Predictors of Foreign-Language Anxiety: Examining the ...

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Pohlman, & Bishop-Marbury, 1991; Ganschow & Sparks, 1996; Ganschow et al.,1994; Sparks et al., 2000). They found that less anxious learners performed significantlybetter than their highly anxious counterparts not only on various L1 and L2measures but also on the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) (Ganschow etal., 1994; Ganschow & Sparks, 1996) and reported a medium size negative correlation(r = -.43, p = .008) between learners’ FLA and MLAT scores (Ganschow et al.,1994). Based on these findings they suggest that learners’ performance on selfreportmeasures of anxiety “may reflect students’ level of native language skilland foreign language aptitude” (Ganschow & Sparks, 1996, p. 208, my emphasis),and even suggest that “a language aptitude instrument such as the MLAT mightpredict anxiety about language learning just as well as an affective instrumentsuch as the FLCAS [i.e. Horwitz et al.’s (1986) Foreign Language Classroom AnxietyScale]” (p. 208).Motivation and FLAAlthough no previous study has specifically inquired into the relationship betweenmotivation and FLA, the two affective individual difference variables arepresumed to be related to one another. In Gardner and associates’ research in theframework of the socio-educational model of second language learning (e.g.,Gardner, 1985; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993b; Gardner et al., 1997), anxiety measureshave formed part of the Attitudes/ Motivation Test Battery, which is indicativeof a strong hypothesised link between the two learner characteristics. In hissocial-context model, Clément (1980, 1986) also conceptualises anxiety as a constructclosely related to motivation. However, as the focus in models of L2 learninghas been on the effect of several variables on language learning outcomes, thefunctional relationship between language anxiety and motivation has never beenfully clarified (Dörnyei, 2005; Gardner, Day, & MacIntyre, 1992; MacIntyre, 2002).Generally, anxiety measures have been found to correlate negatively with variousindices of motivation, which suggests that anxious language learners also tendto be less motivated compared to their non-anxious counterparts (e.g., Clément,Dörnyei, & Noels, 1994; Gardner et al., 1983, 1992; Sison, 1991 in Gardner & Mac-Intyre, 1993b). Besides, anxiety measures in factor analytic studies often loadednegatively on motivation factors, again suggesting that highly motivated learnersdo not tend to experience anxiety in the classroom and other L2 situations(Gliksman, 1981 in Gardner et al., 1992; Gardner et al., 1997). In view of such results,Gardner and MacIntyre (1993b) suggest a reciprocal relationship betweenthe two affective variables. Intuitively it seems logical that high levels of FLA canreduce learners’ motivation to learn a L2, since anxious learners tend to find thisexperience frustrating and painful. It is also reasonable to suppose that high levelsof motivation are likely to abate learners’ anxiety, as motivated learners tend to besuccessful and perceive language learning as a positive experience, which isbound to decrease anxiety.Nevertheless, logical though this reasoning may be, anecdotal and empiricalevidence suggests that the relationship between anxiety and motivation is not as126 UPRT 2007: Empirical studies in English applied linguistics
straightforward. There appear to be far too many language learners who wouldnot fit into the anxious - un/ demotivated vs. confident - motivated categories. Often itis strongly motivated learners who are reported to experience high levels of languageanxiety (cf. Horwitz, 1996; Jackson, 2002; Kitano, 2001). Horwitz (1996) maybe right in pointing out that motivation and ego-investment are to be consideredamong factors influencing language anxiety. Her reasoning, “there must be a desireto communicate well in order to worry about how your communicative effortsare perceived” (1996, p. 367) sounds more than logical. It raises the possibility thathighly motivated learners with a strong desire to learn a foreign language, whoinvest a great deal of time, effort and emotional energy into mastering it to a highstandard, may also be prone to experiencing anxiety, paradoxically, even more sothan learners with less personal involvement. Therefore, it is obvious that furtherresearch is required to investigate the relationship between learners’ motivationalcharacteristics and FLA.L2 self-concept and FLAAspects of self-perception (Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999) and L2-related self-perceptionsin particular have been recognised as critical factors in the development ofFLA (Cheng, 2002; Foss & Reitzel, 1991; Horwitz et al., 1986; Horwitz, 1990). Correlationalstudies have indicated a close link between self-perceptions of L2 competenceand anxiety, in fact learners’ self-rated proficiency has been found to be abetter predictor of anxiety level than actual L2 achievement on objective proficiencymeasures (Cheng et al., 1999; Cheng, 2002; Clément et al., 1994; Gardner &MacIntyre, 1993b; MacIntyre, 1992 in MacIntyre et al., 1997). This is consistentwith the cognitive self-evaluation theory of the causes of social anxieties, according towhich, the primary reason why people become anxious in social encounters is notthat they lack necessary skills (cf. the skills deficit hypothesis in 2.1), but ratherthat they believe they lack them and consider themselves inadequate (Atkinson etal., 1994; Leary, 1982; Schlenker & Leary, 1985).Applying this theory to language learning, a learner may feel anxious aboutusing the target language because she believes her L2 ability or competence is inadequate,thus expects to perform poorly and fears potential negative consequences.This hypothesis seems to be supported by empirical studies reportingnegative correlations between self-perceived competence in the L2 and anxietylevel. Learners perceiving themselves less competent tend to score higher on anxiety,while those rating their own proficiency more positively seem to carry littleanxiety (Clément, Gardner, & Smythe, 1980; Clément & Kruidenier, 1985; Clémentet al., 1994; Kitano, 2001; MacIntyre et al., 1997). This is supported by qualitativestudies as well, in which highly anxious learners have been found to show a propensityto consider their language skills weaker than those of their peers (Bailey,1983; Price, 1991). Evidence for negative performance expectancies among learnerswith high levels of FLA has been also reported. Expected overall average for currentlanguage course was found to be the best predictor of FLA in a study of 26variables as potential predictors of FLA (Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999).Tóth, Zs. Predictors of foreign-language anxiety 127
Page 2 and 3: have been investigated, no previous
Page 6 and 7: Besides self-perceptions of TL comp
Page 8 and 9: InstrumentsSelf-report instruments
Page 10 and 11: CompetitivenessTo assess how compet
Page 12 and 13: Table 1: Correlations between cogni
Page 14 and 15: large effect size. The estimated co
Page 16 and 17: As for the other significant predic
Page 18 and 19: English majors’ self-appraisal of
Page 20 and 21: The findings concerning the non-sig
Page 22 and 23: ReferencesAida, Y. (1994). Examinat
Page 24 and 25: Horwitz, E. K. (1996). Even teacher
Page 26: Wine, J. D. (1982). Evaluation anxi

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