. 134. L+ras an aleorefirred to in other Jaina bxb like Vdgwhiqdi of the saas period12. In !he bcriptim of I200 AD, the aetralagcre han been mentioned doq withthe pbyuician, Vmdw Up-India (700.1200 AD), p. 47.The Socio-raligious Condifioru of firth

13. Vasudsv Upadhyqq pp.4748.14. bid15. Ibid, p.44.16. Krmtilya does not allow aay dice play in ths placen o k thea Ihaw which wenlmder the control ofaroyal officer, kh&mItL20.1-2.17. 'Ihsy took one Umunmd gold coh as the fees. It seems this description is a poeticconvslrtion in Jaina cmonical literahre. J.C.Jain, Rncient Wfe as Depicted in&nu &on&p.164.18. For dstsile on the role of $eghin in the adminisfration of the king EEOMotichaodm, SrthavBha (Hindi), p. 24.19. Marco Polo say that Brahmins were the best mm!W in the world and wmhulhhl, Marco Polo, ~01.4 p.350. Trade and agriculh were the chiefmeansof livelihood for Vaisyer according to yltl writsrs,~it1avadharma~'listrq190.20. Plntca M hae the ship in sculptwe, hi R Mqumdar, aJhrml History of Gufimfpreke, p.mi. In medied period the c o d anas of bjurat &edthe wtwollt ofmaritime tradb, Tapan RlFjc-,withinThe Cambridge EconomicHistow of India, vol.I, p.45. See for detaile on dWmt trade routes of thatperiod, Motichandm, p.24; the people of Oujurat had the persisteat maritimeactivity hugb the a@, Bodhiiyanusmfl mentione that lhat northemsrs ofGujuraf , Saunh, etc, were hawyl bguent voyages, MELMajlrmdar, pp.40,66,95; 174.

21. Trndbro~aPOd~dapesrofdacoity ~mentioninAthamveda-WIh.But other Veh m ilent about ifLitem, p.21.KS.Srinivsrran, The Ethos .of lndian22. In early medieval centmy, the .expmion of maritime activity took place in tbtaaten~ water ofIndian ocean sad China aea, Tspsa R g r c w , opcitvol.I, pp. 126-127.23. Supra p. 119.24, Gold and silver coin8 were found in north Gujurat ( plates xvii), MRMaJomdPr,opcif pp.54,74,173.25. ?be maio and broad geographical division of India known from the muid timeshave been the two, viz, south and no& In the dynastic record of hw-Vindhyaregion the mler is described ae he Lord of the south (da&?apathqpateLsutakami, EpigraphicaIndicavol.viii, p.42) and in the same way, he kmg~ Indo-ho@c plain were designated as the Lord of he north( sakP[offampafheham for Hama Epigraphica Indica vol.v, p.202.),rlnarciprrtha wa~ also the name of the road ftom ~~ to Takasifi (Bma,Udayagvl and Khandagiri inscription ) or ftm B& to Gandhara ( Paainiv.1.n) V&V Up* opcit , pp.14.26. Supra p. 136.27. Videvahig$ a Ckltuml my, p.130; A1 Idrisi, ths Arab travella ofb 11thcedPPy AD repoh about the food of the people of Oujlwt, particularly of Jainaa,

MRMajumdar, p.206 cmd re for details on tbe fooda ofthe people of Qujwat,p. 170.28. MR Majumdar, preface p.xvi.29. Gold and copper rings 6om the layera dabd to bt to second cenhny BC, areinscribed with the name of the owner. Specimens hsving me8 of both the ownerand hie father are also to be noticed This practice seems to be haw continued inlater times. A copper ring engraved with lettm in Gupta Brami charactersand belonging to !iftb cenhqr ADU). has also been found. A P.Jamkhedkar.p. 128.

PART I1CHAPTER V

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS%e BKK t o w li* on the social conditions ofmedieval and ancient IndiaWe are recording hen the details.Bntaeimasllt:People were having several types of entderu auch am ~leeingdaacea playing dices, and attending parties of dmking and mo on. Hem me wrmedetails:References ere there to dmai enacted on special occasions such as car-festival (12.140). We bear of agroup of thieves getting engrossed in enjoying a lhamatlll moming and forgetting their own business (59.14).The professional data known as nata (102.59, 98.8) held dance programs innight. These nqas are said to be endowed with vilrisP, vibhm mdilvabhlva(102.60-61). We hear of a pmon comb late in the ni@a dance progtamme and &ins the wrath ofhis wife (102.62).ghter watchingIn these perfomcea, nometimen the men w m baed Ib worn Io Raja-gi4apum the mica up of two male dmcera wan SO real mat tby wsre miataken to bbM e s by people (109.3-6). We hear of a handicapped msg well vmed in singing

dancing dplsjing lute (85.14).(1uikhal.a) Wer$miog the people (85.14).Beei&s, we h d well-d~wd pole-dancmThe three stories titled pasadyu1athirn1a ( No.36), dyitakhyIa-t&athiinaka (No.39) and kapanlakady2rJcathiinaka po.50) &al exhauslively withdice play. It was one ofthe favourite sports of the people. Some took it aa a means ofacquiringhealth. ?he wirmm won kqmrdb. Even thou& diceplay tw1considered as an evil , people wed to be attached to this game. Even Brahmins wereindulging in this game (65.16). We hear of separate gambliq halls with elaboratesitting mgements (36-4). It was almost a habit of many kings and other top royalemployeer like priest etc. to play dice at leime horn (78.67). Some were too muchaddicted and playing it day and night2 (40.2-3).For the maniqe of his dau@er.a liquor vendor hosted a propinme of dineand dance (goghi-31.27, vanabhojana ~31.20) in a fiuit-arcbard While all weredridiq wins. Siwbhuti. a Brabrmn fiiond dm& milk (3123). The liquor-vendor(kdha) wganised the perty in a fit-orchard for him The food cooked in a BralrmiPhmily was served He refused to take food *om a S;dm md therefore this specialanqment wan made. (31.17),

'Ihere was a well-plaaed educational system 'Ihere m references toiekhdd Whar'llid) where co-educa?ion was prevalent (94.27,105.131). Stud$&join these pcr~hdds afier $lane a dikp undor a gum 'he teachm were generallyBrahmin and brilliant scholars well veraed in variow arts, sciences, four Vedna, sixatigas, eigbteen scripts and other &ras4 (15.2,22.4,76.3,102.47-48). All thesembjech were tau&There m references to one hundred five vidyiis (97.76-79) andcuru'risrta (138.43). ShuiePte of different intellectual atate are divided undercategories such an ekasanstha, dvisanrtha, tnsanstha and catusanstha and their seatammpncnts were made accordi@~ly(l57.18-281. The first category of ehldentagaped the teachar's teaching& and hansferred this knowledge to all (157.20-28).It seems the students' strength under a teacher was limited In Vqagrcimrr oneteacher had only four disciples under him (157.19-28). We hear of a teacher losing histemper and hitting his disciple with his leg &sr being failed to bring the lesson hometo him (22.8-10). f ir teachers used to conduct a practical test at the end of theirteachug (76.17-26). 'he studen$ d e d in the house of the teacher5 (157.20) mi atlho end ofthru education they used to pay guNd~?@nd (157.28).'There are refmcee to intellectua debate^ (da) held on rcligiow topics.The ladies could also phcipate th. (11.40,127,93.212). ?hest debates wan heldin the prenence of common public (76.120-27), Varanssi wau considered to be C bcd

seat of learning. The best among be acholm came bere to pdcipnte in sucb debstes(93.212).During such debates, the Wcs ofpr-a,naya ad vikepa were wed torehe the aqmem (11.40). Sometimes mch debates led to violence (11.49).The kinp were giving much emphasis on tfie education of their children. KingVirasena was so much concerned about his son's leadq that he inquired about itthrough a letter wen when he was away eom the place (23.7,24.7).Most probably !&p appointed independent teachera for their sons in thepalace (23.2.24.7-11). The teachers were bated with much honour. We hear of king~hmpala iseuing inetruction to the palace officials to treat the family teacher withextreme regards. He asked to provide him a golden seat (sva~iima) and a gold-6vessel (savm@m) (24.16).rsmny LifeFrom Harisena's nanation we how about the Mly-life in the contempomysociety. We know about couples leading happy liven with d love (64.5) whilesome others had lives a 1 of c hs because of the diffmce in their sttitudes, andunders$nding (No.55.235; 102.73-78: 54.25). We haw be ins$ace of a piowhusbmd giving nligioue teachiqg to his wife who later on renounced the d e life.(90.2).We hear of a village-bead dividing the property behvcon his two wiws beingfed up with their conatant quanalling (21.7). We have ssvsral ine$pcw of couplea

fighting beme of their two different religiow inclinations (55.235-236). We comeacross a lady having misuodmmdiJq with her husbd and QeaiDg out of her houeewith her ornaments. She became a victim to the thieves in the forest (10273-73). Wecome across several cases of re-mmage and divorce which have been included inmother section i.e, marriage (85.19, 86.5-8, 150.52,126.125-130). Similarly ofteamisundemhding cropped up between the psrents and their children (69.13). The sonof a ~kzhln was go@ astraj and repeatedly caught red-handed by the royal securityofficials. n e sASfhrn got a w mhj kom the king He considered his son to beiI;uicw'Lpa) for his fsmily and drove him out of his house (69.13). It was unbearablefor m orthodox Brainnin priest to see his daughter inclined towarda Jainiam. He gaveamong wamq to her (126.69.70).liere was the practice of having spiritual son (dhannaputm) (4.9). 'Ihe newcouples usually wanted male-child (73.1,150.52) (putmjanmabhil@n@).We how about the hospitality extended towards the guests in a femily. 'Ihegue& were honoured with offering offlower, betel etc. (10.86, 68.13). A lot of cwrewas taken for their reception, Atter their arrival the hosts washed their feet d W(146.9-10).?hay were also fled with clothes (69.25-26,81.80).'Ihsy were w e dwth meet and affectionate worda (69.25-26). lloy were also o&ed p&e(gadha) end cream (andep)(81.80). hper were made for their b&food, cfriak end rest (33.40,55.10).

From the BKK we come to know about the stahrs of womm in thecotttompowy society. There am many references to highly learned ladies. The queenof Ujjayini is said to be well versed in various arts and sciences(~11.2,12.4,12.6,55.8,93.210-12,102.50,1065,1144) Bhadri5 and Sulaa6 twobrilliant daughtsrs of a Brahmin move all muid the kingdom md participate in Vadas(debates). It seems women enjoyed feedom of education. (93.210-212)Women enjoyed religious hedom also. lley were busy in various religiousactivities (33.2-3). We have several imhces of women taluag dlk@ under femaleaacetics (46.185), ?hey reached the pinnacle of spiritual success and became idealsfor other women (85.24; 90.5-7). Their achievemeate inapired others also to followthe suit We even come across husbands and wives belonging to two different religions(54.25).Refennces Elre there to so maay ladies, morally &graded Even some maniedladies of good families were illicit relstionship with other men (cf 60.39-50,85.15-16,87.32-36). 'Ihme an a number of instsnces of m-related crimes. (12.2-5,8533). % role of wicked w ?m is desmied o h We hear how a hng who lodsvergthing having Mlsn victim ofhk wicked wife (87.3236).

The ladies adopted vw'ons means of livelihood A Bdmin widow namedJggni did not nmarry and worked as a messenger (diitT) efter the Wee of herhusband Later on Bhe switched over to b business of collecting wood §om the forestand selling it (94.24-32)Ladies were worfong as mwes (dhitn') in the harem (98.103). We hem offew separate dhiirn's appointed for specific works such as feeding milk to the childgiving food, conducbq bath and the child around for a wak (-a) &.,(127.46-47).We hear of a lady named Priyqulatika worlriog as a karmakan' in a &eghr"shouse. She was caving water in pots from a river. This was her mem of livelihood(106.46-50). We how about the condition of such lady servants §om Priyangulatika'sstatement 'Ihey were not given much hedom and were always ahid of their masters(106.20).We hear of the daqhter of a fisherman earning her livelihood canyhgpassenger, on her boat across the river. (108.20).Prostitllb'on was another means of livelihood for poor ladies (93.80).Unmarried girls were under restrictiom. ?bey were not allowed to move in nightGirls moving out in late night are looked down upon Sujyeatha weni out on eancwoh and somehow could not return to the home till late in the night, She ma tooscmd to &ce the public criticism She decided not to nturn home and mder&ookdih- der a Jrrina Muni. (97.47; d97.112-114)

We hear of a Mhla couple leaviug their mrmarried dPughter at borne doneand goa oUL (98.6162). Ladies with some diseases like leprosy wm od allowedto live in aresidential ma Lsksmimeti sufferrpg fiom the name wss abmdoned by herown relatives (108-18).There are also instances of selling of ladies. A womm lei? her home hawmimderstanding with her husband She was abducted by thieves and wPrendend to acmau (scirthavriha) in exchange of wealth l%at c a m sold her to a Persis~traveller &-rasika)(102.73-78) At last she was released fiom him by her brother(102.85).We know about the social attitude towards women tom the following verse-Sapanldh@n nehCstfhantavya hddhabuddhlbhiyv~kdhhr;,~?~ vikalpastu garhit+ fldvadho yat@ //(76,235)(The ladies found guilty of committing any mimes should notbe ivw the death penalty.)Women devoted to their husbands @affvrafd) were held in high esteem (85.5445)u eWage proposals were fvst comhg from the eide of brideporn (30.7,65.13,67.9). Nonnally people of same ntah end conmnmity have rehtinnahip &rough

7marriage (30.7, 47.7, 55.267, 60.32.33, 724, 86.4, 93.40, 72.4, 104.136-38). Wehear of two Seghin, very intimate fie&deciding to get their children married 'Iheytook thie decision before being blessed with children (55.259-260).Astrological signScance of the day of the marriage was given muchimportance. To how the auspiciouanesa of the moment astrologers wm consulted(12.111,33.82,57.376,72,75).8All categories of marriages wen: prevalent . In w e d marriages the girlsalso had a say even tho@ psrents wen playing dominant rolee in the negotiation Wecome across instances of how girls expressed their own choices before their paren$(55.74, 33.96). nere are cues of elopements in case of the disapproval of theirchoices (33.48-51). In some cases, the boys and girls in love informed their wish formarriage to their parer& and the p&(97.19-21).promptly agreed and got them married'Ihere are some references to kidnapping too. We hear of Hariaena kingkidnapped by Vegavati while he waa asleep (33.87-99). A b m took away theprincess Chelana secretly tlrough a tunnelwith her consent (97.42-44).(suwiga) to Rajaghaplw, of courseSometimes marriage took place in exchange of a timely help. h per the priorassllrence, ICing Devadh gat his daughtEI.s bed to Rudra who helped him getting

ack the kingdom of Tripurn fiom the clutches of the enemy (97.131-132). h royalfamilien, Stayaham m prevalentg. The princes of differentwere asmubledafter an announcement made by the la% in hie regard We have detailed deecriptionofsva,vrviram in the BKK 'lhe princes of Memt states were aitt@ in a order an aB$ge, richly decorated with gem (myimaka). Conches were blown and C ladyattendants wen brig the princess. She waa selecting one of the princes ss herhusband (76.90). Sometimes such a way of selection led to a wm initiated by thedissdafied princes (127.235).We hear of a princess announcing that he would marry only that penon whocould defeat her ingandharva vfdyii (114.5).Some other king conducted n Target-shooting contest called Chandrakavedha(43.8; 116.26-32). Whosoever won the contest wae declared the bridegroom. In aumged marriage, generally people considered character, apperarmce and knowledge.We hear of a s*re$has looking for a bridegroom who should be good in all theserespect Besides, he ahould be l?om auoble fnmily and be asibvuka (65.15).Some prefer to have marriage relationships within their Wly relatives. The practiceof manying uncle's &@er was in practice (33.101,76.163, 93.38, 105.136-138,126.125-130). The maniagee between femiliee of two different religions were notp h d (54.7-8). Still some caaecr of inter-religion &age are nfenud to in thebld (68.18). We hear of a Wsnd and wifc quwelling day and night being a Saivatemd a Jainarespedively(54.2S, 55.235-236).

Dow BYStem wa~ iP voguelo. We hear of brides' firthera demxulingenonnow dowries (30.8-10) A father demands a gold stabe of the size ofhis dm&rwhen his nephew expreseed his willingness to many her (105.136-138). 'Ihere b pnhbreetiag reference to a bride's father asking to give back the dowry &r the death ofhis daughter. We find a minister offering on behalf of the king lot of wealth for thelung's marriage with a,S;e$hin9s daughter (112.106-108; d 70.59; 72.54).Ramhgc and DloorcrWe come across a typical case of remarriage and divorce. A R$ra@atwo sons. The elder was offered by his uncle to marry his Wter. He did not acceptand went abroad for trading. Hence the younger aon of the Rgma married her.Later when the elder son rehwned with abundance of wealth, his uncle got the samedaughter manied to him. ?he younger son waa thus deserted In come of time the newson-in-law i.e., the elder son of Xuqm@a divorced the girl. Being separated &omboth he had to suffer living in her father's house (126.125-130). We her ofYas~ratflkZ being divorced by her husband as she suffered i?om diseases (150.52).Subhadra is divorced by her hwband because of her proud nature (86.5-8). J ibeing a bma(bendhyZ) was proposing her frusbend to remeny to be blessed with aeon. per suggestion he remanid (64.6-11,86.5-8),polygamy was in vowe. A deGhin is said to have eight wives (63.5,21.7, 105.259).were hvmg many w i~8.had

Even thoughprostitution was conaidend ps one of the evils, still it wse inpractice. People formed groups 1 clubs (vifagosfhi) md indulge in ail seven evile(vyuma) including prostitution (93.50). We hew of the mother of a prostiluteinstructing her daughter to abandon Chanrdat$ who had become poor (ninldhdtvatcimayam ptctd cirudana dhmoJhit@ 93.50). Even men with high moral sense lostconlrol over themselves and fell prey to these prostitutes. Chanrdat$ is m example. Itis said that coming in contact with Vasantaaena he lost sixteen crm ofgold c ob and12all ornamsrrts ofhis wife in Welvo years (93.47-48).Vaaantasena is said to be expert in captivating tha minds thrbugb her beautyand Qestures (cittacora(ladat$ hfiabhiivav~l&nT', vtbhrum&vitZ) (93.46). Anotherprostitute is described as a trap to capture the passionate (kamilokubmdha-nZydkavagurZ) (10.5). Some prostitutes were rich md leading a good life. 'R~ey had13so many servants in the brothel (93.58).The &a:A detailed description of cities is found in tfis stories of the BKK The citieswere very beautiful with colossus white buildings, temples, mark6 and shop. l'hecities were mounded withparlkhhmd beautified with marvellous gopura. 'Ihasewere also swounded withhuge compolmd walls @m-rn). Ponds, gardens, arhficialforests, enhsnced thc belndy of the cities. Canopies end barnsre were poded all

14around the cities (1.13, 3.2, 11.4, 19.21-22, 19.51-53, 61.32, 78.197, 78.213,93.168.269,94.2,97.162,908.44,55,96, 138.13).In case of villages, the ponds were locabd at the end lhose r e said to bepaved with stones and equipped with steps (sopEva) (61.32).Castes and tribes:A1 Benmi in his worksixteen castes - the four well.hown ones, fiveCones and Race in India, mentions that there weresemi-~mtouchables and sevenuntouchables, but the actual munber of castes and sub-c&s was more hau sixteen.1Kalhap describes sixty four castes '. In the BKK, we hear of following castes andtribesDombas are mentioned amon! despised class in the Jnina texts. They mmentioned in Mahabhtirata and Rijatamgir!i . It was a caste of degraded mwicianrrand may be regarded as representing early inhabitants of north 1ndib6. In the BKKthey ore described as living on skin worke (19.17) md snskeschanning (27.16).Refmce is there to a parl of a village @-@ah) here only Pena resided Itseem hey were known for rearing goats, sheep etc. (73.75, 74.47). Sometimes the

words pana d do&arrre used alternatively in the texl (19.28). ProfessorAN.Updhp blabs tae~ hvo words aa outcsstes (c@@af7,In the story no. 27 the thieves are mentioned as tnlecchas. In many stories,18mleccha refers to men of an outcaste race, ?hey ice described es Arnlinda (cruel-minded hunter) (76.90).Bhilla was a p re-v race inhabiting the Vidhyaa, Satpun and the Satmalaor Ajaota hills. ?he Bhills were the chief ofthe large group oftribes that one time heldmod of the country now distributed among the provinces of Mewar, MalqKhsndesh and ~ujurat~~. In the BKK defences ere there to -ildbibes (bhillapdl?) (33.25,55.9, 58.8.11, 106.250). Tkee ~hill~li's were siUdin he &use forests away fiom the cities and described to be v 6 fertile(s-hdaprudi). These villages were governed by heads known aspdlfni7thas (55.7).They were known by the name cllZya and avada They resided in north andposaesad a large number of conches, seats, vehicles, slawe, cattle, gold and silver.lley were rich, arow pow&,fiery, and proficient in the art of fighting . They20

are said to have fought with Bharata and defeated his forcee. Rom the text B E weknow them to be kirdta tribe who lived on h t q (58.26).'Ihe Btiihh8 were the head of the social organisation devoted to learning(94.9-10; 93.210-212; 102 (4).2; 102. 47-48) and self-discipline. Leading a life ofpoverty they were patronised by kugs2'. We hear of a place called Vagaradesa ?heword vrlgara meaning a Brahmin acholr mggeste that it waa a place fall of Brahminscholars. In the text BKK we find Somasma, a Brahmin echolar and a resident ofthis Vagaradesa, coming to Mathura to accept Jainodibi (2.3), Brahmins are referredas doing their sixfold duties(Sai.hrma)52 (80.6). 'Ihe social orpisation ofBratunins was distinguished by gotra and vedic ;ah&- (65.29) which were offundamental importance in matten relatins to inheritance and rnwiage etc, Theregarras and &?is are mentioned in all most all donative recorda of this period23(700-1200 AD) . On their basis Brahmanaa m differentiated one &om another .Ladies &om Brahmin family are also referred to as devoted to the duly of~r7srros (93.210-212; 102.47-48). References are there to Brahmins going to distauceplaces forBhagavata religion residing in a *ha.(16,j-10). We find Supratistha, a Bmbmh and a follower ofHe practised dhyaa, adhyaycma, tapas,and attained merits (19.45). We hear of a Brahmin H hpya taking Jaina d igunder a Munimd attahg spiritual success (22.14). Unbearable poverty ledSomnAatfa a Brahn;ig to renounce the world (65.61). We hear of a Bdmh selling

his seven sons to get rid of(63.91) The Bmhmh and the Tapavh weregiven ten types of dkar (66.22). Besides teachership, the Brahmins held theportfolios ofministers (55.38; 56.281; 81,75) md prieete (46.113; 60.37; 78.91) intbe royal court26.Tne Bratunins were disciplinarim and considered takq food in the house ofa s;dra as lokavrmddha and mrfrviruddha (31.9-12). We hear of a liquor-vendoranaging the prepdon food for his Brahmin gueets in a Brahmin family (31.17-19).Of course references are there to Brahmins who were indisciplined and involved inseven evils (sqtavayasanas) (59.6). Ldras were considered disqualified forlistenirtg to dhadatha' and performing vratas (3 1.9-12).Whenever disputes between two or more persons or groups broke out, thevtnstas interfered and solved the problem 'Ihey were probably the oldest in age andrespectable residents of the place. In the text they are also referred as vrddha (30.23)27end vargyin (30.25).?he practice of malung ornamental decordions on the floor with rice-powder(krfararigiivalTcayam) at the entry of the houses was in vop. Even now this practiceis seen in South Indian villages. In the text BKK, Kauchipm is referred in thiscanteat (55.49).

Cnr of middr'Ihers are two referwces to wes of suicide (60.135, 81-96). In both thecases, ladies have fipd Both committed suicide by henging themselves. In bob thecases, the reason was the extreme fear of the royal puoi8hment fw their particularEsulth o r n ofien grab the citiee and villegea. We hear of a mom wading inthe city with regard to the illicit relationship ofqueenRohini with her own son (88.3).Aanomccment:In order to give publicity to some important even$, bctiona and celebrations,proper amo~mcemenb were made bough besting ebume (93.214).DyinC the blsnkct:We hear of a peculiar method of dying the blanket We fhd a Pmiau tmvellersuclang blood fiom a lady tfaough jaliika and wing the same blood for dying theblenket2' (102.82).MonlDeg:If we clearly analyse Haiiga's d o n of eventa in dBd rtorim, weshall have a glimpse of the gadid erosion of m d values in the society, We hear of

so may immoral activities like thefts, murder, robbery illicit-relationships andcomption in political circle etc, (15.2-3,45.17-18,50,17,82,3,87.15,98.27).We hear of w!n having illicit relationship with the wife of his teacher.Being instigated by her he killed his teacher too. A merchaut kiJed the child of anotherbusinessman to take away all the precious ornaments possessed by him After themurder he put his body into a khddt and covered it with a blanket, ?here are anumber of references to many more such incidents which present before us the p i mof a society, morally decayedDlswsn and heir cure:Tnere are references to several Mes of diseases attacking the people. Some ofthem were c~lrable while gome others were incurable. Some ofthe diseases refmd toin the BKK are noted below,It was an ailment related to the mind It cvas caused due to an excessive longingfor anything (10.8). 'Ihe patient had hi& temperature in hi~body.Kyrmyiidfri:This disease is said to be c ued due to food-poisoning (24.31).

T&&It caused joini pains. One oil called I~ZpZk-drnlarn was prescribed by thephysician to give th patientrelieffiom pain (102.89).Athardaq?ha (nmuirbwqa alao):This wa a serious disease imd probably inclnuble. People &er@ *om thedisease were lookad down upon and not allowed to be in any residential area(126.37).?his skin disease is referred to in the text-BKK without much details. This iscalled scabies in English It creates severe itching and wounds on the skin (150.4)kicnkiinurlado!~It is an aye-rlllrnent. For its cure, the physicians prescribed some herbals juice(a+-adh~rasa):Odour of body:One perfumed oil specially prepwd was prescribed for eradication of body-odour (12.97). Ref~rcnce to another such deodorant is available in the BKK (81.106).L2&4iilca oil, mentioned earlier enswed brilliance to the skin (102.90,98).Mrirccka' (senselessness);To bring the ~mcwscious people to normalcy sandal-wood wefer(candanavlri) was used (14.23,55.196).

People believed in the existence ofghosts (75.5). They had also the notion thatafter death a person remains in the fonn of a spirit (vyantam) (60.135). Besides his,they believed in the existence of so mrmy superhumeo beings such as dwas, ca'rqta,khftas, vidylfdharas (98.181). The Jainas believed that we cannot conceal our actionsboth good and bad in spite of the secrecy maintained There is no place where nobodylooks at us. (sapradeso na kdpyasri y&n kdpl napas>afi) (78.58).It was a common belief that the fate of air1 ater marriage is shaped according to thefate of her husband (30.18).People believed in omen (s'akunas and qerhiiwas). The sound of an owl onthe left side is considered inauspicious pdcularly during a journey (30.20-62).Noticing a naked Jaina monk while seaing out on a journey was avoided by non-Jainas (55.293). Certain &em seen in the late night @ashma prahara) wereconsidered as inauspicious. To prevent he evil hpada of such dreams, people wcreadvised to conduct a sacrifice as apmt ofshtrhnna (71.11).We hear of a Brahmin burning the siimudnka &tras after noticing a nakedPravi%jikEpossessing all good laksqas (to be aking) but begging alms.Mdn:,Cap+jwa - a & (8.19) (85.59)go~ikii - a bag or a sack (1 1.77)priM - a cup, dish made of leaves for bkq rice etc. (12.86)sama - a cup, vmeel, dish (12.85)

cfiarJlkfill - a baelcet (15.6)bh%w-av~lfork~inqmi%ac.(21.22)van& - a cup (55.71-72,116.43,131.7)piC5rak-a - a casks (55.284)hhbha - a pot (76.43), 10229,33.*a - a$t (66.95)- a casket (72.89)WZha - autemil for coohng meat etc. (73.107)1auhq"jam - a iron-cage to keep (73.11 7)iulZ - a (73.144)nls&ga - a leather bag (73.147)bhasm' - aleather bag where mows are kept (73.192)nkkaka - make of ropes to keep the pots hanging f om the roof (93.99)rwrbako - grouad (93.99)ka@lfkti - a clay-vessel used by m& (98.76)t&irakumbha - copper jar (105.34)rajatern - silw vessel (105.34)svav@m - gold vessel (105.32)coliki - a cradle like mscimaim ofthick garmeat for children (131.30)vipPMc~ - a musical instnanw (112.139)(~~~&ad(~~yap#a - (2231-34)krui2bala - a blauht (45.25)mdcaka -a place fbr eisspbg (46.156)louhhko' - iron naib (50.16)

~r5rakkbiktz - (wed to move the mud *om the fie) (55.72)hrapGvaqa - (60.7)icnogya - (60.96)kup?udvitaya - doom (two folded) (60.147.102.60)Lu.+a - a club (62.32,63.218)upcrupcrna - (68.40)ckdrikE - (68.40).Md(Ita - an implement for digging (81.50)cnarm - umbrella (87.3-7)vitinaka - cmopy (87.3-7)kiir_arisrr - cotton (93.95)i.a;izdatnbaIa - (106.142)svanamcii&tama@qika' - (106.142)&gda - (102.71).mhralmqidrrrpapa - mirror (106.8)swpcrs'oiiikd - golden comb (127.6)kamvaa - (11,47)hmWa - (66.92)?*~(!ga - (93.153)cc?pa - (108.79)tnudgura - (108.79)asf - (108.79)piis; - (108.79)cakrrr - (108.79)

Ia the BKK we have references to rnunisamghas. A munimigka was hiedby agqendra orgqidhlpa (95.3-6). He bad lot of reeponsibilitiea He had a cloodWh w hi6 disciples and main$iped disoipline anon@ them. We come acrws tbryeat efforts of ahead to bring his derailed diaciplee to the ri$ttrack (81.91.1 00). HeIed the team of scholm to all places and participated in religious discme. He dminspired people to lead a pious life and attain spiritual succe8s. We 'em of marypeople being hdormed affer listening to the talk of these gqridhipas (95.5), Wehear ofW S u d h c& to a city with hia five hadrwl dieciplea 'fhe king tookd/k@tln&r him aftsr renouncing the kingdom 961.10-15).h head of amrigha wed to take disciplinqr actions in caoe ofaviolstim ofthe code of conduct. For indisciplined behavim, &ubsqm wm ordered by hiegum to quit the dpha mui remain in &wrmrga. He canid out ths d adm o d back to tbo &gk kiag fsultlese obviotgly due to hir pdmmw ofnligam aubitim (11.44).

MvnlahbBE;Kw6lmowthadetailsaboldbJPirrrWsaadlhsir~. WeWMtmi Varisena to be endowed with a nmk of divine virtuss like d m . patience,tp, tFbh, &m&, celibacy md clm&hese (10.103). W e are deaded aaabsolutely he h dwii (niqyha) (27.79).never aticlrsd to one place. Tbty mod dl d end g~ve nligiow$Ur We bear of Muni Sudhama moving with his five Idred disciplw (61.10).Alter coming to a city usually Bey wed in some temples ou$ide city. 'Iheroyal employees and subjects took cm of them sod listened to bir spiritppl CpltMaPy were ~llepcsd by their talk bad mounting the world (11.4-65),himWe come across the description of a Muni in the story No.73. He is describedae the abode oftap. With him hands raieed up, eyee fixed on the nose, etandiog &a Ashoka b e, he was appearing to be dhanna himself (73.121-122). ?bey wereperf&&is poesessingp~~c&-na, jq4 chat4 hhna, kydiktiyajn'opavPa, p&&-M austerities in differsnt seasons (66.34-35). We hear of Em&andga?d(rosarg) (96.4445; 68.40).Ahin were ths mod guide far UM roamrop psople. They wmUICknowledge oft& (76.52). We hear of ahhi sdo- sp hbmthg way to comet a(luei'(59.12-13).'Ihe head of a hi e h a wae known as gqendm or gaptihip.

Munis had the access to the royal h (98.99). kihcea ofbin rebmi~back to worldly life are found in the BKK (10.105; 80.23; 94.32; 98.103). KingYasodhsra snd his two sons renounced the palace and went for tap, The third son ofthe iring took over the Irinqehip. Unfintmtely he died *om &bite.Minidm Wto the forest and requested the eldest #on of the kmg, now atopasvi to come back dtake over he ldngshtp till he was bleseed with a son He accepted d#ir rqmt dcame back to the palace (46.52-64, d 78.127). We bur of kings p&oni#ing religioussctivitiee. ICq Heriaqs made JlnZxa ofgold and gem and Jlnaveh all mmd thecity (33.149, dS6.3-6). Tney were also very much concmd about the health of lfis!hie (29.3-10).We find refemces to vihbms where Bauddhabhkp~ reside (1296). We hssrof bhZgavnraqha (19.48), parivq/irutsllyha (55.32), @'aslGp (12.132),$'itha,-th&a(65.23; 76.195), siddhadhEw~aitya (65.23,76.195).~pilgrimagCcdresofdiffasPtrsgions were ~ d c v o t e ~ l ~ t h cyear (78.44, 55.43). We hear of a B h h minister named Somasprm going &rGaigiimLa dl the way h Kdipu~m(55.40). Probsbly he w~lr mling mhot (55.43).

XdightrlL &vnvacana):Munis wed to come do% with heir dieciplw md o ~ dthe e city prpsllyin tunples, me, uay&ma (11, 95.5). Tbby delivered religioils $111 and advidthe people to move on the righteous patA We hear of the king and his royal employeesalso listening to the discourat. They could dao solve their queries. Maay wen movedwith the speech of Munia and l e a absolutely a diffment kind of 15. We hew ofNagadah nmainiqB m Prstima &idsa temple after ui~dergohg a totnlhaddon due to the impact of the spiritual talk ofa Muni (47.9).'Ibe Munis were very talcated bugh the narration of iubstiPg dories, theygave moral teachingn and explained the religious cwcepb. The style of d o n dthe llanguage was so appealing that even the common people were iuflwnced aidrasortlag topmwjfl(51.3-17,95.5).~~Religiwe debates w m held smoaget the scholm. We hear ofJaina Muni, and Bali, a Hindu h h k of k i Sridhar;S ~ engrossed m such a debate.Ibe minister requested the kina to be the modem& (madh,wha). Sndasagmrefuted all the viewa ofBdi bughpmm?za, naya snd viskepa (11.20). Dmq whdebates somstimbs some phcipePts got agitatsd d violetd (11,5646). In tbbsedebs even girlo could pdoipsb, we her of two yoq girls d Bbacha aPdSulrsa paicipstisg in wch a debate Wd in V d . They displayed theirexhmdky brillimo id ddMd dl the acholm Win) (93.212).a

Ihs philosophical &bate on w b h sonl d bodg lab same or di&d hv%ry dews& lb dobate waa between a Mtmi md a thief Bob wmdemondntq their exhordinary brilliance while putting forth their respective vim.Sowines the debate was in the form of questions and mm. Each one wes citingexamples (nldarha) to establish hie own propoeition 'he arguments went on fw along time and at last Muni mads the thief aoswerless kou$his power of logic lladreason Ihe thief waa sllrprised to see his brilliance and prayed for his advice. Idmiimtmcbd him to follow the p d ofdham (73.129-162),Udly such debs were held in the presence of public. We come auowNarada md Parvats, the two classmates srguing on the exact me* ofthe wordaj*. Parvataka mhpnted it to be ' a goat' and Narada considered it approprirte toaxplain nirvamimjaimdhyai me- bnii (76.127). Without reaching at asolution they decided to argue before the king 'Ihe king listened to heir deb& anddeclared Narada to be the winner. He banished Parvata for hie Wt of m yinterpreting the word and supporting the ssmificc of animals @&i) (786.120-154).Frequent rsferences an tfrere to the kings and other clase~l of pqleranounciog the world and resorting to penance (taps). ?he following were lfie mwaofhdi sudden 661ip8 ofdafion Mpw o f b meom cited in tho BKK ufb

as- seeing rreneitoly clouds, grey hair seem to be fictitiowN. We h e excl~~ded hemhm our d idon here.Ofteo he d o n of religious stories could mate a feeling of distaste forworldly life. We hew of lung Mahipadma resomng to tcgras dm listening todhanmkathl hm hhi &npa (4.67).wife's lanndaA f ~ ~ h'J i n wife was engrossed in love affaLg with a Brahmin Afterknowing this, ~kghin felt disgusted and renmced the world (56.109, d .57.271).UaplcusPthr~In asvayhara, the prince Madhupingala was not chosen by Ce princess andthis made him hkakd He lost intetest in the worldly dhh snd renolmced thepalace to accept drkpT(76.194-195 of: 101.7). ~w'm~being publicly humiliated byhie elder b rok also resorted to ascetic life (80.7). Deah of relatives end &iendaalso led people to monkhood (94.13,101.7).Fr of pnbtic aitldnr :Suj* went out of her house and could not rebun till & lute ni&t She wpstoo scared to faee the public criticirrm. She &ci&d not ta retnm md iasorbd to tnprrs(97.47).

m*cabout the plwlw bmA pmon PftBT ha about his past life *om a MPni, got e md of thepresspt worldly sufferings and developed ~ d L u(105.255,129.35-40).i ~DiksIxA hrenouncing the world one hae to hke dikg under a a.It is mid to behslpll in crossing the ocean of worldly mdkinge (m~mmavrrtdri?T(59.31-32))or in ptiqg out of the well of worldly suffaiqa (sensdm@xuu+tIrhas~#!cuizbanndhlirini4.67) md destroyiing the actions ( hmi~ched~ri~T4~67).97.76-79).Women were t ab dik;Zlmder female ascetics called aqi&46.185; 55.227;Before and after $king dlksa one hss to maintnin certain discipline. nose are-* all sorts of external aad internal atachment or possessiveneae should be give0 up~giishyanta~~~otigatyaga (56.33; 97.29-30).* the sense organe should be tamed and made calmediecipline in taking food must be maintained One has to give up honey, meat winea n d ~ (46.70-71; ~ m 66.76-71; 97.94).Befom giviPg diethe yu examined the disciple properly. A%w knowing hiefitness, hs gave him dtksa (2.54). While hbog dl@- ths qkmb bad to ob&rvesom vows (46.70-71; 66.70-71). ?he aspirant used to c u d a t e arollnd theguru three hes and then ofkd salutntion (57.579). 'Ihe guru had dso to be plsc inmind snd body while giving dfh (LSd; 78.259 also). I>uriPe a diw, he he to

&te nat@ dddhum and aak the disciple to pronounce it (2.5-6). It was held intemples or pilgrimage centres (256; 78.259). After talnng drkcT, the wpirant had toread eleven dgu (97.76-79).We hem of a loqg along with his queens and other lady inmates of his haremhkq dik$ independently under male md female ascetics respectively. (46.185 and55.227) A thief somehow realised his mis$ke, blinned himaelf and requested a Munito initiate him to tapas by giving dibd (59.31-32).OeePlt pnden:References sre there to several types of occult practices. We hear of peopleendowed with one hundred five types of vidya' (97.76-79). Descriptions ofZk&Lg-WnividyZ (the art of flying) (4.8) vuiriZikavidyE (102.12), jizlnsthavrdC (the art of floating on water (19.4)), mahZ~UlavidvZ (97.26), ptqrf~hvidya'(97.23) are found in the BKK (See for details 19.4; 48.8; 60.13; 59.105;)We find a kwika (102.12) prachsingwtiilmidyZon ~acut'urdd&3a thenight ho goes to a cwmation ground with flowers, dhupa etc. He attained the vidyawith the help of a dead body (64.42-46).Tbe Kt'pBikas are mid to be expert in many arb like v&iva,ucc@na,dcujrbana, mohana etc. TnFj also hew the we of magic collyrium (64.41). We hearof a Eplika being used by a lady to kill her co-wife. Ihs irmocent lady was savedsomehow due to the failure ofthe Wika in ~ltilising his vfdyrfor thie evil purpose(64.81).

P&S d festivairr throughout the ye= brought delight to the people. Some ofthem are referred in the BKK without much details. Here is a note on those festivals.cradle (12.99).In spring it was celebrated Umnarried girls wed to sing sow end swing inOn eighth day (qm7 of bright fortnight (&apakp)of phdguna, carfestival,.was held Tne two queens of king Putirrmkha who were inclined to twodifferent religions such as Jainimn and Buddhism were mgng pulling of twoindependent chariots on this occasion (33.146). Both the queens had a cont?ontationwhich resulted in the destmction of the Buddha chariot (12.114-129). We hear of onegroup threatening the other after dedroyiq the cheriot -pujiibhahgwkjinend~iim ye kari,sy&i rniinavafi /tasya pTd& karigwo vayam sputa sa]]an? // (12.1 42)We come across the description of such a conflict between Hindus end Jainaaalso. (story.33). It seems such religioue conflicts were conrmon those dayn.This car-festival was also known as a$@nikamrrha 'Ihs chariota were madein gold md richly decorated with gems etc. (12.130; 33.145) Tbe pulling of chariotwas accompanied by blowing of tnnnpet, conches, lute, flute etc. (12.132, 139;

33.146) Finhmt artists wen beating k hda ( a bell metal) m.rdaigu, mardala(12.139). On this occasion special pujm were held and chamas were enacted 1(12136,140).K ~ ~ O L P M ~It seems, C s festival was exclusively meant for ladies. On bright fortnigh!(&iapaksa) of kiim~ka. the ladies wed to assemble in the royal garden(pmmadodyr?na) protected by royal guards. Males were not allowed to enter into the-mden 'Ihe ladies passed the time insitlging and dancing The celebration32commenced on earn?and concluded on ahll moon night (63.9-13,108.10).Rajanalsma:We hear of a mahorsava being organised when a lady geb pregnant (106.183)C~I this occasion entertsimnmt programmes were held (106.1851. When shedelivered a baby pmjmotsava wss held and she was presented with preciousgtb by her husband (106.235). The whole mundig was echoed with theauspicious souud of trumpet. (106.183-235).Ri#its: The people performed several rites which are noted below -The rite of naming the new born babies waa held in templee. In case of the33Jainas, a Jainahhi WE# giving name (60.29).

A special rib called punpvmta ia briefly rwfemd in the story subhugagopdakathiinaka (60). No details are found in the story. fie ladies wed to remainunder fasting till the worship ofsorne clg, s$tues were over (60.99).~CIruijhtlhana.It was a practice among the Brahmins to tie the djdto their soas. In thisfimction all Brahmins ofthe village were invited (126.14).Vqavar&anrrdivara !rTjlmni&y &he&):People used to celebrate the birthday to wish a long, happy and prosperouslife. In case of kiogs this was performed with much pump and ceremony, They wereconducted a bath (abhlseka) with tbe use of golden pots. This was known asr.~yuv,rddhyyabhi~eka or varyardhanadivasa. All wished the growth and prosperityofthe kingdom and a long life forthe lung (85.20-27). 7Iis was also known assamavardhiisma ( smardhZpna) (57.571).Prmnlritc:'I'ne dead bodies were decorated with costly flowera and gdrmds (30.29). Thosewere burnt in the d o n ground4. The bones were eolleded and dropped in theholy river Mgi(73.38-39).

Special pju were conducted to cure certain aerious diseases. People hadfaith that they recovered &om illness dm suchpuj(~~. We bear of a king recoveringBorn so many diseases by hkiq the)nagandhodata (water sanctified by the touch ofJina's feet) brought fiom a temple &r a special puja conducted by a ikvr~ra. nesej~n@/& were held usually in&@ha, Ka'imka and Phdguna. During this occasionchwiots were pulled These pu'jds were also known as Jinarnr?. (33,2-3, 60.29).. . mahhand d M aastankahvgT@jZ:(56.72,60.29).?his.$ija wm conducted by the head of the villw (gr-a).We hear of a\rillage-head constmcting a huge Durgii temple adorned with flag and conductingspecialonce in six months. During this occasion animals were sacrificedBefore the s dce, goats, buffdoes stc, were brought to the spot and offered garlandandprgaciya (71.7.9). We hear ofhe village head instructing his son to continue thepractice even &r his death (71.12)..V@@ja':'flus pu'ji is conducted by ladies. We hear of Nwparticipating in thinfio'(126.59).ad offim girls

.dohgddpWl:We hear of merchants performing some pijk (mdtgalasatknjZ) to pnry theDivine for their safe and anooth jomey through the sea (78,.40-43). lley alsoprayed to their respective presiding deities and Gods dangerous cuclrms$ncesfaced in the deep sea(53.15-16).We find a lepakdra stdug his work i.e, making a stable of Pdrsi,ajlnendraafter having a pwer to the Jina as well as his teacher (gum). He sought theirbless*for the successful completion of his work He strictly avoided t h g honey,me* milk, ghee and sexual enjoyment till the work wss done (20.14-19).Wonhip of PdvratrSs :Ladies devoted to their husbands WvmtrS) were held in high esteem. Wehear of some poor pativrata' ladies being worshipped witb incense, flowm andnk;sata. People had pmdak$na around them and gifted them clothes, betel, gems andfood. Prayer songs were also chuted (85.54-55).Kuladavata':Each fsmily had a presiding deity known as Madmafa'. Family members hadhith and &votion in the deity. On vsrioua occaaiom special were conductedbefore he kdado,atZ (73.11-19).

ihat~at~:Each b d pJ4nagardmT(66.94) orpuradmata ' (64.67).had a presiding deity called &madwattT(64.65) orMda of Wrr':In various types ofworahips (pullis), the following articles were uacd ?heyare itequently referred to in the textgandha, gandhodaka, akfata , havrs, d@a, tbibula, dhllpa, vastrsphala,abharqa, ~4 cmdma, c h (a mixture of odana. tnudga and gh~a),$-ra, dugdha, go+a, ketu bh,mqlirn, kdasa, p h ~ a klnkrnr mukrrra,saxtikg vimiinq s;ikhan+a, karpurq .&aha,lalam, kwikwnq ii~ya,phanasira . aganr, vrttina iambusa. dadhr, dhd arpn.vapm q!va,Snaificn ( jqiza) :In the BKK we get a olrmber of references to the conduct of various sacrificesfor different purposes which are described below.By the order of a Hindu king so many yajnasalos were cowbucted andbuffaloes and goats were eactificed (11.106-108). ?his caused distwbances to JainaMmi~. III the city of Dhwnapm, all attemp$ to keep Le gopum erectad went futile..The k q and miniateta cmidend it a bad omen Ministen suggested the king tos d c e some h being at the spot (63.86).

We hear of a village-head ( grwa) conducting DugspOja end sdciogthem bfioes. go& etc. (71,9-16, 76.220-246). We also hear of a king who saw abad dream end was advised by his mothei to sacrifice few cremes (iiva) before thethily deity (kuladevafa) to get rid of the evil impacts of the dream. ?he kisg and thequeen sacrificed a duck made out of dough @iwirmitalurh+a) (73.11-19; 73.243).&ame&alqn"a :.4 reference is there to the conduct of &amedha sacrifice without muchdetails (76.227).Mat.mc&a and .@me&a y &a'Ihere are references to these s dces bui without much details (93.232). Wedo not have any evidence to substantiate these practices, It may be taken as fictions.Suvaqtqc$a :We hear of akinq conducting this yajk aud distributmg gold to the Brahmins.The Jaina sr?dhu were atriving bard to propagate against the s d c e of livingcrews (76.52-54). At several places we see Mmie explaining the people about theevil result of violence against the jhu. We find Munis making vehement criticisms ofsamfices. The Jaina teachers imparted religious teaching6 to the people and advisedthem to abstain 5om such violent a&. We hd a teacher adopting an intsnsting wayof teaching the same. He gave go& to some of his disciples and asked them to killthem at aplace where nobody could see the act Tne disciples went with the gats sndreturned back without killing them ?hey idhued their teacher -

At another place it is said that if the sacrifice of animals can bring us merite aadlead us to heaven tba why should not we sacrifice our father, mother, d e, son mdother relatives (93.248-249).We hear of a Jaina king giving severe p~mishmento a person who interpretedthe term ala aa 'goat' (in stead of bdiwhich never germinate) and thereby supportedauimai sacritice (76.154).Dana :The merits of ddna (charity) are explained in 66th stov of the BKK In the t&several types ofdaas are referred to. 'Ihe Jainaa practised ahdradhna, aqadhadZnaand ;&trad&u (66.25; 66.66-67; 70.10).References are also there to the practice of godka, bh2nifia, suvamadUnaetc. by the Hindw (66.22). The Jeinas considered of gold land and cow to beiaferior to ahiradka (offem of food) (66.53-58). It is also said that the gift of cow,land and food is useless unless these are Qiven to Jainas (66.66-67).R&Ioar cornmion :A number of references to conversion of people eom one religion to motherare found in the BKK, For example, we hear of a Buddhist minister who beinginfluenced by the teach@ of Jainamonlrs. conWd himself to JPiniwn (46.93).

ROTES AND BBFBRENCBS2. lhtilya does not allow any dice play in the places other than those which wereunder the control of aroyd oficer. .4rthas'&tm, IlI.20.1-2.; see for more detailson the dice paly, p. 140.3. See discussion on_~osfhc kP Jmkhedkar, p. 109.The gosfhis in ancient India were like modern associations or clubs devoted tothe pursuit of dieerent branches of arts and learning, in which people showedtheir eEciency and fieely exchanged views on topics of their interests. llecitizens also made the goghfi a mem of theu diversion by ansmging variedprogames of artis$. Sankara explains the eosrhis as assembly whereinpersons of common interest or of similrtr nature meet together and hold hediscussion (s~ziinavfdyrivftt&~abuddh~vavas~lm~il~~(~rrii~~a~rekatSmdho go,$h?).Vatsyayana mentions two kinds of goghfi, namely those of rmadifjring nature and others in which number of uuexalted habite like ~amblisg odkinking also found scope for indulgence. nese goghii were a regular feature ofcivic life. V.S.Agawal refers to several kinds of gosfhis such r kC?yago~hi,nyryagos@< saigzagoghr aad jalpagogh; See fie Deedsof Harsa pp.3,15.4. .5~igigmphica Indlca, vol.XIV. p. 1% vo1.W p.128; Indian htiguary, XVQp.95; V d v Upadhyap, pB3.5. vssudev upfdyya, p.44.

7. Him Tsiang observes that membm of the four castes merry within theirrespective castes, KT. Wattem, vol. L p.168; V m a upholds the unionbetween the bride and bridegroom of the sane vama, KC. Chakaldhar, p.95.8. 'Ihe varioue types of maniaqes were brsma. davu Zrsa pral@arya ammgldharva, rqasa, p~i&q Yt?jn"avalkyasm,m, E58-61;~Znavadham'&m IIL2O-24.9. Ln case the father or the relatives of a maiden failed to find a proper suitor, shewas allowed to overlook their wish and choose her own husband (nayanham) ,!%j/iiavdkyasmyti, E64. This has been referred to in the epics MahZbhiirutq2Hma-vqu and also in the Jaina canonical literalure. In spite of the referencesto the svayuhbarrzs in the Jritakc RM Mehta dose not think that such a customprevailed in the contemporary period Accordi to him it had pone out of usage.though the ideal and cham of it remain for ever. However prevalence of mchcustom ot'svayahbara even in the later period can be asmcd on the basis ofliterary evidence, AP.Jamkhedker. p.117.10. In ancient times dowry was known as donation, lover's grft, stzdh'ina w,hy&f&a( bridal gift), dka, y d a , ad du@nL Bharata Mauisa "Dowryaym in ancient India", Pmhtlyori, I, No.4,1976, pp.28-31.11. Kautilya's A.rfh&&tm deals with the legal position of prostilutes, IL27.

12. The amolmt of one thousand gold mine as the fees of coUlfCm WBS BOmefhtqsli&e a poetic convention in Jaina literahre, J.C. Jah, The Ufi in hcient Indlaas ~epicted in Jaina CMons, p. 164.13. 'Ile proetitutee should live in the southern part of the city, Arthd~stf~ lL4.11.14. For more details see political condition - town planning, p. 120.15. 'Ihe king's primary duty was to uphold dham. Tbe study of the records of theperiod under review reveals that kinga took special cm to preserve thetraditional division of society laid down by all the Dn$sUpadhyaya, pp. 14 and 24.(Mam ll). Vanrdev17. According to Manu, CZiddus were wandwing tribes and had dogs and donkey aetheir only property, ~mrsvadharm~s'csstra, X51, ?he qdalas w meratedseperetely 5om the four classes, RN. Me& p.245.18. According to KarhZ..writsfigara (N - 22) the kingdom of Pulindaa was situatedmimidst the Vindhyas on the root which goes %om Kausambi to Uijayini, V.S.Agrawal, p. 24.19. V.S.Agrawsl, p.24.?he Bhils (Bhillas) and Kiriita once lived in Rajapuba and i$ neighbourhood,plnticularly its hilly tmct~ is ahown by instances fiom later Rajput history but

particularly by the mew Bhillda (modern Bhinmal). ?he first prrme occmin Saindhava plates tom Srntrastra URMajumdar, Qmologv of Gujurrrt,pp.259 - 265.20. V.S.Apwal, P.24.21. Vasudev Upadhyaya, p. 25.22. Manmyti, L 88-90; Ejn"0vrrlkya; L11.118-119.23. Vasudev Upadhyayn, p.33.24. Brahmmas took the profession ofKsarrrya and ~oiha during 700-1200 AD alsowhich were sanctioned by Smp writera, ( Mm X82-82 ) VmdevUpadhyaya, pp.43-48. 'Ihe Brahmins were the best merchants in the world a dwere the most bth!iI,Marco Polo, vol. 11, p.350.25. '"Ibe ideals before Brahmrmes was poverty, forsaking the active pursuit ofrichesand cherishing mlhnal preservation and advrmcemeni", P.V.Kane, History of~hanas'htra, vol. I, p.110.Brahim wen the head of social organisation and devoted to learning and self.discipline. Leadq a life of poverty they rn patronieed by a kiPg, VasudevUp-p.25. The Snr$tts lay do'wn tfiat it is the duty of the king to supportkmtrfyas, ~ anu VIt134; Y~iirrwl@a, EM.

26. B r b held the position of minister during Pala age. A BMmqa called&ga waa the minim ofking Dharmaplla (770 - 815 AD), V d vUpadhyaya, p.43.28. in Vdwahi~dl also it is found, AP.Jamkheh, p. 105.29. Jainss have made a clsssification of the ~ociety into hvo dislinct levela, theMunis and the skvakas. This distinction had played an important part inpreserving Jha theory and practice of worehip and ding the aociety momcompact. Jainim haa mived through centuries the onalau&b of social andpolitical influences of other communities. The Jainss an quite aware that there i8division of hctions between Munis and skvakas, The Munis are to prmhreligion end to nee that the ~;irvakas follow the Jaina practices of worehip. 'Ihe&vakasworship end prayer.have to support the Munis ad follow their teaching in practice of30. Th@ZigaEtm enumerates len cases of remmciation, p. 473; see the leadingfiction motifs in Jaina stories, p. 30,31. 'The most important ceremony or festival was known as RathayiitB orDovayPrZ (E.L vol.XI, p. 33) of the deity in the early medieval period Ooodmany epigmqha of different dynasties record the gmt to meet the expanses of thisfestive occasion which wss vely popular in Rajaputana and neighbowing regions.

Fa Hien (4th. AD.) etated that Patalipub celebrated Rathayrltm-where Buddhaicon wss cerried old lo the Chahamrma record we have a lengthy description ofthe proceeeion of deity (DewNrd) commencing on a particular occasion 2beepigraph says that the people of the province participated in this celebration andcourtesans attach to the temple of Q oi also attended Lkvayam' with fine dressand music @I, voI.XI, p.57 ; Bhimnal inscription). Cash donation is recordedof forty dmmas deposited for the festival of deity . . . It influenced other faiths.Jainas living in the Rajaputma changed their mind and initiatedaimilarprocessions ( as they called it) of their deities. We have no epigraphic evidenceof similar following in Eastem Indian and when this idea of RathayTrtMtravelled to that side is difficult to see, in modem day we find thie yatra khgheld at Puri. It may be suggested that Jainae when travelled to Orism to vi~itJaina caves near Bhubanesvara imparted the idea of DevaySltGto the people ofthat ma . . . Buddhist imitated the Hindus and Jainae in having the festival".Vasudev Upadhyaya, pp. 330 - 332.32. cf, MudrirZk~asa, Act I@ R.N. Saletore, Life in Gupta Age, p. 163;A.P.Jamkhedkar, p. 108.34. The cremation ground was eituated away fiom the city, ~rthasktw IL4.2135. For a discussion on ksanadevat~ see Bloomfield, The Life and Srorles ofpirhancitha, p. 167.

PART I1CHAPTER VI

In the previous paps, we have carried on an dyticd shrdy on the workBKK. An ettempt is made h eto reconstruct the life of people in ancient andmedieval India It is seen at mnny places that the facts recorded by the poet Harisepaare tallying with the findings of modern historians. He records the fat$ and eventsof his period as well as of past We have the following observations in come of ourw.1. Monarchy was there all over. We hear about amnnber of kings and rulers.Most of them seem to be fictitious. They go to a religious teacher or a Mini, listento his religious sermoq renounce the world and attain salvation In course ofthe nanation, the poet presents some descriptions Fomwhich we how about thedifferent royal practices, the relationship between the kinga and theirmbjecb,various grades of the royal servants and their hctions, their luxwiow andextravagant life, the Merent apartments in the palace and the diviaion ofkmgdom into i b and sub-units.We how that the Brahmins received much hour fiom kings. 'Iheposts of ministers, priests, teachers and estrologen were usually held byBrahmins. Historical h d i also show that in the medieval period only thepriest found a place among the list of royal officials. 'Ihe devoted toJaina religion, ptoniaed Jainism and involved thmelvea in vrnioua religiousactivities.

There waa an increasing fhpentation and hmditarisation of local powerunder whet has variously been tenned "the Simunta ~ y or k IndianFeudalism". AE we have noted modern historians also agree to this factThe desa was divided for amniniddve purposes into tnqdala i.e.districts which was again sub-divided into smaller portioas called Rsaya.Vfaya consisted of a number of villages. l%e lowest administrative unit wasvillage. There the village headman called g-a was the most importantofficer.We come acrosa kequent description of cities beded with p h ,shops, temples, ponds, gordens, mhes end flags. nose are also said to beequipped with gopura, ramparts and moats to ensure safety and avoid the fearof enemy's attack It is found that ruch descriptions m found in Saagamliteratwe. It seem the cities were ideal in respect of town-plsnning andarchitectwee.2 . Economic conditions of the counhy wan not bad Trade mdcommerce flourished Merchants went to dim places tough sea lhisinformation has also been substantiated by the findings of the historim.Historians say that in the medieval period the c o d areaa of Gujllret ( wherethe poet lived) remained within the network of maritime hde.

'Eventho@ business end sea - trading were cwied w moetly by particularcommunity. Some exceptione are noticed We hear of Bdnnh gob to distautislands for trading Historim say that the Brahmins mdertook the profession ofKqriya and vai$a hmg 700-1200 AD. which is sanctioned by Snqti.(Mw X81 - 82).From the description of the BKK we how about the standard of livingof the Werent section of the society. Most of the people had enough to meetthe bare necessities of life. Rich people had an ex&avagant and lugnious lifewhile the poor undwwent enonnous sutferings. ?he references to various coinslike dinar, drama (Greek silver coin dramlhe) and Persian travellers aresignificant.Besides we hear about various types of food items and drinks with typicalnames. Some of them are familia to us and some are notThere was the provision of loan schemes. We her of merchantsbornowing before setting out on bade. ?he description of markets, shops, men ofdiierent occupation reflect the economic condition of the people.People ofGujmt were good in agriculture and cattle rearing They hadabundant milk pmducls. The modern scholm of cultural history of Gujdtcetify this fact in their respective works.

3. ?he BKK Bheds welcome light on the socio-religious conditions ofthe period We how the Meteot kinds of entertaimnent of the people. GoSyhl'swhich were like modern clubs or associations were a regular f e w of civiclife. The detailed description on dice play in three stories attmct~ readers'attention There are references to separate halls for this game with elaboratesitting mgements. Tnere was awell-planed educational system The womenenjoyed teedom of education. We hear of a number of learned ladies. Theycould participate in intellectual debates (vlida )held dl wound the county timeand againReferences to eighteen scripts and one hundred five vidytis are note worthy.We see that students of different intellectual standard are divided into groupsand accordingly sitting arrangement was made in the class rooms. We howabout the lmique relationship that existed between teacher and he students. Itseems students studied in the teacher's house only.?he family was the primary cell of social organisation The poet incourse of ndon sheds light on the family life of people. fie position ofwomen was neither bad nor good The Jain propheb allowed them equality withmen They could also resort to acetic life. The role of women as onedevoted to her husband was prominently emphasised References are there topativratm being worehipped Umnerried girls were mder redrictions.

We come across reference to prostitutes extracting lot of wealth fromtheir cuetomen.We find that all categories of mamages were in practice. Maniagerelation between families ofthe same social and economic status waa preferredDowry rystem was in vogue.People had several believes and superstitions. References to a number ofoccult practices are noticed throughout the texts.The caste system seems to have gained firm ground Amongst the peopleof four castes, the Brahmins enjoyed aspecial status. ~;drar had a &piedposition We how about a number of hibes such as Bhilla, Cilriya, AJindaetc. and their occupations.Various rites and festivals brought solace and delight to the people.Amongst them rathay&rZ is worth mentioning. llis was celebrated byfollowers of all the three religions Jainism, Buddhim and Hinduism. During thisyitrii, ofien the communal b o n y was disturbed The historical records alsorefer to thie factFrom the BIM, we how about the life of Jaiua Munis and s'm'idus andtheir gpiritual and yogic practices. References to people of d8erent faiths and

Khaa, Mgha ad pilgrimage cmtres are abundmt Comion of people fomone religion to mother waa a regular phenomenonIt is observed that there waa gradual moral &cay in the society. Peopleelowly lost the sense of morality. Tnc society waa didubcd by theft, murder,robbery, rape, conuption in official circle md so on

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