Netsuke: Small Sculptures of Japan: The Metropolitan Museum of ...

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Tiger by Raku (see p. 23)balanced and will stand unsupported on a flatsurface. Even slender pieces six or seven incheshigh will remain upright by themselves.Part of the appeal of netsuke is their smooth,agreeable feel, a special quality called aji inJapanese, by which the artist communicates hisspirit through touch as well as sight. Aji isenhanced by handling, which also produces apatina that gives luster to wood and mellow tintsto ivory.Netsuke have depicted a multitude of subjectsand have been made from practically everymaterial found in Japan. The simplest andprobably the earliest were of stone, shell, walnutshells, and small gourds. Later and more sophisticatedones were carved from ivory and wood,particularly boxwood, cypress, ebony, cherry,pine, and bamboo. Less commonly employedwere bone, metal, and lacquer, although the latterwas one of the earliest materials, used fornetsuke created to match lacquer inro. Occasionally,netsuke were made from hornbill or amber.Several varieties of ivory were used. Until wellinto the nineteenth century, marine ivories andelephant ivory, which came from India throughChina, were imported into Japan. Elephant ivorywas used for plectrums for the koto, a stringedinstrument, and leftover pieces were sold tonetsuke carvers. The rarest and most precious ofmarine ivories came from the tusk of thenarwhal, credited with medicinal and magicalpowers. Two major schools of artists used deerantler and the teeth and tusks of wild boar astheir media.Netsuke are classified according to theirdistinctive forms. An early type, the sashi(literally, "thrust between"), was long, narrow,and usually made of wood, with the openings atthe top. It was meant to be inserted behind theobi, leaving the cord on the outside and thesagemono swinging freely. Later sashi hadadditional openings lower down and fartherapart.The most prevalent form, with the widestvariety of subjects and materials, was that ofsmall sculptures called katabori, or "carving on allsides." Although they could be almost any shape,katabori are generally compact in keeping withtheir use.Manju netsuke derive their name and shapefrom the round, flat rice cake eaten mainly atthe Japanese New Year. The simplest were madeof solid pieces of ivory with a cord hole in thecenter. A variation developed, first in wood andthen in ivory, that had two halves that swiveledto open.The kagamibuta ("mirror lid") is a roundedshape having a disk, or lid, commonly of metal,set into a bowl of ivory or wood. This lid can beopened by releasing the tension on the cord,which is strung through the back of the bowl.Decoration was usually restricted to the metal,but in rare examples the bowl was elaboratelycarved as well.Ryusa netsuke, named for the eighteenthcenturycarver said to have originated them, werehollowed out with a turning lathe, a method thatmade possible delicate openwork designs and alightweight form.Mask netsuke were diminutive versions ofthose worn in the traditional dance-dramas ofJapan. The earliest, mainly of wood, were createdby mask carvers seeking to copy the originals,but later examples became stylized and evencomical.Many netsuke had a secondary function.There were ashtray netsuke for transferringsmoldering ashes from the spent pipe into a bowlof unlit tobacco. Other useful items that could befound among netsuke were compasses, whistles,sundials, abaci, brush rests, cases for flints andsteels, and even firefly cages.The growth of netsuke was stimulated bysocial changes of the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies affecting fashions in sagemono. Soonafter Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) becameshogun in 1603, he instituted stringent controlsto ensure his supremacy and maintain peace. Astrict Neo-Confucian code was established.Japanese society was stratified into classes. Thehighest included the samurai, and it wasfollowed by the farmer, artisan, and merchantclasses. Laws governed private conduct, dress,marriage, and, for some, place of residence.Although the highest class was subject tosumptuary laws, samurai were allowed to wear4

two swords as symbols of their rank. With nowars to fight, sword blades and fittings becamemore decorative than practical, and wealthysamurai lavished enormous amounts of moneyon them.On formal occasions samurai sometimes woreinro. Since, like sword fittings, they were notsubject to sumptuary laws, inro also becameobjects for show, and were elaborately embellishedwith gold and other precious materials. Atfirst only the samurai class could afford them,but eventually they were adopted by theprospering members of other classes as well, andsoon many wore inro with matching netsuke.Meanwhile, a parallel social and economicdevelopment spurred a second fashion insagemono. When the Portuguese introducedtobacco into Japan in the sixteenth century,smoking took hold immediately. Crops wereplanted in southern Kyushu, and soon themajority of Japanese were enjoying pipes,although it was considered improper formembers of the upper classes to smoke outsidetheir homes. An edict forbidding the use oftobacco was passed in 1609, primarily becausethe habit was considered unsanitary, but the lawwas difficult to enforce and was finally repealedin 1716 in the hope that the tobacco crop wouldhelp the economy.The repeal encouraged smoking. Amongtradespeople, it became an integral and almostritualistic part of any business transaction. Thedemand for portable implements-pipe cases,tobacco pouches, and lighting devices-increased,and with it the production of netsuke. As a largepercentage of the male population begansmoking, hundreds of thousands of exampleswere created in various styles and qualities.By the mid-eighteenth century virtually everyJapanese male carried one or more sagemonorequiring netsuke. Artisans such as mask makersand Buddhist sculptors, who originally carvednetsuke only as a sideline, began to specialize inthem. By the end of the eighteenth century,netsuke carving was no longer considered aninsignificant pastime and artists began to signtheir works and form schools with local andregional traditions.By 1781 Inaba Tsuryfi (Shineimon) of Osaka, aconnoisseur of sword fittings, could devotealmost one volume of the seven of his Soken Kisho(which may be translated as 'A Treasury ofSword Fittings and Rare Accessories") to fiftyfivenetsuke carvers of his day and theirdesigns. The cursory text discusses artistsworking in Edo (now Tokyo), Osaka, Kyoto, andWakayama, and suggests that they had originallyproduced other forms of sculpture, such asmasks, Buddhist images, and architectural details,before turning to netsuke. He fails to mentionwhat might be regarded as the first school ofnetsuke artists-the earliest group having adefinite stylistic relationship, who worked in thesouthern Honshu province of Iwami. By thenineteenth century, however, many of the carverscited in the Soken Kisho had come to be consideredoriginators of schools in their own right.Earlier written descriptions of the developmentof netsuke do not exist, and since few seventeenth-centuryexamples survive, we have to relyon scrolls, screens, and prints for a pictorialrecord. In the Kabuki Sketchbook Scroll (in theTokugawa Reimeikai Foundation, Tokyo), datingfrom the first half of the seventeenth century, anactress is shown wearing an assortment ofarticles suspended from a large ring around thenarrow obi. The next style, depicted in a screenof the second quarter of the century, was a diskor wheel shape (later the manju), which towardthe middle of the century acquired a center pegwith a hole for the knot. Small sculptures in theround are not illustrated much before theeighteenth century.Fortunately, many fine netsuke remain fromabout the 1750s on. Early eighteenth-centuryexamples are usually large, spirited, and originalin design, being more direct expressions of theircreators' personalities and geographical locationsthan later pieces. For instance, Osaka netsukereflected the vitality of a bustling commercialcenter, while those made in Kyoto, the ancientOx by Tomotada (see p. 23)5

The man smoking a pipe, from the center panel of awood-block triptych of shellfish gatherers by UtagawaToyokuni (1769-1825), holds an ashtray netsuke that isattached to his tobacco pouch. Rogers Fund, 1914,JP 204imperial city, were dignified and restrained; andartists in the remote area of Iwami were interestedin naturalistic local subjects rendered inindigenous materials.Since there was no established tradition tofollow, the artists of the eighteenth centuryenjoyed a freedom of interpretation. As netsukewere unimportant in the eyes of the government,no attempt was made to regulate them. Parody,satire, and parable could be used without fear ofcensorship. Moreover, with traditional religioussculpture in decline by the Edo period, netsukeprovided an opportunity to express religiousthought and feeling.Subject matter was largely derived fromChinese and Japanese legends, religion, andmythology: fantastic animals predominated, likethe shishi (the lion-dog), but animals of the zodiacwere also popular. Heroes, reflecting Neo-Confucianvirtues, were part of the figure repertoryalong with Buddhist and Taoist saints, whosepious feats appealed to the Japanese taste for thesupernatural.Toward the end of the century, new materialswere in evidence, with stain and inlay usedsparingly for dramatic effect. Coral, ranging incolor from black to dark red, was employedprincipally for eyes, providing textural contrastand a reflective surface simulating "life," orvitality, as did the glass eyes inlaid in the largesculptures of the Kamakura period (1185-1333).By the first half of the nineteenth century, asschools developed, pupils tended to carry ontheir masters' techniques and often copied theirworks. Skilled carvers sometimes published theirdesigns as models, or passed workbooks along totheir more gifted apprentices. Subjects wereincreasingly drawn from printed sources, andthis dependency may be responsible in part forthe diminishing of much of the spontaneity andoriginality of the earlier pieces. To make theirworks distinctive, artists concentrated on refinementsof technique. Netsuke became moreornate and more complicated.In subject, heroic legendary figures gave wayto smaller, compact, and complex representationsespecially those from Japanese folklore. Groupsof figures-men and animals-were depicted, andportrayals became more naturalistic. Netsukeparalleled other artistic developments of thetime. The introduction of such Western conceptsas perspective had its effect on these small sculp-6

tures. The soft outlines hardened, and realismbecame the conventional style. Innovation waslargely a matter of imaginative technique, anunusual subject, and complicated decorativemotif. If the eighteenth century represented theunrestrained beginnings of this art form, the firsthalf of the nineteenth shows it fully matured andhighly sophisticated.In 1853 Commodore Perry sailed into theharbor of Uraga, and in 1867 Japan's policy ofisolation begun under Ieyasu was ended. As thecountry became Westernized, the daily wear ofnetsuke declined. Cigarettes replaced the traditionalsmall-bowl pipe and its accouterments,and suits with pockets grew popular withbusinessmen, who would still wear the kimonoat home or for ceremonial occasions. The needfor sagemono eventually vanished.The opening of Japanese ports to foreign tradeacquainted European collectors with netsuke,and their interest prompted a tremendous revivalof this art form in Japan. Netsuke were producedin great numbers as souvenirs as well as artobjects. From the 1870s through the 1890s majorcollections were formed in Europe. Unfortunatelythe majority of examples produced after thebeginning of the Meiji Restoration (1868) weremechanical imitations of the earlier delightfulsculptures, and are often angular and clumsy.In general, Europeans tended to collect theearlier, more robust, and livelier netsuke, whileAmericans, who for the most part did not comeinto contact with them until the twentiethcentury, were attracted to later pieces demonstratingtechnical achievement. Recently therehas been a new surge of interest in these smallsculptures in this country, and, stimulated by thepublication of more reference material inEnglish, Americans are building some of the bestand most well-rounded collections in the world.The collection of The Metropolitan Museum ofArt, reflecting as it does the tastes of its donors,who made most of their acquisitions during thelate nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, isexceptionally strong in nineteenth-centuryexamples. The pieces on the following pageshave been chosen to present as broad a range aspossible-in date, subject, and style. Together,these small sculptures, all of high quality,provide an introduction to the many forms of thenetsuke carver's art, in all its intricacy, charm,and imagination.r ..I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Boar by Tomotada (see p. 22). The beautifully carvedunderside displays ferns and other plants, and theartist's signature.7

fIeneral Kuan-yii (died A.D. 219), a hero of theHan dynasty (202 B.C.-A.D. 220) in China,was considered by the Japanese to be theepitome of Confucian virtue. He was a popularimage in Edo period prints, paintings, andnetsuke.This tall, imposing figure communicatesstrength and purpose. The interpretation ischaracteristically Chinese in the slenderness ofthe face as well as in the style of the long flowingrobes. Here, the undulating mandarin headdressblends into the softly contoured drapery of theouter robe, while the long sleeve falls in gentlefolds from the left arm. Kuan-yii's elegantlyformed hand, with its tapered fingers, caresseshis long beard, as if he were standing in quietcontemplation. His right arm holds his halberdbehind him, further minimizing his martialcharacter. This exquisite carving, enhanced bythe patination of time and wear, is one of thefinest eighteenth-century netsuke in thecollection.Eighteenth century. Ivory, height 478 inches. Signatureundecipherable and added at later date. Gift of Mrs.Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.14968

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mori Hikoshichi (lived about 1340), a vassalof Shogun Ashikaga Takauji (1305-58),offered to assist a beautiful maiden on her wayto a celebration of his victory over Emperor GoDaigo (reigned 1319-38). As he gallantly carriedher across a stream, he glanced at her reflectionon the water and saw that she had turned into awitch, whereupon Omori slew her with hissword. (In one account she is the daughter of ageneral killed in the battle, attempting to avengeher father's death.)When viewed from various angles, the figureof the witch presents an unusual contrast. Theback displays a hair style of topknot and curls,characteristic of early Buddhist sculpture, andthe body is bare to the waist except for a narrowscarf, again reminiscent of images of holy men.However, the front view reveals a truly absurdfemale figure-trying modestly to cover herselfwhosebelly protrudes and whose bent legs causeher feet to turn in.Tall and superbly carved, . * .this piece expresses the vitality * P'%lof early netsuke. To convey asense of physical tension, theartist tilted Omori's bodyrforward, flexed his knees, anddepicted his toes grasping forbalance. Because of its large size,fine quality, and humorousinterpretation, this is themost unusual rendition ofthe subject known.Eighteenth century. Ivory, height /6 inches. Signed: Homin and , ,a kakihian (stylized signature).Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, r/,10.211.1502 _X l10

The netsuke at the left is a variation on thelegend of two symbiotic characters,Ashinaga ("Long Legs") and Tenaga ("LongArms"). They cooperated in catching the fishthat comprised most of their diet: as Long Legswaded deeper and deeper into the water, wherethe fish were more abundant, Long Arms wasable to reach down and seize them. The legendbecame popular in China, and from there enteredJapanese mythology. Here, the artist may havealluded to the source as he knew it by putting aTaoist sage in Chinese dress on Ashinaga'sshoulder in place of Tenaga.This is the tallest piece in the collection and isrepresentative of an early elongated style thatlasted only a brief period, as it proved tooclumsy for easy wear. Because of the shape ofthis netsuke, it may have been worn either thrustinto the sash, or in the more usual way, held tightagainst the body by the cord passing throughtwo openings on the sides.Eighteenth century. Wood, height 63/4 inches. Gift ofMrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.230611

ennin were "immortals" thought to possesssupernatural powers. In art they arefrequently accompanied by a spirit, usually inthe form of an animal, who attends or guardsthem. Chinese legends describe them asfollowers of Taoism, and in Japan the name"sennin" was sometimes applied to Buddhistmonks who became mountain hermits. Innetsuke they are characterized by curly hair andbeard and large ears. They usually have a benignexpression, and their Chinese-influencedcostumes include a monk's garment, leaf girdle,and drinking gourd.This sennin carries a karashishi (from theJapanese kara, or "China," and shishi, or "lion"),an animal of Buddhist origin (see p. 17). Thebond between the immortal and his companionis conveyed in the man's upturned smiling face.Western influence is apparent in his costumetheruffed collar, tunic, leggings, and soft shoesbutthe curly hair and beard, gourd, and,Buddhist whisk under his sash (at the back), aswell as the sacred animal, indicate beyond doubtthe this example was not meant to portray aWesterner. Large, solidly proportioned figuressuch as this are representative of eighteenthcenturynetsuke.Eighteenth century. Ivory, height 5 inches. Gift of Mrs.Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.149812

Kinko (as he is known in Japanese) was aChinese recluse (Ch'in Kao) who lived neara river. One day he was invited by the King ofthe Fishes into the river for a visit. Kink6 badehis pupils farewell and promised to return. Aftera month he reappeared astride a giant carp.According to a Japanese version of this legend, hethen instructed his pupils not to kill fish andreturned forever to the underwater domain.This sennin, in a scholar's robe and readingfrom a scroll-perhaps an admonishment againstthe killing of fish-suits one Japanese version ofthe story, but the carp's horn, an unusual detail,suggests another in which a sennin nurtured alarge carp that grew horns and wings.Eighteenth-century carvers often combineddetails from several similar legends. To them,variation and creativity frequently meant morethan adherence to a specific iconography.Here, the carp's tail arches protectively overthe sennin, while the horn projects upward,focusing the viewer's attention on the smallfigure. The waves cradle the rider and mount,and seem to be bearing them to their destination.The carp's eyes, of tortoise shell with inlays ofblack coral, add contrast and color to the design.Eighteenth century. Ivory, height 2 inches. The H.O.Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of Mrs. H.O.Havemeyer, 1929, 29.100.756The figure at the far left on the overleaf isTekkai, a Taoist immortal who blew his soulto heaven. On the soul's return it could not findits body, and had to enter that of an old man. Inthis portrayal in wood, the face is given greatexpressiveness through the large ivory eyes,accented by black-coral pupils. The lifelikequality of the sculpture is enhanced by the tilt ofthe head, puckered lips, and curve of the body,which has a sharply defined neck and chest.Tension within the sculpture is further heightenedby the action of an unseen wind whippingthe tattered robe against the straining body.A leaf girdle of ivory and tortoise shell hugsthe body at the hips and flows smoothly into thelines of the robe. The inlay adds color and providestextural contrast with the softly contouredwood. Hanging from the sash, attached to amalachite flower-shaped netsuke, is a movableivory drinking gourd.Late eighteenth-early nineteenth century. Wood,height 23/4 inches. Signed: Chikusai. Gift of Mrs.Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.236213

R yujin (center), the Dragon King of the Sea,probably came into Japanese folklore fromChina. He is a popular figure in netsuke, usuallyshown as a fierce old man, with a long curlingbeard, and accompanied by a dragon. Here, heholds the jewel by which he controls the tides.This example is in the style of YoshimuraShuzan of Osaka, a Kano school painter of themid-eighteenth century, who, according to theSoken Kisho, was considered one of the finestcarvers of his day. He is the innovator in netsukeof legendary and mythological figures done inthis technique: the carved wood was coveredwith a gessolike sealer over which watercolorwas applied.Although this sculpture is in Shuzan's style, itis of boxwood rather than the softer, more opengrainedcypress that he favored, suggesting thatit was not carved by the master himself. Itsfreshness of color is the result of applyingoxidized copper and other minerals in a solutionof glue. Ryujin's garment is ornamented with adesign in gold lacquer, simulating patterns oftenfound on the robes of Buddhist sculptures.Late eighteenth-early nineteenth century. Wood,height 4 inches. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910,10.211.2331A mong the few foreigners allowed to remainafter the Tokugawa government bannedChristianity and expelled the Portuguese in 1636were the Dutch, who were confined to the islandof Deshima in Nagasaki Harbor. Only the representativeof the Dutch East India Company wasable to travel to the mainland to give his yearlyreport. By the second half of the eighteenthcentury, when some of the restrictions had beenlifted, there was a revival of foreign studies, andin 1789 the first Dutch language school openedin Edo. It seems likely, therefore, that netsuke ofDutchmen date from about the last quarter ofthe century. Their popularity was short-lived,however, as they went out of fashion around thefirst quarter of the nineteenth century.Since few Japanese had actually seen aforeigner, genuine portraits are rare, and a typeof Dutchman developed in netsuke that isexemplified by this representation. Round-eyed,with a bulbous nose and shoulder-length hair, hewears a tasseled, brimmed hat, buttoned tunicwith ruffed collar, knee breeches, stockings, andplain soft shoes. Most of the figures carry a dog,gun, or bird-usually a cock, as here, probablyreferring to the Dutch colony's pastime ofcockfighting. Many of these netsuke are ivory,possibly because they would appeal to thewealthier and more worldly clients who couldafford that material.Late eighteenth century. Height, 41/8 inches. Gift ofMrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.150615

The first animal netsuke, dating from theseventeenth century, were mostly ofcreatures derived from Chinese mythology, suchas the kirin, baku, and karashishi. The kirin, theOriental version of the unicorn, is considered aparagon of virtue: so light-footed that it createsno noise when it walks, and so careful that itharms not even the tiniest insect. Its rare appearanceon earth is thought to be a lucky omen.The kirin has the head of a dragon, with ahorn that lies against the back of its head, thebody of a deer, legs and hooves similar to thoseof a horse, and the tail of a lion. Scales or protuberancesare part of the body decoration.Usually, flamelike shapes flare from the chest orshoulders. These "fire markings" are a designelement that originated in Chinese art and wereused by netsuke carvers only during theeighteenth century to indicate that the subjectwas a mythological beast with supernaturalcharacteristics.Eighteenth century. Ivory, height 27/8 inches. Gift ofMrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.1408-"i": I iL`k *- Trq:::.Ihe \ \I: P -url ? $a'`1P-t; i?i,I16

The baku is supposed to eat bad dreams. It isso effective that even the character for"baku" painted on a headrest will keep awayfrightening nightmares. Physically it combinesthe head of an elephant, and the body, mane,claws, and tail of a karashishi (below). TheJapanese version differs slightly from theChinese, which has the tail of an ox and aspotted hide. Fantastic composite animals likethe baku and kirin went out of style in netsukeby the end of the eighteenth century.This is a rare example, depicted not in theusual seated position but crouching as ifsearching for something, and carved in woodrather than the ivory used for most early mythologicalanimals. The finish is enhanced bycontrasting gold lacquer applied to the surface(see cover illustration).Eighteenth century. Wood, length 2 inches. Signed:Sadatake or Jobu. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910,10.211.2278T he karashishi is characterized by a fierceexpression with protruding eyes, widenostrils, and open mouth. Its curly mane isusually balanced by long curled locks on its legsand a bushy tail. The earlier the rendition, thestronger the facial expression and the moreelaborate the curls. In China they are shown inpairs and commonly associated with the imperialfamily; in Japan they are often found in Buddhistlore, occasionally as temple guardians, and aresometimes associated with holy men (see p. 12).In netsuke shishi are frequently depictedwhimsically, and this one, resting quietly, gazessolemnly out of dark inlaid pupils set dramaticallyinto gold eye sockets. This subtle use ofgold indicated the owner's wealth while circumventingthe government's sumptuary laws.Late eighteenth-early nineteenth century. Ivory, length1/ inches. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.1717

This stag represents the stylistic transitionbetween the highly imaginative creatures ofthe early to middle eighteenth century, and themore realistic animals of the nineteenth century.Its elegantly simple pose-seated, with anupturned head and stretched neck-is similar tothose of kirin in earlier netsuke, but its branchedantlers, sloping ribs, and spotted coat are indicationsof a new interest in authentic details.Late eighteenth century. Ivory, height 51/4 inches. Giftof Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.2308he tanuki, a badgerlike animal that is amember of the raccoon family, wasportrayed as a partially imaginary beast endowedwith supernatural powers. Depicted as more of apractical joker than a malicious or evil character,it often assumed disguises to further its subterfuge.Here it wears a lotus-leaf hat, carries abottle of sake in one hand, and holds a bill ofsale for the liquor in the other. While the bottleand the bill suggest drunkenness, the lotts leaf,symbolizing purity, alludes to Buddhism, with itsemphasis on sobriety. This netsuke might betaken as a comment on the priests of the time,who sometimes indulged in practices contrary totheir religious vows.Garaku, the artist, is mentioned in the SokenKisho as "a clever carver and a disciple ofTawarya Denbei," an early master whose workshave not survived. The few authentic netsuke byGaraku are highly imaginative and expressive, asis this one, and frequently communicate thesame feeling of humor.Eighteenth century. Ivory, height 23/4 inches. Signed:Garaku. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.143618

ighteenth-century animal netsuke by artistsin the Kyoto area had well-defined spinesand rib cages, and if the creature had a tail, itwas usually tucked between the legs and hiddenunder the body. (During the nineteenth century,the tails of animal netsuke were incorporated onthe outside of the piece, usually wrapped aroundthe body.) On the basis of these features alone,this wolf can be attributed to a Kyoto artist of theeighteenth century, a date verified by the signatureof Tomotada, who is listed in the Soken Kishoand probably worked in Kyoto in the second halfof the century.The gaunt figure may represent pure hungeror it may be a symbolic expression of angeragainst the poor crops, high taxes, and capricioussamurai overlords of the time.Eighteenth century. Ivory, length 2 inches. Signed:Tomotada. The H.O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequestof Mrs. H.O. Havemeyer, 1929, 29.100.91820

ealistic, the muzzle is softly rounded anddouble-haltered-with a rope meticulouslycarved in raised relief. Other indications of hiswork are the large eyes, inlaid with pupils ofblack coral, the bulging sides, and the tucked-uplegs with clearly defined hooves.Eighteenth century. Ivory, length 23/s inches. Signed:Tomotada. Bequest of Stephen Whitney Phoenix, 1881,81.1.40The Oriental zodiac is based on a cycle oftwelve years, each associated with an animal.These animals also represent the hours of theday and the points of the compass. According tolegend, Buddha called all the creatures to him fora celebration, but only twelve came. The order inwhich they arrived determined the year eachsymbolizes in the zodiac. In the diagram abovethe Japanese characters (reading clockwise) standfor rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, snake, horse,sheep (though the animal depicted is a goat),monkey, cock, dog, and boar, which are illustratedon the overleaf.Netsuke representations of zodiac animalsbecame popular by the late eighteenth century,and it was considered lucky to wear a netsukerepresenting the year in which one was born.The earliest recorded netsuke artists to specializein these animals worked mainly in the Kyotoarea.The first to respond to Buddha was the rat,who is usually portrayed as a gentlecreature. Here the presence of tiny offspringfurther softens the characterization.Eighteenth century. Ivory, height 178 inches. Bequestof Stephen Whitney Phoenix, 1881, 81.1.34The ox is often found in Japanese artbecause of its association with the Zenparable of the ox and the herder, which symbolizesa man taming his own spirit. The Soken Kishoidentifies this artist, Tomotada, as specializing inthe carving of oxen. His netsuke were highlyprized and frequently copied.This example has all the characteristics of agenuine Tomotada sculpture: the proportions areYr: Tigers are not native to Japan, but their9 ferocity and strength made them favoritesubjects in Japanese art of the Edo period. Tigernetsuke are usually carved in a crouchingposition, the head turned into the curve of thebody. This feline, with its beetle-brow andmournful eyes, seems like a household pet,although strength is suggested in its haunchesand well-padded paws.Nothing is known about the artist, Raku, butthere are a number of tigers with features carvedin this manner that bear his name in a jaggedreserve, as here.Late eighteenth century. Ivory, height 13/8 inches.Signed: Raku. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910,10.211.10994 The hare is connected with legends aboutthe moon, in which it administers the taskof keeping the disk clean. The moon hare, aJapanese "Man in the Moon," is said to live along time, and to turn white at an advanced age.This netsuke, with its broad chest and powerfulbody, conveys the spirit of an animal preparedfor instant flight.Nineteenth century. Wood, height 21/8 inches. TheEdward C. Moore Collection, Bequest of Edward C.Moore, 1891, 91.1.988The dragon is the only mythical beastincluded in the zodiac. The traditionalJapanese interpretation has a flat head with twohorns extending down its back, long whiskers, ascaly, snakelike body with spines on its back,and four three-clawed feet (the Chinese imperialdragon has five-clawed feet). It is said to embodyboth male and female characteristics with unlimitedpowers of adaptation. This one is unusual,as it seems to be based on the seventeenthcenturydoughnut-shaped style of netsuke.Eighteenth century. Ivory, height 13/4 inches. The H.O.Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of Mrs. H.O.Havemeyer, 1929, 29.100.787p Before the advent of Buddhism in Japan,snake deities were worshiped in earlyShinto rites. In Buddhist lore the snake came to21

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24be associated with "female" passions of angerand jealousy. However, to dream of a snake wasconsidered a good omen.This reptile's satisfied expression and swollenmidsection (more visible from the front) suggesta recent meal. The tiered undulations of itscoiled body form a compact mass perfect for useas a netsuke. This carving probably enjoyedconsiderable handling: for if the scales on theunderbelly are rubbed the right way, they feelsmooth; and if rubbed in the opposite direction,rough like those of a live snake.Late eighteenth century. Wood, length 21/4 inches. Giftof Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.2284{ Although Japanese horses are short-leggedand stocky, they are nevertheless difficultto depict standing in compact netsuke form. Thiscomposition is similar to that of the tiger, as theline of the neck and head curves along the bodyto form a smooth oval.Tomotada worked mostly in ivory, a mediumin which he seems the most expressive. Hiswood netsuke, such as this horse, lack thedynamic quality found in his ivories.Eighteenth century. Height 17 inches. Signed:Tomotada. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.1645Although the zodiac sign is actually asheep, the animal portrayed is usually agoat, and the few legends associated with it arederived from the Chinese. In Japan, where goatflesh is not eaten and the hair scarcely used, theanimals rarely appear in any art form. This artist,however, specialized in them, masterfullyrendering the texture of their hair by meticulouslycarving the strands in layers. The horns,while sharp, lie gently on this goat's hunchedshoulders, following the curve of the spine.Nineteenth century. Signed: Kokei. Wood, length 13/4inches. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.2000r The monkey is much loved in Japan, andthe subject of many paintings and netsuke.The small, light-furred and short-tailed variety(Macaca fuscata) is found throughout the islands,and in the north is sometimes called the "snowmonkey." The year of the monkey is consideredunlucky for marriages, as the word for monkey(saru) has the same pronunciation as the verb "toleave," or "to divorce."Masatami delighted in carving this animal invarious textures. The face is molded in smoothplanes; the inlay of the eyes is black coral. Thebody is carved with every hair carefully delineated,and its forelegs are beautifully tapered,terminating in minutely articulated fingers andfingernails. The smoother, lighter chestnut,accented by a bug, offers a contrast to the detailand darker color of the monkey.Nineteenth century. Ivory, length 21/4 inches. Signed:Masatami. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.1065A cock on a drum is both a zodiac sign andj4 a peace symbol. In China and Japan, thebeating of a drum was a call to arms or awarning of danger. In Japanese folklore, whenthe unused drum became a perch for roosters,peace prevailed.Here, the bird's head, tucked into the plumpwing, is balanced by the high arch of the tailfeathers, which blend harmoniously into arounded form. The careful carving of the dragonon the sides of the drum is in opposition to thesmooth drumhead, creating a textural contrastfurther dramatized by the studs of black coralaround the rim.Late eighteenth century. Ivory, height 15/8 inches. TheEdward C. Moore Collection, Bequest of Edward C.Moore, 1891, 91.1.1015JXThe Chinese attitude toward dogs, associatingthem with bad luck and ill health, wasgradually dispelled in Japan. Dogs becamesymbolic of loyalty and were much loved. Theirreputation was considerably enhanced by theshogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi. Born in 1646, inthe year of the dog, Tsunayoshi was told byBuddhist priests that his lack of a son might bedue in part to his killing of dogs in a former life,so he issued a proclamation protecting them.This group of frolicsome puppies by Tomotadais an extraordinary composition that has beencopied many times. From any angle the design isperfectly proportioned, and several naturalopenings allow it to be worn in different ways.Snapping jaws, tiny noses, and shell-like earsconvey the youth and energy of these two littleanimals at play.Eighteenth century, Ivory, length 13/8 inches. Signed:Tomotada. The H.O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequestof Mrs. H.O. Havemeyer, 1929, 29.100.854The boar, the twelfth zodiac symbol, isthought to possess reckless courage. It isfound wild in western Japan, especially in theprovince of Iwami, where its tusks and teethwere carved by a group of netsuke artists.This slumbering beast, nestled snugly in a bedof boughs and ferns, reveals both a gentle humorand a sense of sheer brute force temporarilyrestrained. Although this design by Tomotadawas frequently copied, no other artist hascaptured the power of the original.Eighteenth century. Ivory, length 21/4 inches. Signed:Tomotada. Bequest of Stephen Whitney Phoenix, 1891,81.1.91

Ryusa, named for the carver who originatedthe style, is a form of manju netsuke that isturned on a lathe. The broad, rounded edgeallows the artist to continue his design uninterruptedfrom front to back.This example, done with extraordinary skill, isprobably the work of Ryusa himself. Here thestippled surface gives the illusion of morningmist. The flowers and other vegetation, as well asthe praying mantis, were fashioned by carvingthe surface of the ivory in a higher relief than thebackground, which was stained to providetextural contrast and added dimension. Thehollow center adds a dark distance, and becomespart of the composition. On the reverse, alsocarved in relief, is a scarecrow in a field.Eighteenth century. Ivory, diameter 2 inches. Gift ofMrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.127125

Founder of the Ch'an (Zen in Japanese) sect ofBuddhism in China, the Indian monk Bodhidharma,known in Japan as Daruma, traveled asa missionary from India to southern China aboutA.D. 520, but finding no welcome there, crossedthe Yangtze River to settle in the north. Thisnetsuke depicts him crossing the river on a reed.Bodhidharma, his robe folded over his hands,displays a stern countenance set in deep concentration.The rippling of the long robes suggestsmotion and also emphasizes the upright postureof the body, balanced precariously on the singlereed and braced against the wind.Nineteenth century. Ivory, height 17/ inches. Gift ofMrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.73126

ne legend concerning Daruma tells of hismeditating for nine years facing the wall ofa cave. During this period, he fell asleep andupon awakening, screamed in consternationbecause he had been unable to remain awake.Here, his rage is fondly reproduced. Althoughnetsuke usually depict him beardless, this renditiongives him eyebrows, a moustache, and ashort beard composed of small spiral curls, aform usually associated with the hair on earlysculptures of the Buddha. The eyes are sorrowfulrather than angry, and are marvelously expressivein their downward droop. The flow of thegarment is simple, but the careful execution offeet and hands with sharply defined nails is anindication of the increasing emphasis on realism.Gold lacquer is applied for color.Late eighteenth century. Wood, height 31/8 inches.Signed: Sensai to (literally,"Sensai's knife"). Gift ofMrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.234627

The most noticeable change in late eighteenthcenturyanimal netsuke is the use ofrealistic, or active poses rather than the morestatic, "at rest" poses that had been commonfrom the mid-eighteenth century. The twistedpose of this squirrel succeeds in capturing theanimal's nervous quality. The black-coral eyesprotrude and the ears and paws are extended,but the composition still retains its compactform. The squirrel's chubby legs and tiny,clenched paws make it a very appealing figure.Late eighteenth century. Ivory, height 11/2 inches. Giftof Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.52B irds other than sparrows and falcons, whichhave symbolic associations, are seldomfound in netsuke. This artist has portrayed akingfisher in a very simple and smooth form.The wings curve and blend into the body,creating a slick surface broken only by the cordopenings on the underside. Befitting this smiall,quick bird, the tiny black inset eyes add a qualityof alertness.Nineteenth century. Ivory, height 23/8 inches. Signed:Yasuchika. The Howard Mansfield Collection;Purchase, Rogers Fund, 1936, 36.100.18328

This white rabbit is a masterpiece of understatedsimplicity and elegant design.Although very compact, it is subtle in its sophisticatedmodeling. The legs are tucked out ofsight, but the long ears are articulated withloving attention. Despite the abstraction ofshape, the proportions remain lifelike, and therabbit appears alert, as do most nineteenthcenturyanimals. The sharp eyes are inset withblack coral, and the whiskers and nostrilsdefined in black to stand out more clearly againstthe white ivory, which looks sensuously tactileeven in these photographs.Ohara Mitsuhiro (1810-75), who worked inOsaka, is one of the outstanding netsuke artistsof the mid-nineteenth century. A versatile carver,he used many styles and techniques, in piecesthat could be incredibly complicated anddetailed, or as refined and simple as this rabbit.Mid-nineteenth century. Length 11/2 inches. Signed:Mitsuhiro and Ohara (in a seal). The Edward C.Moore Collection, Bequest of Edward C. Moore, 1891,91.1.97529

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intaro, who was brought up in themountains, had superhuman strength. As asmall child, he could uproot trees, wrestle bears,and was constantly fighting other beasts andgoblins. Most often he is depicted overcomingthe tengu, which is part bird and part otheranimal or man, that lived deep in the mountainforests.Here, boy and beast are in the final stages of astruggle. Both are exceptionally well delineated.The boy's hair and features are sharplydescribed, and tortoise-shell eyes with blackinlaid pupils add a realistic touch. His body isrounded with exaggerated but softly contouredmuscles that are indicative of his strength. Thetengu, on the other hand, is on its stomach withwings spread in the posture of weakness, andbends its head backward in a feeble attempt topeck at Kintaro. Every feather of the tengu iscarved individually, and small ivory inlays (seebelow) highlight its arms and legs, creating acontrast to the wood. The emphasis on realisticdetail and intricate carving, characteristic of earlynineteenth-century netsuke, adds complexity tothis piece, but does not detract from the vigorof the composition.Early nineteenth century. Wood, height 13/ inches.Signed: Hachigaku. The Sylmaris Collection, Gift ofGeorge Coe Graves, 1931, 31.49.1232

he kappa, a fantastic aquatic creature,appeared in netsuke during the nineteenthcentury. Traditionally, it has a tortoise body, froglegs, and a monkeylike head with a saucershapedhollow in the top. This indentationcontains fluid that makes the kappa ferociousand uncompromising. However, being Japanese,it is very polite; when bowed to, it will bow inreply, losing the fluid and, consequently, itsstrength. The face is usually that of a poutingchild rather than a terrifying monster, and itwalks upright. Kappas are reputedly responsiblefor drownings, but can be propitiated bythrowing cucumbers, their favorite food, into thewater.In this superbly elegant and sophisticatednetsuke, no surface has been left uncarved. Thehead is gracefully modeled, and small ears peepout of the sharply defined striated hair. Thebody's texture appears to imitate a tortoise shell,and the froglike limbs end in webbed feet. Thecarving is sharp and precise, which is typical ofmid-nineteenth century work, and one of thecharacteristics of the style of this artist.Mid-nineteenth century. Wood, height 17/ inches.Signed: Shoko. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910,10.211.185833

The unlikely combination at the left probablyalludes to an episode in the legend of Ryujin(see p. 14) in which the Dragon King's doctor, anoctopus, prescribes the liver of a live monkey asthe cure for an ailment. A jellyfish is sent to finda monkey, but fails in his mission, and the storyends there. However, the pair shown here isoften depicted in netsuke, probably indicatingthat the octopus finally undertook the task itself.The excellence of this netsuke lies in theskillful use of dissimilar shapes and forms, andin the artist's ability to communicate some of theterror and physical pressures of the fight.(Struggle for survival is a common theme inRantei's netsuke.) The expressions areexaggerated, and the force with which themonkey pushes his adversary is seen in theindentation in the octopus's head.Unlike earlier Kyoto artists who concentratedon the larger, individual zodiac animals, Ranteiand his generation usually worked with combinationsof figures in a smaller format. Despitethe small size, they were able to give theirnetsuke more expression and more realisticdetailing.Nineteenth century. Ivory, length 11/2 inches. Signed:Rantei. The Edward C. Moore Collection, Bequest ofEdward C. Moore, 1891, 91.1.962n Japan, the hawk is a symbol of masculinity,and hunting with hawks was a popular sportamong the samurai. This bird's great power isexpressed in its spread wings and cocked headglaring down at its prey, a dog. Its mouth andtongue are deeply undercut to emphasize thesharp curve of the beak. Black inlaid eyescontrast with the light ivory of the body, and astain accents the play of light and darkthroughout the composition. The placement ofthe hawk's claw in the dog's eye heightens thebrutality of the struggle.Nineteenth century. Ivory, height 2 inches. Signed:Hidechika. The H.O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequestof Mrs. H.O. Havemeyer, 1929, 29.100.79635

n old man weary of carrying his bag oftroubles rests for a moment. His burdentakes the form of oni, or demons, who are tryingto free themselves. One, stained green, has torn ahole in the bag and glares out between hisfingers with a single eye (below). Another isabout to grasp the old man by his coat collar.The man wears a netsuke and tobacco pouchmade of wood with tiny brass highlights(repeating the metal ornament on the largerversions). The arm of the grasping oni is ofwood, and its wrist is encircled by an inlaidmetal bracelet. Inlays of various materials wereapplied only sparingly to eighteenth-centurynetsuke, but in the nineteenth century, artistsincreasingly used distinctive combinations as astatement of individual style.This subject was originated during the latterpart of the eighteenth century by Ryfikei whocarved it in dark-stained boxwood. This ivorycopy, with its metal inlays, called for techniquesnot associated with ivory carving, and is possiblythe product of two artists.Nineteenth century. Ivory, wood, and metal, height 11/4inches. Signed: Seikanshi. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage,1910, 10.211.907he sword is one of the three sacred symbolsof imperial authority. From the earliest timesin Japan, a spiritual presence, or kami, has beenassociated with the forging of a blade. Thisnetsuke represents the creation of the sword"Little Fox," forged by the swordsmith KokajiMunechika (938-1014) for the emperor Ichij6Tenn6 (986-1011). It is said that the fox god Inarimanned the bellows during the making of theblade, and here his ghostly form hovers in thebackground.In this ryusa-style netsuke, Munechika isdepicted in the metal cut-out that fits into thesurface of the ivory. The figure of the fox, cut inthe ivory, is made all the more mysterious by thehollow, pierced ground, with its various intensitiesof dark and light.Nineteenth century. Ivory and metal, diameter 13/4inches. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.120337

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This superbly articulated rendition of askeleton astride a skull is a humorous statementof the transitory nature of life. The bonyhips of the skeleton are modestly covered with aloincloth, a reminder of its humanity and also aniconographic detail found on demonic figures ofthe eighth century. The careful definition of theskeletal structure demonstrates the knowledge ofanatomy on the part of this artist, Rantei, whooften created subjects dealing with death or thestruggle for survival (see p. 34).In this netsuke the head and arm were madeas a separate unit and then inserted at the top ofthe spine and into the shoulder. This constructionprovided movement, and also allowed forthe contraction and expansion caused by changesin humidity.Nineteenth century. Ivory, height 13/4 inches. Signed:Rantei. Bequest of Stephen Whitney Phoenix, 1881,81.1.72A ccording to legend, a group of seven godswhose origins derived from Brahminism,Taoism, Buddhism, and Shinto, appeared to theshogun Tokugawa Iemitsu (1603-51) in a dream.In explaining the dream, a courtier pronouncedthem the Seven Gods of Luck. Hotei, the mostpopular of the group, is commonly portrayed asa fat, jolly figure with an ample stomach andholding a fan. He is frequently surrounded bychildren, and carries a bag of twenty-one objectsrepresenting prosperity. Here, he is in his bag.This example by a well-known artist combineselegant simplicity and exquisite detail. Thesmiling fat face and the pudgy arm protrudingfrom the bag create an appearance of joviality.The well-carved folds and stitching on the baglend authenticity to its fabric, and the fine detailsof Hotei's features and fan provide a texturalcontrast to its smooth worn material. Thiscounterpoint of textures is often found in Mitsuhiro'swork.Nineteenth century. Ivory, height l1/8 inches. Signed:Mitsuhiro and Ohara (in a seal). The H.O. HavemeyerCollection, Bequest of Mrs. H.O. Havemeyer, 1929,29.100.84139

The small figure clinging to the top of thelong nose of the mask netsuke at the left isthe popularized form of Uzume-no-Mikoto, who,according to a well-known Japanese legend,danced to entice the sun goddess Amaterasu outof a cave where she had hidden, thus deprivingthe world of light. Okame, as the deity is alsoknown, created such raucous merriment thatAmaterasu emerged, and light was restored.Certain Shinto songs and dances are said to traceback to those of Okame.Okame is shown grasping the nose of themask, which represents Saruta-Hiko-no-Mikoto,the Shinto god who blocked the crossways toheaven. The sun goddess asked Okame toconfront him and clear the way. This wouldpossibly explain the humorously erotic relationshipillustrated here, a theme commonly found innetsuke of the Edo period.This Okame is a playful young girl; herrounded body and chubby arms, hands, and feet,give her a childlike innocence that conflicts withthe scowling mask. By using opposites, the artist,Masanao, has created a successful satire.Nineteenth century. Wood, height 11/2 inches. Signed:Masanao. Bequest of Kate Read Blacque in memoryof her husband Valentine Alexander Blacque, 1938,38.50.296H annya is a demon representing the spirit ofa jealous woman. One of the most fearsomeof all No masks, it is most often associated withthe play Dojoji, in which a young maiden falls inlove with a handsome priest. Enraged by hisresistance to her advances, she finally traps himunder the bell of the D6jo Temple. After turningherself into a snakelike dragon with the face of aHannya, she encircles the bell and burns him todeath with the heat of her anger.Hannya are among the most common subjectsof mask netsuke. The one at the right is not atrue copy of a No mask as it lacks the reflectingmetal or gilded eyes usually found in No masksof supernatural beings. However, the carving issuperb: the strength of sculptural movementfrom the powerful forehead to the almost skulllikeform of the cheek area and jaw is the workof a skilled artist.Nineteenth century. Wood, height 17/8 inches. Gift ofMrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.238840

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The few dignified or graceful representationsof women in netsuke are of heroines of theHeian period (794-1185), a time when womenenjoyed considerable success in the arts. Ono noKomachi (834-900) was a renowned court beautyas well as an accomplished poetess. At the heightof her glory, she was said to be extravagant andproud, setting impossible tasks for her lovers,until one of them died in the pursuit of herfavors. Out of remorse, or perhaps as punishmentby the gods for her extreme vanity, shebecame destitute in her old age. In netsuke, sheis often portrayed as a toothless hag dressed inrags.This is a rare sympathetic interpretation of thepoetess in her last years. The carving of her faceis particularly sensitive, including a hint of adimple in her cheek, a poignant reminder of herformer beauty. Takehara Chikko is known for hisfigural netsuke of Japanese legendary subjects.Late nineteenth century. Wood, height 31/2 inches.Signed: Chikko saku ("Chikk6 made"). Gift of Mrs.Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.2336

This unusual figure wears a headdresscomprised of three mother-of-pearl disksinlaid in wood frames, in a shape based on thatof a matoi, an implement used in victory celebrationsduring the Meiji period (1868-1912). On thedisks are scratched the characters for Dai NihonSensho iwai, which may be translated as "Celebrationfor Japanese [War] Victory." The artist'sdates, 1871-1936, suggest that this netsuke wascarved to commemorate the Japanese victory inthe Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Thefigure's face reflects the agony of war and war'sconflict with Buddhism, which is symbolized bythe whisk and the necklace of leaves.This is a striking interpretation, rendered withboth delicacy and force. The subject indicatesthat it was not intended for export, and its highquality is representative of many of the piecescreated by artists of the Meiji and Taisho (1912-26) periods who did not capitulate to theexpanding export market.Early twentieth century. Wood, height 41/8 inches.Signed: Sansho and a kakihan (stylized signature).Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.231943

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hen netsuke were introduced to Europe inthe Meiji period, variations on traditionalsubjects evolved that were thought moreappealing to Western taste. For example,Kohosai, who created this boar, felt that asomnulent, ferocious animal (see p. 7) would notbe appealing, so he developed a new approach.The boar's head is large compared to its bodysize, and the facial expression is amusinglyexaggerated. To embellish this netsuke, the artistincluded a decorated back covering with anelegant dragon pattern. Hanging beads aresimulated by colorful incrustations of semipreciousstones in the technique known asshibayama. The signature plaque on the undersidebridges the space between the legs and providesthe cord opening.Late nineteenth century. Ivory, length 21/4 inches.Signed: Kohosai and a kakihan (stylized signature).Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.899T he image of the elephant has stimulated theJapanese imagination for centuries. EarlyBuddhist paintings and sculpture depict the deityFugen Bosatsu seated on the beast, and mythologicalanimals sometimes derive characteristicsfrom it (see p. 17). In the early part of theeighteenth century a pair of elephants was sentto Japan as a gift to the imperial family, andnetsuke of that animal could easily have beenbased on drawings from life.This is an interpretation of the allegoryconcerning truth and how man interprets it. Theblind men are investigating an elephant in anattempt to describe it. Their findings, of course,are based on which part they feel.The tininess of the figures against the beast'sexpansive body is meant to be as amusing as thehumor reflected in the animal's face. This is asensitive rendition by the founder and master ofthe renowned So school of netsuke carvers.Late nineteenth century. Ivory, height 15/8 inches.Signed: Kuku Joso to (literally, "Kuku Joso's knife").Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.900......?"~ ~ .~ ~ :: r b-- .~. x - w .. ~~'45

y the late Edo and early Meiji periods,competition among netsuke carvers hadexhausted conventional themes, and artistssearched for fresh subjects. During the 1850s thewell-known artist H6jitsu (died 1872), who waspatronized by the daimyo of the Tsugaru Districtof Mutsu Province, began to specialize in genrefigures, depicting in his sculptures the dailyactivities of townspeople. His work, supposedlyinfluenced by the genre painter Hanabusa Itcho(1651-1724) is refined, with few frills.This man applies salve to a painful area on hisneck. Although his face is contorted withsuffering, it is still well defined enough to be aportrait. The countermovement within the bodyis emphasized by the tilt of the shoulders and thefolds of the garment as it gathers in the man'slap. His slender wrist and forearm draped in arippling sleeve are elements of studied grace.Nineteenth century. Wood, height 11/4 inches. SignedHojitsu. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.1823hile Hojitsu provided the impetus for theproliferation of genre subjects, JosoMiyasaki (1855-1910) further shifted theemphasis from the activities of the upper andmiddle classes to those of workmen and farmers.The man shown here, kneeling in Japanesefashion, is cutting a pumpkin on a board. Hisheadband, originally a sweatband, is traditionalamong the working class in Japan even today.From any angle, the netsuke displays greatvitality. The expression on the man's face-whichis only about /2 inch high-is intense, and hislong tapering fingers energetically grasp thevegetable as he cuts it.At a time when the export market demandedflashy inlays and overly decorated, intricatepieces, Joso concentrated on the smaller homemarket. Typically, his netsuke were of simplesubjects, exquisitely executed. Determinationand tension are expressed in the faces, finelymuscled bodies, and strong hands of his workers.Occasionally he carved other figures-a cryingchild or a blind man-but they are all treatedwith sympathy rather than ridicule.Late nineteenth century. Wood, height l1/4 inches.Signed: Jos6 yafu t6 (literally, "Joso the rural man'sknife"). Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.182746

okeisai Sansho (1871-1926), the creator ofthis netsuke, was known for his genrefigures. He tended to exaggerate facial characteristicsas a means of stylistic expression; here,for example, the twisted features suggestdrunkenness.The well-proportioned body clothed in acasually draped, simple garment is pure Sansho.The hair is stained black to emphasize theheadband, part of the workingman's costume.The bare, tightly curled toes grasp the ground tomaintain balance. The netsuke, howeverhumorous, may have a serious intent: it mighthave served as a reminder to its owner of howfoolish one looks when drunk.Late nineteenth century. Wood, height 31/4 inches.Signed: Sansho and a kakihan (stylized signature).Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910, 10.211.235347

BIBLIOGRAPHYJ.W. Hall, Japan from Prehistory to Modern Times, New York,1970H.L. Joly, Legend in Japanese Art, London, 1908D. Keene, Landscapes and Portraits: Appreciations of JapaneseCulture, Tokyo and Palo Alto, 1971B.T. Okada, Japanese Netsuke and Ojime: From the Herman andPaul Jaehne Collection of the Newark Museum, Newark, 1976G. Sansom, Japan: A Short Cultural History, rev. ed., New York,1962U. Reikichi, The Netsuke Handbook of Ueda Reikichi, trans. andadapted by R. Bushell, Tokyo, 1961T. Volker, The Animal in Far Eastern Art, reprint 1950 ed.,Leiden, 1975Puppies by Tomotada (see p. 22)48

v .As - -1:C( iLiThe Metropolitan Museum of Artis collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access toThe Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin ®www.jstor.org