The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ... - The DV Show

The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video andDVD ProductionSecond Edition

The Videomaker Guide to DigitalVideo and DVD ProductionSecond EditionFrom the Editors ofComputer Videomaker MagazineIntroduction by Matt York, Publisher/EditorPreface by Stephen Muratore, Editor in Chief

Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier200 Wheeler Road, Burlington, MA 01803, USALinacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UKCopyright (c) 2004, Videomaker. All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology RightsDepartment in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333,e-mail: permissions@elsevier.com.uk. You may also complete your requeston-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting“Customer Support” and then “Obtaining Permissions.”Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Elsevier printsits books on acid-free paper whenever possible.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataThe Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production / from the editors of Computervideomaker magazine; introduction by Matt York, publisher/editor; preface byStephen Muratore, editor-in-chief.—2nd ed.p. cm.Includes index.ISBN 0–240–80566–6 (pbk.: alk. paper)1. Digital cinematography – 2. Digital video – Handbooks, manuals, erc.3. DVDs – Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Computer videomakerTR860.V53 2004778.59 – dc22 2004002003British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.ISBN: 0-240-80566-6For information on all Focal Press publicationsvisit our website at www.focalpress.com04 05 06 07 08 09 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Printed in the United States of America

This book is dedicated to Thomas Jefferson for hiscommitment to pluralism, diversity andcommunity. He would be happy to see readersof this book exercising freedom of theelectronic press.Civil liberty functions today in a changing technological context.For five hundred years a struggle was fought, and in a fewcountries won, for the right of people to speak and print freely,unlicensed, uncensored and uncontrolled. But new technologiesof electronic communication may now relegate old andfreed media such as pamphlets, platforms and periodicals to acorner of the public forum. Electronic modes of communicationthat enjoy lesser rights are moving to center stage.Ithiel de Sola PoolTechnologies of Freedom(Harvard University Press, 1983)

ContentsPREFACEINTRODUCTION: IF YOU ARE NEW TO MAKING VIDEO:WELCOME!Matt YorkPublisher, VideomakerxiiixvPART I: Video Gear 11 Camera Buttons and Controls 3Dr. Robert G. Nulph2 A Quick Guide to Video Formats 7Larry Lemm3 How DV Works: Technical Feature 13Bill Fisher4 Dissecting a Digital Camcorder 17Scott Anderson5 All About Lenses 22Jim Stinson6 Image Stabilizers: The Technology that Steadies Your Shots 31Robert J. Kerrvii

viiiContents7 Solar Panel Imaging: Secrets of the CCD 36Loren Alldrin8 Filter Features: Camcorder Filters and How to Use Them 42Michael Rabiger9 Dissecting a Video Editing Computer 47Joe McCleskey10 Editing Appliances: Cracking the Case 49Charles Bloodworth11 6 Ways to Optimize Your Computer for Video Editing 53Joe McCleskey12 Sound Track: Microphone Types 57Robert G. Nulph13 Putting Radio to Work: The Low-Down on Wireless Mikes 63Larry Lemm14 Blending a Sweet Sound: Audio Mixers 67Jim Stinson15 Tape Truths: All Exciting Overview of the Making of Videotape 71Loren Alldrin16 Resolution Lines 77Bill Rood17 An Inside Look at Cables and Connectors 81Joe McCleskey18 Try a Tripod: Some Valuable Features in the Three-Legged Race 86William RonatPART II: Production Planning 8919 Honing Your Ideas: From Concept to Finished Treatment 91Stray Wynn Ponder20 Budgeting Time 97William Ronat21 It’s all in the Approach: Creative Approaches for VideoProductions 102Jim Stinson22 Script Right: Video Screenwriting Tips 107Stephen Jacobs23 Look Who’s Talking: How to Create Effective, BelievableDialogue for Your Video Productions 111John K. Waters24 Storyboards and Shot Lists 118Jim Stinson25 Budget Details: Successful Video Projects Stick to Budgets 124Mark Steven Bosko

Contentsix26 A Modest Proposal 129William Ronat27 A Word From Your Sponsor 133William Ronat28 Finding Talent for Videos 137Randal K. West29 Location Scouting: Be Prepared 143Bill Fisher30 Copyright: Legal Issues You Need to Know 147Mark LevyPART III: Production Techniques 15331 Framing Good Shots 155Brian Pogue32 Shooting Steady 159Robert G. Nulph33 Make Your Move 163Michael Hammond34 Use Reflectors Like a Pro 168Jim Stinson35 Three-Point Lighting in the Real World 173Robert G. Nulph36 A Dose of Reality: Lighting Effects 177Robert Nulph37 Outdoor Lighting: What you Need to Know toShoot Great Footage Outdoors 181Michael Loehr38 Audio For Video: Getting it Right from the start 189Hal Robertson39 Outdoor Audio 194Hal Robertson40 Stealth Directing: Getting The Most Out of Real People 198Michael J. Kelley41 Sets, Lies and Videotape 202Jim Stinson42 Makeup and Wardrobe for Video 207Carolyn Miller43 Time-Lapse Videography 211Tim Cowan44 Move Over, MTV: A Guide to Making Videos 216Norm Medoff45 Practical Special Effects: A Baker’s Ten to ImproveYour Video Visions 222Bernard Wilkie

xContentsPART IV: Post-Production Techniques 22946 Getting Started in Computer Video Editing 231Jim Stinson47 Computer Editing: 5 Phases of Editing 236Jim Stinson48 Overcoming Common Computer Editing Problems 241Don Collins49 Color Tweaking 245Bill Davis50 Basic Compositing 248Bill Davis51 The Art of the Edit 253Janis Lonnquist52 Title Talk 259Bill Harrington53 Adventures in Sound Editing: Or How Audio Post-ProductionCan Make Your Videos Sound Larger Than Life 263Armand Ensanian54 In The Audible Mood: Sound Effects and Music,Evocative, Legal and Inexpensive 268Armand Ensanian55 Dig ’m Out, Dust ’Em Off 271Jim Stinson56 Easy Copy 275Jim StinsonPART V: Television Distribution 28157 Commercial Distribution: Mapping Your Way toFinancial Success 283William Ronat58 Public Access: Produce Your Own TV Show 290Sofia Davis59 Leased Access: A Unique Cable Opportunity 293Sheldon I. Altfeld60 PBS and ITVS: Fertile Soil for Independent Videographers 298Alessia Cowee61 Paths to Broadcast Television 304Mark Bosko62 Promotion Strategies: Fame and Fortune on a Budget 308Mark Steven Bosko63 The Demo Tape 314Mark Steven Bosko

ContentsxiPART VI: Internet Distribution 31964 The Web: Little Screen, Big Opportunities 321Carolyn Miller65 Eleven Easy Steps to Streaming 327Charles Mohnike66 Squish! Shooting for Streaming 333Bill Davis67 A Step-by-Step Guide to Encoding for the Web 338John Davis68 Why and How Would I Get a Streaming Server? 346Larry Lemm69 Slide into “Thin Streaming” 348Larry Lemm70 Put MPEGs on Your Home Page 353Joe McCleskeyPART VII: Authoring DVDs and CDs 35771 Getting Your Video onto a DVD 359Matthew York72 Burn Your Own: A Guide to Creating Your Own CDs and DVDs 361Loren Alldrin73 DVD Authoring Software: Special Buyer’s Guide 366D. Eric Franks74 Burner Basics: An Introduction to DVD Burners 373Charles Fulton75 DVD Flavors: What’s the Deal with DVD Compatibility? 378Roger B. Wyatt76 Step by Step Guide to Making DVDs 383D. Eric Franks77 Video Out: MPEG-2s for Me and You 386Larry Lemm78 Burning Down the House: Creating Video on CDs 390Don Collins79 Video Out: Make Your Own CD-ROM Videos 395Joe McCleskeyJARGON: A GLOSSARY OF VIDEOGRAPHY TERMS 399LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 419INDEX 421

PrefaceEight years since the publication of the firstedition, the editors of Computer VideomakerMagazine are proud to present thethird edition of The Computer VideomakerHandbook. Like the first two editions, thisedition of the Handbook takes you from theplanning of videos all the way through thefinal phases of their production. However,this edition was assembled from materialswritten more recently for VideomakerMagazine. Most of the contents of this bookdid not appear in the previous editions:this really is a new book. Also, we couldn’tsend it to press without adding a section ona very popular new development: DVD andCD authoring. Following the speedy acceptanceof DVD players in homes everywhere,videographers have developed azeal for delivering their videos to family,friends and clients on DVD, videoCD andCD-ROM. The last section of this editionwill fuel that zeal with the informationnecessary for getting started.As we did with the previous edition,we have supplemented this book with acompanion Web page all its own. TheWeb page contains links to streamingvideo clips that illustrate various techniquesdiscussed in the Handbook. Ifthe site holds a streaming video relevantto a given chapter, you will find this iconnear the title on the first page of thatchapter. To access the page of clips, go tohttp://www.videomaker.com/handbook.When asked for a password, type “effects”without quotation marks.The Handbook can be read cover tocover as a comprehensive course on the artand science of videography. It can be usedalso as a handy field reference: the simpleorganization and index should make iteasy for you to find answers to your questions,and the glossary will define thearcane terms of the art.xiii

xivPrefaceAffordable digital tools have made iteasier than ever before to create highqualityvideo messages and deliver themto ready audiences. Let this book beyour aid whenever you use these tools.Whether you are a weekend hobbyist or apracticing professional, the VideomakerHandbook will help you use your talentand your equipment to their fullest.—sm

Introduction:If you are new to makingvideo: Welcome!Matt YorkPublisher of Computer Videomaker MagazineThe craft of making video is an enjoyableone. Whether video production is for youa pastime, a part-time moneymaker or afull-time occupation, I am certain that youwill enjoy the experience of creatingvideo. There are many facets to video production.Each brings its own pleasuresand frustrations, and each will stretchyour abilities, both technical and artistic.Video is a wonderful communicationmedium that enables us to express ourselvesin ways unlike other media. Televisionis pervasive in our society today. Thechance to utilize the same medium that thegreat TV and film producers have used toreach the masses is an incredible privilege.Video is powerful. Video is the closestthing to being there. For conveying information,there is no medium that compareswith video. It overwhelms the senses bydelivering rich moving images and highfidelitysound. Having grown up with TV,many of us lack the appreciation for itspower. Compared with radio or print, televisionprofoundly enhances the messagebeing conveyed. For example, readingabout a battlefield in war can be less powerfulthan hearing a live radio report from ajournalist with sounds of gunfire, tanks,rockets, incoming artillery fire and theemotions from an anguished reporter’svoice. Neither compares with video shoton a battlefield.It is amazing that you can walk into aretail store, make a few purchases in a fewminutes and walk out with all of the essentialtools for producing video. For less than$2,000, you can buy a DV camcorder and apersonal computer and suddenly, youhave the capacity to create video that rivalsa television station. The image and soundquality of a DV camcorder is better thanbroadcast television as viewed on an averageTV. The transitions and special effects,available with any low-cost video editingsoftware package, exceed the extravaganceof those used on the nightly news.There was a time when any messageconveyed on a TV screen was perceivedas far more credible than if it were conveyedby other media (i.e. print or audiocassette). While that may no longer be asxv

xviIntroductiontrue, video messages are still more convincingto many people.Once a highly complex pursuit, videoediting is now just another software applicationon a personal computer. We allrealize that simply using video editingsoftware doesn’t make someone a goodTV producer any more than usingMicrosoft Word makes one a good writer.However, the ability to edit video in yourown home or office is so convenient thatit enables more people to spend moretime developing their skills.One of the most rewarding experiencesin video production is getting an audienceto understand your vision. The timebetween the initial manifestation of yourvision and the first screening of the videomay be just a few days or several years,but there is no more satisfying (or nervewracking)feeling than witnessing anaudience’s first reaction to your work.

PART IVideo GearA guide to essential equipment: what to buy, how it works.

1Camera Buttons and ControlsDr. Robert G. NulphIt’s easy for first-time camcorder owners tobe intimidated by all of the buttons andcontrols that seem to sprout from everyrecess and surface of a new camcorder.Believe me, if you don’t know how to focus,adjust your iris or when to select a differentshutter speed you are not alone. In this column,we will give all you beginners anoverview of the various buttons, controls,dials and knobs common to camcorders.Power, Eject & Record ButtonsSomewhere on the camcorder, there is apower switch. This switch often includesa save, standby or neutral position so thatthe camera goes into a power save modewhen not recording, to preserve battery life.If your camcorder goes into the standby orsave mode, simply push the standby buttonto power it back up. Power switches sometimeshave a “lock” feature that preventsyou from turning the camera on accidentally.To disengage this lock, press in thepower switch to move it. The powerswitch might also be part of the switchthat changes the mode of the camcorderfrom camera to playback VCR.The eject button is also a standard featureon all camcorders. This button, often coloredblue, can be found most anywhere onthe camcorder. Usually they are located onthe side, top or bottom of the camcordernear the tape door. By pressing this button,you can eject your tape or open the tapedoor so that you can insert your tape intothe tape carriage. On many camcorders, thedoor opens and the tape carriage then popsor slides out. If this is the case with yourcamcorder, when loading the tape into thecamcorder, slide your tape into the carriage,then let the camcorder pull the tape insidebefore closing the outside door. This allowsyou to make sure that the camcorder firmlyseats the tape into its internal mechanism.All camcorders have a record button, ofcourse. This button is usually red and islocated where your thumb sits when holdingthe camcorder in your right hand. Somecamcorders also have a record button ontop or in the front for easier access when3

4 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionusing the camera with a tripod. The recordbutton starts and stops recording while incamera mode. On some cameras, the recordbutton also acts as a record/pause buttonwhen your camcorder is in the VCR mode.FocusThe buttons, knobs or dials that controlthe lens and the picture are perhaps themost important controls on the camera. Asa beginner, you may tend to let the camerado the work in Auto mode. However, asyou get used to your camcorder and domore shooting, you may want to switch itto manual so that you can take greater controlof your focus.The focus button or dial is usuallylocated on or near the lens but, on somecamcorders, it is on the side of the casing.By setting the camera for automatic focus,you let your camera do the focusing, sendingout an infrared beam, computing thedistance and setting the lens. This soundsgreat, but in practice, there are many problemswith it. Anything that moves acrossthe lens will cause it to change focus and,even though your subject may not changeposition, the camera is constantly checkingthe focus and changing it. This constantcheck and rechecking of the focus,causes your picture to drift in and out offocus and is a major drain on your battery.If you are not comfortable focusing manually,let the camera focus automatically,then switch to manual. This effectivelylocks the focus until you change it again.Some camcorders allow you to hold themanual focus button down so that the camerafocuses using its auto function. Then,when you release the button the cameraenters the manual focus again so that itwon’t auto-fluctuate (see Figure 1.1).ZoomThe zoom control is usually a couple ofbuttons, a slider or a rocker switch on topFigure 1.1 One good way to use the focuscontrols (if you aren’t confident doing ityourself) is to let the camera automaticallyfocus and then switch the focus to manual(i.e. lock the focus).of the camera. These buttons have the lettersW for Wide (zoom out) and T for Tight(zoom in). You can also think of these asaWay and Towards. These buttons changethe focal length of the optical system,which control how close or far away yoursubject looks. The zoom can be a very helpfulfeature, but be careful not to overuse it.Its primary use should be in setting theimage size before you begin recording; trynot to zoom during recording. Recordedzooms often don’t look very good unlessyour camcorder has a variable speed zoomand you practice a lot using it.Iris (Aperture)Some camcorders have an iris or aperturecontrol dial (see Figure 1.2). The iris controlsthe amount of light that enters thecamera. By turning the dial, you can makethe image brighter or darker. Apertureis measured in f-stops (e.g. f/1.8–f/16),with larger numbers indicating smalleropenings. Some camcorders do not have

Camera Buttons and Controls 5Figure 1.2 The iris controls the amount oflight that enters the camera. By turning thedial, you can make the image brighter ordarker.Figure 1.3 Stop Motion— Fundamentally,shutter speed controls the amount of light thatis coming into the camera.explicit iris controls and instead adjustthe overall exposure through some combinationof iris and electronic amplification(gain).Manual aperture control can be handywhen your subject is standing against abright background. The camera automaticallyreads the scene as being bright, so itcloses the iris, making your subject verydark. By turning the iris control dial, youcan make your subject brighter (with thebackground likely becoming overexposed).Many cameras have an explicit backlightbutton that may help you do this semiautomatically.You can avoid using thebacklight button if you watch your backgroundsand change your shooting location.Always try to place your subject sothat the background is a little darker thanthe subject. You can usually make yoursubject brighter by turning him so healmost faces the sun. You can also reducethe brightness of the background by zoomingin on your subject.Shutter SpeedFundamentally, shutter speed controls theamount of light coming into the camera,with faster shutter speeds letting in lesslight (see Figure 1.3). Faster speeds alsodecrease the amount of blur for fast movingsubjects. This comes in very handy whenyou slow the video down in your editor.Without the shutter speed control, theslowed-down video would show blurredmotion. By increasing the shutter speed,the motion will be crystal clear, even if theimage is paused.The one problem with higher shutterspeeds is that it decreases the amount oflight that enters the lens. If shooting outdoorsat midday, this is not much of aproblem, as the sun provides a lot of light.Indoors, however, you will have to addlight if you want to use the high-speedshutter function.White BalanceThe white balance button is a necessaryfeature on a camcorder. This button setsthe electronics of the camera so that theysee colors accurately (see Figure 1.4).Surprisingly perhaps, different kinds oflight sources (fluorescent, the sun, incandescentbulbs) produce slightly differentcolors of light. To use the white balancebutton, point your camera at a white pieceof paper or cloth after you set up yourshot. Press the white balance button andyou’ll see an icon in the viewfinder blinkoff and on. When the camera is whitebalanced, it will stop blinking. Makesure you white balance every time youchange position or light sources. Watchout for a subtle, periodic cycling of automaticwhite balance under fluorescent

6 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 1.4 The white balance button is anecessary feature on a camcorder. This buttonsets the electronics of the camera so that theysee colors accurately.lights, especially when using slower shutterspeeds.VCR ControlsMost camcorders have basic VCR controlsbuilt into them. These controls includeRewind, Fast forward, Play, Pause andStop. You might also find a record reviewbutton that you can press to check whatyou just recorded (see Figure 1.5). Whenyou press this button, the camcorderrewinds the tape and plays back your lastfew seconds of footage. The camera doesFigure 1.5 Record Review—You might also finda record review button that you can press tocheck what you just recorded. When you pressthis button, the camcorder rewinds the tape andplays back your last few seconds of footage.not have to be in the VCR setting to dothis, making it a very handy function.Clicking OffWe’ve cover the most common camcorderbuttons, but your camcorder may have afew more buttons. Read over your manualand experiment using the different settings.If you’ve had your camcorder for awhile, but have only shot in auto mode, itmay be time to take more control of yourcamcorder. Have fun and enjoy makingspringtime videos.Sidebar 1Direct FocusOn still cameras, the focus ring is often mechanical, and a turn actuates a direct change in theposition of the optics. On almost all camcorders, the focus ring is not mechanical. Instead,the movement of the focus ring by your hand translates into an electronic signal that thentranslates into the movement of the lens. This makes the focus ring seem mushy and unresponsiveto changes.Sidebar 2MenusCamera designers are faced with a dilemma: too many buttons can be baffling, yet too fewrestrict a videographer’s freedom. Design engineers have attempted to solve this issue byputting the most commonly used controls on the body of the camera and placing seldom-useditems in electronic menus. More advanced cameras tend to have more buttons, while simplerpoint-and-shoot models tend to have more menus. If your camera doesn’t have a button that islisted in this article, check the on-screen menu.

2A Quick Guide toVideo FormatsLarry LemmThere are lots of video formats in usetoday. They come in a myriad confusingnames that all sound alike. If you’ve everwanted to find out the differences betweenVHS, S-VHS, VHS-C and S-VHS-C keepreading. If you’re curious about the distinctionsbetween 8mm, Hi8, Digital8 and DVthen this guide to the video formats will bevery helpful.For each type of videotape, there aresome important features to examine. First,there’s the picture quality of the format,which is expressed in lines of resolution.The more lines of resolution you have, thebetter your picture will look. Next is audiodub. Audio dub is the ability to recordaudio over existing video without erasingthe video portion. Next is the format’sability to resist generation loss, or thevideo noise that occurs when you copy atape. Combine these features with factorslike tape length and size of the tape (andcamcorder) and you have a pretty goodidea of the features that differentiate theformats. Let’s take a closer look at themformat by format.The VHS FamilyThe VHS family is very popular. JVCintroduced it, and JVC still holds allegianceto the format. A good indication ofthis is that JVC is the only company thatstill makes an S-VHS-C camcorder.VHS and VHS-C play in home VCRs, andS-VHS offers good audio and picture quality.The recording methods of all VHS formatsis very similar. There are separatecontrol, audio and video tracks on the tape.Embedded into the video track are separatestereo hi-fi audio tracks (see Figure 2.1).These hi-fi tracks record superior audio ascompared to the linear audio track, butsince it is embedded in the video track itcannot be audio dubbed. Let’s take a look ateach of these VHS formats.VHSThis is one format that practically everyoneknows and uses to some extent. VHSis the big ole videotape that your home7

8 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionVCR uses, and for some technologicallyinhibitedindividuals, this is enough ofa reason to use a camcorder that recordsin VHS. The simple ability to shoot atape and stick that tape right into their VCRis the most important feature in thesepeoples’ minds.Almost every videographer will end upusing VHS for distribution copies, butbesides that last step in the video productioncycle, professionals will avoid VHSlike the plague. You’d think that it mightbe because of VHS’s large overall size, butit’s really because VHS has a low overallpicture quality, maxing out at about 250lines of resolution. VHS also has horriblegeneration loss, making the editing ofVHS tapes a tricky endeavor for lineareditors.VHS-CLinear Audio TracksVideo Tracks(and Hi-Fi Audio)ControlTrackTape DirectionHead TrackingDirectionFigure 2.1 The VHS format family have Hi-Fistereo audio embedded in the video signal buta monaural linear audio track is available foraudio dub while keeping video intact.Once, one of the main complaints againstfull-sized VHS was the size of the tape, andthe corresponding large size of the VHScamcorder. So JVC introduced a reducedsizedVHS and called it VHS-C (or compactVHS). On the plus side, it could play in aregular VCR with an adapter. By reducingthe size of the cassette, they also reducedthe length of time it could play. Size andlength are the most significant differencesbetween VHS and VHS-C.S-VHSS-VHS or Super VHS is an improved versionof standard VHS. It looks similar(with the only visible difference being anextra slot in the tape case to verify that itis a high-band tape), but it offers superiorvideo quality, and more editing flexibility.S-VHS offers almost twice the video resolutionof VHS. It’ll give you up to 400 linesof resolution. Most S-VHS equipment alsosupports S-video connections. S-video connectorskeep the video signal separatedinto grayscale (luminance) componentsdenoted as (Y) and color (chrominance)components denoted as (C). This Y/C, orS-video, signal has less generation losswhen making copies so it holds up betterin the editing process than standard VHS.Finally, S-VHS supports LTC and VITCtimecode which is essential in linear editingand very handy for computer editingif your system has machine control features.Unfortunately, you will find thesetimecode features only on professionalmodels.S-VHS-CThis format is dwindling. JVC is onlycompany that currently makes S-VHS-Ccamcorders. The format has the same prosof S-VHS: better resolution, S-video connectionsand timecode, and the overallsize reduction of VHS-C. However, it hasa shorter maximum length of tape.The 8mm FamilyJust as VHS is JVC’s baby, 8mm is Sony’s.8mm offers the reduced tape(and camcorder)size that VHS-C enjoys, but withoutthe short recording length that hauntsVHS-C. Many consumers complain that,with this format, you have to be technologicallyminded enough to connect yourcamcorder to your TV set to watch homevideos, or get an 8mm VCR specificallyfor the purpose.

A Quick Guide to Video Formats 9Tape DirectionPCM Audio SectorTime Code SectorVideo, AFM Audioand Tracking SectorHead TrackingDirectionFigure 2.2 8mm formats embed audio intothe video signal only which makes itimpossible to make an audio dub withoutdisrupting the video.connections also like S-VHS, so the formatsuffers less generation loss than standard8mm. The format also supports timecode(though not many models have this feature),which is essential for accurate linearediting or nonlinear tape logging. The Hi8format, as with 8mm, embeds the audiointo the video so audio dub is not possiblewithout disrupting the video. Bottom line:if you want an inexpensive, good lookinganalog picture, Hi8 does a good job with asmall camcorder.Digital8Hi8 and 8mm tapes use AFM audiowhich is embedded in the video signal ina fashion that is similar to the hi-fi audiotrack in VHS. In addition, Hi8 tape has aPCM audio sector and a time code sector(see Figure 2.2).8mmIn many ways, 8mm is great for videographersthat just want to shoot some videoof the family around the house and notedit. It is small, so the camcorder won’tbreak your back lugging it around. Thevideo quality of 8mm is about the same250 lines of resolution that VHS offers. Ithas roughly the same recording time. TheAFM audio on 8mm is mono, but itsounds good to the ear. All in all, as longas you don’t want to edit, 8mm is great.If you do edit though, especially if youdo linear editing, 8mm shows its weaknesses.First, 8mm suffers from generationloss when making copies the same asVHS. Next, 8mm doesn’t offer timecode.Worst of all, 8mm cannot do audio dubs.Hi8Just as S-VHS is an improved version ofVHS, Hi8 is an improved version of 8mm.It offers 400 lines of video resolution, likeS-VHS. Hi8 camcorders generally use Y/CSony introduced Digital8 a couple ofyears ago. This format falls in the 8mmfamily, but also in the digital crew thatwe’ll get to below. It’s here because it usesHi8 tape, but we’ll give it the full treatmentbelow.The Digital CrewThe biggest shift in video over the last fiveyears has been the digital migration. Withthe plummeting cost of high-quality nonlinearediting gear, digital video is thefuture. Right now, the two major playerson the digital front are the firmly establishedMini DV and the somewhat establishedDigital8. And the experimental newvideo formats of MiniDisc and DVD-RAMare finding their way into camcorders.All digital camcorders convert the imageinto a series of ones and zeros instead of acomplex analog signal. There are no significantdifferences in the tape used betweenanalog and digital formats, which is morethan underscored by the fact that Digital8uses Hi8 tape (see Figure 2.3).Mini DVMini DV is a solid video format. It offersextremely high quality video and audioand has virtually no generation loss. Inaddition, the tape is so small that Mini DVcamcorders can be extraordinarily small

10 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionTape DirectionAudio AreaITI AreaSub-Code AreaVideo AreaHead TrackingDirectionFigure 2.3 Time code, date and time, residein the Sub-code Area. The Insert TrackInformation (ITI) area is used for insert edits.and portable, yet still offer long recordingtimes.Mini DV delivers up to 525 lines ofvideo resolution. On the downside, you’lloccasionally experience artifacts with theway Mini DV compresses video. It isespecially noticeable in patterns, butalso shows up in some high action shots.The untrained eye may not catch theseblocky, “pixilated” artifacts as they flashthrough the picture quickly, but after youstart to look for them, they may becomenoticeable.There are four parts to a Mini DV track:video, audio, subcode and ITI (Insert andTracking Information). The video andaudio are self-explanatory. The subcodeholds timecode, date and time and tracknumbers. The ITI holds information fordoing video insert edits.For audio, Mini DV offers two modes:a 16-bit stereo pair, or two 12-bit stereopairs (four 12-bit tracks total). The 16-bitoption offers better quality (on a par withCD), while the 12-bit option lets you doaudio dubs later to the additional tracks.Perhaps the most-important feature ofMini DV is that it can use FireWire to transferthe digital bit stream directly to anothertape, or to a hard-drive for editing. Becauseyou are just transferring the ones and zerosthat make up the serial stream, you lose noaudio or video quality when you do it. Thatmeans no generation loss. Any way youslice it, Mini DV is top-notch for consumervideo.Digital8The consumer-friendly Digital8 uses manyof the same principals as Mini DV, butwrites that information onto more-commonHi8 tapes instead of the specialized MiniDV tapes. It also offers an easy upgradepath for owners of current 8mm and Hi8camcorders who want to be able to edit currentstock of video on a computer. Digital8uses a Hi8 tape, but records information ina manner almost identical with that of MiniDV. It also includes the FireWire port thatmakes Digital8 NLE-friendly.The video quality of Digital8 comes in atthe same 525 lines of resolution that MiniDV has to offer. The biggest difference is thatDigital8 doesn’t offer the 12-bit audio modethat supports audio dub (which is found onthe Mini DV). This isn’t very important ifyou plan on using a computer-based editorwith your Digital8 because most NLE systemshave multiple tracks for audio.A big plus for the format is that you canplay Hi8 and 8mm analog tapes on aDigital8 camcorder and by running itthrough the FireWire port convert it to digital.This won’t change the original qualityof the video signal, but it will allow you tobring your old analog footage into a computereditor with a FireWire port.Mini Disc and BeyondThe future offers even more options fordigital video. Sony has a camcorder thatuses its Mini Disc as a storage medium,and soon Hitachi will introduce a DVD-RAM camcorder.The Mini Disc camcorder stores videoin MPEG-2 video and offers four 12-bitaudio tracks. Perhaps the most strikingfeature of the only Mini Disc camcorder isthat it has built-in editing. This could bean ideal format for the Web videographer.Hitachi will soon introduce a DVD-RAMcamcorder. This uses a removable DVDdisc that stores ultra-high quality MPEG-2video. Expect long recording times, highvideo quality and Dolby Digital 16bit audio.

A Quick Guide to Video Formats 11So Many StandardsA healthy and competitive technologicalmarket is to blame for the diversityof video formats we have today. Ascamcorders get smaller and cheaper andhave better video quality, we still hold onto the older, larger formats because theytoo have their own advantages. Beforeshopping, take stock of your needs.Whether you need an inexpensive cam tohelp you start shooting or a feature-richone that supports editing well, you willfind there is a camcorder for you.Sidebar 1DV vs D8Face it. If you want to edit your video after you shoot it, then you need to take a hard look ata digital camcorder. Let’s take a head-to-head comparison between Mini DV and Digital8.●●●●●●Picture quality. Mini DV and Digital8 have nearly identical picture quality when used incamcorders with similar optics and CCDs. However, there are no 3-CCD Digital8 camcorders.3-CCD camcorders split the video signal up into its component Red, Green, Blue (RGB) partsgiving superior color separation which means more when it comes to picture quality thanlines of resolution do.Advantage: Mini DV (When used in 3-CCD camcorder)Audio quality. Mini DV supports either two 16-bit or four 12-bit audio tracks, whileDigital8 only has the two 16-bit. However, both formats have excellent sound.Advantage: TieVideo flexibility. Both formats allow for cloning (making an exact digital copy), viaFireWire to transfer video information. Digital8 can also play analog Hi8 tapes (and encodethem through the FireWire port).Advantage: Digital8Audio flexibility. When using the four 12-bit audio tracks, Mini DV supports audio dub,while Digital8 does not.Advantage: Mini DVCost of operation. Mini DV tapes are generally a bit more expensive than Hi8 tapes, butcan record a few more minutes of video.Advantage: Digital8 by a littleCamera cost. Digital8 cameras have a much lower price than Mini DV on the intro level, soit’s less cost prohibitive to get into Digital8 video.Advantage: Digital8Sidebar 2Format CategoriesAnother Way to Sort Out the Format DifferencesConsumer camcorders can be classified into three categories that don’t necessarily coincidewith their format. They are:1. Standard grade analog including VHS, VHS-C and 8mm.2. High grade analog including S-VHS, S-VHS-C and Hi8.3. Digital including MiniDV and Digital8.

12 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionIn general, the main differences between standard and high grades of analog camcorders areimage and audio quality. High grade formats noticeably increase image resolution and audiofidelity over standard grade.The digital formats record a digital signal that significantly increases resolution over highgrade analog. Overall, increased image quality, combined with a greater diversity of features,will generate higher price tags among the different format categories.

3How DV Works:Technical FeatureBill FisherLadies and gentlemen, step right up!Inside this tent you’ll have a remarkableopportunity to get closer than ever beforeto digital video, otherwise known as DV.I’ll give each of you an unusual close-uplook at the mechanics of DV, at the variousDV formats on the market and at thereasons DV can do so much, so well. Sofollow me into the tent of wonders!Look—the journey is already beginning.We’re now shrinking, small enough topenetrate the inner workings of a DV camcorder.Let’s enter through the lens housingand start exploring.Light, Sound and CurrentAs we move through the zoom lens, notethat at this point, digital video is a lot likeanalog video. Light and sound enter thecamera through a lens and microphoneand then a computer transforms the realworld into electronic signals.Digital and analog part ways fairly soon,however. The tiny silicon charge-coupleddevice (CCD) at the end of the lens barreluses hundreds of thousands of pixels tomake DV look incredibly sharp and clean,with around 500 lines of potential resolution(or more, in three-chip pro cameras).From Analog to DigitalNext we come to the circuit boards, whichdo an enormous amount of the work ofmaking your DV footage look and soundfantastic. The software coding and computercomponents contained in theboards produce a digital replica of eachmoment of video and audio in the analogto-digitalconversion process. There isalso circuitry that works in reverse, forplayback on your television. It’s the “digital”part of DV that puts this technologyhead and shoulders above consumer analogvideo formats. Digital video is puredata, not analog signals, allowing pristineand endlessly repeatable transmission ofhigh-resolution data through an all-digitalpathway.13

14 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionDoing the MathAll consumer digital video formats (MiniDV, Digital8, DVCAM and DVCPro) utilizethe same basic data format and data rate(25 Mbps) to encode and decode 30 fpsNTSC video data.● Sampling. DV encoding hardwaresamples each frame of video for luminance(brightness) and chrominance(color) information. It uses 4:1:1 (Y:U:V orYUV) sampling for this operation (seeFigure 3.1). The hardware scans each lineof every 720 480 video frame, takingfour pixel samples of luma information(Y) for every one pixel sample it takes ofchroma information (U and V). That cutsdown on extra data and also provides theright mix of luma and chroma detail tosatisfy our eyes, which are more sensitiveto brightness (luma) than color (chroma).● Compression. The DV brain then mathematicallycompresses each resampledframe of video to speed throughput and savestorage space on tapes and hard drives. Thisis accomplished with a 5:1 DCT (discretecosine transform) mathematical algorithmthat discards as much unnecessary imageinformation as possible while retainingmuch of the quality of the original image.● Audio. A separate sampling processtakes the audio signal (after preamplification)and turns it into data aswell. An audio sample rate of 48 kHz(with a 16-bit depth per sample) producesa single track of high-fidelity digital stereoaudio (2 channels). Alternately, a 32 kHzsample rate with a 12-bit depth yieldstwo stereo tracks (4 channels total), oneof which can be used for voiceovernarration.● Vital data. All of this pristine butcompressed digital information is bundledwith additional vital pieces of generateddata. This information includes timecode, time/date information and digitalpilot tone signals to replace the conventionalcontrol track of analog video,which the DV format lacks.● Error correction. Also added to thedata mix are error correction bits. Digitalvideo data travels in tiny packets and theDV hardware adds unique codes that verifyand correct corrupted data bits.Express DeliveryThe whole package is finally bundled indata packets compliant with the DV standard.Every one of these packets—eachthe size of a single DV track—containsfour independent regions: a subcodesector for time code and other data, avideo sector, an audio sector and a sectorfor insert editing and track data (seeFigure 3.2). These packets move at a rateof 25 Mbps (megabits per second), whichtranslates to roughly 3.5 MB of disk storagespace per second of DV video.Figure 3.1 4:1:1 Sampling—DV Encodinghardware samples each frame of video forluminance (brightness) and chrominance(color) information taking four pixel samplesof luma information (Y) for every one pixelsample it takes of chroma information(U and V).Figure 3.2 10 Tracks, 1 Frame—Each frameof DV video is made up of 10 tracks, each ofwhich is divided into four subsections.

How DV Works: Technical Feature 15Where the Action isWe’ve seen the brains, but now we’vecome to the brawn—the spinning drumsthat record data onto the tape and read itoff. The drum that houses the heads isa polished metal cylinder that’s angledin the cassette compartment and rotatesat a very high rate. Rollers hold thetape against the drum’s grooved surface,where a number of electromagnetic headsmake slanted swipes across the surface ofthe tape, recording tracks of data that correspondexactly to the DV packetsdescribed above.Everything about this system is microscopicand is measurements are in microns,or thousandths of a millimeter. In fact, therecord heads are so small, the tracks are sonarrow and the data they contain is sodensely packed, that a minute of digitalvideo—about 200 MB of information—occupies less than two meters of tape. Putanother way, a DV cassette can hold about13 GB of digital information.The Skinny on Digital FormatsEverything up to this point is common tothe 25 Mbps Mini DV (DV25), Digital8,DVCAM and DVCPro formats. When itcomes to recording to tape, however, manufacturershave developed several differentways to store the data (see Figure 3.3).Mini DV tape comes in a 55 mm wideplastic cassette to fit consumer camcorders.The tape itself is 6.35 mm wideand is coated with metal that wasdeposited using an evaporated processingtechnique (ME) (see Figure 3.3). It moves ata rate of about 19 mm per second, with atrack width of 10 microns. The typical 60-minute Mini DV cassette is about 70 mlong and stores around 13 GB of data. Theclosely-related standard DV tape (designedfor use in VTRs) is the same tape format,but comes in a cassette that’s twice as bigand holds as much as 180 minutes of tape.DVCAM (Sony) and DVCPro(Panasonic) formats are modified DV25for the professional market. They use awider track pitch for greater reliabilityand move the tape past the heads muchfaster. Both formats offer as much as threehours of running time on a single cassette.The DVCPro format has several otherpro-level features. DVCPro tapes use ametal particulate (MP) process instead ofME. Unlike Mini DV and DVCAM, DVCProcan use optional linear tracks at the topand bottom edges of the DV tape to recordanalog time code and audio information.The Digital8 format also has idiosyncrasies.Larger than Mini DV tape,Digital8 records onto 8 mm and Hi8 tape.The key difference is that in a Digital8camcorder, the tape moves twice asfast as in its analog relatives, and the signalis digital. The Digital8 format isbackward-compatible with the analog8 mm format. That’s a big plus if you havea closetful of legacy 8 mm gear and tapes(see Figure 3.4).DecksSurface Prep LayerOvercoatMetal EvaporateBaseFigure 3.3 Physical Format—MetalEvaporated (ME) Mini DV tapes have anumber of physical layers protecting theimportant data layer.Most of what you’ve seen here applies todigital VTRs as well. Decks use the sameprocessing system as camcorders to understandanalog and digital signals. Wheredecks differ from, and usually outshine,camcorders is their mechanical robustnessand their multiple digital and analoginput/output capabilities. These units alsooffer format cross-compatibility: many DV,DVCAM and DVCPro decks can play backall of the different tape formats.

16 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production25Mbps DV Tape FormatsTape Pitch (microns) Tape speed (in mm/sec) Cassette dimensions (mm)MiniDV 10 18 66 × 48 × 12DVCam 15 28 66 × 48 × 12Digital8 16 29 95 × 63 × 15DVCPRO 18 34 98 × 65 × 15Figure 3.4 All consumer digital video formats utilize the same basicdata format and data rate (25 Mbs) to encode and decode 30 fps NTSCvideo data.Output and BeyondWe conclude our tour at the camcorder’sFireWire connection. And that’s appropriate,because FireWire is a big part of DV’ssuccess. FireWire is a data transfer protocollike USB or Ethernet. FireWire movesdense packets of data at extremely highrates, and that makes it perfect for movingDV data between camcorder and computer.The DV/FireWire one-two punchhas created a real revolution in consumervideo, enabling all-digital desktop videoproduction.Parting AdviceAs you leave this tent of wonders, makesure to remember that all DV equipment,from the most economical camcorder tothe most elaborate high-end VTR, makesuse of basically the same computationalbrain. And as for the many differences,don’t worry about the underlying technology.Whether your DV comes in the form ofa pro camera with a giant lens, a portabledeck with an LCD screen or a palm-sizecamcorder for travel, there’s a digital heartin all of these devices.Sidebar 1StandardsFireWire, like DV, is an international standard (IEEE-1394) that technology manufacturershave agreed to abide by in the interest of compatibility. But that doesn’t mean that everyoneagrees on what to call the standard. Apple Computer, which played a large role in developingthe technology, named it FireWire and Sony dubbed their version i.LINK.Sidebar 2LongevityAnyone who’s used analog formats has seen dropouts and other signs of signal loss resultingfrom faults on the magnetic tape or from recording problems. When it comes to longevity,expect analog tapes to last at best 15 years before they start to degrade. Error correction builtinto DV eliminates many dropouts, but what about longevity? Since DV tapes use magneticmaterial to record data, you’ll see gradual deterioration of these signals, too, though errorcorrection can make up for some loss. Fortunately, it’s easy to make perfect backup clones ofDV tapes via FireWire.

4Dissecting a DigitalCamcorderScott AndersonDooley may be a little crusty, but he’s thekind of guy you can trust with your camcorder.So when mine broke, he was theman to fix it. This was the perfect chanceto learn the inside story about this amazingpiece of technology, from the momentthat the light hits the lens to the final TVoutput (see Figure 4.1).“There’s a lot of technology crammedinto this little thing,” said Dooley, whoactually seemed to glow when he talkedtech. “It has lenses, motors, gyros, microphones,a clock, a tape deck, a computerand a TV. Not to mention a dozen inputand output jacks. It’s a robot-operatedentertainment center in the palm ofyour hand. So, how did you break it?”he asked.“I didn’t break it; it just stopped working,”I said, somewhat defensively.“Well, let’s crack ‘er open,” Dooleyreplied. “And don’t worry, I won’t hurtyour baby. Now hand me that tool kit.”I passed him a large kit containingeverything from a basic screwdriver to aspace-age remote control. In a few secondshe had the back off the camcorder andwas pulling its guts out.“Here’s where it all starts,” he said,holding up my precious zoom lens. “Thelens is one of the most important, andexpensive, parts of the camcorder. Noamount of electronic wizardry can makeup for a crummy lens.”He pointed at two small gray cylindersalongside the lenses. “See these? These arelittle motors to control the autofocus andthe zoom,” he said. “Essentially, this is asophisticated robot eye that responds towhat the camcorder brain tells it to do (seeFigure 4.2). Yours has an optical stabilizerbuilt into the lens; a squishy prism that usesa tiny gyroscope to keep the image steady.”“What’s that?” I asked, pointing to achip the size of a postage stamp on a tinycircuit board.Shaking Hands with My CCD“That’s the CCD,” he said, “a chip thatconverts light to electricity. These things17

18 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 4.1 Video out—this greatly simplified diagram may give you some idea of the complexityof getting a picture from the world at large to a place where we can see and edit it.Figure 4.2 The lens—more than just glass forconcentrating light, modern camcorder lenseshave complex servos and gears for zoomingand focusing.have been around for almost 25 years, butthey keep getting better. It’s a grid of tinylight sensors that engineers call photositesand computer-folks call pixels. Thenew ones are more sensitive for low-lightsituations and have more pixels for higherresolution. The more light that hits aphoto-site, the greater the voltage output.”“But won’t that just give you black andwhite? How do they see in color?” I asked.“Well, there are basically two ways, butthey both work by splitting the light intored, green and blue,” Dooley said. “Onetechnique uses prisms to split up the lightand send it to three different CCDs. That’shot stuff, but expensive and bulky. Yourcamcorder just has one CCD, and it putsdifferent-colored filters over the pixels,”he said, handing me a diagram of a coloredgrid (see Figure 4.3).“But this thing is mostly green,” Ireplied. “Won’t everyone come out lookingseasick?”“Actually, the eye sees better in the greenpart of the spectrum, so that grid worksgreat. But if you think about it, this techniquecuts into your resolution. You needto combine three mono-colored pixels toget one colored pixel. Software helps tosmooth things out, but the more pixelsyou can get in your CCD, the better yourfinal resolution. Typically, a camcorderhas 300,000 to 500,000 pixels, but somenew ones have a megapixel (1 millionpixels). You could shoot HDTV with thatkind of resolution.”“I want one!”

Dissecting a Digital Camcorder 19Figure 4.3 The retina—the CCD records thelight that is focused by the lens in discretepixels.“Save your money, bud,” Dooleygrowled. “Most megapixel CCDs are justfor still images and HD cams ain’t cheap.Now pay attention. These CCDs arescanned just like a TV, pixel by pixel, rowafter row. The output creates a varyingvoltage that travels through an analog-todigitalconverter. Can you guess what thatdoes?”“Converts analog to digital?” I askedwith a smirk.“You’re smarter than you look, pal.That digital signal gets stored in whatthey call a memory buffer, which is reallyjust like computer RAM,” Dooley said.“Once you have it in the buffer, you canuse all kinds of software tricks on it. Somecamcorders even throw in digital specialeffects, but I see yours doesn’t.”“Naw, I like to do my effects on thecomputer,” I said.“Your camcorder uses optical stabilization,but some camcorders also use thisbuffer to stabilize the image,” he said.“The software finds a feature and tries tokeep it nailed down. If the camera shakes,the software electronically moves theimage in the opposite direction to cancelthe motion. That uses up some pixelsaround the border though, which dingsyour resolution a bit. The image is alsoused to determine exposure. There are atleast two ways to do that. One electronicallychanges the amount of time that theCCD is allowed to gather light. The otherway is to control a physical iris withanother tiny motor.“Your camcorder also uses this digitalimage to focus,” he continued. “It hassoftware that checks on the contrast of theimage and controls the focusing motors.As long as the contrast increases, it willkeep shifting the focus. But as soon as thecontrast starts to go down, it knows it justpassed the sweet spot, and it backs up anotch for perfect focus. There are otherfocusing methods; the most common usesan infrared beam. It just measures howlong it takes light to bounce off your subjectand then calculates the distance fromthat. It works just fine, but other infraredsources can fool it, like candles or fires.“Finally,” he went on to say, “anothersoftware program compresses the image bya factor of five before it gets saved to tape.”The Tape DeckDooley reached into the camcorder andpulled out the tape deck. I fervently hopedhe knew how to put that thing back.“That brings us to the tape deck part ofthe camcorder,” he said. “Here, tiny writeheads spinning at high speed lay downthe digitized image track, along with thecaptured audio. The heads are little electromagnets,and as the pixels are read outof the buffer, the signal magnetizes thetape (see Figure 4.4).

20 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 4.4 The head—the play/record headspins at a high rate of speed and is dividedinto a number of horizontal tracks.Figure 4.5 In and out—the interface betweenthe analog world and the camcorder is mostoften bi-directional on many modern DVcamcorders.“That’s really the end of the camcorderstory,” Dooley said, “except for how youget the video out again. For that, you needto read the tape back. This is just like thewrite process in reverse. The tape goes bythe read head and every little magneticspot on the tape converts back into bits ofdata. This is digital data, which is veryrobust stuff. Since a bit of data is binary—on or off—it’s difficult to swamp it withnoise. Even if noise does manage todestroy a bit, there are extra bits reservedfor error-correction, which means thatyou can count on a reliable, 100-percentperfect recording and playback. It is thisfact that makes digital so remarkable. Nomatter how many times you copy it, thereis no generation loss like there is withanalog video.“On the way out, the video image isagain stored in the buffer. Now, you canrun it into a computer with a FireWireconnection and edit it if you want. But ifyou just want to display it on a TV, youneed to convert the digital image back toanalog, the only thing a typical TV canhandle (see Figure 4.5). What do you supposethey use for that, my friend?”“A digital to analog converter?” Iproposed.“Right again, genius. That same circuitcan also send a signal to the LCD viewfinderon your camcorder. It’s interesting thatalthough both CCDs and LCDs come fromthe computer world, they are both usuallywired for analog inputs and outputs. So,your digital camcorder is really a hybrid,with a lot of conversion going on betweenthe analog and digital worlds.”“Pretty soon, you can expect a fully digitalsignal path, which will give even betterresults. In the end, you’ll still need toconvert to analog for standard viewing,but soon, even the TVs will be digital.”Dooley surveyed the entrails of mycamcorder strewn across the table. “Well,that about sums it up,” he said. “Exceptfor one thing. Your camcorder has somethingyou don’t see very often.”Dooley held up the tape unit. “Thisthing seems to have a toaster in it. Or atleast someone must have thought so.Otherwise, why would there be a piece ofbread in the cassette holder?”“What?” I yelped. “No way, unless thetwins got into it …”“You should keep your kids awayfrom this thing, Anderson. Hand me thetweezers.”Dooley fiddled around a bit and thentriumphantly plucked out a hardenedchunk of bread squished into the shape ofa DV tape. “It should work a whole lotbetter now,” he said.

Dissecting a Digital Camcorder 21Sidebar 1Quality IssuesThe LensLens quality. This is the most important part of your camcorder and usually the mostexpensive. It doesn’t matter how many lines of resolution you have if the image is out offocus. Premium optical coatings do a better job of preventing color fringing and reflections.Zoom. An important aspect of a lens is its zoom capacity. Modern optics are computerdesignedand incredibly complex. Keep in mind that big zoom ranges may sacrifice opticalquality and speed, and long zoom settings will require a tripod or an image stabilizer.Stabilizer. Optical stabilizers let you use those zoom settings to the max, and they don’tsacrifice CCD resolution the way electronic stabilizers might.Speed. Faster lenses capture more light, so you can take shorter exposures. This is especiallyimportant for shooting sports events and low-light situations.The MicrophoneWe tend to concentrate on the video parts of a camcorder, but the audio is just as important.Fortunately, audio is much easier and cheaper to deal with. Audio data is just a fraction ofthe size of the video data.It’s difficult to put a high-quality microphone on such a small object. Nevertheless, camcordermakers have done a decent job within a tight budget and even tighter spaces. If you’relooking for better quality, look for an input jack for an external microphone. Then you canhook up whatever you want, including remote mikes.The CCDThere are two things to look for in a CCD: the resolution and the sensitivity. The resolutiondepends mostly on how many pixels the CCD has, but is reduced somewhat if electronicimage stabilizing is used. The more CCD chips you have, the better. For sensitivity, choose alow-lux CCD that can see well even in low light conditions.Sidebar 2WARNING! Don’t Try this at Home!The Editors of Videomaker do not recommend opening your camcorder’s case under any circumstances.Doing so will certainly void your warrantee, and may cause permanent damageto the camera or personal harm to you. We recommend that you always (and only) have yourvideo camera repaired by a trained professional.

5All About LensesJim StinsonWithout passing through a lens, the lightfalling on your camcorder’s CCD would beas empty of information as a flashlightbeam. The camcorder’s lens convertsincoming light from a gaggle of unreadablerays to an ordered arrangement of visualinformation—that is, a picture. It’s thelens, then, that makes video imaging possible.Without it, your camcorder wouldrecord an image of blank white light.All videos are successions of individualimages, each made by forcing light to form arecognizable picture on a flat surface. Youcan do it with just a tiny hole in the wall ofa darkened room, but it’s easier to use a lens.A lens does far more than just renderlight into coherent images; it also determinesthe visual characteristics of thoseimages. For this reason, every serious videographershould know how lenses work andhow to use them to best advantage.A Little BackgroundAs long ago as ancient Greece, peoplenoticed that when they put a straight poleinto clear water, the part of the pole belowthe water line seemed to bend. The mathematicianEuclid described this effect in300 BC. But it wasn’t until 1621 that thescientist Willebrord Snell developed themathematics of diffraction. Diffractionis the principle stating the following:when light passes from one medium toanother—say from water to air or air toglass—it changes speed. And when lighthits a junction between two media at anangle, the change in speed causes a changein direction.Lenses, which refract light in an orderlyway, were perhaps unintended side effectsof glass blowing: if you drop a globule ofmolten glass onto a smooth, plane surfaceit will naturally cool into a circle that’s flaton the bottom and slightly convex ontop—an accidental lens. Look through thispiece of junk glass and behold: thingsappear larger.Now, hold the glass between the sun anda piece of paper and you can set the sheeton fire—but only if the glass-to-paper distanceis such that all the sun’s rays cometogether at a single point on the paper.22

All About Lenses 23At some unknown moment somebodythought, “Hmmn, if it works with the sun,maybe it’ll work with other light sources,too.” In a darkened room, this someoneheld the glass between a piece of paperand an open window. Sure enough, at acertain lens-to-paper distance, a pinpointof light appeared.But then a bizarre thing happened.When the experimenter slowly increasedthe glass-to-paper distance, an actual pictureof the window appeared, small, to besure and upside down, but so detailedthat they could see that tree outside,framed in the opening. (You can try thisyourself with a magnifying glass.)Back to the PresentIf you’ve ever seen a cutaway diagram of amodern zoom lens, you have a grasp onhow far we’ve come from that first accidentallydropped blob of glass.The camcorder zoom may contain adozen pieces of glass or more. Some of thesepermit the lens to zoom, some make thelens more compact by “folding” the lightrays inside it, and some correct inescapableimperfections called lens aberrations.But since you didn’t sign up for anadvanced physics seminar here, we’ll pretendthat the camcorder zoom is a simple,one-element lens. We can do this becausethe basic idea is exactly the same: when aconvex lens refracts light, the light’s raysconverge at a certain distance behind thelens, forming a coherent image on a planestill farther back.The plane on which the focused imageappears is the focal plane; the place wherethe light rays converge is the focal point,and the distance from the focal point tothe axis of the lens is the focal length.Note: contrary to common belief, the focallength is not the distance from the lens tothe focal plane.Your camcorder’s image-sensing chipsits at the focal plane of the system,behind the actual lens.Notice also that Figure 5.1 shows an additionalmeasurement: maximum aperture,or, in plain language, the lens’ ability to collectlight. Get comfortable with lens aperture,focus and focal length, and you’ve goteverything you need to know about camcorderlenses. So let’s run through’em.Open WideThe aperture of a camera controls howmuch light enters the lens. In one way, alens is just like a window: the bigger it is,the more light it admits. But a lens isn’tquite as simple as a window, because theamount of light that gets in is also governedby its focal length (the distancefrom the lens to the focal point).For this reason, you can easily determinemaximum aperture—the ability ofa lens to collect light. Use this a simpleformula: aperture focal length dividedby lens diameter.SubjectLens AxisFocal PointOptical AxisMaximumApertureLens-to-subject DistanceLensFocal LengthFocal PlaneFigure 5.1 The geometry of a simple lens.

24 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFor example: if a 100 mm lens has a diameterof 50 mm, then 100 divided by 50 is 2.The lens’ maximum aperture is 2, expressedas “f/2.” Lens apertures are “f stops.”Since the amount of shooting lightvaries from dimly lit rooms to bright sunshine,all lenses have mechanical irisdiaphragms that progressively reduce theaperture in brighter light. Your camcorder’sauto exposure system works by using thisdiaphragm to change the lens’ workingaperture. In other words, the iris is changingthe effective diameter of the lens.These changes occur in regular incrementscalled “stops,” as noted. Each onestopreduction in aperture size cuts thelight intake in half. Most consumer camcordersfail to indicate these f stops. Butsome units—as well as most familiar singlelensreflex film cameras—indicate f stopsby a string of cryptic digits: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4,5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22.Why use these peculiar numbers tolabel f stops? Simple: long ago, lenseswith maximum apertures of f/2 were verycommon, so f/2 became the starting point.F/1.4 is the square root of f/2; and if youlook at the other f stop numbers you’ll seethat each is a multiple and/or root ofanother. (Some figures are rounded off:f/11 is not precisely a multiple of f/5.6.)Just as confusing, these strange numbersappear to work backward. As the f stopnumber gets bigger, the aperture getssmaller. F/22 is the smallest common apertureand f/1.4 (or even 1.2) is the largest.Why should you care how big the holeis in your camcorder lens? Because theworking aperture has important effects onimage quality and depth of focus. For criticalapplications, lenses create betterimages in the middle of their range of apertures.But for videographers, the crucialconcern is the effect of aperture on focus.Lookin’ Sharp!Before we can explain how apertureaffects focus, we need to see what focus isand how the lens does it.To start with, remember that the focalplane is the one and only plane on whichthe light rays create a sharp (focused)image. If you look at Figure 5.1 again,you’ll see that the subject, the lens axis,the focal point and the focal plane are allin a fixed geometrical relationship. Thatis, you can’t change one without affectingthe others. You can’t move the lens closerto the subject without changing the pathof the light rays. And if you do that, youchange the position of the focal plane.In Figure 5.2a, the subject is a long distancefrom the lens, and its image appearssharply on the focal plane. Since the camcorder’sCCD is on that plane, the recordedimage is in focus.Figure 5.2b shows what happens whenyou move closer to the subject. The geometryof the light rays moves the focal planeforward away from the CCD. The result?When the rays do hit the CCD they nolonger form a sharp image. You’re out offocus.The solution: change the position of thelens to compensate for the shift in subjectdistance. As you can see from Figure 5.2c,doing this returns the focal plane to theCCD’s position and the image is back infocus again.This is exactly what happens in yourcamcorder lens. Lens elements move forwardand backward to focus the incominglight on the CCD. Most camcorder zoomlenses feature internal focusing: thelenses move inside a fixed-length lensbarrel. Most still cameras use externalfocusing: you can actually see the lensgrow longer as its front element movesforward for closer focusing.What’s In Focus?If you adjust the lens to focus on a subjectnear the camera, then the distant backgroundwill often go soft. That’s becauseevery lens at every aperture and focusingdistance has what’s called a certain depthof field. Here’s how it works. Strictlyspeaking, the lens focuses perfectly only

All About Lenses 25(a)Distant object forms asharp image on the focalplane at the CCD.(b)When the camcorder iscloser to the object, theimage is out of focusbecause the focal planeis now in front of theCCD.(c)Increasing the lensdistance from theCCD moves the focalplane back to theCCD and brings theimage back in focus.Figure 5.2 How (and why) a lens’ focus is changed.on one plane at a certain distance from it.Objects receding from that plane—oradvancing from it toward the lens—are alltechnically out of focus.But in reality, objects up to a certaindistance behind or in front of this imaginaryplane still appear sharp to thehuman eye. This sharp territory from infront of the focal distance to behind it isdepth of field.Two factors govern the extent of thedepth of field: 1) the focal length of thelens and 2) the working aperture. Sincewe’ve already covered aperture, let’s seehow it affects depth of field.Each drawing of Figure 5.3 represents apicture made with the same lens, at thesame distance from the subjects, andfocused on the same person, the woman.The only variable is the aperture. As youcan see, the higher the f stop, the greaterthe depth of field.In Figure 5.3a, the stop is very high(f/22) and all three subjects are sharp. InFigure 5.3b, the aperture widens to themiddle of its range (f/5.6). Now the depthof field is more shallow and the man andthe tree are at its front and back boundaries.They’re starting to lose sharpness.Open the aperture all the way to f/1.4(Figure 5.3c) and the depth of field isquite narrow. Though the woman remainssharp, the man and the tree are just blurs.Once again, the higher (smaller) thef stop, the greater the depth of field, andvice versa.As noted above, depth of field is alsogoverned by the focal length of the lens.But first, we need to see what that geometricalabstraction focal length really meansto practical videographers.The Long and Short of ItThe focal length of a lens affects threeimportant aspects of the image: angle ofview, depth of field and perspective.

26 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production(a)(b)(c)Depth ofFieldAt high (small) lens apertures, depth of fieldis deep.Depth of Fieldf/22f/5.6At medium lens apertures, depth of field isreduced. Foreground and background are nowslightly soft.Depth ofFieldf/1.4At low (large) lens apertures, depth of field isquite shallow. Foreground and background arenow very soft.Figure 5.3 Lens aperture affects the depth offield (all shots made at the same focal lengthand focused on the woman).The angle of view gives the lens itsname.In Figure 5.4, a wide-angle lens (here anangle of 85 degrees) includes a great deal ofterritory. A normal lens (here 55 degrees)is less inclusive; and a telephoto lens hasa very narrow angle of view indeed (here12 degrees). So, at any distance from thesubject matter, the wider the lens angle,the wider the field of view.Incidentally, the angles selected forFigure 5.4 are only typical examples.Each category—wide, normal and narrow(telephoto)—includes a range of angles.So while 12 degrees is a narrow angle,9 degrees is also a narrow angle, thoughslightly more extreme.As a videographer, you exploit the differencesin lens angle of view all the time.For example: shooting a birthday partyyou may zoom out to your widest angle,to include more of the scene when thesmall room won’t let you move the camcorderfarther back from the action.Going SoftEarlier, we noted that lens aperture affectsdepth of field. Now let’s see how lensfocal length also affects depth of field.As you can see in Figure 5.5, the widerthe angle, the greater the depth of field.In bright sunshine, a wide-angle lenswill hold focus from a couple of feet to thehorizon. At the other extreme, in dimlight a telephoto lens may render sharpsubjects through only a few inches ofdepth. Notice that we include the lightconditions because aperture and focallength working together always governdepth of field. But the rule is, at any aperture,the wider the lens angle, the greaterthe depth of field, at any distance fromthe subject.Take special note of that last phrase, atany distance from the subject. When somephotographers can’t get enough depth offield they think, “Hey, no problem: I’llincrease my depth of field by going wideangle.”Wrong! If you widen the angle you willincrease depth of field, but you alsoreduce the size of the subject in the frame.To return it to its former size in the wideangleview, you must move the cameracloser. What’s wrong with that? There’sone last rule of focus we haven’t mentionedyet: at any focal length (and anyaperture too), the closer the lens is to thesubject, the less depth of field in the image.See the problem? Moving closer to compensatefor the smaller image effectivelywipes out the depth gained from goingwide-angle. It’s a wash.

All About Lenses 27(a)Man85°WomanTreeWide-angle lens(b)Man55°WomanTreeNormal lens(c)Man 12° Woman TreeTelephoto lensFigure 5.4 Lens focal length affects angle view (camera is thesame distance from subjects in all shots).(a) Wide-angle (b) Normal (c)TelephotoDepth ofFieldDepth ofFieldDepth ofFieldDepth of field is comparatively deep.Here, the man in the foreground andthe background tree are also sharp.Depth of field is not as deep. Now theforeground and background objects aresomewhat soft.Shallow depth of field. Foreground andbackground objects are now very soft.Figure 5.5 Lens focal length affects the depth of field (all shots made at the same apertureand focused on the woman).

28 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionWe said that widening the angledecreases the subject size, and that leadsus to the most dramatic effect that focallength has on the image: perspective.Perspective and Focal LengthPerspective is the depiction of apparentdepth—a phantom third dimension in atwo-dimensional image.In the real world, even people withonly one functional eye can gauge distance,because the farther away objectsare, the smaller they appear. Moreover,they diminish in size at a certain ratebecause of the geometry of the humanoptical system.But other optical systems, such as camcorderlenses, may have very differentgeometries, and objects may shrink muchfaster or slower than they do in humanvision. The perspectives of different lensesdepend entirely on their focal lengths.As you can see, wide-angle lenses exaggerateapparent depth.Objects shrink quickly as they recede.Normal focal lengths imitate the moderateperspective of human vision (which, ofcourse, is why we call them “normal”).Telephoto lenses reduce apparent depth.Background objects look much bigger andthe space between them and the foregroundappears compressed.As the ground plans beside the drawingsin Figure 5.6 show, you have to movethe camera in order to achieve these differenteffects. As you change from wideangleto telephoto, you must pull back sothat the reference figure in the foreground(the man) remains the same size and in thesame position in the frame. If you simplyzoomed in from the first camera position,you would instead get the effect shown inFigure 5.4.Wide-angle lenses can deliver very dramaticresults. People and vehicles movingtoward or away from the camera appear to(a)Tree(b)(c)Wide-angle lensObjects shrink rapidlyas they recede;distance betweenobjects is exaggerated.Normal lensObject size andapparent depthcorrespond closely tohuman vision.ManWoman(Camera is repositionedto keep the man at thesame size and position inevery shot)Wide-anglecamerapositionNormalcamerapositionTelephoto lensObjects shrink slowlyas they recede;apparent depth iscompressed.TelephotocamerapositionFigure 5.6 Lens focal length affects relative object size and apparentdepth (man, woman and tree are all the same height).

All About Lenses 29hurtle past. A roundhouse punch swoopstoward the lens like an incoming meteor.But since they exaggerate depth, wideanglelenses have drawbacks as well. Gettoo close to people’s faces in wide angleand their noses will grow to elephant size.On the opposite side, telephoto lensescan make great compositions on thescreen by stacking up pictorial elements.For instance, if you want to dramatizecongestion and pollution, get an extremetelephoto shot of a freeway at rush hour,viewed head-on. Because you’re squeezinga mile’s worth of cars into 100 yards ofapparent depth, you make a bad problemlook ten times worse.Telephoto shots are great for suspense.Near the climax of Ferris Buehler’s DayOff our hero must make it home throughneighborhood backyards before his parentsarrive. In one suspenseful telephotoshot, Ferris runs straight toward the camera—andruns, and runs, and runs—withoutseeming to make any progress. It’sthe telephoto focal length lens, of course,that compresses the distance he’s actuallycovering.What’s What Here?So far we’ve talked about wide-angle, normaland telephoto focal lengths withoutactually naming any. So what’s a wideanglelens, anyway: 8 mm, 28 mm, 90 mm,200 mm? The answer: all of the above. For afull-size VHS camcorder, wide angle is8 mm; for a 35 mm still camera it’s 28mm;for a 4 5 studio view camera it’s 90 mm;and for an 8 10 behemoth it’s 200 mm. Inother words, the perspective delivered by acertain focal length lens depends on thesize of the image it creates.If you draw a picture of it, it looks likeanother dose of geometry; don’t worry, it’sreally just common sense. The image createdby a lens has to fill the camera’sframe, right? But the frame is rectangularand the lens is round. That means that thelens diameter must slightly exceed thediagonal of the frame.Conveniently, lens designers discoveredlong ago that for any size format,“normal” perspective is produced by alens focal length slightly greater than theframe diagonal. That’s why a 15 mm lensis normal on a camcorder with a half-inchchip, but a 35 mm still camera takes a50 mm lens instead. (On the larger cameraa 15 mm lens would be an ultra-wide.)What does this mean to you and how doyou interpret the lens markings on yourcamcorder? To understand the answer,you need to know what your camcorderlens is and how it works.Zoom!Unless you’re using an older style, C-mountlens camera, or a surveillance camera discardedfrom a convenience store, your camcordercomes with a zoom lens. A zoomlens allows you to shift between focallengths without changing lenses. In addition,it possesses two critical characteristics:You can set the zoom lens at any andevery focal length between its extremes.That means, if your camcorder lens rangesfrom 8 to 80 mm, you could, theoretically,set it at a focal length of 43.033 or 78.25 mm.The zoom lens remains at the samefocus throughout its zoom range. Focuson your subject at any focal length and thesubject will stay in focus if you zoom in orout. Note: some inner focus lenses do nothave this capability.Okay, so your zoom lens is marked, say,8–80 mm. What does that mean? What’swide-angle, normal and telephoto in thatrange?8 mm would be wide-angle, about15 mm would be normal and 80 mmwould be telephoto. But regardless ofwhat’s normal for a given lens, the smallerthe number (8 mm in this case), the widerthe angle. The larger the number (here80 mm), the tighter the angle.Today many compact cameras use1/3-inch CCDs, so their zoom lenses featureshorter focal ranges. In this format, a normalfocal length is around 10 mm, a wide-angle

30 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionsetting would be 5 mm, and a strong telephotowould be 50 mm.For example: the Canon XL1 Mini DVcamcorder has a 16 : 1 zoom that rangesfrom 5.5–88 mm. By contrast, the FujixH128SW Hi8 camcorder’s 12 : 1 lens rangesfrom 4.5–54 mm. Both have 1/3-inch CCDs.As you can see, knowing what focallengths mean can affect your choice ofcamcorder. The Canon offers you a longertelephoto; the Fujix a wider wide-angle.But to interpret the numbers, you have tostart with the size of the CCD. 10 mm is a“normal” focal length for a 1/3-inch CCD,while 15 mm is considered normal fora 1/2-inch CCD. Once you figure outyour normal focal length, you can roughlycalculate wide-angle and telephoto lengthsas percentages of normal:●●●●●●35 percent of normal: extreme wide-angle.50 percent of normal: wide-angle.70 percent of normal: mild wide-angle.200 percent of normal: mild telephoto.400 percent of normal: telephoto.500 percent of normal: long telephoto.As you can see, even the simplest lens onthe simplest camcorder is a miracle of modernoptical technology. A long, long wayfrom that accidental glop of molten glass.

6Image Stabilizers:The Technology thatSteadies Your ShotsRobert J. KerrIf you want steady pictures, use a heavycamera. Unfortunately, today’s VHS-Cand 8 mm camcorders fly in the face ofthis general rule of thumb; they’re solight, the slightest external vibration canaffect the quality of their images.Enter the image stabilizer. Developedspecifically to address this problem, thesenifty gadgets now grace many small, lightweightcamcorders. In this chapter, we’llexamine the types of image stabilizationsystems and how they work.A Short Stability HistoryI suppose that even the cave artists back atthe dawn of pre-history had trouble freezingimages of fast-moving antelope intheir minds before they attempted to drawthe beasts accurately on their cave walls.Portrait painters, too, have dealt with theproblem of fidgety subjects; perhaps evenfamed Civil War photographer MatthewBrady cursed the artillery shells shootingpast him during his long exposures.Getting a steady image has been a problemfor artists, photographers, cinematographersand videographers for as long asthese arts have been practiced.In the earliest days of photography, thesize and weight of the camera and thelong exposure time made the tripodde rigeur; it was the only way to achievesteady images. As film speed increased,so did portability; cameras such as thehand-held Kodak Brownie broughtportable photography to every family. Therelatively wide-angle lens further reducedthe sensitivity to small camera movements.Still, the motion to depress theshutter trip lever required a steady handfor a steady picture.That was then, this is now. Today’s veryfast film and electronic flash make steadystill photographs the rule.On to the silver screen. The first cinematographersalso used heavy camerasmounted on tripods. Later, the shouldersupported 16 mm cameras also provedheavy enough to provide steady images—if the cinematographer stood still.31

32 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFilmmakers got around this limitationby mounting cameras on automobiles andairplanes to capture moving shots. Theylaid down dolly track, much like trainrails, to allow smooth camera movementin action scenes. In the 1970s, GarretBrown invented the Steadicam, a stabilizationdevice cinematographers on themove used to keep shots steady via anelaborate counter balance. Again, the successof the Steadicam depended on itssignificant mass.The story was much the same for earlytelevision cameras, whose weight andsize also required tripod mounting.Resourceful engineers developed massivecamera mounts that panned and tiltedeffortlessly and glided smoothly acrossstudio floors.With the late 1970s came the introductionof lightweight battery operatedvideotape recorders. Getting steady videopictures with these early models—shouldermountedor hand-held—was a problem.A problem aggravated by addition of thezoom lens with its telephoto capabilitysome time later. Various “body brace”mounts appeared on the market for thosewho wanted to improve the steadiness oftheir videos, but the light weight of thecameras made them very sensitive to bodyor other external motion.The next major coup: the appearance ofthe solid state electronics color camera forbroadcast news gathering. This 25-poundshoulder-mounted camera could be heldreasonably steady at moderate focal lengthsof the zoom, but required great stamina onthe part of the cameraperson. Not to mentionthat long focal length shots were areal problem.The Steadicam mount developed forthe movies could be used for video cameras,but television applications provedinfrequent. Advances in solid state electronicsmade studio cameras smaller andlighter; the addition of housings andheavy zoom lenses kept them heavyenough to provide smooth operation.Enter the 1980s and the rapid growth ofthe portable color camera/recorder andcamcorder industries. Light weight was apriority; the introduction of the CCD camerachip made VHS-C and 8 mm videocameras smaller than ever. The palmcorderovertook the steadier, larger shouldermountedmodels; its small size—coupledwith a zoom lens—made steady pictures aproblem. Fortunately, the same technologyalso supplied the microcircuitadvances needed to provide the solution.About this time, Garret Brown invented asmaller, lighter version of his Steadicamstabilization device. The ever-popularSteadicam JR helps to stabilize theimages of camcorders weighing less than5 pounds. It completely isolates the camerafrom rotational body movements,thanks to a delicate balancing system featuringa low-friction gimbal between thecamera and the support handle.This device, although useful, is not oneyou’d carry with you on vacation. It willfold to a shoulder mount configuration,but is best applied to specific shootingproblems you can plan in advance. Whenproperly deployed, the Steadicam JRcan yield steady video pictures.Not too long ago, numerous manufacturersincluding Panasonic, JVC, Hitachi,Sony and Canon introduced different systemsthat reduce image jitter problems.Unlike the Steadicam JR, these systemsare integrated into the camcorder itselfand do not employ any external hardware.There are two main image stabilizationsystems: optical stabilization and electronicstabilization.The All Electronic SystemThe electronic system operates by firstreducing the area of the CCD chip fromwhich the video image is read (See Figure6.1). This smaller image then increases insize to fill the whole screen. The exactarea scanned then shifts electronically tocompensate for unwanted external movementof the camera. Since this systemdoes not actually sense the movement of

Image Stabilizers 33Figure 6.1 Electronic image stabilization.the camera it must sense camera shakefrom the image only. The trick is to tellcamera movement from movement of thesubject.Some manufacturers use a motiondetection method based on fuzzy logic.How much to compensate for movementis a decision based on comparing the twoimages. An image freezes in computermemory and divides into numerous quadrants.A processor compares the differencesbetween the individual quadrantsof the frozen image and the current image.If all quadrants change in the same direction,the processor deduces that cameramovement caused the differencesbetween the current and stored images.The area of the CCD being scanned thenshifts in the opposite direction to cancelthe movement.Changes in fewer than all quadrantsindicate subject rather than camera movementand no compensating action occurs.If quadrant analysis indicates that both thesubject and the camera moved, fuzzy logiccalculates the image shift needed just tocompensate for the camera movement.One criticism of this system: the loss inimage quality brought about by reducingthe number of pixels used to create the

34 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionpicture. This loss is noticeable to varyingdegrees on most camcorders, virtuallyinvisible on others. By the time the videosignal goes to the tape and back, especiallyon standard 8 mm and VHS models,image loss is negligible. Most videographerswill find the added stability to beworth the tradeoff.Optical Image StabilizationOptical stabilization operates very differentlyfrom the electronic system. Insteadof sliding an undersized image around theCCD camera chip, the optical system correctsfor camera movement before theimage reaches the chip. This way, the fullresolution of the CCD occurs at all times.The result: no image degradation.The key optical component is a variablebend prism. As light passes through a prism,it bends in the direction of travel. Theamount of bending—known as refraction—is a function of the angle at which thelight strikes the “in” side of the prism, therelative angle of the “exit” side andthe refractive properties of the prismmaterial.Refraction is what you see when youlook at an object at the bottom of a pool orIncident lightIncident lightIncident lightRecording without compensationVariangle prismRecording lensRecording with compensationOptical axisFigure 6.2 Optical stabilization system.CCDCCDCCDstream. If you look straight down on theobject, the light reflected from it passesstraight through the surface of the water.No bending or refraction occurs, and yousee the object in its actual position. If youview the object in the pool or creek froman angle, thanks to refraction you’ll thinkthe object is considerably higher than itreally is. If you’ve ever been spear fishingyou’ll know what I mean. Try to spear fishfrom above the water, and you’ll have toaim the spear below the spot where you“see” the fish.Back to the prism. When you thinkprism, you probably think about how itbreaks up light into the color spectrum.Like how raindrops make a rainbow. Yousee the rainbow because different colorsof light bend by differing amounts as theypass through the prism.Rainbows may be pretty, but they’re notso desirable in image stabilization systems;to eliminate any potential rainbowproblems manufacturers choose prismmaterials carefully and restrict the angleof refraction to no more than 1.5 degrees.The prism used in the optical stabilizationsystem is a unique variable angledesign consisting of two glass platesjoined at the circumference by a flexiblebellows. A silicone fluid with controlledrefractive properties fills the spacebetween the lenses (see Figure 6.2).When the two plates are parallel, lightpasses through undisturbed. If, however,the plates contract at any point on theperimeter, the light path bends away fromthe compressed area. Thus the system canactually steer the optical image by manipulatingthe prism.The next step: how the system can tellwhen to perform such steering.The optical system requires two motionsensors, one for pitch (tilting up anddown) and the other for yaw (panningside to side). The sensors amplify andprocess the motion signals to determinewhere and how to move the image. Theresults convert to electric current appliedto two drive actuators, one for pitch andone for yaw. These actuators adjust one of

Image Stabilizers 35the glass plates in the prism relative to theother, directing the image back to itsproper position on the CCD sensor.Field Testing the Two SystemsThe easiest way to show how effectivethese two image stabilization systems areis to test them under adverse conditions.In this case, the test consisted of videorecorded on a road of moderate roughnessby one camera equipped with electronicimage stabilization and then by a second,fitted with optical stabilization.I did the videotaping from the passengerside of a car, while my business partnerdrove. We completed one completetrip over the test course for each camcorder.We used a medium telephoto zoomsetting to exaggerate the effects of cameramotion. Then we brought the tapes back tothe studio and compared results.Both systems provided extraordinaryimprovement in the stability of the image.With either type of camera, shots of thecars ahead of us stayed steady in thepicture—even as the dashboard of the testvehicle shifted up and down at the lowerpart of the picture. Certainly videofrom moving vehicles proves muchmore usable when you engage the imagestabilizers.The optical system makes no use ofvideo information, so it cannot wronglyinterpret moving objects as camcordermotion. The same is not true, of course forthe digital system. The question was, howwell would its fuzzy logic compensate foran actual moving subject combined withcamera pitch and yaw? The answer: fuzzylogic did an excellent job; road imagesremained steady—even when the cardashboard bounced up and down in thelower part of the picture.Being almost completely mechanical,the optical system experiences someinevitable delay as its components moveand adjust. This makes it somewhatslower to respond to quick jolts, but thisdoes not adversely affect normal operation.A happy by-product of the mechanicalsystem: its remarkable smoothness.The electronic system is very fast, andtried to compensate for even the mostinstantaneous bumps in the road. Someimage jump occurred, as though the electronicseventually gave up on fixing thejump and instead started fresh with a newimage.An interesting test result with both systemspan or tilt actions, with the stabilizersengaged, the movement of the image in theviewfinder lagged behind the cameramovement, or “floated.” The effect is onlynoticeable when moving the camera whilelooking in the viewfinder; I didn’t notice itwhen viewing the recorded videotape. Thissimply tends to demonstrate that two dramaticallydifferent approaches providedalmost exactly the same satisfactory result.Cynic that I am, I tend to view a lot of“features” on the higher priced camcorderssimply as opportunities for thevideo department salespersons to movecustomers to higher priced models.Not so, however, for the two image stabilizersdescribed here. They work, andprove very useful in many situations, particularlyhand-held “shots of opportunity.”And SoImage stabilization is a feature well worthhaving, particularly on today’s small,lightweight camcorders. Use it, and yourimages will be easier to watch; shoot handheldtelephoto shots without it, and—well,just try it. You’ll see what we mean.

7Solar Panel Imaging:Secrets of the CCDLoren AlldrinBuried deep within your camcorder lies afabulous image sensor that sets it apartfrom most other image-capturing devices.This image sensor is called a charge-coupleddevice—that’s CCD to you and me.If you’re like most videographers, youprobably don’t know much about this hiddentreasure. And that’s a shame.Knowing the hows and whys of CCDs canhelp make your videography more effective.It can help you differentiate onemodel from another and decide whichcamcorder to buy. Moreover, CCD sensorsbenefit from some of the fastest-advancingtechnology in camcorders; know thefuture of sensors and you can peek intothe very future of camcorders.The Short ExplanationDefining the CCD is, uh, simple: a CCD, orinterline transfer charge-coupled device, isa tightly-packed array of tiny photo-diodesconsisting of silicon oxide and alternatingP and photosensitive N semiconductorregions on an N-type substrate. Every1/60th of a second, a transfer pulse triggersa vertical transfer CCD lying between pixelrows to sweep accumulated charges out tothe horizontal transfer register (H-CCD)and output amplifier. Newer designsemploy an additional P embedded photodiodeto improve signal-to-noise ratio bycontrolling irregular dark currents (seeFigure 7.1).Don’t worry—that definition went overmy head, too. Try this: imagine a hugegrid made up of rows of solar panels. Eachsquare-foot panel sits atop a small battery.Only a few inches separate each panelfrom those to its north and south. About afoot of space lies between one column ofpanels and the next; within that spaceyou’ll find a small pathway running nextto each column, as well as along the bottomof the grid. The grid encompasseshundreds of panels in each direction,stretching for about 1/4 of a mile on a side.When light strikes the panels, theycharge their individual batteries. Panelsexposed to more light charge faster, while36

Solar Panel Imaging 37Figure 7.1 Three-chip designs from Sony andPanasonic use three CCD sensors arrayedaround a light-splitting prism.those in the dark build up little or nocharge. After a given period of time, tinytrucks drive down between the verticalrows of panels to measure each battery’scharge. The trucks then quickly dischargethe battery they’re measuring and moveon to the next panel. When the trucksreach the end of the row, they dump theirinformation onto a conveyor belt. Thisbelt carries the data from the panels backto a central station. It’s here that high-paidmanagers combine the individual measurements,evaluating the electrical outputof the grid. Their final report looks awhole lot like a video image.To relate this rather loose analogy to anactual CCD, first we need to reduce thesize of the solar grid by a factor of about75,000. Most of today’s CCDs measure amere 1/3-inch from corner to corner, andeven smaller 1/4-inch designs are on thehorizon.In our little analogy, solar panels serveas the individual pixels. Today’s sensorsactually boast hundreds of thousands ofthese pixels, etched onto the top of a siliconwafer by chemical and photographicprocesses. The machine tolerances andcleanliness required for making sensors istruly superhuman; most CCDs come fromcompletely automated factories wherehumans play minor supporting roles. Atiny speck of dust, harmless enough to us,can actually shut down the CCD manufacturingprocess.The batteries represent the buildup ofcharges in the pixel. Since CCD pixels arephotosensitive, they create a charge inproportion to the light striking them. Lotsof light makes for a greater charge, whiledarkness leaves them with little more thanthe small random charges we call noise.Smaller pixels gather less light and generateweaker charges; a principle manufacturersmust address to produce smallerchips and pixels. More on that later.The trucks mimic the action of the verticaltransfer registers, electronic roadwaysthat carry charges out of the activesensing area of the CCD. These registers arenecessary because the record electronicsdo not read charges directly from individualpixels. Instead, charges move en massedown the vertical transfer registers untilthey reach the edge of the chip.The conveyor belt is like the horizontaltransfer register, which unloads thecharges from its vertical counterpart. Thehorizontal transfer register carries chargesoff the CCD along the edge of the sensor.Their destination: the amplifiers and specializedcircuits that process the signalbefore recording (see Figure 7.2).The high-paid managers represent thecamcorder’s record electronics, processingand modifying signals for recordingon magnetic tape. Specialized chips combinecolor and brightness informationinto one signal, boost its level and thensend it on to the record heads.Generating a final report on the statusof the solar grid could take hours—depending on the speed of the trucks andwhether or not those high-paid managersget stuck in an important meeting. In acamcorder, however, videotape records a“final report” from the CCD sensor sixtytimes per second. If only our governmentworked that fast.

38 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionVerticaltransferregisterPixelSignaloutputOutput amplifierHorizontal transfer registerFigure 7.2 In a standard CCD sensor, pixels feed charges to vertical transferregisters. These in turn feed the horizontal transfer register. From there, signalsmove through an amplifier to the record electronics.Sensor OverloadWhen a solar panel receives too much light,it overcharges its battery. The truck tries toread this abnormally high value, only tocook its tiny charge meter in the process.When the truck gets to the bottom of therow, it picks up a new charge meter, butuntil then severe damage can occur. All thereadings it currently holds, as well as allsubsequent measurements, are wrong. Theyall read maximum on the charge meter.Something similar occurs when a givenarea of a CCD receives too much light. Thevertical transfer register overloads, muddlingall the charges for that row. This createsa bright, vertical smear in the image,extending out above and below theoffending spot. You’ve probably seen thisbefore, especially when shooting a brightspot of light against a dark background.This type of image smear is unique toCCD sensors. Metal oxide semiconductor(MOS) sensors read each pixel directly,doing away with the need for verticaltransfer registers and their associatedimage smearing. Regardless, MOS sensorshave fallen out of favor with manufacturers,probably due to higher manufacturingcosts. New CCD designs address the bleedproblem, resulting in chips less prone tostreaking.Shutter ShenanigansThough you’ve heard the term high-speedshutter tossed about; there’s actually nosuch component in the lens/sensorassembly. This term comes from the sensor’sability to mimic the effects of a filmcamera’s fast shutter speed. In a film camera,opening the shutter’s blades for a veryshort period of time exposes the film to abrief snippet of light. Thus a film cameracan freeze even the fastest motion.To understand how this works in a videocamera, let’s go back to the solar panelscenario. In just minutes, it will be time tomeasure the grid. But instead of letting the

Solar Panel Imaging 39panels finish gathering a complete charge,the trucks sweep through the grid to dischargeall the batteries. When the trucksreturn to collect measurements, the panelshave been charging for just a few minutes.Output is lower, but management can stillget a picture of the grid’s status.This is what happens with a camcorder’shigh-speed shutter. No mechanical bladeassembly snaps open and shut; instead, thecamcorder gives the pixels less time tocharge before whisking their signals off tothe recorder. If you select an extremely fastshutter speed, say 1/10,000th of a second,the pixels charge up as usual during thefirst 99 percent of the record cycle. Then,just 1/10,000 of a second before recording,the sensor discharges the pixels. What’srecorded on tape is a brief slice of time,representing only the last tiny bit of therecord cycle. Since most subjects don’tmove very far in 1/10,000th of a second, ahigh-speed shutter freezes the action.Whereas a single frame of an airplane propellermade at 1/60th of a second mightshow a blur, a single frame of the propellermade at 1/10,000th could show it standingstill, each blade distinct.Two matters to keep in mind whenshooting with a high-speed shutter:1. Lighting. Since pixels have so littletime to charge, the intensity of the lightmust be greater to produce a usableimage. The higher the shutter speed, thebrighter the light required. Shooting at1/10,000th of a second requires strongdaylight. A more conservative setting of1/2,000th of a second still requires sunlightor strong indoor lighting.2. Depth of field. Because it needsmore light, high-speed shutter forces thecamcorder’s iris to open up. This in turnreduces depth of field, a boon to creativevideographers whose camcorders lackmanual iris control.If you want to soften the backgroundbehind your subject, reduce your depth offield by increasing shutter speed.Some camcorders offer a slow-speedshutter, which has the exact opposite propertiesof high-speed. Slow-speed shutterdelivers an image in less light, thoughmuch more image smear results. If you’reshooting a stationary subject in extremelylow light, slow-speed shutter may deliveran improved image. At the very least, youcan use it as a unique special effect.Here’s how it works: The trucks servicingour solar array still sweep through thepanels to gather readings; they simplydon’t discharge the batteries completelybefore reading the charge. This allows thepanels to build up a greater charge, boostingthe resulting values. Since the batteriesretain some residual charge, eachreading includes some values from theprevious cycles. In the same way, a camcorderin low-speed shutter mode allowsthe pixels’ charge to build up for longerthan just one record cycle. It effectively“averages” the light, making fast-movingsubjects smear and bleed.Shrinking CCD PanelsLet’s say that the owner of the field thatcontains the solar array wishes to sell offsome of his land, leaving the panels withabout 40 percent less area. We can’treduce the number of panels, so there’sonly one solution—make them smaller. Topack the same number of panels on ournow-shrunken plot of land, we must cutthem down to just over 7 inches per side.We buy new, smaller trucks and a shorterconveyor belt and fire up the new array.The managers are not happy.Seems the scaled-down array now putsout about 40 percent less energy. Theseare lean times, and a cut in output simplywon’t do. The high-paid managers hire afew high-paid engineering consultants toincrease the panels’ sensitivity.There you have it: the plight of theshrinking CCD. Like a tiny solar panel, apixel’s output is a function of its surfacearea. Shrink the pixel, and its sensitivitysuffers. When sensitivity falls, so does the

40 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productioncamcorder’s low-light performance andresistance to video noise. But manufacturerscan’t ignore the benefits of smallersensors—they achieve the same depth offield with smaller lenses. Smaller lensesin turn make for smaller camcorders, andsmaller camcorders seem to sell better.The solution: the microlens. Basically atiny, translucent bubble formed over eachpixel, the microlens gathers incident lightthat would have otherwise missed thepixel’s active sensing area. CCD makersform microlenses into the CCD itself,increasing the effective area of the pixelwithout actually making it any larger.Thanks to the microlens, 1/3-inch CCDsare now a reality. This microlens technologyis so effective, in fact, that a 1/3-inchsensor with microlenses may outperformthe larger 1/2-inch designs—like realizingeven more output from our solar array afterplacing a glass canopy over each panel.Another way to offset the effect ofsmaller pixels is through better amplification.Noise is an enemy to any kind ofelectrical signal, and smaller signals arethe most prone to it. Amplifying a signaljust as it leaves the pixel reduces noiseand strengthens output. At the time of thiswriting, manufacturers are experimentingwith a new type of CMOS (complementarymetal oxide semiconductor) sensorinvented by NASA/JPL called the APSCMOS (Active Pixel Sensor) that placesan amplifier at each photosite.These technologies have led to sensorsa scant 1/4-inch across—a big step towardthe next generation of ultra-compactcamcorders.Smaller or BetterThe same technology that allows sensors toshrink allows advances in the other directionas well. If pixels offer improved sensitivityat a smaller size, then CCD makerscan pack more pixels on the same size chip.Once manufacturers increase the pixelcount of a given sensor, they face a toughdecision. They can use the additionalpixels for a higher resolution video image,or they can employ them for special imageeffects at the standard resolution.Electronic Image Stabilization (EIS) is agood example of such an effect. Anincrease in pixel count from 410,000 to470,000 allows the camcorder to use justthe central 90 percent of the chip forimaging without resolution loss. Movethis region in opposition to the camcorder’smovement, and you reduce shakeon handheld shots. Whereas previous EISschemes resulted in an inevitable loss ofresolution, this system shows no noticeablesoftness of the image.Color BlindSome of you may remember from your highschool science class that solar panelsrespond only to the amount of light strikingthem, not the color of the light. In the sameway, CCD pixels are colorblind. So howdoes a camcorder record a color image?Camcorders with a single CCD sensoruse a mosaic color filter placed over thepixels. Imagine a huge stained-glass windowlying over our solar panel array. Thiswindow alternates panes of color—eitherred, green and blue or their complements,yellow, magenta and cyan. Each solarpanel sits directly under a colored pane,and responds only to that color of light.When the managers tally up the charges,they make note of each panel’s color.By tracking which pixels see which color,a camcorder extracts both a luminance(brightness and detail) and chrominance(color) signal from a monochrome sensor.Color filters are relatively easy to add to aCCD, though they compromise both colorand brightness portions of the video signal.Because there are a limited number of pixelsresponding to a given color, chrominancehas only about one quarter theresolution of the luminance signal. Placinga colored filter over the pixels also reducestheir sensitivity and low-light performance.There are better, albeit more expensive,ways to coax color information out of

Solar Panel Imaging 41monochrome sensors. The best system isthe one professional cameras have usedfor years—three sensors, or chips, withone sensor devoted to each of the threeprimary colors. Just behind the lens, aprecision-made prism splits the incominglight into its red, green and blue components.Some manufacturers use an arrayof dichroic mirrors to sift the light; thesecoated mirrors reflect only a certain color,letting the rest pass.Because there’s no color filter cloudingthe sensors in three-chip designs, resolutiondoes not drop. With a chip “specializing”in each primary color, hues are veryaccurate and natural. The result: a betterpicture than a single CCD can deliver.Future CCDsThe trend toward smaller CCDs will mostlikely die with current 1/4-inch designs.Sensors of this size will work with incrediblysmall lenses, making the transportand tape medium itself the biggest obstaclesto further camcorder downsizing.Manufacturers will undoubtedly continuein the other direction, toward largersensors with increased resolution. Chipswith pixel counts approaching one millionallow for special effects and electronicstabilization without resolution loss. Theadvent of HDTV and the growing popularityof today’s 16:9 formats will drive themarket toward ultra-high resolution sensors.HDTV cameras already have 2/3-inchsensors with over two million pixels.Advances in sensors drive other areasof the video market as well. Camera resolutionsare already much greater thanthose of camcorder transports. As sensorsevolve far beyond the recording ability ofcamcorders, consumers will push for newvideo signal formats. Sensor evolutionshows no sign of slowing. As long asthere’s a sun in the sky sending light toCCD pixels and solar panels alike, bettersensors will be here to capture it. Thefuture of sensors is bright indeed.

8Filter Features:Camcorder Filters andHow to Use ThemMichael RabigerAlthough widely available, filters aren’tused much on camcorders—probablybecause they are not fully appreciated.Consider this: what other camcorderaccessory helps you to soften picture contrast,reduce depth of field, change colorintensity, shoot day-for-night, cut throughhaze, create star or flare effects, controlreflections from glass or water, darken thesky, compose vignettes—even create fogwhere none exists?Filters allow you to do all of this—andat very little expense.Filter PrinciplesFilters for videography operate on twodifferent principles. One type uses subtraction,permitting some colors of light topass through while absorbing others.To determine what color a filter passes,hold it up to white light: its coloris the color of light it conducts. Whatisn’t conducted is absorbed, along with acertain amount of heat traveling with thelight.The second type of filter uses the principleof diffusion, allowing all light topass but intentionally modifying howit emerges. The low contrast filter, forexample, takes bright illumination fromimage highlights, dispersing it into shadowareas without significantly changing imageresolution.Colored filters were in use even beforecolor film. In black-and-white photographya red or orange filter blocking bluelight darkens a blue sky, rendering a cloudformation into a dramatic white sculptureagainst an inky heaven. On sunny days,when indirect or “fill” light contains bluesky light, an orange or yellow filter candarken shadow areas by discriminatingagainst their blue content.If you are shooting video for eventualblack-and-white, or taping a nightmarishcolor sequence, consider color filtering.You can use a color monitor to test yourideas before you shoot.42

Filter Features 43Kelvin ConversionMost color film emulsions render colorsaccurately under one of two main sourcesof light. One emulsion balances to daylight,assumed to be 5,400 degrees on theKelvin scale; the second balances for studiolights at 3,200 degrees Kelvin.Daylight color temperature fluctuatesdepending on the time of day and locationon the globe. It rises to 10,000 degreesKelvin on a mountaintop, and plummetsto a ruddy 1,800 at sunrise or sunset. Youcan check source-light color temperaturewith a color temperature meter.The Kelvin Scale involves the concept ofheating a black object. As its temperaturerises it emits the progression of colors—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,and violet—that emerge from a prismused to split white light into its componentcolors. You can memorize the “roygbiv”sequence by remembering thatcolorful character Roy G. Biv.Light also exists above and below thevisible spectrum. Infrared lies below thethreshold of visibility, while ultravioletshines above it. Unfortunately, both photoemulsion and video image chips pick upultraviolet light, requiring a UV blockingfilter at all times.In white balancing a camcorder, youadjust its electronics to treat a particularlight source as if it were white. Thismakes human flesh come out true to life.Film emulsions don’t offer a white balancecontrol, so an image shot under nonstandardlight must be color correctedto render colors truly. Professional videocameras feature built-in color correctionfilters to maintain white balance underdifferent lighting conditions. Colors remainconsistent from location to location.On consumer camcorders, filters can beattached to the lens itself. The most commonfilter is #85 orange; it converts daylight,with its heavy blue content, tomatch the high orange content of tungsten.Like most filters, the #85 is usuallylens-mounted, converting all light enteringthe camera. It allows shooting in daylightwith a tungsten white setting.The fluorescent conversion filter willcorrect an image shot under fluorescentlight to, say, 3,200 degrees Kelvin. It’s oflimited use unless you know what type oftube is in use. Even then, the gas dischargetube’s broken spectrum can makefor a sickly greenish cast. The videographershould white balance under fluorescentlight, but is helpless if the spacecontains an assortment of tubes.Light MixingIn both film and video, adding 3,200degrees Kelvin movie lighting to an interiorscene already lit by daylight meanstrouble. You are shooting under mixedcolor temperatures; they’ll probablyappear as strange orange-covered shadowareas on a face otherwise nicely colorbalanced.Or you’ll display a normal foregroundwith a lurid blue world out thewindow.When you need to boost light levels in adaylit room, filter the window so incomingdaylight matches the 3,200 degreesKelvin of the supplementary lighting.Location film units generally tape largesheets of #85 gel to the windows, usuallyon the inside so air movement doesn’tcause the gel to waver.Another approach to color correctionuses blue #80A heatproof filters overtungsten light to produce 5,400 degreesKelvin light matching incoming daylight.This is less practical because of “filter factor”loss—too much precious light getslost in the filter itself. The #80A’s filterfactor is two stops, meaning only onefourth of the light’s output gets through.You need to open your camera’s iris twoadditional stops to achieve the sameexposure.The #80A and #85 are just two of anumber of color conversion filters allowingsavvy videographers to unify diverselighting sources.

44 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionColor, Contrast and FogIf you want to shoot video with subtle andconsistent scene coloration, your best betis to balance the camera, then use a weakblue or yellow lens filter. Remember to setyour white balance control to manual, orthe auto white circuitry will sabotageyour efforts.Sunrise filters can enhance nature; ablue filter can simulate nighttime shooting,a process called day for night. Shoot eitherlate or early in the day when there’s sunlightand long shadows, and underexpose.Remember to turn on the car headlightsand streetlights and put lights in windows.Or just shoot at night.UV filters screen out ultraviolet tight,invisible to the human eye but recordedon video as haze. UV filters also serve asgood protection for the front of your lens.It’s cheap and easy to replace a UV filtercompared to lens repair.A neutral density (ND) filter, like graysunglasses, reduces all colors of lightequally. A filter with a factor of .3 reduceslight transmission by one stop; .6 reducestransmission two stops. ND filters usefullycut a len’s light intake when thescene is very bright or you want to forcethe lens to work at a wider aperture toproduce a restricted depth of field. (SeeFigure 8.1.)Low contrast filters use very fine etchingson the glass to create light dispersalwithin the filter itself. White light redistributedfrom highlights is scatteredthroughout the image. This raises lightlevels in shadows and lowers the overallcontrast between highlight and shadow, atsmall cost to picture resolution.The low contrast filter reduces the characteristiclook of video—hard contrastand saturated colors—and produces asofter “film” look with de-saturated pastelcolors.A diffusion filter softens the image, givingit a soft, dreamlike look to your scene.Fog filters are strong diffusion filters.They make the image look as though shotthrough mist or fog. (See Figure 8.2.)Figure 8.1 By reducing the amount of lightthat reaches your lens, a neutral density filtercan change the depth of field in your shot.However, when something movesnearer the camera in genuine fog, theimage clears—not so when using a filter.Nylon GlassAn inexpensive and extremely reliablediffusion filter is a nylon stocking. Just besure to empty the leg out first. My father, amakeup man often hard-pressed to generateglamour in superannuated actresses,used to speak dryly of close-ups “shotthrough a sock.”Another easily produced filter is a sheetof thin optical glass smeared with petroleumjelly. This produces a misty imagewith flares around highlights known ashalations. You can limit the effect bykeeping the center clear and lightly treatingthe edges of the frame only.A softnet filter—fine netting laminatedbetween clear glass—creates soft diffusion

Filter Features 45Figure 8.3 A star filter puts stars into yourshot wherever there’s a point of light.Graduated, Spot and SplitFigure 8.2 Diffusion filters can add a“dreamy” look to your shot.and lowered resolution without highlighthalations or lightened shadows. Softnetscome in black, red, and skintone forenhanced effects. A white softnet actsmuch like a low contrast filter.Star filters, which are pronounced diffusionfilters, produce the four or sixpointhighlight star effects so dear to glassand jewelry advertisers. (See Figure 8.3.)Star filters are ineffective in panningshots unless you’re a fan of alarmingpsychedelic effects. And you can’t rotatethe filter unless prepared not only forstars, but rotating stars.Graduated filters are half clear, with a softtransition between. A graduated neutraldensity filter lined up on the horizon cancool a hot sky. The clear lower half leavesthe land unfiltered, so the filter functionslike a tinted-top car windshield. A graduatedcolor filter used on a static shot canmake the sky a rich violet. Of course, youcan’t tilt the shot up or down without givingthe game away.Graduated filters can also operate vertically.You might line the filter so its darkhalf reduces the light entering through adoorway, creating consistent lightingthroughout the whole scene.A center spot is a heavy diffusion filterwith a clear spot in the middle. This effectis useful for nostalgia shots or drawingattention to the spy in the cafe.Split field filters are those lenses thatdivide the field of view into two separatefocal lengths, like bifocal glasses. Thisenables deep focus shots by dividing andthus extending the effective depth offield. You can use the fields horizontallyor vertically by rotating the lens. Disguisethe telltale dividing lines with a horizon,doorjamb or other eye-distracting compositionalfactor.The polarizing filter (Figure 8.4) isanother axis-sensitive filter particularlyuseful for landscape shots. It can reducethe light-polarized glare thrown off bywater, plastic and glass surfaces—but not

46 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 8.4 A polarizing filter allows you tocontrol bright reflections.metal. It consists of a light-polarizing materialthat rotates until its polarity opposesthe incoming reflection.The polarizing filter can also effectivelydarken a blue sky by tuning out much ofthe blue light refracted from skylightmoisture droplets. It works best when thelens-to-subject axis is about ninety degreesto the sun.Mounting FiltersWe arrive now at a major problem in consumervideo—the mounting of filters.Professional cameras use a matte box,an adjustable filter holder with anextendible lens hood bellows. The deviceholds square or round filters securely infront of the lens. No matter what lens youuse or how much it rotates or extends, thestandard filter adjusts and remains solidlyin position. This allows rotation of axisdeterminedfilters like stars.The dedicated do-it-yourself type can ofcourse improvise something. Tiffen makessquare filters that fit the Cokin “P Series”filter holder, but this range of pro filterscan cost the proverbial arm and a leg.A holder can also grab custom vignetteslides, such as keyhole or binocularshapes for what-the-butler-saw movies,and gunsight or periscope masks for thosewith warfare in mind.In most stores, only circular screw-infilters are available to videographers, andmust be ordered for a specific lens diameter.Changing is slow and fiddly. If youacquire a wide-angle lens adapter, you’llrequire a whole new set of larger filters.You’ll handle your filters quite a lot,so consider durability. Gelatin is opticallythe best material—thin and inexpensive—but it scratches and buckles easily, ruinedby a single fingerprint.Be aware that if you sandwich filterstogether, you tend to produce rainbowrefraction circles called Newton’s Rings.Manufacturers make the most commoncombinations. Gel laminated inside glassis durable and easy to clean, but can besusceptible to moisture. Dyed-in-the-massglass filters vary in consistency and areexpensive; semi-rigid thermosetting resinis a light and scratch-resistant materialand optically as good as glass.In ConclusionFilters are an easy and inexpensive way toimprove your camcorder footage. As such,they’re the perfect upgrade for camcorderowners who want to improve their workwithout emptying their bank account.One final note of caution: filters comein a variety of price ranges; don’t assumethat a cheaper one is necessarily a bargain.As with most videography gear, yougenerally get what you pay for. Caveatemptor!

9Dissecting a Video EditingComputerJoe McCleskeyEver wonder what exactly makes a videoediting computer work? Ever want toknow what separates the ordinary, gameplaying,document-creating PC from thekind that can easily pump out hour-long,professional-looking home videos? Nomatter if you already own a video editingcomputer or plan to buy one—it still paysto know exactly what makes this specialbreed of machine tick. We’ll discuss PCshere, since they are much more dissectiblethan Macs, but the concepts arethe same.In this article, we’ll take apart a typicalvideo-editing computer piece by piece,much the same way you might havetaken apart a hapless frog in junior highscience class. Why? To help you troubleshootproblems, increase performance,and make more informed purchasingdecisions.So without further introduction, let’sput on our rubber gloves, grab our scalpels,and get busy (see page 44).SoftwareEditing software is the interface betweenyour ideas and a finished product.Software used in video editing covers awide range of different types and capabilities,including nonlinear editing, photoand graphics manipulation, audio editingand special effects creation, to name just afew. Once you’ve got the basic systemtogether, the software provides the meansto make your video dreams a reality. It’swhat you’ll spend the most time learningto operate—and the most time blamingwhen things don’t work properly—sodon’t skimp here; be sure to find the softwarethat works best for your needs.47

48 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionCPUThe CPU (central processing unit) is the heart of any computer.A computer can really do only two things: 1) performcalculations and 2) move or copy information. The CPUdoes these things; in essence, it is the computer itself on asingle chip. A video editing computer needs the fastest CPUavailable for rendering. Some use two or more CPUs; videoediting machines greatly benefit from an added CPU to sharethe task of rendering video files, even if the software doesn’texplicitly support multiple CPUs.MotherboardThe motherboard holds the CPU, connecting it to the other parts of themachine. The part of the motherboard that ships info back and forthbetween the components is called the bus. Video editing machinesrequire motherboards with fast bus speeds in order to handle theimmense flow of information that takes place while editing. Faster busspeeds result in faster rendering times. Also located on the motherboardare places to connect peripheral devices—hard drives, video capturecards, FireWire cards and memory. In video editing machines, the motherboardshould have a number of open PCI slots for peripheral devices;lots of room to expand RAM; connections for high-speed hard drives; anda bus speed of at least 100 MHz.RAMRAM (random access memory) is a computer’s temporary storage place forinformation. It’s the place where the software stores and moves pieces ofinformation for processing. A video-editing computer typically has lots ofhigh-speed RAM available—at least 256 MB for starters, but often morethan a gigabyte. Both speed and quantity of RAM will have an effect on therendering speed of your computer: The more, and the faster, the better.Video Capture/Fire Wire CardTo edit video on a computer, you need some way to get thevideo from the camera or VCR onto the hard drive. This isthe role of the video capture card (or, more commonly, theFireWire or IEEE 1394 card). A digitizer card can take anordinary analog video signal and digitize it (change it to aseries of ones and zeroes). A FireWire card allows transfer ofdigital video from a digital camcorder or VCR to the harddrive. Video capture cards vary widely in price and performance,but the only real concern with a FireWire card iswhether or not it works and continues working—the resultingvideo will look exactly the same as it did when you shotit, regardless of the quality of the FireWire card. Some capturecards have special hardware that improves renderingspeed and performance during editing.Hard DrivesThe hard drive of a computer is the place where information gets storedin the long term. (Contrast this with RAM, which stores information onlyuntil you turn off the computer). When you capture a clip, it writes ontothe hard drive. Note that editing computers should have two hard drives—onefor the operating system and software, and another solely forvideo and audio capture and storage. The separate video/audio driveshould be the largest, fastest drive you can afford, should spin at 7,200RPM and should minimally support a true sustained data transfer rate ofat least 5 MB per second in order to handle the rigors of video editing.And always remember: the amount of storage space on the video capturedrive directly relates to the length of video clips you can work on at anyone time. You can never have too much space and good drives can befound for as little as $1 per gigabyte.

10Editing Appliances:Cracking the CaseCharles BloodworthEditing Appliance. Its name evokes imagesof refrigerators, dish washers, microwavesand toasters. Turn it on, stick in somevideo, set the timer and wait for a finishedproject. Well, almost. While they are relativelyeasy to use, these boxes are anythingbut simple. Inside they are more like highpoweredcomputers than kitchen gadgets.What exactly is an editing appliance? Ifyou’re a regular reader, you’ll probablyrecognize names like Casablanca and Aviofrom Draco Systems and Screenplay andSequel from Applied Magic. With theentry-level prices for these devices nowbelow the $1,500, editing appliances havebecome extremely attractive to first-timeeditors and budget minded pros. Manypeople are still confused about just whatappliances are and how they do what theydo. In this article, you’ll get to know theanatomy of an editing appliance as weperform an appliance dissection.Pull the lid off any editing applianceand you’ll find some pretty ordinary computerparts, a hard drive and some specializedsoftware. Like computers that canprocess video, editing appliances haveCPUs, memory, capture/compressionhardware, one or more large, fast, harddrives and editing software. They alsohave connectors for input and outputdevices. Some have “slots” for smartmedia cards, some have CD-ROM drivesand others rely on floppy disk drives toallow software updates and effects plugins.Let’s take a look at each of the majorpieces one at a time and see how theywork together to make an editing appliancetick (see Figure 10.1).ProcessorThe CPU, or Central Processing Unit, isthe heart of any computer system. Manyof the editing appliances use processorsthat may seem rather slow compared tothe state-of-the-art CPU technology inyour home computer. Not to worry thoughthe CPUs that come in editing appliancesare more than sufficient for the task athand. Remember, unlike a PC or Mac,49

50 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production1462 3578Figure 10.1. Inside the Box: (1) Cooling Fan—Keeps the CPU cool; (2) CPU—The brainsthat make the box work; (3) RAM—Short term storage of operating system programs;(4) A/V Inputs/Outputs—Ports for getting video in and out of the editor; (5) Main Board—The “central nervous system” connecting all the components; (6) Power Supply—Harnesses juice to power the box; (7) Chasis—The frame in which it all resides;(8) Hard Drive—Stores digital video for random access editing.which must do everything for everyone(including running Windows, creatingspreadsheets, word processing, playinggames, balancing checkbooks and accessingthe Internet), an editing applianceonly has to do one job: edit video. Editingappliance manufacturers strike a balancebetween the CPU’s cost and performance.And while the CPU speed can factor inon the rendering times of transitions orspecial effects, many editing appliancesnow provide real-time or near-real-timerendering that works independently fromthe CPU.MemoryMemory comes in many forms and is justwhat its name implies. An editing appliancestores its programs, data and video in varioustypes of memory, including bothvolatile and non-volatile memory.Volatile, like its name suggests, is not stable.You lose its content when you turn offyour computer. Random access memory(RAM) would be one example of volatilememory. Non-volatile memory usuallyresides on a disk or hard drive and youretain its content even when you powerdown your computer. The storage capacityof a computer’s hard drive would bean example of non-volatile memory.A PC running Windows, for example,requires tens of megabytes of RAM tofunction smoothly, but an editing applianceneeds only a few megabytes of memory.Some use as little as four megabytesof RAM. But, as we’ve already seen withthe CPU, what might be inadequate for a

Editing Appliances 51PC may be more than enough for an editingappliance.Hard DriveUnlike most general-purpose computers,appliances use hard drives primarily tostore the compressed digital video. With aPC, the hard drive quickly fills with applicationsand data that have little or nothingto do with your video editing tasks.Windows and the Mac OS both consumehuge amounts of disk space. Video editingand special effects software also eat uplarge amounts of storage space. Most editingappliances conserve valuable space bystoring their operating system and editingsoftware in one form or another of ROM(Read Only Memory) and by only storingdata related to the user’s preferences andprojects on the hard drive. This not onlyallows the system to maximize the performancefrom the drives, but it also allowsthe operating system and application softwareto be available almost instantlywhen you turn on the appliance. Onenotable exception to this is the originalCasablanca, which holds its operatingsystem on the removable hard drive.Capture and CompressionCapture and compression hardware isessential for any form of digital video processing.Capturing video in a digital formatis the first step to working with it in thedigital domain. All current consumer editingappliances require compression hardwarebecause of the huge amount of spacethat video storage requires. Uncompressedvideo can take from anywhere between 2-to-100 times the storage space that compressedvideo would. Codecs (compressor/decompressors) solve this storage limitation.There are a variety of different Codecsthat work in different ways. But all of themessentially squeeze the incoming digitalvideo data into a more compact form so thehard drives can keep up.Inputs/OutputsAll of the appliances on the market acceptanalog audio and video inputs. RCA andS-video video connections are standardissue. If you use a Mini DV or Digital8camcorder, you can get an optional IEEE1394 DV input on a Avio, Casablanca, orSequel or Screenplay, to allow you totransfer the digital video from your camcorderto the appliance in its native DVform. Although they Sequel and Avio alsooffer optional DV inputs, but they do notstore and manipulate the video in the DVformat. Instead they “transcode” the datainto their own native format. This allowsmore storage space for high resolution DVvideo, but compromises image qualityslightly. That’s not to say that the imageslook bad by any means. Many viewerswon’t be able to detect a difference. Thosewho examine each frame closely may seea digital artifact or two.Draco’s Avio uses MPEG-2 compressionwhile Applied Magic’s Sequel usesWavelet compression technology. Thedetails of the two compression methodsare beyond the scope of this article. It’sthe high quality video and manageabledata rates that concern us here. You won’tget the same quality of transfers you getwith a higher-end system like Draco’sCasablanca or Applied Magic’sScreenplay, but the images created by theAvio and Sequel will look provided theyare shot well.Editing SoftwareEach appliance comes with its own editingprogram that is made and installed bythe manufacturer (see Figure 10.2).Proprietary software sets appliances apartfrom PCs. While computers can run awide variety of software applications,editing appliances run only the editingprogram installed at the factory. You won’tbe installing Adobe Premiere or Apple’sFinal Cut Pro on one of these babies. Assuch, the interface and its ease-of-use are

52 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 10.3 Disc Us— Applied Magic’sSequel has a CD-Rom drive for installingsoftware upgrades.Figure 10.2 The proprietary editing interfacesare designed to be user friendly like AppliedMagic’s Sequel (above) and Draco’s Avio(below).key factors for anyone considering anediting appliance.What is the advantage? Because theappliance’s operating system runs only asingle program, it yields a system that canrender effects and transitions in realor near-real time, using much less expensivehardware than a PC that has similarcapabilities.Other InputsAn appliance isn’t a sealed black box,however. While each model has its ownmethod, they all offer some procedure forupgrading the on-board software andadding additional effects and transitions.Methods vary from CD-ROM drives tofloppy drives to SmartMedia slots (seeFigure 10.3). As appliances gain popularity,the number of available add-ons andplug-ins will likely increase. The softwareupgrade process could hardly be easier.With the Avio, for example, you simplyplug in the SmartMedia card before youturn the unit on, and when you applypower the updates are implemented automatically.It’s hard to imagine anythingmuch easier than this.Last LookAnd so, you have had a peek inside thetypical editing appliance. While its partsare similar to those inside a high-techcomputer, you cannot think of editingappliances as computers in the sense thatyou have become accustomed. Essentially,an editing appliance is a computer with asingle purpose: editing video. And whileit performs just one function, it does itsjob extremely well.

116 Ways to Optimize YourComputer for Video EditingJoe McCleskeyComputers that are capable of editingvideo are quite common in today’s marketplace,so much so that one entire computerplatform—the Apple Macintosh—has madevideo editing a prominent feature on all ofits computers. Affordable desktop videohas become almost as common as theword processor or spreadsheet.Even so, there are a number of tweaksyou can perform on today’s off-the-shelfvideo-editing computer that can greatlyenhance the performance of yourmachine, resulting in fewer crashes, fasterrendering and smoother video playback.Though developed over the years byexperts in the computer editing field outof necessity, these system tweaks are veryeasy for novice video editors to performusing today’s operating systems.In this article, we’ll look at a number ofsimple things you can do to your computerto change it from a typical workadaydesktop computer into a lean, meanvideo editing machine. We’ll cover simple,no-cost performance tweaks as wellas some more high-end, cost-intensivesolutions for creating a high-performancevideo editing machine that professionalswould be proud to own.Dedicate Your System to VideoDedicating your computer to video-onlyis probably the most important piece ofadvice we can offer, because a computersystem dedicated to video editing willhave far fewer problems and conflicts. It’salso the most difficult to achieve, becausenot everyone has the money to invest in aseparate computer system just for editingvideo. If you must use the computer forother tasks, or if it’s a shared computer,you should set yourself up as the computer’sadministrator, if you can, andenforce healthy rules and permissions onother users—or even on yourself, if needbe. The goal is to keep the computer fromacquiring all of the random junk it tendsto acquire when people aren’t payingattention to keeping it error-free. It is possibleto run a healthy computer for both53

54 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionvideo editing and other purposes, but itrequires more forethought and care.Install a Video Capture DriveThe hard drive that came with your computermay be able to store 80 GB or more.Even so, your system will be much happierif you invest in a hard drive that’sdedicated to video storage. A separatevideo drive affords the luxury of regularformatting, defragging, and all-aroundhousecleaning between projects, whichwill greatly improve performance by providinga clean slate to work on each time.Also, keeping your system files and softwareinstallations separate from yourvideo capture drive will help keep yoursoftware and operating system runningsmoothly. And finally, can you ever reallyhave too much storage space?If you can afford it, consider getting aRAID for your video editing computer.They’re not cheap, to be sure, but they cansolve problems of massive storage size andperformance all at once. Caution: thoughmany newer operating systems offer asimple way to create a software RAID, thissolution is not what video editors areafter. To get the added performance thatvideo editing machines love, go all theway and purchase a hardware RAID.Buy more RAMUnless your system has the maximumamount of RAM you can put into it—andif it’s a newer system, that’s a lot ofRAM—consider purchasing more. Videoediting can potentially make use of aboutas much RAM as you can install, and bothsystem performance and system reliabilityare enhanced when you install more.It’s one of the least expensive ways toupgrade your system and see very realresults in terms of performance. Today’svideo editing computers often have 1 GBor more, but 256 MB is often sufficient.Perform Regular SystemMaintenanceSystem maintenance is a simple way tokeep your system running smoothly. Startby defragmenting your dedicated video harddrive between projects (see Figure 11.1).Watch for critical software and driverFigure 11.1 Defrag—Monthly defragmenting of your mediahard disks is an easy way to maximize performance.

6 Ways to Optimize Your Computer for Video Editing 55patches and updates online. You mighteven consider completely re-installing theoperating system once a year or so. Inboth the Windows and the Mac world, it’sa good idea to make use of a drive maintenanceutility, such as Tech Tools or Drive10. These offer simple diagnostic andmaintenance utilities that can tell you if adrive has a problem, as well as help you fixproblems with performance or reliability.Enable Write Cache onYour Capture DriveCapture drives provide better performanceif you enable Write Caching (seeFigure 11.2). This can provide a smootherflow of information from the video capturedevice (FireWire or digitizer card) tothe hard drive. In Windows, you can oftenlocate the drive’s Device Properties in theControl Panel’s Device Manager andenable Write Caching. Unfortunately, thisis not universally true or even a possibilityon all drives or systems.Disable Unnecessary ProgramsWhether you have a Mac or a Windowsmachine, your computer automaticallyruns a number of programs when it startsup, and keeps those programs running inthe background. As you install more andmore software on your computer, there’s alikelihood that you’ll have more of thoselittle programs running in the background.Each one takes up a little bit of systemresources and compromises performance(see Figure 11.3). Virus checkers are a goodexample. They do provide a much-neededservice, but if you can keep your computeroff a network and off the Internet, and keepfrom installing any questionable software,you may not need a virus checker on yourvideo-editing computer. Other programsthat run in the background that are oftenoverlooked include instant messaging applicationsand file sharing software. Bottomline: keep only those programs runningthat are necessary for keeping your operatingsystem running smoothly and disableall others.Figure 11.2 Write Caching—Write Cachingprovides a smooth, uninterrupted flow ofinformation from the video capture device(FireWire or capture card) to the hard drive.Figure 11.3 Task Manager—Keep only thoseprograms running that are necessary forkeeping your operating systems runningsmoothly and disable all others.

56 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionDetermine Your NeedsIf you primarily edit home videos, you’llprobably only want to worry about optimizingsystem performance on an as-neededbasis. In other words, if it isn’t broken, youprobably don’t need to fix it. If, on the otherhand, you intend to pursue videography asa business, you’ll undoubtedly want to keepyour machinery in excellent working order,optimized and maximized in performancein every way that your budget will allow.This will not only save you heartache andfrustration, it’ll save you time and moneyand could make the difference betweensuccess and failure.Sidebar 1Making the Most out of Mac OS XDoes OS X really offer the stability and power of Unix with a friendly Mac interface? Manyvideo editors applaud the OS X solution, especially now that Apple ships all of its Macintoshdesktop computers with dual processors (that’s “faster render times” in English). Even so,there are a few things every OS X user should know in order to get things running assmoothly as possible.● Don’t set up your system to dual-boot with OS 9.X. This is probably the hardest pill to swallow,because not every piece of hardware and software has caught up with OS X. We are confident,however, that all of the major players will soon be on board. Consider building a new,sleek system from the ground up, software and all, and make it 100 per cent OS X compliant.● Turn off animations. Perhaps the most obvious of these is the Dock animation, whichmakes program icons appear larger as you move the mouse pointer over the Dock. Turn thisand other animations off using the System Preferences application.● Select programs that address dual processors. Apple’s Final Cut Pro software will makeuse of both processors in a new desktop Macintosh, but not all software will. Check to makesure yours does before you make a purchase. This will make the extra money you pay for adual-processor Mac worth the investment.Sidebar 2Making the Most out of Windows XPIt’s a great new look and feel for Windows, but is it right for video editors? The answer is “itdepends.” XP is a major improvement over Windows 98 (or 95), but you are probably OK ifyou are running 2000. If you keep the following pointers in mind, you’ll have much bettersuccess at creating a finely-tuned computer for video:● Upgrade all of your drivers to the XP-compatible version. This includes drivers for yourmotherboard, peripherals, monitors, video display adapters and video capture cards. Manymanufacturers have now released XP-specific drivers, but if you have hardware from a companythat hasn’t done so, consider taking the opportunity to upgrade that piece of hardware.● Give your video editing software priority. XP allows you to give certain software applicationspriority for processor and memory usage. Doing this for your video editing programsmay speed up rendering time and minimize crashes.● Turn off visual effects. XP makes use of enhanced animation effects for such mundaneoperations as opening and closing a window. Turning these off will make more systemresources available for video editing and playback.

12Sound Track:Microphone TypesRobert G. NulphHas the selection of microphones offeredby your favorite electronics store everoverwhelmed you? Have you stared inawe at the vast array of silver or black, bigor small, expensive or cheap microphonesavailable to you? Have you wonderedabout HiZ versus LowZ, dynamic versuscondenser, cardioid versus omni-directionalor shotguns and lavaliers versus handheldand boundary mikes? Throughout this column,we will take a look at impedance,the two major ways microphones work,microphone pickup patterns and microphonestyles. So sit back, relax and proceedthrough this quick look into thesometimes confusing world of microphonechoice.HiZ and LowZBefore you choose the style of microphoneyou’d like to use, you have to knowwhat impedance of microphone is compatiblewith your camcorder. Your systemmight require a HiZ microphone input.Impedance is the resistance to the flow ofelectrical current in a circuit or element.We measure impedance in ohms, a unit ofresistance to current flow. The lower theimpedance, the better the microphone orrecording device.Most older consumer camcorders havea high impedance (HiZ) microphone jackmeant to be used with high impedancemicrophones. These microphones rangein impedance from 600–1400 ohms. HiZmicrophones are very sensitive andrequire very little amplification, which iswhy less sophisticated consumer equipmentis designed for them. They are, however,susceptible to hum and electronicnoise and can be used only with a veryshort microphone cable.Low impedance microphones, with animpedance level of 100–600 ohms, havebecome the norm in video production.Even much of today’s consumer equipmentnow has low impedance inputsto allow you to use professional microphones.Using these professional microphoneswith low impedance gives you two57

58 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionadvantages: (1) They are not as affected byelectronic hums and noises that can becaused by fluorescent lighting or electricmotors and (2) you can use long cables withoutworrying about outside interference.If you buy a microphone and plug itscable into your camcorder and nothinghappens, it may be due to an impedancemismatch. If your camcorder requires aHiZ microphone and all you have are professionalmikes, don’t despair. You canpurchase an inexpensive LowZ to HiZtransformer. Plug your microphone cableinto the transformer and the transformerinto your camcorder. You should now beable to use any professional microphonewith your system. Now that we’ve gottenimpedance choice out of the way, we canmove on to the other mike variables.Inner WorkingsMost microphones fall within one ofthe two major families: dynamic or capacitor(condenser) microphones. The dynamicmicrophone has a fixed magnet, a diaphragmthat moves when sound hits it,and a coil attached to the diaphragm. Whenthe diaphragm moves, the coil moves, makingchanges in the magnetic field. Thesechanges generate voltage through themicrophone cable to the recorder, amplifieror speakers (see Figure 12.1).diaphramcoilMagnetFigure 12.1 Dynamic Mike—In a dynamicmike, a vibrating diaphram moves a magnetand coil past one another to create anelectrical signal.The dynamic microphone has a numberof attributes that you need to take intoaccount when deciding on the type ofmicrophone you need. This type of microphoneis extremely durable. Dynamicmikes can tolerate wide temperatureranges and humidity as well as take agreat deal of abuse. I have seen themdropped, banged around, used in the deadof winter, in the high heat of a tropicalrain forest and even (believe it or not)used as a hammer (not recommended), allwithout affecting the mike’s ability torecord high quality audio. Dynamic mikesare also fairly inexpensive. Good qualitydynamic microphones like the ShureSM58 costs around $200. Lower qualitydynamics run as low as $77. Even theextremely good dynamics rarely costmore than $350.Another attribute of the dynamic mikeis its ability to provide a warm, roundedsound for vocals and yet take the abuse ofrecording high impact sounds such asdrums and screaming voices. Many leadsingers in rock bands use the hand helddynamic because of its ruggedness and itsability to pick up a wide range of soundsfrom screams to whispers. However, thedynamic microphone has a less accuratesound reproduction than the condenser.A final advantage of the dynamic is thatit requires no outside power. Plug it intoyour recorder or sound system and go. Nobatteries or power supplies needed. Invideo work, the dynamic microphone isideal for on-camera interviews, recordingvery loud sound sources and crawlingaround the toughest terrain.The capacitor or condenser microphoneuses variations in voltage within a capacitor.The capacitor, which is capable ofholding an electrical charge, is made upof two parallel plates, one fixed and onemoving, separated by a small space. Whensound waves hit the movable plate, itvibrates and causes a change in theamount of voltage held by the capacitor.This change in voltage is sent down thewires to be recorded or amplified throughspeakers (see Figure 12.2).

Sound Track: Microphone Types 59diaphragm(a)(b)backplateOmni-directionalCardioid(c)(d)Figure 12.2 Condenser Mike—A condensermike uses changes in capacitance in theelement to turn soundwaves into an electricalsignal.Hypercardioid BidirectionalThe condenser microphone has a numberof attributes that are important for thevideographer to consider. The condensermike is not so rugged as the dynamic,and the more expensive models are downrightdelicate. They range in price fromaround $100 for a basic condenser towell over $5,000 for a high-end studiomike. Although the condenser is usuallymore expensive, its frequency responseand true sound rendering make it idealfor the videographer seeking the bestfidelity.You will have to consider one otherattribute when purchasing a condensermicrophone: its need for an additionalpower source. A battery, or AC powersource can provide this additional “phantom”power. If you have a mixing boardwith phantom power built into the inputs,it will supply power to any mike you plugin. You can purchase a condenser microphoneand begin using it right away.However, if you plan to plug a phantompoweredmicrophone into your camcorder,you’ll need to purchase a phantompower unit to supply juice for your mike.Fortunately, most microphones that youwould use for field production have a batteryspace built-in. You just have toremember the batteries.Figure 12.3 Pick it Up—Microphones comewith various pick-up patterns. You need toknow how to use the one you have.Pickup PatternsWhether you choose either a dynamic orcondenser microphone, you must alsodecide the best pickup pattern for yourproduction. There are four primarypickup patterns to choose from: omnidirectional,cardioid (or unidirectional),hypercardioid (or shotgun) and bidirectional(see Figure 12.3).The omnidirectional microphone picksup sound in every directionfront, back andsides (see Figure 12.3a). This microphone isgood if the sound source comes from a widevariety of directions and is moving fromone side to another in front of the mike.The cardioid or unidirectional microphonepicks up sound primarily in a heartshape from the front of the microphone,including a little from the sides, but doesnot pick up from the back (see Figure12.3b). This pickup pattern is excellentfor voice mikes and miking musicalinstruments.The hypercardioid microphone picksup only sound from the front and is verydirectional (see Figure 12.3c). You must

60 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionpoint it at the sound source to get a goodpickup. This type of pick-up pattern isexcellent for isolating sound sources likebird calls, individual actors talking in adrama, or isolating one voice in a sea ofvoices.The bidirectional microphone picks upsound from two distinct sides of the mike(Figure 12.3d). You would use a mikewith this pickup pattern primarily torecord two voices talking into the samemicrophone. You can also use it as part ofthe MS Stereo Miking Pattern discussedin last month’s Sound Track column.You can find all of these pickup patternsin a variety of microphone styles. Some ofthe more expensive microphones evenhave switches that enable you to choosemultiple patterns from a single mike.Styles of MicrophonesAfter you make the choice betweendynamic and condenser, and select anappropriate pickup pattern, you have tochoose what style of microphone to use.This choice is entirely dependent on thetype of production you are doing andwhether or not you want to see the mikeon screen. The major types of microphonestyles are: handheld, shotgun, lavalier orlapel mike, boundary or PZM (PressureZone Microphone) mike and parabolicmike.The handheld microphone is just that,a microphone that you hold in your hand.This mike is usually flat black or metallicand generally has either an omnidirectionalor cardioid pickup pattern. Itis ideal for direct addresses to the cameraby your talent. It looks good and the talentcan handle it quite easily. It is the mike ofchoice for TV news reporters, singers,politicians and talk-show hosts.The shotgun microphone is a longslender mike that usually has a hypercardioidor even a supercardioid (extremelyfocused) pickup pattern. You would primarilyuse this microphone in field production,mounted on a suspension mountat the end of a long fishpole. The boomoperator that manipulates the fishpolekeeps the microphone out of the frameabout 18" from the talents mouth so thatthey can pick up a consistent voice level.You can use this mike to record soundeffects and other sound sources because itpicks up sound only from the direction itis pointing, cutting most of the soundfrom its sides and back.The lavalier or lapel microphone is avery small microphone that the talent canwear on his or her lapel or some placenear his or her mouth. You can hide thesemicrophones in costumes or weave theminto an actor’s hair. If you ever get boredduring a live play or musical, try to findthe mikes on the main actors. Costumedesigners and makeup artists are veryingenious in finding places to hide themikes and power packs. Lavaliere microphonesusually have an omni-directionalor cardioid pickup pattern and closelymike a single talent. You can also use theomni-directional lavalier to mike variousacting areas by hiding them in plants, furnitureand other set pieces. Just be carefulthat the talent doesn’t touch or bang intotheir hiding place. You will definitelyhear it.The boundary microphone is a fairlynew style of mike that has really made aname for itself lately. This mike ismounted on a flat surface and usually hasan omni-directional pickup pattern.These are great for miking conferenceswhere you have a flat table with peoplesitting all around. You can use themextensively as stage mikes (not placeddirectly on the stage where footfallswould create heavy interference) toenhance theatre sound levels; or use themto record a group of people in a closedenvironment like a class or seminar.The parabolic microphone is for longdistanceaudio pickup. This extremelydirectional microphone looks like a smallhandheld satellite dish which reflects allof the sound to a center-mounted microphone.This mike is primarily used torecord the sound at sporting events or to

Sound Track: Microphone Types 61(a)(b)shotgunlavaliere(c)(d)handheldPZMFigure 12.4 Mike Types—Different mikes work better in different shooting situations,you may need more than one in your kit.pick up the sounds of wild animals. Boththis microphone and the shotgun microphoneare ideal for picking up middleto high frequency ranges but are not suitablefor high quality, total range soundrecording.Microphone AccessoriesAs with all equipment, once you find themicrophone you want to use, you have toaccessorize. A friend of mine who runs arecording studio is constantly explainingthe need for the strange looking ring withwhat looks like panty hose stretched overit. This is an extremely important microphoneaccessory called a windscreen ormore precisely, a pop filter. He places themesh surface in front of the microphoneso that the talents’ breath does not pop themicrophone when they say words withhard “P”s and “B”s (see Figure 12.5).Windscreens come in a variety ofshapes and surfaces. If you ever see amicrophone with a gray or other coloredfoam ball covering its end, you are seeingone type of windscreen. Another popularwindscreen used with shotgun microphonesis a zeppelin or blimp (thesenames coming from their resemblanceto the early 1900s aircraft). These windscreenscompletely enclose the microphoneand are attached directly to thefishpole or mike stand. If you see someoneusing a big hairy microphoneoutdoors, he is using a blimp with a windjammercover. This cover is extremelyeffective when you are shooting in windyconditions.Shock mounts or suspension mounts, areanother extremely valuable microphone

62 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionmicrophone. Soft elastic materials likerubber or nylon suspend the mike so thatthe sounds created by your hands rubbingthe fishpole or something hitting the mikestand are not heard. It is extremely importantthat you use a suspension mountwhen using a shotgun on a fishpole.Mike CheckFigure 12.5 Things That Go Pop–A pop filterreduces the intensity of popping Ps and Bs innarration.accessory. Suspension mounts preventsounds traveling through the mike standor fishpole from being picked up by theWhen buying microphones and accessories,the kind of equipment you buywill depend on the type of productionyou do. Look at your needs and comparethem with the instruments describedabove. There is a microphone designedfor every type of production. It is up toyou to decide what your productionrequirements are and the microphone thatwill best fit your audio needs.

13Putting Radio to Work:The Low-Down onWireless MikesLarry LemmA wireless microphone system can be avideographer’s best friend or worstenemy. Learn a how wireless microphonesystems work and you’ll be able to chooseand use the best system for your needs, soyou can get the best audio possible.sacrificed in the transmission from transmitterto receiver. This signal loss maynot be noticed when miking a personspeaking, however, because the humanThe BasicsThere are a few different types of wirelessmicrophone system setups. They all requirethree separate parts to make them all workas one: a microphone, a radio transmitterand a radio receiver (see Figure 13.1).Some wireless systems have hand-heldmicrophones with built-in transmitters.Others use lavalier microphones withsmall transmitter packs strapped to a person’sbelt. These are very popular andprovide a discrete method of miking asubject. It is important to note that a moderatelypriced wireless microphone oftenwon’t have the same frequency responserange as a moderately priced wired microphone.Some of the frequency range isCableFromMikeMODULATETransmitterModulated signalvia airwavesAntennaAntennaDEMODULATEReceiverFigure 13.1 The transmitter modulates thesignal coming from the microphone onto aradio frequency carrier wave and transmits itthrough the air. The receiver demodulates thissignal back into a form your camcorder canrecord.Cable signal to recorder63

64 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionvoice falls in the middle of the frequencyrange.Wireless microphone systems operatein two different radio frequency ranges.These acronyms, also used in TV, willprobably seem familiar. The FCC licenseswireless mikes to operate between 150to 216 MHz in the VHF (Very HighFrequency) spectrum. It also licensesoperation between 400 and 470 MHz andagain between 900 and 950 MHz inthe UHF (Ultra High Frequency) spectrum.Much lower frequency, and usuallymuch cheaper, mikes, operate between41 and 49 MHz where they are subjectto interference from all kinds of otherdevices.VHF wireless microphone systems aregenerally less expensive than UHF systems.Much like VHF TV stations, VHFwireless mikes have less range and powerthan their UHF counterparts.Your Own Tiny Radio StationA wireless microphone system’s transmitterpack is essentially a tiny radio station.The mike attaches to a tiny transmitter,which has a tiny antenna and a tinypower supply (in the form of a battery).This usually means tiny signal strengthtoo, which is why your signal won’tstretch across town like a high-poweredradio signal. Instead of calculating yourrange in miles, the range of the tiny radiostation within your wireless mike is measuredin feet. And it’s usually less than afew hundred feet for VHF and less than1,000 feet for UHF.On the other end of this cozy littlemicrophone system is the receiver. Itworks much like a car radio, except itonly tunes into the channels that yourtransmitter uses. For most videographers,wireless systems that use small batterypoweredreceivers are often favored overlarger table-top systems that cannot attachto a camcorder.Breaking Up is Easy to DoUsing a wireless microphone systempresents some potential dangers. On adensely-populated shoot, where severalother videographers are using wirelessmikes, you may encounter interferencewith another mike operating on the sameradio frequency. With more and more radiodevices in use, it’s more and more likelyfor that to happen. Most wireless systems,however, offer a few different channels towork with, so hopefully you’ll notice thattype of interference before you roll tape.The next type of interference, multipathinterference, is an inherent flaw of usingradio frequencies (especially indoors),and often requires wireless microphonemanufacturers to double-up on the electronicsin a system (see Figure 13.2).Multipath interference occurs after atransmitter sends out a radio signal. Someof the signal goes directly to the receiver,but other parts of it bounce around andsometimes hit the receiving antenna withjust enough delay to cancel out the signalor cause interference. Multipath interferenceis the reason developers had to comeup with diversity and true-diversity wirelesssystems.TransmitterDirect signalReceiverReflected signalFigure 13.2 Multipath interference resultsfrom the transmitter’s signal bouncing offobjects in the environment. When a signal andits delayed reflection enter the receiver, theymay be recorded at a reduced quality- or mayresult in no signal getting recorded at all.

Putting Radio to Work 65Truly DiverseWhat’s diversity to a wireless microphone?Well, there are two answers, andboth are aimed at eliminating the effectsof multipath interference.A true diversity system has two antennas,each leading to a separate receiver. A kindof switcher monitors these two for signalstrength and makes sure the strongest of thetwo is sent out to the recorder on a momentby-momentbasis (see Figure 13.3). A gooddiversity system does this quickly andseamlessly, introducing no static or switchingnoise into the signal.On the other hand, we have “ersatz”diversity mikes. From the outside theselook like the true variety, as theirreceivers also have two antennas. The difference,however, lies within. If youcracked one open, instead of finding tworeceivers and a switcher, you’d find thatboth antenna wires lead to the samereceiver (see Figure 13.4). The singlereceiver receives the signals from bothantennas all the time. This type of systemis not as effective as the true diversitytype at eliminating the effects of multipathinterference.On the LevelThe last thing you should understandabout a wireless microphone system is thereceiver’s output. There are three types ofoutputs: mike level, consumer line leveland professional line level.Small, portable systems that attach ontoyour camcorder and plug into its microphonejack use mike-level outputs. Theoutput of consumer line-level units, however,measures 10 dB and the output ofprofessional line-level receivers measures4 dB. Be sure to add the correct attenuationand adaptation to either of the latterbefore trying to plug the output into yourcamcorder’s mike jack.Consider a wireless system that hasmike-level inputs that you can straponto your camcorder and go to town.You may consider a more expensivewireless microphone system, designedwith musicians in mind. But you mayalso need a soundboard to use one ofthese to best results. No matter whattype of video you make, understandinghow wireless mikes work will help yoube a better shopper and a better videoproducer.Figure 13.3 A true diversity receiver containstwo antennas, two receivers and a switcher.Figure 13.4 An “ersatz” diversity system hastwo antennas, but only a single receiver.

66 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionSidebarWireless Audio AdviceHere are several tips for getting the best sound from any wireless microphone system:● Keep it close. Keep the distance between transmitter and receiver as short as possible.Every wireless system has its limits. The shorter the transmission, the stronger the signal.● Don’t stray too far. The goal of a wireless microphone is usually to unhook your talentfrom cables. You may be able to accomplish this with an extremely short distance betweenmicrophone and receiver. Try putting the receiver near the talent, just out of the camera’sview, and run a longer cable to the camcorder (wherever it may be).● Reposition the receiver. If you just can’t get a clean signal, especially indoors, try movingthe receiver. RF signals bounce around in strange ways, and a movement of just three or fourfeet could make a huge difference.● Reorient antennas. Sometimes, simply cocking an antenna can reduce dropouts (that’s whyantennas are usually hinged). Try laying the receiver’s antenna horizontal instead of vertical,try a 45-degree angle or try spinning the receiver itself 90 degrees.● Watch those batteries. Wireless systems eat batteries quickly, and can get rather flaky asthe battery voltage drops. If all else fails, try new batteries.● Try a different environment. If all else fails, you may need to try a completely differentshooting location. Some locations are not friendly to wireless systems, while the room downthe hall may pose no problems. As a rule, wireless microphones fare better outdoors than in.

14Blending a Sweet Sound:Audio MixersJim StinsonYou’ve got your camcorder; you’ve gotyour VCR. What you might want next isan audio mixer. That’s because a goodsoundtrack is crucial to quality video, andan audio mixer gives you greater controlover the soundtrack. The trick is to get theright one.In this chapter, we’ll review what amixer does and how to choose the bestmixer for your particular needs. You’lllearn how to find the unit that deliversthe features you want at a price you canafford.Audio Mixer BasicsThough a big professional unit comes withmore intimidating knobs, sliders, buttonsand displays than the cockpit of a 747,audio mixers are really straightforwardcritters that perform two basic tasks:1. They balance the volume of soundelements—camera sound, music andnarration—coming in from severaldifferent sources and blend them into asingle audio program.2. They process sound elements byadjusting their volume, timbre andperceived location.Why bother to balance and process sound?First, because effective sound editing contributespowerfully to any video program.(Hollywood’s known that for over 60years; that’s why they give Oscars forsound.) Audio mixing improves soundclarity by balancing elements so that theimportant sounds dominate the track. Theprocess can intensify the drama of yourimages with realistic effects, and enhancethe mood of your images with music.Another reason for building creativeaudio is that the process itself is so satisfying.Enhance your video with a sophisticatedaudio track, and you’ll fall in lovewith the creative challenge that is audioediting. In short, audio editing is fun.Audio mixers come in a wide varietyof flavors and prices. You can work with67

68 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productiontwo mono channels or with 48 stereochannels—or more. You can pick up asimple box for 50 bucks or shell out theprice of a Mercedes for a unit as big as apool table—or spend any amount inbetween. You can twiddle a couple ofsimple knobs or play arpeggios on aninstrument with more bells and whistlesthan the collected works of Spike Jones.But mixers with eight channels or fewerare most likely to meet the needs (and thebudgets) of prosumer videographers.Mixers fall into four different classes:production, DJ, studio and audio/video.Each class includes a number of unitswith a range of features and prices.On-Site ProductionProduction mixers are different from therest in one crucial way: they’re designedto mix sound elements during the actualvideotaping rather than during postproduction.In other words, they recordmixed sound on the original camera tape,not the edited assembly tape. (All professionalvideo crews use production mixers—usually run by the person who wields themike boom.)You can use all production mixersduring the editing phase; just rememberthat many of them offer fewer featuresthan those units made expressly for postproductionuse.Disco Meets VideoA number of vendors offer audio mixersdesigned primarily for the disc jockeyshosting most contemporary parties, banquetsand balls.These hard-working artists have specialneeds. A disc jockey wants to:●●Fade from one music source to anotherone in real time, using a cross-fadercontrol.Prepare the next piece of music privatelyby listening to it through headphonespatched to the cue channel.●●Detonate soothing and tasteful soundeffects like machine guns and sirens,either with built-in digital effects orwith a pre-programmed sampler.Dip the levels of music and machineguns together while performing voiceoverannouncements via the mixer’stalk-over feature.What’s any of this got to do with videopost-production? Lots, when you thinkabout it. Like running a disco, videosound editing is often a real-time operation.Since you must record your finalcomposite audio in a single pass, you areoften juggling several sound sources atonce. You may want to mix from onesound source to another, so a cross-fadercontrol would simplify the task. You mayneed to locate the next sound effector piece of music while recording, soa cue channel would let you auditiona source without recording it. You maywant to lay down perfectly synchronizedsound effects, so a sampler that storeseffects and puts them at your fingertipswould sure help.And if you’re adding narration, itwould be great to have a talk-over functionthat would consistently dip bothmusic and ambient sound to a preset levelwhenever you began speaking.With all that said, however, a DJ audiomixer can work beautifully in videoproduction—if you already have one. Butif you’re buying a new, full-featuredmixer, a studio unit might be preferable.In the Studio AudioIn general, studio mixers tend to offermore versatility in input/output functionsand signal processing.Those mixers tend to cost more than theothers discussed in this chapter do, but aswith most audio equipment, you get whatyou pay for.The most basic advantage of these mixersis simply better sound. They aredesigned for audio alone, so they offer the

Blending a Sweet Sound 69most in audio quality. The manufacturersof these units tend to be more carefulabout such considerations as audio noiseand shielding.They also offer more in the way ofversatility—stereo line inputs, mike andphono inputs, analog or digital VU meters,equalizers, cueing channels, cross-faders,and so on.Still, you may prefer to trade someadvanced features for convenience andlower cost. Maybe you should check outan audio/video mixer.Audio/Video ProcessingAudio/video mixers combine video andaudio processing functions in one piece ofhardware. In the video department, theymix A and B rolls and often supply specialeffects ranging from simple colorwipes to elaborate digital processing. Ifyou can live with their usually limitedaudio processing abilities, A/V mixersoffer two big benefits:●●They put both audio and video functionsunder your fingertips in the sameplace and using the same style controls.Some compare in price to stand-aloneaudio mixers with similar features.For example, some A/V mixers includetwo audio inputs for line and mike signals.That means you can mix originalcamera sound with music and narration—which is as much as many videographersneed to do.Some even offer video fades andwipes—something you can’t expect fromany audio mixer, no matter how expensive.And if you want to go upscale a bit, youcan get fancier audio/video features, suchas stereo inputs and cross-fade controlsbetween A and B rolls.Two Sound TricksMany audio mixers have few channelsand even fewer sound processing features.Here are two simple ideas for gettingaround these limitations.FIRST TRICK: Premix unsynchronizedtracks. Audio tracks fall into three types:1. Those you must perfectly synchronize,such as original camera sound withdialogue,2. those that should be closely but notperfectly synchronized, such as narrationand music and3. those that are unsynchronized, such asatmospheric background tracks includingsurf, traffic and restaurant chatter.If you have four tracks—camera, narration,music and background—but onlythree audio inputs, you can premix all butthe camera audio to make an audio subassemblytape, and then make a final mixof this tape and the camera.This is a practical solution, because thegeneration-to-generation quality loss inaudio signals proves much less obviousthan in video.SECOND TRICK: Daisy chain processors.If your mixer does not have a built-inequalizer or limiter, and it also lacks asend/return capability, simply patch yoursignal processor between the source andthe mixer.For example, background traffic noisecan often ruin your on-camera interviews.To reduce that noise without affecting yournarration or music channels, connect yourvideo source’s Audio Out to a graphicequalizer and then patch the equalizer’sLine Out to your mixer’s Source In.Or, if you want to equalize the entireaudio program, connect the graphic equalizerbetween the mixer and the assemblyrecord deck.Decision TimeAs you can see, choosing the right audiomixer for you means deciding what youwant to do with it, how you want to do it

70 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionand what you want to pay. To help makethose decisions, here are some generalsuggestions.●●If you have not yet performed muchsound mixing, start with a simple, inexpensiveunit. Then, if you enjoy theprocess of audio editing and feel theresults are worth your effort, you canmove up to more versatile equipment.If you are an experienced sound editorand know your current and future audioneeds, get the best and most versatilemixer that will meet those needs andstill suit your budget. One more time:high-quality sound is well worth theinvestment.And whichever route you take, rememberthat sound is not a post-productionchore but one of the most creative aspectsof video production.Give it the care and imagination itdeserves. You won’t be sorry.

15Tape Truths:All Exciting Overview ofthe Making of VideotapeLoren AlldrinAsk any videographer about the craft ofvideo, and you’ll likely get an earful. Try itsometime—grab any videographer and askabout the topic of your choice. Be it lightingscenes with glowbugs, shooting from atop amoving train or even audio production with8-track cartridges, chances are you’ll findyou have an expert on your hands.Then, slyly, slip in a question aboutvideotape. Don’t make it too hard. Startwith something simple like, “What is thedifference between grades of videotape?”or “How is videotape made?” You’ll probablyget a different response altogether.You’ll probably get silence.Surprisingly few videographers knowwhat separates one brand or grade of tapefrom another. This is largely the faultof tape manufacturers, who’ve introduceda slew of confusing buzzwords andacronyms in an attempt to create somedistinction for themselves within the market.The result is that videotape, the verymedium of our visual expression, has formany years been the victim of numeroushalf-truths and marketing ploys.Fortunately, the essential nature of thatthin black ribbon is not hard to comprehend.The more videographers knowabout the materials and manufacturing ofvideotape, the better informed their buyingdecisions will be.Advances and VariationsOn a basic level, all magnetic tape is thesame. Whether audio, video or computerdata tape, there’s still that thin layer ofmagnetic particles covering a flexiblemylar backing. By passing this thin ribbonover an electromagnet, information isstored and retrieved.A tape’s magnetic particles number billionsper square inch and function liketiny bar magnets. Though each particle isphysically anchored in the tape’s coating,its magnetic polarity is free to change andswivel when a magnetic force is applied.Before recording, the particles areoriented randomly. During recording, thevideo heads arrange the particles into71

72 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionpatterns dictated by the changing voltageof the video signal. These patterns are thenpicked up by a playback head; amplifiedand processed to become the video image.Improvements in videotape over theyears have been dramatic, keeping pacewith advances in hardware. Today’s tapeoffers frequency response and noise levelsthat match or exceed the decks and camcordersthey enter.This doesn’t mean further advances intape manufacturing are impossible. On thecontrary. The closer tape manufacturerscome to the perfect tape, the closer we getto realizing the full potential of video gear.There are many variations in the tapemanufacturing process, because thereare many different manufacturers. Eachputs a personal twist on methods andmaterials, hoping to achieve an edge inthe market. Considerable research anddevelopment is invested in tape manufacturing,with special attention directedtoward high performance—and highpriced—formulations. Capturing the dollarof the uncompromising video purist isquite the competitive industry.Secret FormulasWhile videotape may appear simple, it’sactually the culmination of years of audioand video research.From the early days of magnetic audiorecording on thin metal wire to the firstrust-covered tape with paper backing, magneticrecording technology has steadilyadvanced. Today’s manufacturing techniquesbenefit from the latest research inphysics, chemistry and electronics, yet thebasic methods resemble those of yesteryear.The actual magnetic medium in videotapestarts out suspended in a liquidknown as a binder. Where binders wereonce simple glue holding the magnetic particlesin suspension, today they’ve becomea complex molten brew of adhesives, lubricants,cleaners, solvents, dispersion agentsand static-controlling compounds. Eachmanufacturer has its own blend of binderingredients, and jealously guards thedetails of its exclusive mixture.To this hi-tech soup are added theactual magnetic particles. Mixed in liquidform in large sealed vats, the binder andmagnetic particles are computer-monitoredfor temperature, humidity, pressure andtime. When conditions are perfect, thebinder is applied to the tape’s base film,bonded by chemical action. The tape isthen passed through large ovens where thebinder is dried and hardened, the magneticparticles suspended and dispersed evenlyon the surface of the tape.Initially, the magnetic particles are orientedrandomly in the binder, scatteredthrough the liquid like pigment in paint.Yet the physical alignment of the particlesis crucial to efficient magnetic recording.To orient the particles in the same direction,the tape is passed through strongmagnetic fields as the binder hardens.The more uniform the dispersion and orientationof the particles, the better thetape performance. Early techniques useda single magnetic field; today manufacturersachieve improved uniformity by passingthe tape through two or more fields.A smooth finish on both surfaces of thetape is crucial. This is accomplished bycompressing the tape through large, polishedrollers under extreme pressure.Called “calendaring,” this deceptivelysimple process affects the noise level, frictionand overall stability of the tape.At this point the tape is still in largerolls, each many feet wide and weighingthousands of pounds. Before being loadedinto cassettes, it must be slit to the desiredwidth and wound onto large “pancakerolls.” These are then placed in automatictape loaders, which add a small section ofleader and wind the desired amount oftape into the cassette. Pancakes are alsosold to cassette duplicators, who load theprecise length needed into shells beforeduplication.A high degree of precision and cleanlinessis necessary throughout the entiremanufacturing process. The tape must beslit within microns of the desired width to

Tape Truths 73insure smooth operation in VCR or camcorder.It must be properly loaded into awell-designed cassette, or jamming andbreakage will occur. Specks of dust orbacking material picked up at this stagewill manifest as dropouts or cloggedvideo heads.Making the GradeThe star of every tape is the tiny magneticparticle, solely responsible for picking upand carrying the video signal. Particlesize, composition, density and distributionplay a large part in determining atape’s performance, and these are theareas where tape manufacturers concentratemost of their efforts.Early videotapes used magnetic particlesthat were relatively large. They wereeasier to formulate, disperse in the binderand distribute evenly along the tape. Butthe size and relatively sparse distributiondelivered limited frequency response andhigh noise levels.In the old days, ferric oxide was themost common magnetic material used;cobalt was added to the particles to stabilizeand improve their magnetic properties.Chromium dioxide—chrome—wasemployed by some manufacturers.Early research was devoted to reducingsize and increasing particle density.Particle size decreased steadily, but manufacturerssoon discovered smaller particleswere more difficult to disperseevenly in the binder. New binder formulationsand application techniques werethen developed in response, causingvideotape performance to improve dramatically.Longer, elliptical particles were createdfor even greater magnetic densities.Today’s formulations benefit fromsmaller, needle-shaped magnetic particlesthat can be packed incredibly tight on thesurface of the tape. New production technologiesallow particle orientation to becontrolled with a high degree of precision.Greater magnetic density is one of themajor differences between the differentgrades of videotape. High-grade tapes usesmaller particles in a greater concentrationthan normal-grade cassettes. Thisresults in improved S/N ratios, better frequencyresponse and a greater amount ofmagnetic retention. High-grade tapes costmore, as they require more expensivematerials and stricter manufacturingmethods. Extremely high-grade cassettesare usually manufactured in much smallerquantity, a factor contributing to their cost.The difference in performance betweennormal and high-grade tapes is often dramatic,with the latter delivering greaterdetail, truer colors and less noise. Somehigh-grade tapes, when recorded in theslower EP speed, will outperform normaltapes recorded in SP. Multiple generationshold up better on high-grade tapes: thirdgenerationhigh-grade tapes may look betterthan first-generation normal-grade.Super-VHS formulations take high-gradeeven higher, using even smaller and moredensely packed particles. More magneticenergy can be stored at a higher frequency,as required by the format. Manufacturingtolerances are even more stringent than forhigh-grade cassettes, with quantities considerablylower. S-VHS tapes commandthe highest price of any half-inch format;they also deliver the best performance.Some videotapes are labeled “hi-fi,”promising increased audio performance.In reality, most manufacturers feel the relativelyfew hi-fi tapes purchased don’t justifyproducing a special hi-fi formulation.Instead, manufacturers may use a differentsort of selection process for determiningtapes with optimum noise and dropoutfigures. Other manufacturers simply adorna high-grade tape with the “hi-fi” logo toincrease sales. According to tape manufacturerScotch 3M, virtually all high-gradetapes deliver excellent hi-fi performance.Heavy MetalIn the ’90s, a slightly different particle formulationappeared under the aegis of VHStape manufacturers JVC and Maxell. Called

74 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionmagnetite, this cobalt-doped material offersa 20 percent increase in magnetic potentialover standard cobalt ferric oxide. Magnetitewas first researched over a hundred yearsago, but found to be too unstable for magneticrecording. JVC and Maxell havesucceeded in encasing volatile magnetitein a sheath of stabilizing material, andhave begun using it in all grades of VHSvideotape.Metal particle tape (MP), common inconsumer-level 8mm formats, uses normalmanufacturing methods with magneticparticles of a different composition. Basedon an iron molecule, MP formulationsdeliver dramatically higher performancethan standard cobalt ferric oxide tapes.This allows high quality pictures to berecorded on tape with significantly lesssurface area than half-inch formats. WhileMP formulations could conceivably beused in VHS and S-VHS formats, the magneticpowders involved cost quite a bitmore than cobalt ferric oxide. Whether theresulting difference in quality would justifythe cost to consumers is questionable.Many professional formats, including digitalvideo systems, use MP formulations.A more recent advance in videotapetechnology, metal evaporated tape (ME),uses a different manufacturing method todeposit magnetic particles. Instead ofbeing carried in a binder and painted ontothe tape, ME magnetic particles are vaporizedfrom a solid and deposited onto basefilm. Inside a vacuum chamber, an electronbeam heats metal to thousands ofdegrees. Inside the chamber the metalvaporizes, adhering in an extremely finelayer to the specially prepared base film.A protective coating is then applied to themagnetic layer. The result is a smooth,thin, densely-packed film of pure magneticparticles.Due to the extreme purity of the magneticlayer, ME tapes deliver performancemany times that of standard VHS formulations.No binder is used, allowing theindividual particles to mesh with a densityapproaching solid metal. While earlyME tapes were known to suffer fromdropout problems, newer methods havereportedly reduced dropouts to levelscomparable to other formats. ME tapestherefore represent the pinnacle of consumertape manufacturing, and it is thetechnology used by the various DV formats.Advances in tape manufacturing haveaffected all grades of tape, with today’sleast expensive name-brand VHS tapesoffering much higher performance thannormal-grade tapes of the past. Ultrahighgradetapes available today deliver videoquality unobtainable even a few years ago(see Figure 15.1).Frequency ResponseAs with most forms of manufacturing,making videotape involves tradeoffs andcompromises. Advances in one area createchallenges in another. But tape manufacturerscontinue to believe videographerswill choose whoever promises a bettervideotape.One area of tape performance caught incompromise is frequency response—therange of frequencies a tape is capable ofcapturing and reproducing at the samesignal level. Wide frequency responseguarantees the tape will accurately reproducethe entire spectrum of video information.This characteristic relies in largepart on the size of the magnetic particles,with smaller particles generating betterluminance detail through extended highfrequencyresponse.Unfortunately, such small particlesdon’t do as well with the lower frequencycolor information. The result is a crisp,detailed image with compromised coloraccuracy.Using larger particles extends low frequencyresponse and delivers better colorreproduction, but high-frequency detailsuffers. One solution involves using twodifferent magnetic layers, the lower usinglarger particles for optimum low-frequencyresponse, the upper incorporatingsmaller particles for optimum luminancedetail. This method, used in Fuji’s Double

Tape Truths 750 µm5 µm0.2 µm10 µm8mm 120 MP8mm 120 ME15 µmVHST-180Magnetic Layer20 µmVHST-120Backing LayerFigure 15.1 Videotape thickness.Coating videotape line, is said to offerbroad frequency response and reducednoise levels.An ultra-smooth magnetic surface providesbetter signal-to-noise ratio byimproving the contact between videoheads and magnetic media. At the sametime, a smoother surface also increasesfriction between tape and head/transportassembly. The solution lies in integratingadvanced lubricants into the binder toreduce friction, insuring the heads enjoyan easy trip over the tape’s surface.A completely different challenge arisesat the back of the tape. Here, friction isactually an ally to smooth, consistentmovement of the tape through the transport.Coating the backing with layers ofcarbon increases friction and makes it moreuniform, insuring the transport drive surfacesget a good bite on the tape. The carbonalso serves to control static buildup, anenemy of any kind of recording.Tape StrengthBinder composition presents tradeoffs aswell. It needs to be solid enough to holdthe magnetic particles in proper alignmentbut flexible enough to not impedetape travel or shed oxide. Early binderswere deficient in preventing magneticparticles from flaking off in the transport,which reduced the life of the tape as wellas the hardware. Modern binders are considerablymore durable and flexible, somenearly eliminating oxide shedding completely.A number of manufacturers use amulti-layer binder, with a slightly differentcomposition on each layer. Thisallows a more rigid binder to be used onone level, with a more flexible compositionabove or below it.One of the most obvious tradeoffs invideotape manufacturing is the relationshipbetween tape thickness and durability.Longer record/playback time is asignificant purchase point for many videographers;manufacturers have scrambledto be accommodating by fitting more tapeinto cassettes. The convenience, however,comes at a price.A videotape’s tensile strength is determinedby the thickness and compositionof the base film. Longer tapes require athinner backing, which can compromisetape resistance to breaking and stretching.Temperature extremes, poorly designed ormaintained tape transports, even frequentplay/rewind cycles can put significantmechanical stress on a videotape. Eventhough some manufacturers claim to havedeveloped stronger, thinner backing layers,shorter tapes still have a better chanceof surviving such rigors.In addition to snapping or stretchingthe tape, mechanical stresses can also

76 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productioncause small sections of magnetic materialto shed off the backing. Visible as fleetingwhite lines knifing through the videoimage, dropouts spell disaster—or atleast frustration—for the video producer.An otherwise perfect shot can be rendereduseless by just one poorly-timeddropout.Selection ConfusionThe actual performance difference betweenbrands of tape within the same grade maybe hard to measure and even harder to see.All tape manufacturers face the same tradeoffsand compromises, and all have experiencedadvances and setbacks at roughly thesame pace. Unless scrutinized in a side-bysidecomparison, with all other variableseliminated, it’s hard to determine onetape’s superiority over another.Other factors add to the confusion.There is no industry-wide standard forjudging tape performance; instead, eachmanufacturer measures videotape againstits own “reference” tape. Most manufacturersuse a high-grade tape, but each referenceis a little bit different.The bottom line is this: when comparingtapes between manufacturers, thenumbers mean very little.Comparing different grades of videotaperequires hardware up to the task. Ifyou expect to see a dramatic differencebetween normal and extra-high-gradetape on your $189 VCR and twenty-yearoldTV set, you’re dreaming. The hardwareis simply not capable of tapping theincreased potential of the higher-gradetape. Perform the same comparison on ahigh-end VCR and monitor and the differenceswill become obvious.Sometimes, differences between batchesfrom the same manufacturer are greaterthan those between brands. Computerassistedquality control has helpedeliminate inconsistencies between manufacturingruns, but there’s still some variation.Batches of binder and magneticmaterial may differ slightly; the largesheets of base film may possess slight surfacedeviations. Fortunately finding yourselfthe victim of a “bad batch” isbecoming a rare phenomenon.The key to avoiding substandard videotapeis to find a brand that offers consistentresults and stick with it. Many videographersswear by a given brand of tape,touting its merits with almost religiousfervor. The more you understand about thematerials and techniques that go into tapemanufacturing, the less you’ll feel at themercy of chance when selecting videotapestock. For every pound of advertising jargon,it’s the ounce of fact that should guideyour decision-making.If a manufacturer comes out with apromising new development, don’t beafraid to give it a try. Remember that mostmanufacturers offer a free replacementpolicy if you’re not completely satisfiedwith the videotape. Don’t be afraid toreturn a tape riddled with dropouts, offeringpoor video performance or emittingquestionable noises.Lastly, use your new knowledge ofvideotape to turn a critical eye to manufacturerclaims. Analyze cassette boxes,brochures and advertisements with an eyeto gleaning fact from fiction. Beware of“breakthroughs” that are nothing morethan marketing hype. Yet be ready forlegitimate advances that could have a realimpact on the quality of your video productions.They do happen.

16Resolution LinesBill RoodWith video equipment manufacturersincreasingly engaged in spec wars overlines of resolution it seems appropriate toinvestigate those figures, what they meanand why they’re so often misleading.Knowing how to measure resolution willhelp you make a smart purchase the nexttime you look for a camcorder, VCR ormonitor.Much of the confusion centers aroundthe use of the term “lines.” Lines of horizontalresolution should not be confusedwith scan lines. In America, the NationalTelevision Standards Committee (or NTSC)television system mandates that the televisionpicture will consist of 525 verticalscan lines, each scanning from left to righton the screen. This fact does not change, nomatter how sophisticated the video gear.So when a manufacturer boasts that adevice features “400 lines of resolution,”the reference is not to vertical resolution,or the number of scan lines. What’s underdiscussion is horizontal resolution, or,more specifically, horizontal luminanceresolution. The chroma resolution in theNTSC system is as little as one tenth thatof the luminance, depending on the particularhue. So for our purposes, I’ll discussonly luminance resolution.When a Line Is Not a LineWhile the number of scan lines is fixedand can be counted, the number of “lines”in the term “lines of horizontal resolution”is in fact strictly a unit of measurement.There are no actual lines you cancount, except with a special test chart (seeFigure 16.1). You can put your face rightup to the picture tube and see the scanlines, but you can’t see lines of resolution.We should actually refer to horizontalluminance resolution as “video frequencyresponse.” It’s expressed in megahertz(MHz), usually with a tolerance, just as withaudio equipment. Unfortunately, consumervideo equipment manufacturers apparentlybelieve this too complicated for the averageconsumer to understand, so they use thequestionable lines method instead.77

78 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 16.1 Horizontal resolution test chart.Credit: Thomas Fjallstam.Measurements stated in lines also soundmore impressive than those expressed inmegahertz. Three hundred lines sounds betterthan three-and-a-half megahertz.So how does this frequency responsediffer from vertical resolution? You canmeasure video frequency response byexamining just one of the 525 scan lines,provided you are displaying a test signalof vertical bars. The frequency response ofthe entire picture should be the same onevery line.As an example, let’s examine one scanline of a black-and-white picture. As thescan line traces from left to right, we’d seethat the brightness of the line at any givenpoint is a function of the picture contentat that point. If the picture consists of awhite picket fence against a dark background,the line would start off dim, thenbrighten as it reproduced one of the pickets.It would go dark as it passed betweenpickets, then brighten again when it hitthe next one. And so on. This sequencewould continue until the end of the line.What happens if we make the picketson the fence closer together? The line stillmust switch between light and dark, butfaster. In effect, we’ve upped the frequencyof the input signal we’re trying to reproduce.At some point, a given piece of gearcannot make the changes fast enough; thus,we arrive at the limits of its resolution. Asthe pickets got closer, they would begin toappear less bright. Finally, you would nolonger distinguish a picket from its neighbor.The black and white pattern will meltinto a neutral gray.Specs GameSo how do we measure video frequencyresponse, or obtain horizontal resolutionspecifications?For equipment handling video signalsin a purely electronic form, use a test signalknown as “multiburst”. This signalcontains a series of bursts, nothing morethan white/black/white transitions. Tinypicket fences, if you will, each higher infrequency than the one previous. Whenviewed on an oscilloscope, each burstshould offer the same amplitude.

Figure 16.2 Resolution and frequency response test charts.Credit: Earl Talken.Resolution Lines 79

80 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionIf the signal drops off as the frequencyrises, you know you’re seeing highfrequencyresponse roll-off. The frequencyof each burst is fairly standard; usually0.5 MHz, 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 3.58 MHzand 4.2 MHz. The beauty of this method isits extreme precision, with no sloppyguesswork.For devices which pick up or displayimages, like cameras and monitors, virtuallythe only way to determine horizontalresolution is to display a special resolutionchart (see Figure 16.2). This chart featureslittle wedges: a series of convergingblack lines on a white background. Asthe lines come closer together, youagain begin to encounter a point wherethe change from black to white toblack occurs so quickly the lines becomeindistinct.Along the outer edge of the wedge atregular intervals are line numbers, reading200, 250, 300, 350, 400 and so on.This is where “lines of resolution” comesfrom. As you might guess, it’s a ratherinexact method at best; the scale is quitecoarse, and open to interpretation as towhere exactly the lines blur together. Italso doesn’t take into account the fact thatwhile black/white/black transitions maybe visible, they may appear at a substantiallyreduced level, indicating highfrequencyroll-off.Unfortunately, this method is used tospec virtually every piece of consumervideo gear, be it camera, VCR, disc player orwhatever. This means you should take anystated resolution spec with a grain of saltthe size of Nebraska. There’s much room forerror, interpretation and fudging.Lines to MegahertzApproximately 80 TV lines equals 1 MHz ofvideo bandwidth. So a piece of equipmentrated at 300 lines would feature a video frequencyresponse of roughly 3.75 MHz. Thisis all well and good, except the 300 lines figuremost likely came from observing thewedge pattern, and may be less than accurate.Also, it’s impossible to tell by thismethod if the response is flat at 3.75 MHz,or even if there’s any response at all.With an off-air broadcast, video frequencyresponse cannot rise above4.2 MHz. Using the above formula, wecould then say that TV broadcasts feature336 lines of resolution. The reason for thelimit? The design of the television transmissionsystem from way back when. Itplaces the audio carrier at 4.5 MHz; pictureinformation must vanish by that point.Most TV broadcasts originate from digitalvideo, stored either on hard drivesor from digital videotape, such as D-1.These machines also master virtuallyeverything seen on pre-recorded homevideo, from VHS, to DVDs. These digitalmasters are a “full” 480 lines of resolution,or 6 MHz of “flat” video frequencyresponse. Unfortunately, the best resolutionfigure you can hope to see from broadcastis 360 lines—80 “lines” 4.5 MHz.Until all manufacturers come clean andstart stating horizontal resolution in termsof megahertz, and within a certain tolerance,we’ll never have a reasonable standardwith which to compare products.Until then, read the specs if you will,but don’t make judgments based uponthem alone.

17An Inside Look atCables and ConnectorsJoe McCleskeyVisit any place where video editors workand you’ll likely find more than yourshare of cables: S-video cables, audiocables, power cables, composite cables,headphone cables, microphone cablesand cables for cable TV reception, amongothers. And if the cables aren’t confusingenough for you, there’s a whole host ofconnectors to go with them, with nameslike BNC, DIN, RCA, phone, phono, XLRand stereo mini-plug.In this chapter, we’re going to take anin-depth look at some of the cables commonlyused for video. We’ll take a lookinside the four main cable types thathome video producers deal with: composite(RCA-style) cables, S-video cables, RFcables and DV (IEEE 1394) cables.Composite CablesComposite cables are perhaps the mostcommonly encountered cable type inconsumer video. They often come in thebox with home VCRs and camcorders.Sometimes, they come in groups of threeattached cables—one with yellow RCAstyleconnectors for video and two withred and white connectors for stereo audio.Also included in this category are thosecables that have yellow, red and whiteplugs on one end and a mini-plug connectoron the other end. This type of cableoften comes packaged with miniaturecamcorders that make use of the singleconnector on the camera body. (SeeFigure 17.1.)Often, video gear (especially professionalvideo gear) will have BNC (bayonetnut coupling) connectors for compositevideo. The chief advantage of the BNCconnector is its ability to lock in placewith a push and a twist; this preventsconnections from wiggling loose, a commonproblem with the typical RCA-styleconnectors.On the video side, these cables carrycomposite signals, so called because thesignal is a composite (or mixture) of allblack-and-white and color informationcontained in the video signal. They81

82 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionTo send both chrominance and luminanceinformation together on the samecable, the two signals must be mixedtogether in a process known as modulation.The modulation of the signals—andsubsequent de-modulation at the otherend—is what makes the composite videosignal highly susceptible to generationloss (the tendency of a signal to degradewhenever you make copies of it). Theonly type of video cables that are moresusceptible to generation loss are the RFcables used for cable television andantenna hook-up.RF CablesFigure 17.1 Composite cable and compositeinput.usually consist of two wires running parallelto one another down the cable; onewire (power) corresponding to the tip ofthe connector and the other wire (ground)corresponding to the outside ring portionof the connector.Why aren’t these cables just calledvideo cables? Because they actually carrytwo separate signals that are compositedinto one. Inside your camcorder and/orVCR, the black and white (luminance)information is dealt with separately fromthe color (chrominance) information.Back when television technology wasblack and white only, the only type ofvideo signal a television had to cope withwas a black and white signal. When colorcame along later, it was dealt with asanother layer of information on top of theblack and white signal, in order to makecolor TV signals compatible with existingblack and white televisions.RF cables gave cable television its name.The ubiquitous RF cable can be foundmostly on television sets and VCRs, aswell as a few old-school camcorders. RFstands for radio frequency. The nameis appropriate because this is the cablemost commonly used to transfer radiofrequencysignals from an antenna to theVCR or TV set—or even from the cable TVstation to your house.RF cables are generally made of coaxialcable, a cable that carries two metal leads,one inside the other. The two wires do notcarry two different signals; instead, theycarry the power and ground for a singlesignal, with the ground (outside) cableproviding limited shielding from radiointerference. (See Figure 17.2.)The RF cable (sometimes referred to asan F cable) provides the best means oflong-distance signal transfer. This is whyit’s most commonly used to connect cableTV stations to clients; with a heavilyshielded cable and amplifiers in far-awayneighborhoods, it’s possible to send an RFsignal miles and miles without seriousdegradation. However, it is the worst solutionfor making copies or editing. Here’swhy: remember how we told you thatcomposite video signals mix the colorand black-and-white signals into one?Well, the RF cable does this one better:it carries audio along with the mixed

An Inside Look at Cables and Connectors 83Unfortunately, you can’t just whip up anadapter to connect composite cablesdirectly to RF cables without a modulator,because RF cables transmit signals differentlythan composite cables.In short, you should only use RF cablesfor viewing video and use some othertype of cable for copying and editing.S-VideoFigure 17.2 RF cable and RF input.color/black-and-white video signal. Thismeans that problems arising frommodulation/demodulation of the signalare multiplied in RF cables. Generationloss accures at a much faster rate and evensecond-generation copies tend to havean abundance of video noise, audio noiseand bleeding colors.Camcorder enthusiasts who have televisionsets without composite video inputs(yes, they do still exist) must find someway to connect the video outputs of theircamcorder to the RF-style connectors oftheir TV. VCRs usually provide theneeded connections, but for some whostill have older VCRs without video connectors,the RF-to-composite connectionmay require a separate inexpensivedevice called a modulator, readily availableat consumer electronics outlets.One obvious way to solve the modulationproblem that composite video and RFcables present is to leave the color andblack-and-white information separate andsend them down a pair of wires in thecable. That’s what S-video or Y/C, cablesaccomplish. (In video technical parlance,Y is the symbol for luminance and C is thesymbol for chrominance.) Because S-videocables do not carry two signals modulatedinto one, they provide a very robust meansof editing and copying video.Looking at the end of an S-video connector(See Figure 17.3), it’s easy to seethat it consists of two pairs of wiresinstead of a single pair. One pair of wires(power and ground) carries the colorinformation, while another carries theblack-and-white information.S-video connectors are found only onhigh-bandwidth cameras and VCRs.You’ll find them on S-VHS, Hi8 and DVequipment, but not on 8mm or VHS gear.More and more televisions are comingequipped with S-video connectors, butthey are far from universal.S-video cables do have some minor limitations.The most prominent is perhapsthe length issue: when the cable goesbeyond twenty-five or thirty feet, younotice significant degradation of the signal.For this reason, they are not the bestsolution for long-distance cable throws.There are devices (called line amplifiers)that can solve this problem, but they usuallyadd a significant amount of noise tothe signal.There are adapters that convert Y/C signalsto composite, but beware: because

84 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 17.3 S-Video input.composite signals are modulated, the useof such an adapter negates the benefits ofthe S-video connection. In fact, it maymake the problem worse. Inside theseadapters is a small ceramic filter thatde-modulates the composite signal beforesending it down the S-video cable. Thisdemodulation is the same sort of thingthat adds noise to a composite signal. Theuse of an S-video-to-composite adapterjust adds one more place where the signalcan degrade when it’s copied.S-video connections work best whenused throughout your entire system. Inother words, you won’t get all the benefitsof S-video technology if you use compositevideo cables between, say, your specialeffects generator and your record VCR,with S-video cables everywhere else. It ispossible to safely connect a monitor to theoutput of your record VCR with compositeor even RF cables. Because they sitoutside the main signal stream, thesecables won’t affect the quality of yourfinal product one bit.FireWireThe cable types we’ve dealt with so far areall similar in that they’re designed tocarry analog signals. IEEE 1394 or Fire-Wire or i.LINK, is special because its mainpurpose is to carry digital signals. Thus,you’ll find FireWire connectors only onequipment that’s designed to handle digitalsignals. In the consumer video market,this equates to Digital8 and Mini DV camcordersand VCRs.Briefly, the difference between analogand digital signals is this: analog signalscarry a continuously varying voltage,which corresponds directly to the type ofsignal that analog VCRs and televisionswere designed to interpret. Digital signals,on the other hand, consist of long stringsof numbers in binary notation (zeros andones). Because digital signals only consistof two values—zero and one—they’remuch more resistant to noise and otherforms of signal degradation. This meansthat it’s possible to copy, say, twenty generationsof DV or Digital8 footage withoutnoticing the slightest loss of picture quality.It’s important to remember that althoughthe DV and Digital8 formats are the mostprominent applications of FireWire technologyto date, in essence FireWire technologyhas nothing to do with digital video. It’s justa way of transferring digital data from onelocation to another at a high rate of speed.FireWire is a serial data protocol, number1394, approved by the IEEE (Institute ofElectricians and Electronics Engineers).FireWire connectors come in two basictypes: the six-pin connector, agreed uponas a standard in the mid ’90s, and thesmaller four-pin connector, which hasbecome most prominent on digital camcordersand VCRs. While one connectortype will not fit the other, both are interchangeablefor all other purposes, whichmeans it’s possible to have a FireWirecable with both types of connectors, oneat either end. (See Figure 17.4.)Like S-video, FireWire connectionsmust remain throughout the signal streamfor users to reap all its benefits. In orderto get copies or edits without a hint ofgeneration loss, you must use FireWireconnections throughout your system.Unfortunately, there are currently notitlers with FireWire connections, and onlyone special effects generator (Videonics’MXPro DV). FireWire connectors are

An Inside Look at Cables and Connectors 85Making the ConnectionFigure 17.4 FireWire cable and FireWireinput.becoming quite popular on home computers,which have reached a point where theyhave plenty of muscle for video editing.FireWire’s primary drawback: cablelengths are limited to 15 meters (about45 feet).One final note about cables: in general,it’s best to buy the highest quality you canafford, to insure the stability of your systemand keep generation loss at bay.When purchasing cables, video editorsare faced with a wide array of options.Even if you just want a simple yellowtippedcomposite video cable, you stillfind yourself faced with a plethora oftypes from which to choose. Some boastgreater shielding; some even come withbuilt-in hook-and-loop cable ties to helpyou organize your workspace; some addgold tips. While gold certainly is an excellentconductor, it’s usually the case that agold-tipped connector is an expensiveand unnecessary addition to a qualitycable. More often than not, an ordinarynickel-plated connector will performidentically to its gold-plated brethren andgold plating has a tendency to flake off intime.To summarize: whenever you’re makinganalog video connections, use S-videocables if at all possible to minimize generationloss. If you can’t use S-video cables,use high-quality composite cables. Avoidusing RF cables for anything but viewingvideo on a monitor. And if you have twoor more pieces of video equipment withFireWire connectors, then by all meansuse FireWire and avoid the ill effects ofgeneration loss entirely. With all this inmind, go forth and cable your system withconfidence.

18Try a Tripod:Some Valuable Featuresin the Three-Legged RaceWilliam Ronat86Few pieces of video support equipmentare as useful as the tripod. Simple in concept,elegant in function, the tripod has along history of bringing needed stabilityto the world of photography.In pre-video days, tripods served stilland motion picture cameras. As far backas the 1860s, people like Matthew Bradywere lugging tripods onto battlefields tohelp steady huge still camera equipment.And before tripods became popular forimage gathering, they supported the surveyors’levels used to map out the countryside.Why, you may wonder, a tripod? Whynot a monopod, or a quadrapod, or anoctopod? This question doesn’t require anEinstein to answer. One leg: camera fallsdown. Two legs: camera falls down. Threelegs: camera stands up. Four legs: onemore leg than you need.The triangle is one of the most stableconfigurations for a support device. Ask akarate expert, or an offensive lineman. Or,for that matter, a tree.Why a Tripod?I know what you’re thinking. “What do Ineed with a tripod? It’s just one morething to tote around.”Maybe you’re right. If you have a steadyhand, and/or a lens stabilizer, you maynever encounter a situation requiring atripod. But if you shoot professional videoand work with heavy equipment, youknow that working hand-held for anylength of time can get darned uncomfortable.Just try holding your hand on top ofyour head for a couple of hours to simulatethe experience.Aside from avoiding pain, tripods arehandy if you want to be in your own shot.Say you’re shooting a news story for acable access show and you want to do astand up. This is the shot where youappear on camera, looking solemn, finishingup with, “for Cable Access, this isJohn Smith, reporting from Bosnia.”Using a tripod, you can stop somebodypassing by, make him or her stand in the

Try a Tripod 87spot where you’ll be standing when youtalk to the camera. You can then composethe shot using this surrogate John Smith.Lock down the tripod. Take the passerby’splace and say your piece.Three S TheoryA tripod’s purpose can be described in thefamous Three S Theory, which I just madeup. Tripods keep it Steady, keep it Straightand keep it Smooth.Put a camera on a tripod and it will besteady. It won’t bob, wave or float, assumingit’s locked down. It will sit there like arock until you get ready to move it. That’ssteady.Keeping your shot straight is a littletrickier. Let’s say you’ve set your cameraon the tripod so your shot is looking outacross a flat desert. The horizon is thatline where the sky meets the earth. In astandard shot, the horizon should be keptparallel to the top and bottom of yourframe. Cancel this if you’re trying for theDutch angle so popular in the old BatmanTV shows, where everything is tilted. It’spossible for a shot to start out lookingstraight, horizon parallel to the top of theframe. But when you pan, the horizonwill start to go downhill.This happens because your tripod legsstand in such a way the camera isn’t levelto the horizon. Your tripod is sitting withtwo legs on either side of the front of thecamera; the third leg points behind thecamera, and is shorter than the front twolegs. Even though your shot looks levelwhen the camera’s pointed straight ahead,when you pan, the camera begins to leanin the direction of the third leg.Or, as I like to put it: look out, theworld’s tilting.On the LevelSome tripods come with a leveling bubble,a handy gizmo that is nothing but abubble floating in liquid.You position the bubble either inside acircle or between two lines on a tube. Bymoving the bubble to its correct positionyour camera becomes perpendicular, relative,I think, to the gravitational pull ofthe Earth (but don’t hold me to this). Theresult: you can pan your camera 360degrees, the horizon staying straight inthe frame.You can position the bubble by raisingor lowering the tripod legs or by adjustingthe tripod’s head—if the head attaches tothe tripod with a claw ball. The latterallows you to loosen the head and positionthe leveling bubble without touchingthe legs. A nice feature.The last S in the Three S Theory is keepit Smooth. The part of the tripod responsiblefor this action is the head. Sometripods don’t have heads: cameras attachdirectly to the tripod. But on more sophisticatedtripods the camera attaches to aplate, the plate attaches to a head and thehead attaches to the tripod.Using smooth resistance, a head helpsmake camera movement smoother. Thisresistance, known as drag, is usuallyadjustable. With a small amount of dragthe camera pans or tilts easily. Add moredrag and moving the camera becomesmore difficult.If you don’t want the camera to move atall, you engage the locks. There are separatedrags and locks for both the pan andtilt functions of the head. If you want apan but no tilt, you can lock the tilt controland the camera will only pan. Andvice versa.Heads and LegsHeads come in two flavors: fluid head andfriction head.A friction head creates resistance bypushing metal against metal. A fluid headfloats on a bed of oil or some other viscousfluid. Friction heads aren’t assmooth as fluid heads, but they’re alsocheaper, which is the way things usuallywork in this world.

88 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionTripod legs generally extend by telescoping.This is necessary to position atripod level on a hill or stairs. Withtripods that extend you can get your camerahigh up in the air, useful when youmust ascend to eye-level with NBA players.Some tripods have a center columnthat cranks even higher.A word of caution here, if you get uptoo high, your camera, tripod and everythingelse can tip over. So put a sandbagin the center of the tripod to make it morestable.Some tripods allow the legs to straightenout until the head is resting almost on theground. Good for low shots. Good anglefor your remake of Attack of the Fifty FootFemale Mud Wrestler, featuring a point ofview shot from the terrified town’s perspective.Coming soon to a theater near you.WheelsWith a nice smooth floor you may beinterested in tripod dolly wheels.What’s a dolly? That’s a movement ofthe camera and tripod. These moves cantake the camera around the subject, or thecamera can follow people at the samespeed as they move. They require your tripodto have wheels or they require you toplace your tripod on a wheeled device.These shots are very pretty, but they’realso very difficult. If you don’t have asmooth even surface every little dollybump will translate into a very big videobump.Wheels are handy, however, as transportation.Just leave your camera, extensioncords, a grip bag and a light attachedto the tripod and roll on to the next location.Sure beats carrying them.Another feature you may want is quickrelease; a plate or shoe attached to thebottom of the camera. The plate fits intothe head to secure the camera. But if youwant to go hand-held in a hurry, you flip aswitch or push a button to immediatelyrelease the camera.If the head screws into the bottom of thecamera, it will obviously take a lot longerto turn, turn, turn the knob to get it offagain. Most professional model tripodsfeature quick release.The Envelope, PleaseBefore leaving the subject of tripods, weshould explore the Steadicam. You maysay, “Say, that’s not a tripod!” And you’dbe right. But it performs some of the samejobs, so we’ll give it a glance.The Steadicam JR is a system that balancesyour camera so completely the imageseems to float on air. It eliminates shakiness,allowing a camera operator to walkup stairs or run along the ground withoutapplying objectionable jiggle to the image.It’s a slick little system, creating videos thatlook like feature film.But a Steadicam is not the same as atripod. Although it has a stand, you can’tlock it down on a shot. Also, some peoplethink a Steadicam is like a gyroscope,forcing your shot to remain horizontal.Wrong. There’s a bubble level on the monitorto show the operators when the shot islevel, but it’s up to the operator to keep itthere. My conclusion: Steadicams aregreat tools, but should supplement a tripod,not replace it.If you’re in the market for a tripod, shoparound. Try the model before you buy. Asyou test drive the tripod think about thethree Ss: keep it Steady, keep it Straight,keep it Smooth. If you watch your Ss, youshould be O.K. And if at first you don’tsucceed, try another tripod.

PART IIProduction PlanningEvery minute spent in planning saves ten in execution. Here’s help in getting yourselforganized.

19Honing Your Ideas:From Concept toFinished TreatmentStray Wynn PonderSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/hanbookIf you’re like most videographers youprobably have more project ideas thanyou can shake a camcorder at. So with alittle talent and the right equipment, youshould be able to produce top qualityvideo work, right?Right. Then why do so many great ideasfizzle out somewhere between that firstblinding spark of inspiration and the finalcredit roll?The answer is simple: before the lightscome up, before the cameras roll, evenbefore you write the script, you must taketwo essential steps if your video is to findand follow its true course:Step One: clearly define your concept.Step Two: write a concise treatment.A concept nails down your program’s primarymessage, and the manner in whichyou will deliver it to your primary audience.Later, as you navigate the windingcurves of production, you’ll think of theconcept as your destination. A treatmentis a written summary of the video’s purpose,storyline and style. It will becomeyour road map. These tools will help youmaintain solid and continuous contactwith the video’s intended direction everystep of the way.These are probably the most overlookedsteps of pre-production, but if you conscientiouslypursue them on every project—no matter how simple—you’ll save timeand add polish, propelling your work tonew horizons of quality.Developing the ConceptHow does a concept differ from a rawidea? Let’s look at a couple of ideas andwatch how they change as we developthem into concepts:1. The Trees of New England; and2. Car Repair.Each of these has possibilities as a videoproject; but if we were to pick up a camera,91

92 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionor to start writing a script at this point,we’d suffer a false start. Before we can setout on our creative journey, we need aclear understanding of our destination.Admittedly, many ideas don’t deserveto survive. Who among us hasn’t pulledthe car off a crowded freeway to jot downa “great idea”—only to read it later andfind that great idea somewhat less thanoverwhelming.Take our first idea: The Trees of NewEngland. This sleeper might die right onthe drawing board. Why? Because, for thevideographer trying to earn a buck, itlacks profitability. And for most hobbyists,it involves too much time and effort.The visual effect could no doubt be stunning,but who would purchase (or finance)a video about trees when public televisioncarries a variety of nature shows that featuresimilar subjects every week?To succeed in the marketplace, yourwork must effectively deliver a primarymessage to a primary audience. To proveworth the effort, The Trees of New Englandwould have to distinguish itself from similarprogramming through style or content toappeal to existing markets. Another option:The Trees of New England could deliverits message in a way that would captivateaudiences in a new market niche. Note: ifyou can see a way to make money with thistree idea, please feel free to run with it.You may find yourself shelving manyideas that survive this kind of initialscrutiny; these ideas typically lack someelement necessary to a profitable video,such as reasonable production costs or aviable market. Or through research youmay discover that someone else hasalready produced your idea. That’s okay;you can always generate more ideas.Don’t get too caught up in creative decisionsduring these first stages of exploration.In the process of transforming agerm of an idea into a viable concept,necessity will make many decisions abouta project’s direction for you.How about our second wannabe video—Car Repair? This one offers a multitude ofdevelopment possibilities. But remember,you can’t please all of the people all thetime. Avoid the temptation to create a“do-all” video. As producers, we alwayswant the largest audience we can get—upto a point. Create a repair program thatappeals equally to master mechanics andinterior designers, and you’ll get a showwithout a specific destination. In otherwords, your project could end up runningout of gas in the wrong town.Your first move: define the audience.Let’s find a target group who could usesome information about car repair.Brainstorm A-comin’Here’s where brainstorming becomesindispensable. There are as many ways tobrainstorm an idea, as there are people, sothere are no hard and fast rules. Basically,you need to distract the left (logical) sideof your brain so that the right (creative)side can come out to play.Here’s what works for me: I speak mythoughts aloud, no matter how silly theysound, while bouncing a rubber ball offthe concrete walls of my basement office.This technique gets the creative hemisphereof my brain churning; my subconsciouscoughs up ideas from a well muchdeeper than the one serving my logicalhemisphere. I write down the more coherentmutterings on a dry erase board asthey erupt. All in all, it’s probably not apretty sight, but you’re welcome to adaptthis method to your own brainstormingtechnique.Here’s a condensed version of my brainstormingsession for the car repair idea. Iflip the ball. It hits the floor, the wall andthen slaps back into my hand.“Repair,” I say to myself, as I continue tobounce the ball. “Maintenance … mechanics… men … women … children …women … smart women … independentwomen … car maintenance … where’sthe need? … when would they have theneed? … college! … BINGO!

Honing Your Ideas 93To decide which combination of elementsWhen young women go away to college,● Comedy intended audience. But rather than putthey no longer have Mom or Dad aroundto watch the oil level and check the belts.The same is surely true of young men, butI decide to target women as the larger ofthe two potential audiences. Should I goafter both in hopes of selling more tapes?Absolutely not. Since the buying characteristicsof the two groups will be different,I must tailor the style of the production toone audience or the other.Through brainstorming, the original idea“car repair” has now become its simplercousin, “car maintenance.” Do we have areal concept now? Not yet, but we’re gettingthere; we know our target market and ourmessage. Still to be considered: the production’sstyle, or the best manner in which toconvey our message. This will eventuallyencompass shooting style, lighting style,acting, wardrobe, makeup and dozens ofother factors. For now, however, we’ll breakstyle down into two parts: 1) getting theviewer’s attention; and 2) keeping it.will work best for our car maintenancevideo, we need a better understanding ofour target market: 18 to 22-year-oldfemales needing to perform simple carmaintenance themselves. As with manyaspects of concept development, most ofour decisions are made for us as we discardwhat will not work—which leaves uswith what will.My gut says to skip shock value in aprogram that deals with cars. Self-interestis definitely an important considerationfor a young lady who is both: 1) trying toassert her independence for the first time(ego self-interest); and 2) living on a budget(financial self-interest).Visual stimulation? Our target groupcomes from a generation accustomed tothe kaleidoscopic imagery and lightningfast cuts of beer commercials and musicvideos. Let’s use this one.Glitz and glamour are obvious shoo-insfor this age and gender. Comedy can be anexcellent tool for communicating manysubjects, as long as you execute it well.Hook, Line and ProfitLet’s keep humor in mind, too.Simply being aware of these tools is notA hook is the attention-getting elementthat yanks viewers away from their busyday, and into our product. The need for agood hook is the same in every communicationmedium, whether it’s an advertisement,a popular song or a training video.Human beings are frenetically busy creatures;you must seduce them into givingenough. More important is an understandingof the ways they will impact our targetaudience. If we can effectively use one ormore of them in our production (and ourmarketing package), we may just have amoneymaking project on our hands.To recap: we need an eye-catching (visuallystimulating) presentation that offerstheir attention away. After delivering this college-aged females something theyinteresting hook and convincing them tolook our way, we must follow through andgive them a storyline that will hold theirinterest for the duration of the program.There are a number of ways to engage andkeep the viewers’ attention:● Shock value● Self-interest● Visual stimulation● Glitz and glamourclearly need (self-interest) in a mannerconsistent with their accepted versions ofself-image (glitz and glamour). If we candiscover ways to enliven this deliverythrough the use of comedy, all the better.Even if we are unable to meet all thesecriteria, we must be aware of them, so atthe very least we avoid working againstthe psychology of our target audience.More ball bouncing is probably calledfor at this point to help us predict howwe’ll apply these general ideas to our

94 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionyou through that again, I’ll just tell youwhat I came up with for our sample project:A Young Woman’s Guide to MinorCar Maintenance. The package resemblesthat of a concert video or a compact discmore than an instructional videotapejacket. Lots of neon colors surround asnazzily dressed college-aged woman,who leans confidently over the open hoodof a small automobile. Her posture says, “Ihave the world by the tail, and so can youif you take a closer look at this.”The back of the jacket explains thatyou’ll need no tools to perform most ofthe tasks covered in the program. Thesetasks are simpler than you ever thoughtpossible, even fun once you give them achance. Best of all, you’ll feel an exhilaratingnew sense of independence afteryou master these simple skills.Writing the TreatmentWe’ve come a long way from the originalidea. By asking the right questions, we’vedeveloped a potentially viable concept.We understand it in terms of:●●●to whom the video speaks,how the video will speak to them andwhat the video will say.Now we can write a treatment, which willhelp us pursue our project without losingsight of our concept. By clearly definingour direction in this way, we can hold trueto our original vision for the project.Depending on the complexity of a production,its treatment may be long orshort. Some in-depth treatments resemblescripts; others simply document moodchanges and/or visual effects, with technicalannotations along the way. Regardless,the treatment should always move thereader chronologically from the beginningto the end of the program.There’s no established manuscript formatfor a treatment. Just try to tell a storyin as readable a way as possible. Thetreatment for our car maintenance videomight begin like this:Project Name: A Young Women’s Guideto Minor Car MaintenanceStatement of Purpose: The main goal ofthis project is to provide information aboutbasic car maintenance to female collegestudents under the age of twenty. Theseyoung women face the full responsibilitiesof car care for the first time in their lives.In the interest of hooking and keepingthe attention of the target audience, we’llpresent this information in a series ofthree music videos. Cuts will be as shortas possible. A different actor/musicianwith a distinct personality will demonstrateeach automotive maintenance task.Most important, the tasks will not beoverly technical in nature. Our audienceneeds to understand only the basics of carcare: how to check belts, check the oil andother fluid levels, change a tire, fill theradiator, replace a burned-out fuse and soon. The frequent use of common-sensemetaphors will remove any feelings ofintimidation this subject may arouse inviewers.The video jacket layout resembles thatof an album cover rather than an instructionalvideotape. The songs contained inthe program will be remakes of popularrock-and-roll songs, with lyrics pertinentto the mechanical tasks.SummaryThe opening credits emulate the digitalanimatedeffects common to music videoTV stations. These lively visual effects arechoreographed to heavy guitar and powerfuldrums. The monolithic CTV (CarTelevision) logo vibrates in time with themusic.Cut to a perky female vee-jay who says,as if continuing a thought from before thelatest station break, “We’ll hear more ofthe latest tour information soon, but firstlet’s take a look at this new release fromJeena and the Jalopies…”

Honing Your Ideas 95Cut to close-up of female lead singer inthe middle of a concert. We hear the giddycheering of a large crowd as she introducesthe next song. Her tormentedexpression prepares us for a tale of love’scruelty; but when she speaks, it’s abouthow her car has done her wrong. Thehand-held cameras circle like vultures onthe fog-drenched stage. Her dead-earnestperformance mocks the lyrics, whichseem comically out of place.Cut to a dressing room interview withJeena. “Yeah,” she says, “almost everysong I write is taken from my own life. Ihated that car. (She takes a drag from hercigarette.) “And I loved it. Know what Imean?” Music from Jeena’s live performancefades up as the camera holds onher face.(Music continues.) Cut to Jeena standingnext to her car, a late model import.She wears the demeanor of a childinstructed to shake hands with an enemy,but stubbornly refuses to do so. She castsoccasional guilty glances at the camera, butrefuses to look at the car, with which she isobviously quite angry. “My old car wasn’tlike this,” she claims, shaking her head.“I could see the dip stick—easy. Checkthe oil and be done with it. So, you know,easy.” Video dissolves to a memorysequence of Jeena opening the hood of anolder automobile.That gives you an idea of how thebeginning of our treatment might read. Itpaints a much more complete picturethan the words Car Repair. This videowill probably be around 30 minutes inlength; its treatment will run about tenpages, typewritten and double-spaced. Ifthat sounds like a lot of writing, compareit to the amount of money and workrequired to reshoot even one minute ofvideo.More Treatment Tips & TricksSome productions, like our car maintenancevideo, will involve fairly hefty budgetsfinanced by outside investors. Thetreatment then becomes a sales tool forcommunicating the project’s value topotential investors.Depending on the type of video you’reproducing, other uses for a treatmentinclude:●●●Seeking client approval,giving a “big picture” of the program tothe technical and creative staffs andmaking sure that you can arrive at yourdestination.Perhaps the most important benefit ofwriting a treatment comes as a result ofthe writing itself. In moving from the generalconcept to the specific steps to developthat concept, your treatment will passthrough many incarnations. Problems willcrop up at this stage of the video’s development;you’ll solve them by revisingthe treatment. In overcoming each ofthese obstacles on paper, you will saveyourself from facing them later on theshoot itself.Production Planning ToolsVideographers have traditionally usedseveral tools to help them navigate thecircuitous pathways of production. Infilmmaking, there’s the storyboard, acomic book style layout of sequentialdrawings that tell the visual story of amovie. Some videographers use storyboardsas well; but for many low-budgetproductions storyboards prove too expensivea luxury.This is certainly true for our car repairvideo. For this production, our treatmentmust do the storyboard’s job—by creatingcompelling, descriptive images with words.The treatment must clearly map out theavenues we’ll travel without necessarilydescribing every fire hydrant and blade ofgrass along the way.A general rule of thumb: gear thesophistication of your treatment to the purposesit must serve. If you need to impress

96 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionthe board of trustees at a major cable networkand feel you are out of your leaguein terms of writing skills, hire a freelancewriter to prepare the treatment. The earlierin the creative process you bring thisperson in, the more benefit you can gainfrom his or her experience.Don’t sell yourself short, though. If youfeel reasonably sure that you can tell yourvideo’s story from the beginning to theend, in a readable way that your colleagueswill understand, do it.Planning CountsThe worst mistake: skipping these crucialplanning steps altogether.Even the simplest video can flounder ifyou neglect the proper planning process.The meticulous development of conceptand treatment allows you to cut and polishyour rough project. The goal is to moveinto the later phases of the work with acrisply faceted jewel that will withstandthe rigors of scripting and production.

20Budgeting TimeWilliam RonatLet’s say that you’ve planned a locationshoot at a restaurant so you can get someshots for a production. You told the owneryou would be there at 3 p.m. Suppose youhave some other shots to do in the morningat several locations. If you didn’t preparea schedule, you have no idea howlong any of them will take. Each shot willundoubtedly take longer than anticipated,you forgot to allow for travel time, thecrew is hungry (don’t forget time forlunch!) and when you finally get to therestaurant, you are two hours late. Theowner now has to take care of the dinnercrowd and you’re out of luck.You didn’t get into video to become abureaucrat. You bought your camcorderand gear to watch your visions materialize,to breathe life into ideas, to create apiece of truth where moments beforethere was merely air. These are laudablegoals. The problem, however, is actuallyachieving them. And that takes planning.Your time is valuable. Spend it like youwould spend money. To make sure you getthe most value from your effort, you haveto do some preparatory work before yourfinger hits the Record button. There is asaying in the biz, “Everything takes longerthan it takes.” That means that no matterhow well you plan, something will happenthat you didn’t anticipate.You can minimize the pain by doingyour homework. Many professionalsspend as much as 90 percent of productiontime in the planning process. AlfredHitchcock was famous for planning hisfilms in such minute detail that he foundthe shooting process dull. He had alreadyseen the movie in his head and the restwas mere mechanics. You may say, “Hey,I don’t want to be bored when I’m shooting,”to which I say, “Is your nameHitchcock?” All right, then.In the BeginningIf you’re serious about choreographing avideo production from start to finish, youwill need a script. It doesn’t have to be anelaborate document. In fact, it can be an97

98 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionoutline scribbled on a napkin (althoughthey have a habit of disappearing duringlunch). Just make sure that the scripthelps you understand what needs to beshot and it will do the job.Work with “split-format” (audio/video)scripts and “film-style” scripts. Splitformatscripts are ideal for short projects,like 30-second commercials or industrialvideos, while film-style scripts lendthemselves to dramatic productions. Youcan easily use your word-processing programto set up a table and create a scriptthat looks like Figure 20.1a. The samescript done film-style would look likeFigure 20.1b.If you plan to write for the film industry,this format must be absolutely perfector your manuscript will be tossed withouta second look. There are software programsavailable that can make this processeasier (See the Film Script Softwaresidebar).Shot by ShotOnce you’ve written your script, you canbegin to plan like a pro. First, break thescript down into shots. In our example,we have three shots: one, a mailmanwalks up; two, close-up of a dog, andthree, the dog attacks the mailman. Nowit’s time to create the next document inour bureaucracy of video, the productionschedule.Using the schedule will help you duringplanning in many ways. You willknow approximately how long it will taketo shoot shot sequences, what props andequipment you will need, how many crewmembers to bring and when to break forlunch (see Figure 20.2).It can be helpful to take the split-formatscript table we illustrated earlier and addsome more columns to it. As you can see,planning is all about detail. The scriptshould tell you everything about each(a)(b)Figure 20.1 Shot lists can be formatted in anyword processing program. The top example istypical of a video production, while thebottom is more commonly used for film.Figure 20.2 While you shoot, keep yourshooting schedule with you (along withthe script). And stick to it.

Budgeting Time 99shot. Using this information, you can createa production schedule to illustratehow much time it will take to achieve thescript’s needs. The far-right column indicatestimes for each shot. Here are somerules of thumb to help you put numberslike this to your own schedule.●●●●●●The first shot of the day always takesthe longest to set up. People need to getinto the rhythm of the shoot, people arestill groggy and equipment needs to bechecked and prepared. Because of this,try to schedule your most difficult shotfirst. The rest of the day becomes is adownhill slide.The first shot in a new location takeslonger than the rest of the shots in thesame location. If you use lighting gearor other special equipment such aswireless microphones, you probablypack them away carefully as you movefrom place to place. This means unpackingthem at each new location. But afteryou are set up, each shot will take lesstime, because you are ready to go.Complex shots take longer than easyshots do. This is common sense, whichdoes, occasionally, have a place in videoproduction. If you set up a shot thatinvolves moving the camera, changingthe focus and having the talent jugglebowling balls all at the same time, it willtake longer than a static shot of a flower.Don’t ask why, it’s a mystery.Wide shots take longer than closeups.This is true, because there is usuallymore going on in a wide shot. Notalways, but it’s a good rule of thumb.It takes time to change locations. Besidestearing down and setting up equipment,you have to move it to the next shootinglocation. If this is across the county, youhave to allow for the time that it willtake to get there.Shots either take 30 minutes or 15 minutesto capture. For scheduling purposes,you can usually assign these times toyour shots. Some shots take longer andsome are done in a heartbeat. But by consistentlyusing 30/15, your schedule willeven out by the end of the day.Stop or I’ll ShootOnce you have a script and productionschedule, you’re ready to shoot, right?Nope. You need to create a shootingschedule.Shooting schedules look a lot like productionschedules except for one crucialdifference. All shots from one location aregrouped together. This simple phase canpotentially save you more time than anythingelse in this article. Why is groupingshots so important? Because returning to alocation not only wastes time, it alsosends a signal to your crew that you arenot in control. And that’s a real confidencebuster. Let’s say you are shooting ata location and trying to remember all theshots you need in your head. You finish,strike the equipment, get in the vehicleand start to drive away. Then it hits you.You didn’t get the closeup. Arrrgh! Turnaround, unload everything, set up the gearand get the shot. Now look at your crew’sfaces. Do they love you for the extra effortthat you have just caused them to endure?Or are their faces black with smolderinghatred? If this scene is repeated over andover, a volunteer crew will probably notreturn for more. And a professional crewwill not trust your judgement on otheraspects of the production.Now you have a script, a productionschedule and a shooting schedule. Keep acopy of each of these documents in a singlenotebook when you go into the field(see Figure 20.3). You will probably workmainly from the shooting schedule. Crossoffshots as you finish them and keeptrack of the best ones by writing down thetime-code number next to the shot on theshooting schedule. This will help youfind the shot when you sit down to edit. Ifyour recording device doesn’t have time

100 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 20.3 Electronic PDAs can also helpyou manage your time and take notes.code, you can note which tape (or digitalmedia) the shot is on and the amount oftime that has been used on that media.This is not as precise as time code (whereeach frame has a unique number) but canbe helpful.Keep a copy of your script with youin the field; just carrying the shootingschedule is not enough. On the shootingschedule, the shot’s location is the mostimportant element, but you often need toknow how the shots are going to worktogether in the real script. This way, youwon’t shoot two shots that are too similarto each other (a head-to-waist shot of thetalent, for example) and try to edit themtogether later. Such an edit can make thetalent appear to jump from place to place(which was fine on Bewitched, but mightnot be the effect you’re looking for).Put it All TogetherIf you have done your homework andkept good notes during shooting, yourediting process should go much moresmoothly (see Figure 20.4). This is harderthan it sounds, because working in thefield can be like being in battle, withproblems and unforeseen obstacles flyinglike bullets. (You’re trying to get audiowhile in the flight path of the airport; oryou need blue skies and it’s starting torain.) However, let’s pretend we live in aperfect world and all has gone well.Figure 20.4 Better planning of yourshoots will ultimately save time inpost-production editing.Editing is like putting together a jigsawpuzzle. If you know where all the pieces arebefore you start, you will save yourself a lotof trouble, which translates into time. If youcreate a simple show with straight cut edits,you can figure that each minute of finishedprogram will take you about an hour of editingtime. If you plan to use wipes and specialeffects, double the estimate. If you wantto experiment while editing, triple it.Make sure you have everything youneed when you go into an edit. Will youuse a voice talent to narrate the show?Have it done before you start. Are youidentifying on-camera interviewees withtitles? Make sure that you know how tospell their names.Taking a video from start to finish is abig undertaking. It’s best to know whatyou’re getting into before you invest yourmoney and time. With a good plan, youwill not only have more fun during theprocess, you will have a good chance ofactually getting the darn thing done—andthat’s the best plan you can make.

Budgeting Time 101Sidebar 1Quick TipsTo plan effectively, you need to create the following:●●●Script — Put on paper what you are trying to achieve.Production Schedule—Break the script down into shots and plan what props, talent andtime each shot will need.Shooting Schedule—Similar to the production schedule, but with the shots grouped bylocation.Sidebar 2Film Script SoftwareSoftware programs are available to help you create film-style scripts. (Scriptware also doessplit-format.) These programs automatically format the page and can even help break thescript down into a shooting schedule. Here’s a sampling of some of these programs.Final Draft16000 Ventura Boulevard, Suite 800, Encino, CA 91436(818) 995-8995www.finaldraft.com$299Movie Magic Screenwriter 2000Screenplay Systems150 East Olive Avenue, Suite 203, Burbank, CA 91502(800) 847-8679www.screenplay.com$299Page 2 StageWindward Studios1127 Barberry Court, Boulder, CO 80303(303) 499-2544www.page2stage.com$80ScriptwareCinovation Inc.1750 30th Street, Suite 360, Boulder, CO 80301-1005(800) 788-7090www.scriptware.com$300

21It’s all in the Approach:Creative Approaches forVideo ProductionsJim StinsonSome informational programs use gimmickslike butter on popcorn, to hide thebland taste of the subject matter: “Hi! I’mPercy Peatmoss, and we’re gonna meetsome exciting lichens!” (Suuure, we are!)Though spokes-mosses like Percy wentout with 16 mm projectors, promotional,training and educational programs stillneed what you might call a presentationmethod.As the term implies, this is a systematicapproach to laying out the content of aprogram. Mr. Announcer on the soundtrack, Julia Child behind the cooktop, thetalking head in the interview—each ofthese is a presentation method, deliberatelyselected because it’s well-suited to theprogram’s subject. What are some of thesepresentation methods and how do youselect the right one(s) for your show? Stepright this way, folks; the tour starts here.When you come right down to it,there’re only a few basic presentationmethods: documentary, interview, expertpresenter and full script. As we look ateach method in turn, remember that mostinformational videos use them in variouscombinations.DocumentaryA documentary purports to capture anddisplay a subject as it really is, allowingviewers to draw their own conclusionsfrom their impressions of the material. Insome programs, they’re assisted by narrationor commentary, while in othersthe edited footage appears to speak foritself. (We say “purports” and “appears”because no documentary is a truly passive,neutral pipeline of information. Formore on this, see Liar, Liar! in the October2000 issue of Videomaker or at www.videomaker.com).The documentary method works wellwhere you want to convey a free-formimpression of your subject. BeautifulDowntown Burbank, Recreation in BigfootCounty, Where your Sales Tax Goes—these are good subjects for documentaryprograms.102

Its all in the Approach 103The most rigorous documentary form(represented by the films of FrederickWiseman) uses no verbal commentary toorganize the presentation and point themessage. The entire effect comes fromthe selection and juxtaposition of shots. Tothe newbie, this may seem like the easiestform of program (“Hey kids, let’s showcaseFillmore High!”) but it is in fact, the hardestto do successfully. Without the guidanceof voiceovers and titles, the result isoften an inexpressive jumble of footage.That’s why many professional documentarians(notably Ken Burns) use multiplevoices on the sound track—often a mix ofnarration, dramatized voices and interviewquotes. This method is easier because itallows you to comment on the footage asyou display it. However, juggling multipleaudio sources is a sophisticated process.For fail-safe simplicity, try mating documentaryfootage to voice over narration.By scripting a single stream of commentary,you can control your presentationmore precisely.Figure 21.1 Single & Dual Interviews—Single interviews, the most popular form inprofessional TV show, look spontaneous,but dual interviews are easier to manage.InterviewInterviews offer ways to get variety intoyour presentation, especially if youinclude several people. Interviews aregreat for subjects that are essentially verbaland require some expert input.As the sidebar, Pictures, Words orTitles? explains, some topics are difficultto visualize. No matter how many photoalbums you have, they don’t display familyhistory, but only moments from thathistory. For the actual narrative, nothingbeats Great Grandmother on the soundtrack. Other good interview subjectsinclude Our Corporate Five Year Plan(interview with the CEO) and Coping withDepression (interviews with sufferers andtherapists). As these examples suggests,interview programs come in different flavors:single, dual and multiple.The single interview doesn’t look likea Q&A session, but like spontaneous conversationby the subject (see Figure 21.1).The interviewer is never seen or heard,and the questions (dropped on the cuttingroom floor) are phrased to elicit statementsrather than answers (“Tell us aboutthe Boston branch of the family”).Because they omit the overhead of questions,single interviews are the most popularform in professional programs.However, the dual interview is easier tomanage. In this form, viewers see theinterviewer and hear the questions.Replies can be free-form in this approach.For example, “Where were you born?”“Cleveland.” is fine in a dual interview,but the answer would be meaningless in asingle interview. Two-person interviewsalso offer built-in cutaway material in theform of the interviewer.A more complex interview form is multiplevoice. Using man-on-the-streetvignettes or short sessions with the manypeople connected with the topic, you

104 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionweave together a composite audio trackthat adds richness and variety as well asinformation. If people you know havesome performing ability, you might trydramatized “interviews” with historic figuresor people otherwise unavailable. Becautious, however, because voice-onlyacting is a highly specialized skill and amateurishresults sound frankly embarrassing.Expert PresenterIf you’ve watched a David Attenboroughnature video (“The vegetation [wheeze]here at 15,000 feet [gasp] is, understandably[rattle] sparse.”) then you’ve seen anexpert presenter. This method has manythings going for it. First, the expertise ofthe spokesperson lends authority to thewhole enterprise. Secondly, he or she canoften be relied on to flesh out a skeletalcontent outline by ad-libbing material(see Figure 21.2).The expert is best in the field—whetherthat field is a studio cooking show kitchenor a construction site or the Sonorandesert. If that isn’t possible, you can establishthe expert on camera in interviewmode and then shift his or her remarks tovoiceover narration.The simplest approach is commentary:the experts react to whatever is presentedto them. At its best, this method elicitspriceless observations that would neveroccur to a script writer. At worst, it deliversthe DVD prattle of movie directors reactingoff-the-cuff to screenings of their films.One step more formal is the demonstration,anything from a construction projectto a science experiment to a cookingshow. A demo is more clearly sequenced(by the steps in the project or recipe) but itstill offers ample opportunity for ad-libexpert commentary. A demonstration formatworks best when the project can becompleted at a single place in real time(except for the 45 minute baking period)and when the personality of the presenteradds interest to the show.A popular variation seen on homerepair, gardening and cooking shows isthe dual (and sometimes dueling) expertformat pioneered by Siskel and Ebert.This approach combines the virtues of theexpert and interview methods, especiallyif one of the presenters serves as prompter/straight man to the other.The next level up is a full-fledged lecture,either scripted or ad-lib. Since eventhe most dynamic expert is still just atalking head, it’s good to cut away asmuch as possible to visuals of the subjectmatter. In fact, a project like this oftenstarts with the taped lecture; then appropriatevisuals are scripted and shot afterthe fact.Sometimes, the effect of a lecture can becreated by a skillful one-person interview.The questions select and sequence thematerial, and then drop away, leaving aseamless narrative.Figure 21.2 Expert presenter—the expertpresenter lends authority to your subjectand can ad-lib to expand on outlinedprogram material.

Its all in the Approach 105Full ScriptAn expert isn’t necessary when readingnarration that’s been fully scripted. Thereare several reasons for going to the troubleof a wall-to-wall script. In some casesthere are issues of legal or technical accuracy.You don’t want to misrepresentdetails of Employee Benefit Packages orSelf Administration of Insulin, and thebest way to avoid doing so is by writingdown (and getting approval for) everyimage and word.In training and similar how-to programs,you want the clearest camera angles andthe simplest language possible. In highlycontrolled situations like this, you’ll wantevery sentence written and every setupstoryboarded (see Figure 21.3).A scripted program can use any mixtureof presentation forms, including an oncameraspokesperson, a voiceover narratorand superimposed title buildups. Youcan even use interviews if the questionsare closely coordinated with the script.(In real world situations, the script isoften revised after the interviews are completed,in order to bring it into line withwhatever was said.)Full scripts and/or storyboards arealmost always prepared for professionalcommercials, infomercials, video pressreleases and training programs, for oneFigure 21.3 In some situations you may wantto script the narration for your talent in clearsimple language.overwhelming reason: the client. Mostpeople and organizations are reluctant tospend good money unless they can see (orat least think they can see) what they’regetting.As we’ve seen, the presentation methodchosen depends first of all on the natureof the topic. But real-world constraintsalso play a large role. What if you don’thave an expert? Worse, what if you dohave an expert who’s a droning bore butstill wants to be in the program? In situationslike this, you need to know the alternativemethods available to you and theirsuitability to your topic. We hope this littlesurvey has helped.Sidebar 1Pictures, Words or Titles?Different types of information want different presentation media. Some things are impossibleto describe but easy to show; others are the opposite. Here’s a quick rundown on choosingthe best medium for each type of content.● Pictures. If you can show it, do so. Images should always be your first choice, whenappropriate, because video is inherently a visual medium. Through slow or fast motion, splitscreen shots and other formal devices, the medium can also display things in ways that can’tbe seen in real life.● Words. If it’s an abstraction, then talk about it. “Good citizenship” can be shown byexamples (voting, picking up litter) but the concept itself is impossible to visualize. That’swhere narration does its best work.

106 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionWords also work well for summarizing because they deliver meaning so efficiently. “Yourone-stop transmission and tire service since 1966” takes five seconds to say. You could showtransmission work, tire installation and maybe a wall plaque proclaiming “Founded 1966”but these visuals would be time-consuming and lame.● Titles. Titles make wonderful labels and organizers. Cliche that it is, a bulleted agendathat builds up line by line (via PowerPoint or titling software) is still the best way to orient(and periodically re-orient) viewers to the content of the program.If the list is short, you can also display all the lines at once, color-highlighting whicheverone is the current topic.Combo PlattersDifferent viewers have different learning styles, visual, aural or textual; so try to deliverimportant points in at least two ways, or even three if necessary. For example, you couldcover one step in a construction project like this:● Visual: big CU of tab A inserted into slot B.● Aural: NARRATOR (V.O.) Now insert tab A into slot B.●Textual: Subtitle supered over the shot: “Insert Tab A in Slot B.”When delivering information redundantly, avoid varying its form. If the narrator says, “Nowcomplete the assembly of the sub-widgit,” viewers have to make a mental connectionbetween this line and Tab A and Slot B. This effort can be distracting or even confusing.

22Script Right:Video Screenwriting TipsStephen JacobsSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.Even the best videographers often balkat writing scripts. Take my friendMike Axelrod. A video computer programmersince graduating from college,Mike recently quit work to return toschool.As a film buff who’s created a fewvideos with friends, he decided to combinehis two interests and major in computeranimation. He signed up for arequired screenwriting course and experiencedno difficulty in writing individualscenes three to five pages long.Then he learned the second half of thecourse required completion of a screenplayfor a fifteen-minute film, fifteen totwenty pages in length. The news left himpale.“Fifteen to twenty pages! I’ll neverwrite something that long,” he howled.“I’m not a writer!”Well, maybe not. But good video beginswith good writing. In this chapter, we’llshow how even non-writers like Mike canput together a serviceable screenplay.Videographers as StorytellersSome people think writing is a talentreserved for those lucky enough to beborn with it. This is not necessarily so.Writers who seem to have come from thewomb pen in hand are the exception, notthe rule. Most have to work at it. In manyways, writers are no different from videographers.Both are people trying to communicatespecific information, a story, aparticular point of view.When you pick up that camcorder andpress the little red button, you start to tella story. Whether you’re shooting the sciencefiction epic of your dreams, documentinga wedding for the 300th time orproducing a thirty-second public serviceannouncement for the local Red Cross,you’re still telling a story.So before you begin you should firstconsider what message you are trying toconvey, and to what sort of audience. Ifyou don’t know what you’re trying to sayor whom you’re trying to reach, you’ll107

108 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionhave a hard time getting your messageacross.You may begin with the goal of writinga screenplay for an introductory videotapeon washing machine maintenance;suddenly you find yourself showing theviewer how to make a washing machinefrom scratch. Or you write something foran experienced group of professionals,then find yourself explaining the basics.In fiction, the routine Hollywood scriptfeatures an easily identifiable protagonist,the hero; and an equally transparent antagonist,the villain. The hero confronts a problemand spends much of the film workingtoward a solution. The antagonist seeks toblock this progress. Along the way the heroinevitably undergoes a change in character.Some films slightly alter this formula.Director Barry Levinson has said his filmRain Man was a real challenge becausethe protagonist of the story, the autisticRaymond, by definition couldn’t experiencea change in character. It’s his brotherwho must change.Outline and OutpouringFor some people, outlining is extremelybeneficial. Others find it gets in the wayof the actual writing, another little taskaiding and abetting procrastination. Someprojects are more conducive to outliningthan others. The larger the project, themore likely it will benefit from some prescribblestructuring.Beginners should definitely outline. Ithelps you understand where the story’sheading. Does outlining mean the formal,Roman numeral structuring they taughtyou in elementary school? No. Think of itas simply jotting down a temporary tableof contents. Once that’s complete, you’reready to start writing.As a videographer, you try to avoid situationswhere you must edit in-camera. Youknow the more footage you shoot, themore you repeat shots and obtain differentangles, the more you’ll have to workwith during editing. It’s not unusual toread about professional film directorswith raw footage ratios of 20 to 1.As a writer, you should give yourselfthe same freedom. Begin by throwing anythingand everything down on paper. Thisisn’t always easy to do. But if you criticizeevery sentence as you write it, you maynot finish the first paragraph. Let it all outfirst; you can edit and revise later.Show, Don’t TellWriting for video is different from othertypes of writing in two important ways:1. The lengthy description and dialoguethat distinguish some writing isnotably absent here. When writing forvideo, you need to show things, nottalk about them. So skip those longpassages of narration. Instead, use differentcamera angles and shots of thesame scene to highlight the features ofthe landscape you wish to emphasize.Don’t use long sections of dialogue toexplain anything. Show it.2. Screenplays happen in the here andnow. They describe the action as theviewer will see it unrolling across thescreen. Use active voice and presenttense. For example, write, “John looksinto the mirror, then does a doubletake. There’s a second head growingout of his neck. He screams in terrorand blacks out…”Don’t write, “John looked in the mirror,then did a double take. He saw a secondhead growing out of his neck. He screamedin terror and blacked out…”Or, “We see our John look into the mirrorand do a double take. His reflectionshows a second head growing out of hisneck. We hear him scream and see himslump to the floor. He’s blacked out…”NOTE: These examples are based on anactual film, How to Get Ahead inAdvertising, in which the main characterdoes indeed wake up one morning to finda second head growing out from the sideof his neck. As they say in Hollywood,you can make a movie about darn nearanything.

Script Right 109Relevant QuestionsAs your script nears completion, ask yourselfthe following important questions:Does every single scene in the scripta) advance the action and/or b) developthe character?Do all scenes, dialogue and narrationserve a legitimate purpose? Does the thirdscene featuring John arguing with his newhead show us anything new about them,or did you just like the dialogue?If you’ve shown the viewer how toremove the left front tire of a ‘58Thunderbird, do you really need to showremoval of the right front? Where else canyou cut? Where should you expand?Remember: you want your dialogue ornarration to sound natural. That’s a hardone. A good way to check your writing fora natural feel is to put it away for a fewdays, then reread it. Does it still soundright? Read it aloud. Do you stumble,fumble, fall? Then your actors or narratorswill as well.Finally, ask a few trustworthy and literatefriends to read your work with a kindand constructive critical eye. You don’thave to take their advice, but you shouldat least consider it, especially when thesame problem is identified by more thanone critic.Writing is rewriting. Put your ego asideand polish your work. Once you’re satisfiedthat it’s as good as you can make it,it’s probably ready to go.Script RequirementsIt’s not enough to write a good script. Youalso have to format it according to screenwritingconventions. There are two mainscriptwriting formats. Fictional scripts, orscripts with a lot of dialogue, use a formatthat evolved from the theater. Documentaries,industrials and other productionswhich match narration to the visuals typicallyuse a split page, two-column format.There are a number of variations withinthese two categories (see Figure 22.1), butall will fall under one type or another.In the theatrical format, scenes arenumbered; it’s best not to number yourscenes until you complete your finaldraft. Manually renumbering scenes cangrow tiresome.Number the pages in the upper righthand corner. When a scene crosses overfrom one page to the next, place the notation“continued” at the bottom right cornerof the first page. Mark the top of thesecond page with the scene number and a“continued” notation.It’s important that the finished screenplayfollow the general visual format,allowing for simple identification of scenelocation, direction and dialogue. Forexample, the first time Dan’s name appearsin the script his name is set in capital letters.The second time it isn’t. This makes iteasy for the reader to keep track of newcharacters. When indicating dialogue,character names always appear in caps.Technically, each time the camera movesit inaugurates a new scene; we have threescenes now, rather than just the one.Some screenwriters also capitalize allaudio cues—TYPING, TICKING—for easyidentification.With documentary and industrialvideo, you are frequently more interestedin matching certain visual informationwith spoken word audio. That’s why it’seasier to format this type of script in twocolumns. The description of the visualinformation goes in the left column andthe audio information goes in the right.As with the dramatic screenplay, thesetypes of formats vary slightly from scriptto script. In some, a thin third column tothe left indicates shot numbers. Othervariations use an abbreviation for the shotas part of the description.It’s a WrapYes, learning to write can pose a challenge,but take a look at Mike. He grittedhis teeth, put his stuff down on paper, andfound he actually enjoyed himself.The fifteen-minute film he was assignedto write turned into three five-minute

110 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 22.1 Samples of theatrical and dual-column scriptwriting formats.sections for a feature film script he vowssomeday to complete. He scored himselfan “A” in the course. Most important, heengaged in work he felt good about, andgained a new perspective on his capabilities.Now it’s your turn.Writing Tools for Videographer:There’s a wealth of help out there for scriptwriters, from how-to books to formattingsoftware. Below we list some of the mostpopular writing tools. For more, contactThe Writer’s Computer Store 1-800-272-8927(www.writerscomputer.com).How-To BooksScreenplay: The Foundations of Screenwritingby Syd Field, ISBN: 0440576474,Dell Publishing, $13.95.The Complete Guide to Standard ScriptFormats: The Screenplay by Cole andHaag, ISBN: 0929583000, CMC PublishingInc., $18.95.The Elements of Screenwriting by Irwin R.Blacker, ISBN: 002861450X, MacMillanDistribution, $9.95.The TV Scriptwriter’s Handbook by AlfredBrenner, ISBN: 187950510X, SicmanJames Press, $15.95.Scriptwriting TutorialWritePro; for DOS, Windows or Mac, eightlessons, $199.Script Formatting ProgramsFinal Draft, for Mac or Windows, $249.Screen Writer 2000, for Mac or Windows,$299.

23Look Who’s Talking:How to Create Effective,Believable Dialogue forYour Video ProductionsJohn K. WatersA script is a story told with pictures—butsilent pictures they’re not. Since 1927,when the debut of The Jazz Singer transformed“moving pictures” into “talkies,”dialogue has played a crucial role in makingsuccessful films and videos.But with everything else you worryabout as an independent videographer—maintaining your equipment, getting theshot, getting paid—dialogue may be lowon your list of concerns. Still, you don’twant to underestimate its power.Good dialogue works hard. It keepsthings moving, ties individual segmentstogether and unifies your piece. On theother hand, bad dialogue discredits yourwork, destroying your credibility and ultimatelycosting you your audience.Whether you’re shooting independentfeatures, corporate image spots, local TVcommercials or your sister’s wedding,what your subjects say can make the differencebetween an amateur show and a powerfulpiece of professional videography.Here’s how to make sure what they sayworks.What is Dialogue?Any time you put words into the mouthsof your on-camera subjects, you are writingdialogue. That definition includeshosts, commentators and spokespersons,as well as actors playing parts.The primary purpose of dialogue is tomove your story forward. It accomplishesthis by revealing character, communicatinginformation and establishing relationshipsbetween characters. It can also foreshadowevents, comment on the action and connectscenes.For example: in my script Sleeping DogsLie, the hero, Ray Sobczak, is a reporterworking on a story that is annoying somevery important citizens. Here, a localpolitico delivers a veiled warning.JAMIEWhat happened to you?SOBOZAKZigged when I shoulda zagged. How’sthe campaign going?111

112 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionJAMIEOh, I just love spending obsceneamounts of my mother’s money—andwhat your paper charges for adspace is truly obscene.SOBOZAKSomething tells me your mother canafford it, Mr. Bockman.JAMIEMy father, who could also afford itwhen he was alive, wasMr. Bockman. Call me Jamie.SOBOZAKOkay, Jamie. Think she’ll win?JAMIE(ignoring him) How’s the story coming?SOBOZAKWhich story is that? (Jamie gazes outat the cluster of downtown buildingsand the hills rising behind them.)JAMIESalinas is growing, Ray. Over ahundred thousand at last count. But,underneath, it’s still a small town.This exchange probably won’t go down inhistory as the most memorable in films,but it has many earmarks of good dialogue.It tells us something about the characters:Jamie is rich, has an ambiguous attitudetoward his mother’s campaign for mayorand has well-informed connections;Sobczak is tough, and won’t let a bump onthe noggin keep him from getting the story.It foreshadows future events: people arewatching. And it moves the story forward:this encounter gives Sobczak an idea,which leads him—and the story—in anew direction.Keep It LeanThe above example also demonstratesanother important quality of gooddialogue: brevity. Good dialogue is a leanexchange between people, composed ofshort phrases. On paper, it looks like lotsof white space; big blocks of type are definitewarning sign that you are overwritingyour dialogue.“The good stuff is a dance of two andthree-liners between characters,” saysscriptwriter Madeline DiMaggio. “It’s abouncing ball that keeps your audienceriveted.”When it comes to writing dialogue,DiMaggio knows what she’s talking about.She has written over 35 hours of episodictelevision for shows ranging from Kojak toThe Bob Newhart Show to ABC’s AfterSchool Special. A former staff writer forthe daytime soap opera Santa Barbara, sheis also a teacher and the author of How toWrite for Television.DiMaggio says the kind of close-tothe-bonedialogue you want for yourvideos comes only through rewriting (SeeFigure 23.1.), “It doesn’t happen on thefirst pass,” she says. “At first your dialogueis cardboard—and that’s the way it shouldbe. It’s only later, when you go back andtake five lines down to two-and-a-half, andthen two-and-a-half lines down to one, thatyou find the real gems.”DiMaggio says she plays a game withherself during her rewriting process: ifshe can whittle a piece of dialogue downto four lines, can she cut it to two? If shecan chop it to two, how about one?“If script writers were doctors,” shesays, the best ones would be surgeons.“Cut, cut, cut!”Make It Sound RealA tried and true technique for developingyour ear for natural-sounding dialogue isto surreptitiously tape conversations andthen transcribe them later.I do this especially when I’m writingabout types of people I don’t knowwell. Ethical questions aside, this hasworked well to awaken my sense of howpeople talk.

Look Who’s Talking 113Figure 23.1 Rewriting and rewriting and rewriting again is key when writing dialog.The first thing I noticed when I begandoing this was how fragmented conversationsare. The following is an examplefrom my files.MAN #1Hey, what’s up?MAN #2I dropped by the place. Thought I’dsay hi, but nobody was, you know…MAN #1I was over there yesterday and…MAN #2… home. You know?MAN #1Nobody? Man, I…MAN #2That’s because of the, you know, holiday‘n stuff, and her car was thereand everything, but…MAN #1What a piece of *#@*!, man, that car…MAN #2Yeah, and, you know,I left like, a note.MAN #1NO WAY!On paper, this conversation looks like anexchange between two orangutans, butthey sounded perfectly normal. That’swhy, unless you’re making a documentary,you can’t just transcribe tapes of real

114 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionconversations and use them raw in yourscripts. And even documentaries requirejudicious editing.“If you went out to a coffee shop with atape recorder,” DiMaggio says, “and wenthome and put what you recorded into ascript, it wouldn’t work. Good dialogueisn’t actually real. It just gives the illusionof reality.”DiMaggio says one of the best ways tolearn how dialogue sounds is to recorddialogue.“That’s how I got to know SantaBarbara,” she says. “There were so manycharacters, and they all had their ownvoices! I would audiotape the show andthen listen whenever I was driving. Whenyou cut off the other senses, your earbecomes much stronger.”DiMaggio also recommends audiotapingshows to develop an ear for genre dialogue.“Comedies, mysteries, dramas—it’s anincredible way to learn,” she says.Good dialogue also has a spontaneousquality, as if your characters were speakingtheir lines for the first time.“When the dialogue is stilted or tooformal,” says corporate video writer/producerSusan O’Connor Fraser, “the audiencejust laughs at it. When they startdoing that, you’ve lost them.”O’Connor Fraser is the creative directorfor Tam Communications in San Jose,California. She’s been writing and producingvideos for Fortune 500 companiesfor the past 15 years. Her company produceda reality-based show on paramedicsin San Jose, which aired on thelocal ABC affiliate.“I don’t think corporate video is thatmuch different from features,” O’ConnorFraser says. “Dialogue is dialogue, andevery story has its own reality. StarWars has a reality, and so does a corporatesales presentation. Everything mustplay and be believable within its ownreality.”According to O’Connor Fraser, one ofthe most common dialogue errors she seesis characters addressing each other byname too often.“I’ve seen it done in every passage,” shesays. “It’s, ‘Well, John … Well, Lisa… Whatdo you think, John…I’m not sure, Lisa.’It’s just not real.”She says reading your script aloud isone of the easiest ways to spot dialogueerrors. (See Figure 23.2.)“You’re writing for the ear. So you needto find out how it sounds. You don’t needactors, though they are a wonderful luxury.Just read it out loud with a friend, orby yourself while you’re sitting at yourcomputer. You’ll hear many of the problemsright away.”Stay in CharacterWhen I write, I become the characters I’mwriting about. This is pretty easy whenI’m writing about thirtysomething whiteguys from the Midwest. But what aboutwhen the character I’m writing dialoguefor is a New York cop, or a Southerndoctor, or a black female Vietnam veteranwith a Harvard MBA, two grown childrenand a neurotic obsession with alienabductions?You simply cannot write dialogue thatrings true unless you acquaint yourselfwith the kind of people appearing in yourvideo. This is where real world researchis essential. I’m talking about stuff youcan’t find in the library. But that doesn’tmean that you have to spend a week on afishing boat in Alaska or infiltrate thelocal Jaycees to get the right slang and jargonfor your script, though those are triedand true approaches.“If I don’t have any personal experiencesin my own life I can draw on,” saysO’Connor Fraser, “I track down the kindof person I’m writing about and take themto lunch.” In her corporate work, shetends to deal with a limited number of“types,” mostly from the high tech world;after 15 years she knows them well. Butshe still checks her “voice” with face-tofaceinterviews—especially when she’swriting a script for an on-camera presentationby a company executive.

Look Who’s Talking 115Figure 23.2 Read your script aloud to make sure it sounds natural.“When I go out and interview a presidentor vice president who will be oncamera,” she says, “I listen very carefully,so I’m really hearing them talk. I don’twant them to sound like they’re readingfrom the inside cover of an annual report.I want them to sound very natural andcomfortable, as though they were talkingacross the table from someone.“Interviewing your clients is also oneof the best ways to pick up the buzz wordsof their professions. Listen closely andmake a list of unfamiliar words or phrases.Ask for clarification so you understandthem in context. When you sit down towrite your script, your list will proveinvaluable.”Many writers just write the dialogue asbest they can and then give it to someonefrom that character’s walk of life to read.DiMaggio says she works on her dialogue,“until I’m not ashamed of it,” and thenturns it over to a person with whateverspecial knowledge her characters wouldhave. In her TV movie script, Belly Up, forexample, one of her characters was a manwho gambled on the golf course.“I wasn’t about to take up golf to hearhow guys gamble on the golf course,” saysDiMaggio. “So I sent the script to mybrother. He gambles on the golf course allthe time. In five minutes he told methings I couldn’t possibly know unless Iwas out there. I made some changes in thescript and all of a sudden it soundedabsolutely real. One producer told me Iwrote like a man, which, under the circumstances,I took as a compliment.”In one of my own scripts I created acharacter who was a professional cropduster, but I had never met a crop dusterin my life. So I picked up the Yellow

116 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionPages, and a few lunches later I kneweverything I needed to know to create abelievable character. (And I now know tocall them agricultural aviators.)Go for SubtextSyd Field, author of several well-knownbooks on scriptwriting, including the nowclassic Screenplay: The Foundations ofScreenwriting, calls dialogue one of the“tools of character.” That’s because whatpeople say says a great deal about them.But what they don’t say often says more.The best dialogue is not only about whatyour characters are saying, it’s also aboutwhat they’re not saying. This is subtext.“Subtext is what’s happening beneaththe surface,” says DiMaggio. “It’s the keyto truly great dialogue.”Examples of subtext abound in filmslike the 1944 film noir classic, DoubleIndemnity. One scene in particular comesto mind, in which insurance salesmanWalter Neff (Fred MacMurray) puts themake on a client’s wife (Barbara Stanwyck).They fence back and forth in a conversationabout cars and speeding, but drivingis the last thing on their minds.Subtext enlivens good writing everywhere—evencommercials. We’ve watchedthat couple in the Taster’s Choice commercialsmeet, woo and bed in Paris—allwhile talking about coffee.Subtext probably isn’t as importantin most corporate video situations; still,you ignore it at your peril. Humanbeings talk around things. Dialogue that’stoo “on the nose” won’t sound natural.Even the dialogue in infomercials hassubtext.Figure 23.3 Congratulations! It’s a script!

Look Who’s Talking 117Write the Right Voice OverVoice-over narration isn’t really dialogue,but many of the same principles stillapply. This is especially true if the narratoris a particular character, as in the caseof a host, or one of the actors, such asthe Holly Hunter character in The Pianoor Walter Neff, who narrates DoubleIndemnity.You write voice-over narration like youwrite dialogue—for the ear. It shouldsound conversational. Even if your narratoris an omniscient voice, that voice mustconform to your audience’s expectationsof human communication.“When I’m doing voice overs,” saysO’Connor Fraser, “I still get a character inmind and write for him or her. Of coursethis is really important if the narrator willever appear on-camera, but I do it even ifthey won’t. That way, the voice is consistentthroughout.”Voice-over narration can be even harderto write than dialogue. “If you think dialoguehas to be lean,” DiMaggio says,“voice overs have to be the best of thebest. It has to be very, very thrifty. The realgems. Otherwise it turns into an excusefor failing to write good exposition.”Practice, Practice, PracticeWriting authentic, believable dialogue is aspecial skill; it takes practice. But withsome effort and more than a little patience,you’ll get it. (Figure 23.3)“You have to realize that the script youwrite today won’t be as good as the scriptyou write next year,” says O’Connor Fraser.“And that’s okay. I’m a much better writernow than I was a year ago. I learn somethingwith every script I write.”“We’re all students, really,” saysDiMaggio. “No matter how long you dothis, there’s always something to learn. Ithink that’s the good news. It’s one of thethings that keeps this work interesting.”In the end, creating good dialogueis more about listening than it is aboutwriting. Once you begin to hear therhythms of human conversation, the dialogueyou write for your videos willimprove dramatically.So keep your ears open.

24Storyboards and Shot ListsJim StinsonSome DVDs (Shrek and The Matrix, forexample) now include sample storyboards—shot-by-shotsketches drawn tovisualize the action of key sequences—asbonus material. As you study these slickdrawings, you’ll notice that most framesare remarkably close to the actual shotsthey predict. Back in Hollywood’s glorydays, most directors (with Hitchcock anotable exception) rarely worked with storyboards;today, however, they’re everywhere.Should you be using them too?That’s what we’re here to discover. We’llstart with a look at what storyboards do.Storyboards VisualizeBasically, pre-designed storyboards inpencil or marker predict what shots willlook like. Why not just invent shots as youactually shoot? Here are three reasons.First, storyboards let you test complicatedsetups cheaply on paper instead ofexpensively on location. Suppose yourscript says, “He unrolls the treasure mapbefore him and she gasps as she seeswhere the gold is buried.” But when youdraw a high-angle insert of the unfoldingmap, you realize there’s no way to get“she” into the frame (see Figure 24.1a). Soyou try a new angle: over her shoulder(see Figure 24.1b). By moving the camcorderto center her face and refocusing asshe turns into profile, you can get bothher relation to the map and her reaction toit; and you haven’t wasted half an hour ona setup you’d eventually discard.Secondly, you can check your coverageof a sequence and preplan your videocamera angles for variety, continuity andrhythm. Suppose you sketch three shotsof the male talent digging up the treasurechest (see Figure 24.2a). Hmmm: thoughthe sketches are from different viewpoints,they’re all neutral-height mediumshots and are too repetitive. OK, substitutea point-of-view (POV) closeup of theemerging chest (Figure 24.2b) and changethe last shot to a low-angle closeup of hisgreedy expression as he reacts to the chest(Figure 24.2c). In 10 minutes of doodling,118

Storyboards and Shot Lists 119(a)(b)Figure 24.1you’ve improved a sequence from ho-humto dynamic.Finally, storyboarding is essential forplanning special effects. Say you want toestablish a “pirate ship” by compositingstock footage of a three-master riding offshorewith our hero in the foreground (seeFigure 24.3). A sketch will guide yourplacement of the camera and the actor sothat he’ll relate properly to the scene.Storyboard VisionSo far, you’ve been created storyboards foryour own use, but storyboards also communicateyour vision to others. Verbalizingimage ideas is always chancy, so it’sbetter to show what you have in mindvisually.In the professional world, storyboardsare essential for communicating withclients, first to pitch concepts and then topreview the live action. Never forget thatvisual imagination is like a sense of humor:many people lack it, but no one will everadmit it. The client may nod and smile asyou verbalize your vision, but yelp, “Younever said you’d do that!” upon seeing thefootage, even if that was precisely what youpromised. Prevent that scenario—put thatpromise in sketches instead of words.Incidentally, you should have a professionalartist draw storyboards for clients.Even though you were hired to shoot, notdraw, your amateur scribbles will likelycast doubts on your professionalism.(Hey, whoever said it was fair?) If youdon’t have a client to impress, don’tworry about the quality of your thumbnailsketches. As long as they communicate toyourself and your crew, they do the job.There are two ways to do storyboardingnowadays, either draw them on paper orbuild them on a computer.Paper and PencilTo make a board from scratch, drawbetween six and 12 rectangles on a virtualsheet of paper (any word processor orpaint program’ll do it for you). Make thehorizontal/vertical ratio 4 to 3 (4:3) forconventional video or 16:9 for widescreen. Leave enough space to writeunder each frame. Some people pre-print“Frame #,” “action,” “audio,” etc., butyou don’t have to be that formal. Print outa large quantity of these blank boards.Using simple lines and stick-figure subjects,sketch each setup in a frame,observing just a few conventions. Indicatesubject movement with arrows in the

120 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production(a)(b)(c)Figure 24.2frame. Show zooms by sketching the wideangleposition, drawing a box around thetelephoto position within it and addingdiagonal arrows to show whether themovement is in or out. For pans or tiltsbetween two distinct compositions, showeach one as a separate frame, with anarrow between frames to link them.The notes written below each frameshould contain some or all of the following:●●●Frame numberSequence (“27”) or sequence/shot (“27B”)Action (“John runs past; exits frameright”)

Storyboards and Shot Lists 121Figure 24.4 You don’t need to be an artist. Usea simple paint program to convey your ideas.Figure 24.3●●●●Camera instructions: (“No pan”)Dialogue: (“JOHN: Come back here withthat map!”)Other audio: (“SFX: bullet ricochet”)Visual effects: (“Bluescreen for shipcomposite”)Computer BoardsIf you’re deft with a mouse (or are fortunateenough to own a pad and stylus), youcan sketch boards directly on your screen.Perhaps the easiest way to do this is withthe draw tools in Corel Presentations orMicrosoft PowerPoint. This approachmakes frames easy to add, insert, delete ormodify (see Figure 24.4).A second method is to make individualsketches in the draw/paint software youfavor, then use a graphics organizer toprint them as sequential thumbnails. TheThumbsPlus software lets you add extensivenotes under each image.A third route is a publishing packagelike Adobe PageMaker. You can build atemplate page of blank frames, then eitherdraw in each one or import an outsidegraphic or even location photo.This brings us to commercial storyboardpackages. As the sidebar suggests, they canmake wonderful organizers for productionplanning, because you can import digitalphotos and write extensive commentaries.However, they can be cranky and limitedin drawing the shots of your particularshow. Though they might seem to allownon-artists to build presentation-qualityboards, the skill needed to customize theirgeneric components is substantial.Shot ListsThink of a shot list as the writing on astoryboard, without the pictures (seeFigure 24.5). Though simple lists of shotsdon’t let you pre-test potential setups, theydo allow you to systematically verify thatyou are covering every angle you need.Often shot lists are just quick and dirtynotes that help you remember everythingyou need in a particular sequence. You canalso cull a shot list from a fully-writtenscript if you separate video into separatecolumns (or paragraphs). Just build aword processor macro that will strip outeverything but the scene number and thevisual description.On the other hand, a shot list built in adatabase program (such as File Maker Pro)can be the most versatile production toolin your kit. Design a database using someor all of the fields suggested in the sidebar,using each shot as a separate record.By creating report forms with differentfields and sorts, you can build a workingdocument for everyone from the directorto the wardrobe person.

122 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 24.5 A coordinated shot list that matches your storyboard will makeyour job much easier.Sidebar 1Storyboard SoftwareCommercial software is available for storyboarding but it suffers from problems that are veryhard to overcome.Most packages work by supplying a pre-drawn set of backgrounds, a grab bag of props(guns, flower pots, cars), and a repertory of characters. By selecting, placing, rotating andscaling these components, you can make very professional looking frames.The trouble is, they can almost never illustrate your video. The script may say, “The oldduchess sweeps into the palace banquet hall.” but the software inventory lacks both an oldwoman (let alone a duchess) and a palace hall; and the drawing tools for building same arerudimentary, to put it kindly.True, you can import custom backgrounds from programs like Bryce and characters from3D modeling software, but expect to spend at least an hour per frame building these hybridimages. Do the math on a three-page board of 12 frames each and decide if this method isreally time-effective for your project.On the other hand, these packages can be useful in production planning if you import digitalstills from location scouting and make notes in the fields provided. Shotmaster from theBadham Company (www.badhamcompany.com) is particularly versatile this way.Bottom line: Storyboard packages have their uses, but don’t expect them to draw what youcan’t draw for yourself.Sidebar 2A Shot List DatabaseStart your database by treating each shot as a separate record. Then add fields for everyimportant aspect of production planning.

Storyboards and Shot Lists 123An Extensive ListA fairly complete set of fields might include the following (separate but related fields aregrouped together):●●●●●●●●●●●●sequence, shot number and takeinterior/exterior and day/nightcamera setupaudio (production, reference track, special effects)special equipment (like a dolly)shot contentnoteslocationtalent 1, talent 2, talent 3 (etc., for as many actors as will ever appear together in a single shot)key prop (such as a rented vehicle), other propscostumesday, date and start timePlus any other production details you want to keep track of.A Director’s ListTo create a director’s shot list, build a report containing these fields:●●●●sequence, shot number and take.camera setupshot contentnotesThen sort the list by sequence, setup and only then shot number. You’ll get a sequence-bysequencelist of every shot organized by setup.

25Budget Details:Successful Video ProjectsStick to BudgetsMark Steven Bosko124Creating and adhering to a realistic budgetis important to the success of any videographer’sproject.But just how do you compute that magicalfigure, arrive at an amount low enoughto attract investors but large enough to getthe job done? It’s not easy. Thousands ofpeople labor in Hollywood as budget wizards;not even they get it right always. Somany variables and details can go wrongor astray; it’s impossible to plan for everycontingency. Most often, you just have toguess.Still, in this chapter we’ll offer a numberof useful guidelines vital for budgetpreparation. Videographers who absorbthese lessons will at least have a reasonablegrasp of the basics of financialplanning.Reasons for BudgetsVideo budgets both attract investorsand allow you to exercise control over aproduction.Since the budget is the foundation ofany presentation to investors, it should bespecific and accurate.Realism is also a good idea. It’s anadmirable goal, applying LucasFilm-likeeffects to a dry-cleaning commercial, buthardly feasible when the video must comein at $499.Most projects begin under-budgetedand under-scheduled. It’s easy to understandwhy. A project will certainly seemmore attractive to investors if you can convincethem you’ll finish the video for lessmoney in less time than the competition.But this shortsighted method of easyfinancing will eventually cause yousuffering.Projects under-scheduled and underbudgetedleave you with only two optionsonce the show begins 1) the project goesover budget, or 2) the quality goes into thedumpster.Say you tell a client $300 will do to createa training video. Then, during shooting,rain pours down; you must shut downthe shoot and pay talent for a second day.

Budget Details 125You’ve now spent an extra $50, moneyintended for post-production. So will youskip the original scoring, budgeted at $50,choosing instead to give the client cannedtunes? Or jettison the spiffy title effectsfor hand-lettered cards?Sticking adamantly to an unrealisticbudget forces you to continually compromise.This leads to a loss of quality.There’s a minimum budget for every project,a certain amount necessary to producea video meeting reasonable standards ofquality. Determine your video’s destination,then calculate the smallest amountof money needed to reach it. If the availablefinancing is less than this figure,change the project.Keep budgeting until you have a videoyou can afford to make.Step by StepIt’s important to give equal emphasis to allstages of production, from writing and principalphotography to music and editing.It’s easy to get excited about the shootingstage of a video project. Here is theplace for lights, camera, action. Just don’tmake the mistake of creating an excruciatinglydetailed budget for production onlyto carelessly slop but a few dollars to postproduction. You’ll pay dearly.Become familiar with the functions andcosts associated with every step of theproduction process. Talk to the peopleresponsible for the script, the shootingand the effects. Without such intenseresearch, you may neglect such costs asB-roll tape, music copyright fees andcatering charges.Actual working budgets vary in size.Major Hollywood studio budgets may endup as two-inch-thick tomes, while anindependent thirty-second cable spot cancome in a tiny one-pager.Regardless of size, most every budgetconsists of two sections: costs above-thelineand below-the-line. The formerincludes cash for producer, writer, directorand talent. These costs are usuallyfixed, set amounts. Below-the-line costsinclude everything else associated withproduction. Each line item contains manyseparate details contributing to the totalcost. I’ll examine each in an attempt toexplain what makes building a budget sotricky.Over the LineThe first above-the-line item concernsscreenplay and story rights (seeFigure 25.1). If your production uses anadaptation of existing work, you’ll have topurchase the rights. These can be costlyfor a known, popular author’s work, ornonexistent if the story comes from arookie simply seeking screen credit.Unless you come up with it yourself, youwill have to pay someone some amountfor either an idea or an actual screenplay.Even for thirty-second commercials,people get paid to write scripts.Hidden above-the-line costs caninclude photocopying, script breakdownsand rewrites, copyright registration andlegal fees associated with purchasingwork.The producer is the one who generallyruns the show; and, yep, often expectspayment, too. A producer is responsiblefor finding story, actors, crew, equipment,locations, props, wardrobe and investors.This requires an enormous amount oftime, even for a small, one-day shoot. Aproducer’s talent lies in the ability tomake and keep contacts; that’s whatthey’re paid for. Obvious expensesinclude phone charges, travel expenses,lunches, postage, contracts and legal fees.In Hollywood, the director is paid foroverall vision. On smaller productions,the director may be you, the camera operatoror even the client. With very low budgets,you can skip this item; there isn’tenough discretionary cash available toafford a director.Talent includes lead actors, supportingcast, stunt people, voice-over artists andmodels. In budgeting talent, keep in mind

126 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 25.1 Checklist of costs.daily or hourly rates. These usually varyaccording to how often the person works.As an example, you might hire talentfrom the local actors’ union for $200 aday, $150 for two days or more. Read thesmall print; often contracts demand thattwo or more days be worked consecutively.If you work your talent on Mondayand Wednesday, you’ll spend $400, notthe planned two-day rate of $300.For details on this intricate subject,consult Ralph Singleton’s indispensablebook, Film Scheduling.Under the RainbowIn an ultra-low budget affair you mayspend little or no money above the line.But every production—large or small—incurs production expenses.Depending on circumstances, productionstaff may or may not require significantexpenditures. When the local cardealer hires you to shoot a thirty-secondspot, you discover the script calls for anight shoot requiring a two-camera setupand live sound. What began simply nowdemands additional camera operators,lighting people, sound recorders andprobably three or four grips to jockeycables and equipment.On the other hand, your sixty-minutedocumentary on the mating habits of waterfowlrequires only you and your camera.Obviously, a project’s length bears littlerelation to total costs. It’s the script detailsthat matter.

Budget Details 127On most projects, regardless of size, thekey staff members are the camera operator,sound recordist, lighting technicianand makeup artist.Support positions include dialoguedirector, script supervisor, electricians,dolly operators, boom operators, art director,costume designer, model builder,prop maker, set decorator, hair dresser,special effects technician, carpenter,painter, still photographer, animal handler,security, first-aid crew and publicist(see Figure 25.1).Set operations, like staff, can demandeither a large or small chunk of cash,again depending on the project. If youalready own a camera, lights and soundequipment and all your locations currentlyexist; operation costs may be few.No need to buy or rent gear or build sets.If your video seeks to portray a sci-fiworld, get ready to dole out the dollars.The set builder needs wood, the wardrobemanager gold lamé, the makeup artistlatex and the gaffer colored gels. The setoperations segment of this budgetrequires great detail; include every imaginableassociated cost.It’s not neurotic to include such costs asthe tissues actors will need for their nosesduring chilly outdoor shoots. It’s these littlethings that throw a project into disarray.Don’t overlook such “obvious” items asnails, screws, bolts and glue; gasoline forautomobiles and generators; rentals andpermits; duplicate sets of clothing; bottles,cans, books and plants; and, of course, tape.Again, talk to your people; learn whatthey require. Sometimes it’s not a badidea to ask your support staff to createtheir own budgets; these you can incorporateinto your final estimate.Postage and telephone fees can add upquickly. It’s amazing how many longdistancecalls people make in the middleof a production. And if you’re on the roadwith a cellular, cash outflow can growquite frightening. Same for postage andshipping expenses. If your client lives inanother town and insists on dailies, you’llgo broke if you haven’t budgeted properly.To cast and crew, the most importantcost is catering. Believe me, you don’twant to face down fifteen hungry peoplewith nothing but a jar of peanut butterand a loaf of bread.Post-production FundsThe last formal segment of the budgetconcerns post-production audio and videoediting.Those who own their own editingequipment will find costs fairly minimal.If forced to rent, the prices can get steep.Don’t underestimate the amount of editingtime. This will depend on such variablesas length of script, timing, clientapproval and number of effects.If you’ve shot footage for a thirtysecondspot requiring only five or sixedits, an hour may be enough. If that samespot requires a rapid assault of imagesand sounds, you may spend two or threedays in the edit bay.You usually reserve editing time by thehour, day or week, with price breaks forlonger periods. Other post productioncosts include music, graphics and titlescreation, special visual effects, dubbing,time coding, audio mixing, looping,sound effects and extra tape.A final cost to consider is the promotionalexpense associated with selling andmarketing. Final product should be presentedin a professional form. All videosproperly labeled and packaged. You don’twant to hand a client a VHS copy in acardboard sleeve with masking tapecrookedly proclaiming the title on thespine. A nice hard-shell package with aprinted label is the only way to go;include these costs in your budget.If you want your production to reach themasses, think about full-color packagingcosts like artwork, layout and printing.Any worthwhile marketing effort includesmailing promotional copies to potentialdistributors and buyers. Estimate photocopying,postage and duplication costs.Don’t forget advertising. Magazines,radio, TV, billboards, classifieds, flyers,

128 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productiontelemarketing, direct sales, door-to-door,conventions and trade shows whateverform you plan requires cash. Obtainquotes for ad rates during the time yourad will appear. Remember, your commercialswill probably air more than a yearafter you’ve assembled the budget.Because so much can go wrong, add a10 percent contingency amount. Thisallows for unpredictable events, and letsinvestors know you’re handling the projectin a professional manner.It’s not easy to create budgets. It’sharder yet to stick to them. But with a littlepreparation, forethought and diligencethroughout the production, you couldstill find change in your pockets when thecredits roll.

26A Modest ProposalWilliam RonatYour phone rings. On the other end is apotential client. You like potential clients,as they represent potential profits. (Okay,so maybe you’re not a professional videographerat this point. Stick with us anyway;as your skills and your reputationgrow, you just might get such a call oneday.)The conversation is pleasant enough,with the potential client giving you a nebulousdescription of his potential videoproject. Then it’s your turn. “What’s itgoing to cost?” asks the potential clientpleasantly.That’s the problem with some potentialclients. They want to know exactly whatyou are going to do before you do it. Andthey want to know exactly what it willcost before they even know what theywant to do.Here’s how I handle such a question.“Look,” I say, “every video project is different.It’s like asking how much a houseis going to cost before you tell me whatkind of a house you want to build. Howmany rooms does the house have, does ithave a water view, how many acres ofland? Ceramic tile? A swimming pool?You see?”“Ah, of course, I see perfectly,” says thepotential client pleasantly, “But how muchis it going to cost?”“A million dollars,” I reply.Learn to EarnThis is the time to get some details onpaper, usually in the form of a proposal. Aproposal is simply a document that outlineswhat the video is going to accomplish.How you plan to make it happen,and an estimate of what it’s all going tocost. Ahhh—we’re back to the cost issue.How can you come up with an accurateestimate of a “potential” video? By learningeverything you can about the project.Who will be watching the final video—CEOs of corporations or first graders atthe local elementary school? How long isthe video? Will you need to shoot onDigital Betacam or is S-VHS acceptable?129

130 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionAre you and your crew going to have totravel to Istanbul or will everything beshot locally?Be sure the client understands what heor she is getting. If your price is for shootingand editing, then let the client knowthat scriptwriting will be an additionalexpense. Or if you do take the job fromstart to finish, then outline all the steps(selecting talent, scouting locations, productionscheduling, shooting, editing, anddubs). Make sure the client understandsthat your price includes these items only.Before you state a price for the project,see if you can find out what the client’sbudget is. It may be more than youthought, which gives you the freedom toadd more elements to the production. Onthe other end of the spectrum, the budgetmay be so small that it’s not even possibleto accomplish what the client wants. It’sbetter to learn this sad fact early, beforeyou invest your valuable time.Set the ParametersOnce you state a price, the client will try tohold you to it. Client-human nature is tolock you into a price and then add complexitythat will cost you more money. “DidI forget to mention that you could shoot onthe warehouse floor only between 3 a.m.and 5 a.m.? Must’ve slipped my mind.”This is why you want to be specific inthe cost estimating process of your proposal.If you tell them exactly what theyare getting for the price you are quoting,the client won’t be able to add on morecomplexity without that price going up.On simple jobs, I usually break my estimatedown into two parts: 1) the Treatmentand 2) the Estimate and Authorization.Earlier, we looked at how you shouldask questions to learn about the client’sproject. With the information you learnedthrough your questions, a natural methodof creating the video will probably popinto your head.For example, a client might be a builderof million-dollar homes. The client wantsto show off the many features of thedifferent models. Your treatment mightlook like this:Classical music plays as the camera floatspast the house with a breathtaking wideshot. The scene dissolves to a closer shotof the front of the house. As the camerafloats forward, the front door opens andthe camera (who is the viewer,) is greetedby a butler. This butler (a professionalactor) proceeds to give the viewer a fulltour of the house.The treatment can be as simple or ascomplex as you like, as long as it serves thepurpose of telling your client what theshow is going to look like. If the client likesthe concept and agrees on the price, youare ready to move into scripting. If there issomething the client doesn’t agree with,you know it before you discuss money.Also, if the clients love your idea, they’remore likely to go with you than one of yourcompetitors. Of course, the client canalways steal your idea and use anothercompany, anyway. The unfortunate fact isyou can’t copyright an idea.Author, AuthorThe second part of the proposal I send toclients is the Estimate and Authorization.On this sheet, I try to be as complete aspossible, putting down my best guesses onwhat each part of the video will cost. Thereare two schools of thought on this. Abuddy of mine, who also produces video,only tells his clients what the total cost ofthe production will be. He has found thatsome clients try to lower the price by eliminatingparts of the video (“Look, we cansave $200 if we re-use a stack of VHS tapesfrom home…).Whatever method you choose, the importantitem is the last line on the page. This iswhere it says:Authorization: _______________Date: _______Have the client sign and date your documentand you can get started.

A Modest Proposal 131Does this document protect you from aclient who wants to rip you off? Nope. Butneither do multi-page contracts. I know ofa disreputable fellow who has run upthousands of dollars worth of video productionbills (though not with me, thankgoodness), refused to pay, been taken tocourt, ordered to pay by the judge, andstill refused to pay. The last I heard, hehad left town—without paying.If you don’t have a good feeling in yourgut about potential clients and you thinkthey might be in the sleazy category, backoff. Talk to other people in the communitywho have worked with these people. Areyour fears legitimate? A little homeworkcan help you avoid major headaches.So why get a signature? Honest people(the ones you want to work with) stand bytheir promises. But even these folks sometimeshave short memories. (“I neveragreed to that.” “But you signed this documentsaying you did.” “I did? I’ll bedarned.”) Leaving a paper trail helpseveryone remember these little details.What Do You Propose?Often, a proposal is much more than just afew descriptive paragraphs with a cost figureattached.A proposal may become a long, involvedchunk of paperwork, which explains indetail how you will create a specific videoproject. It is sometimes written in responseto a Request for Proposal (RFP). Governmentagencies and other large corporationsoften send out RFPs when they need specificservices, be they video production orbomb shelter construction. What they getback from an RFP is a mountain of proposals,each explaining why the proposer is thebest choice to provide that service.How can you get in on the fun of respondingto an RFP? One way is to team upwith a larger company which is respondingto an RFP that calls for a video as apart of a larger contract.For example, I once worked on a projectwhere a company was creating a simulatorfor the Navy to train catapult officers onaircraft carriers. These officers stood on asimulated deck and looked at a largescreen television showing F-14s, A-6s andother aircraft preparing to take off. Theproduction company I worked for was thesubcontractor responsible for capturingthe aircraft on videotape.As a subcontractor, the video companywas only responsible for responding to asmall part of the RFP. But it was importantthat the Navy was as comfortable with theinformation presented in the video portionof the proposal as the rest. If you canconvince large companies in your areathat you are the person to handle its videorequirements, they might call you whenthey need a video subcontractor.If the RFP is for the production of avideo program, you could respond as theprimary contractor on the job. But beaware that these RFPs go out to dozens ofcompanies at the same time. If you don’tfeel that yours is the right company to dothe work outlined in the RFP, you maywant to save your energy for a project youcan handle.Why not respond to every RFP you canfind? Because creating a proposal is a lotof work. You could conceivably spend allyour time writing proposals and neverwin any of them.For ExampleWhat kind of information do most agenciesexpect to see in a proposal? The followingis the actual wording of the proposal formatfrom an RFP from the State of Florida.1. Table of Contents.2. Tab 1. Executive Summary—Include asynopsis of the proposal prepared in amanner that is easily understood bynon-technical personnel.3. Tab 2. Certification and References—the proposer shall provide a list of notless than three (3) nor more than five(5) different previous clients during

132 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionthe past 3 years as references. This partshall include the dates of the previousprojects and the name, title andtelephone number of a responsibleemployee of the previous client who isfamiliar with the project. The proposermust include a certification that in theprevious project it was the originalprovider of the services.4. Tab 3. Resumes of Individuals Proposedto Work on this Contract—the proposershall include resumes of the individualit proposes to assign to this project,specifying relevant educational andwork experiences, and shall designatewhich individual will be the producer/director responsible for the coordinationof work efforts of the other personnelassigned to the project. Availabilityof each individual shall be described,as well as the estimated number ofworkdays of commitment from each.5. Tab 4. Description of Creative andTechnical Approach—The proposermust provide a description of how itwill produce the video programs. Thisdescription shall include the proposedproduction schedule of the estimatedworking days required to completeeach part of each program, the degreeof involvement by the Division, andthe geographic location where the productionwill take place. It should alsoinclude general information about thetalent (estimated number of professionals,semiprofessionals, and extras)and a general description of the proposeduse of narrative, dramatics, animationand graphics.6. Tab 5. Description of Video Equipment—The proposer must supply a list ofproduction and post-production equipmentintended for producing theseprograms.7. Tab 6. Work Sample—The proposermust supply a sample in VHS format eraprevious instructional or training videoprogram with production values similarto those offered in response to the RFP.The work sample will be evaluated forboth production quality and creativetreatment of the subject matter.You Get the IdeaAlso requested by the RFP were a CostProposal Form, a proposal AcknowledgmentList and a Sworn Statement onPublic Entity Crimes. If you think filling outone of these puppies sounds like more workthan you are now putting into entire videoprojects—you may be right. This is why youshould feel you have a pretty good shot atgetting a contract before you go after it.The sample above, from the State ofFlorida, was an extremely well writtenRFP. A video expert was called in to givethe writer advice on how a video is puttogether. But sometimes an RFP is writtenrequesting strange or unworkable videosolutions. It doesn’t matter. You mustrespond to these requests as they are,even if they are bizarre.Responding to request for proposals is askill. You have to answer every question,dot every i, cross every t. If you don’t,your proposal can be thrown out for noncompliance.It’s harsh, but true.If you can find someone who has dealtwith RFPs before, it might be worth it to“partner” with them. It doesn’t really matterif this person knows anything about video;that’s your job, as long as they understandthe language of responding to proposals.Check with local business groups to seeif they know of any retirees who used towork for a corporation. These peoplemight have been exposed to proposalwriting and they might be willing to helpyou learn how. They might be happy topass on their knowledge to a new generation.If you can’t find a real human to giveyou advice, check your public library forbooks on proposal writing.Is responding to an RFP worth the trouble?Winning a contract can be extremelylucrative. But it isn’t easy. If you thinkyou can fill the requirements, I proposeyou give it a try.

27A Word From Your SponsorWilliam RonatYou have a great idea for a TV Show. Nowall you have to do is produce it and waitfor the accolades and money to roll in.Right? If only it worked that way.Unfortunately, it takes money to put ashow on the air. It takes money to shoot andedit a show and it takes money to buy theairtime so that the audience can receive iton their TV sets.We can assume, then, that to go throughthis process you need... money. You cansupply this money yourself if you have it,or you can find benefactors, patrons, or aswe often call them, sponsors.Sponsors might fund you for several reasons.They might take this step 1) becauseyou look like a nice person who needshelp, 2) to make money as a result of goodpublicity or the advertising value theyreceive from your show, or 3) becausethey’re relatives and have more moneythan sense.Addled relatives may be the best solution,but if you come from a family ofpoorly financed underachievers you willprobably opt for an individual or businesslooking to make a buck. This is best. If asponsor fails to prosper from your efforts,he will simply not fund your next project.A disgruntled family member may verywell disinherit you.On With the ShowYou should pre-qualify potential sponsorsbefore you contact them. What do I meanby pre-qualify? Find out the answers toquestions such as these: will my potentialsponsors be receptive to the idea offinancing a TV show? Do they have thebudget for such a project? Does the contentof my show “fit” with the business ofthese sponsors?The more you know about your sponsors,the better. If you approach a cigarettemanufacturer to finance a show aboutlung cancer, you may not have much luck.Don’t waste your time (or the time of thepotential sponsor) by setting yourself upfor failure. Rejections are mentally debilitating.Avoid them.133

134 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionWhat kind of show might a sponsor payto have produced? You can look to thetelevision networks for the most prevalenttype: one that attracts viewers who maybuy the sponsor’s product.We call daytime dramas soap operasbecause companies like Proctor andGamble—soap manufacturers—sponsorthese shows. Traditionally, these showswere watched by the person in the householdmost likely to make the soap-buyingdecision.Sporting events find sponsors in beerbreweries, athletic shoe makers and carmanufacturers, among others. Toy companiesbasically own Saturday morningchildren’s programming. In fact, many ofthe shows have ties to specific toys andvice versa, an odd symbiosis. Think aboutwho will want to watch your show andthen match a business that has a productto sell to this audience.Another type of show that a sponsormight pay for is the infomercial. Demonstratinga product can be an effective sellingmethod. Door to door vacuum cleanersalesmen knew this technique. Throwsome dirt on the floor and then use theproduct to clean it up while the customerwatches.Infomercials often go the same way.These shows are basically a long commercialfor a product, but are disguised to looklike a talk show or a news magazine formatshow. The channel-surfing viewer might gethooked before realizing he or she is beingsold. If a sponsor can take direct orders(from an 800 number or through mail-ins)an infomercial might have appeal.If one of your local stations is part of ahome shopping club network you may beable to create a local version of their programming.Then, for X number of minutes(which you or your sponsor would buy)the station would be selling your sponsor’sproduct instead of pots and pans orceramic dolls.If your goals include more intellectualpursuits, you may be able to get a sponsorfor a drama or documentary if the qualityof your show is superior. The leadership ofa potential sponsor’s company may understandthat a fine drama adds to the qualityof life of everyone. Or maybe they recognizethat supporting a popular programcould help change their “unpopular” statuswith a certain slice of the viewership.Either way, the arts get funded. Withoutspeculating on motive, here are two examplesof corporations which sponsor artisticendeavors: the long-running series ofdramas under the banner The HallmarkHall of Fame and Masterpiece Theatersponsored in part by Mobil Corporation.Psst, Buddy, Wanna Buy a TV Show?How do you approach potential sponsors?First you have to find them. This meansdoing research to learn which companiesin your area would even consider fundingyour show. But just because you have agreat idea and your potential sponsors arethe perfect candidates to benefit from itdoesn’t mean they will do so. You have tosell them on the idea.Being in business, you have probablyhad to ask a bank for money. That’s not aneasy process, is it? You probably had tocreate a business plan and outline yourlife’s history. Then you had to prove to thebank that you are a good risk and that thebank would get the money back that youwanted to borrow.When you ask a sponsor for money, prepareyour case as well as if you were askinga bank for a loan. You are asking asponsor to risk capital without collateralor any guarantee that the sponsor will getthe money back. How receptive will thepotential sponsor be to such a plan? Thatdepends on how good a plan it is.It won’t be easy to get an appointmentto discuss a sponsorship. You will have todetermine who the appropriate contact is.It may be a marketing person inside thecompany or the company may have anadvertising agency, which would handlesuch a project. You may have to explainyour way through several layers of peoplebefore finding the right contact. You may

A Word From Your Sponsor 135be ready to collapse by the time you reachthe decision-maker, but this is the pointwhere you must be your most convincing.Be professional. You are conducting abusiness transaction. Dress and act appropriately.You may feel that you are an artistand should enjoy creative freedom—evenin your choice of dress—but torn jeansand a ratty T-shirt may give a potentialsponsor the wrong impression.Prove the worth of the idea. You knowyour idea is a winner, but the decisionmakermay not. Start at the beginning andtake the potential sponsor through a stepby-stepexplanation of who the audiencewill be, what style you will use and whybeing associated with the show will begood for the sponsor. Don’t try to do thisoff the top of your head. Make notes andpractice in front of the mirror. If you losethe potential sponsor during the initialpitch they’re probably gone for good.Prove that the audience exists. If youplan to air the show on Channel X at 8 p.m.on Friday, get backup data from the televisionstation that shows demographicallywho makes up the audience in this timeperiod. Salespeople at the TV station needthis information to sell commercials totheir clients and will share it with you ifyou tell them your plan for purchasing achunk of airtime.Prove that the audience will watch.This is a tougher assignment. You can’treally prove this point, but you can makea good argument if you do your homework.Show ratings for similar shows insimilar time periods. Get as much harddata as you can. Facts often sell betterthan enthusiasm.Prove to the sponsor that they will receiveR.O.I. (Return On Investment). If 100,000people watch your show and 1% of thembuy the sponsor’s product (a Rolls RoyceMotorcar, for example) at an average priceper car of $100,000, the sponsor will gross$10,000,000. (Actual numbers may vary.)Prove that you can do the job. Have youever done a TV show before? What was it?If not, have you ever done similar jobsbefore? Do you have a demo tape showingsome samples? Can you give potentialsponsors a warm, fuzzy feeling? You mayhave thought proving your competence inthe video production field was the onlystep you needed in order to land a sponsor,but as you can see it is merely one ofmany important steps.Because each show is different you willrun into different obstacles for each of them,but if you can’t go through the steps mentionedabove with confidence, then you cango back to step 1. You remember step 1: lookfor a rich but not overly bright relative.The acid test is this: is your idea goodenough that you would use your ownmoney to produce it and buy the air timeif you had the money? If the answer is no,then why would you expect a sponsor tosay yes?Johnny on the SpotInstead of finding one sponsor to fundyour entire operation, you may insteadwant to sell pieces of time within yourshow. The sponsors can then use this timeto run promotional spots about themselves.You’ve heard of these; we callthem commercials.You will still have to convince sponsorsof the worthiness of your show, butbecause the amount they are spending issmaller, the decision may be easier forthem to make. On the other hand, youwill have to sell many different sponsorsinstead of one, which means your job willbe more difficult.There is also more risk for you becauseyou will be buying the airtime and thenrecouping that money by selling commercials.Let’s say you will run your show oncable.The rate that a cable company can chargeyou for their airtime is based on a formulacreated by the FCC. The formula is tied to acable company’s markup and number ofsubscribers. For example, say your cablesystem buys HBO for $4.00 per month persubscriber and they turn around and sellit for $10.00 per month to their customers.

136 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionBut only 25% of the potential subscribersactually order HBO, which has an effecton the formula:$10.00 subscriber fee$4.00 cost of programming...............$6.00 mark upX.25 percent of subscribers purchasinga premium channel...............$1.50 implicit value of the premiumchannel, per subscriber, per monthThese numbers are for a premium channel.For a channel included in the basicpackage, the cost would probably becloser to $0.50 per subscriber. But remember,that’s for the whole month. If you onlywant an hour of time, you would dividethat by 720, the number of hours in amonth. The answer is $.00069 per subscriberper hour. If your cable systemreaches 100,000 households you wouldpay $69.00 per hour. The cable systemcan also add fees for billing and collection,marketing and studio services, so askfor an estimate to be sure you are getting agood deal.On top of that cost is the money youspend on production, promotion of yourshow, etc. If the total expenditure is $1,000per week and you have room for 20 commercials,you would sell each commercialfor $50 to break even. But you want tomake a profit, and there will be timeswhen you won’t be able to sell all the commercialsin a show. So you need to chargeenough to make up for this shortfall.Supply and demand will have an effect onhow much you can get for your spots. If thesponsor’s target market loves your showand you can prove it, the sponsor will paymore. If nobody watches your show, youwon’t be able to give your commercialspace away. But, hey, that’s business.Landing sponsors can give you theopportunity to create some great television.But before you start knocking on doors,be sure that your idea is as great as youthink it is. Do your homework, back upyour theories with facts and get your ducksin a row. Then, assume your best professionaldemeanor and go get ‘em. It’s not aneasy gig, but you should be used to that bynow. As you know, in video, nothing isever easy. And that’s the way we like it.

28Finding Talent for VideosRandal K. WestAs you increase the production level ofyour videos, you will arrive at a brandnewchallenge—acquiring talent. How doyou identify potential personnel for yourvideos and how do you evaluate thosepeople to ensure they are the correctchoices for your projects?For the purpose of this article, let’sgroup talent into two general groups:models and actors. We’ll define a model,not as a person with the potential toappear on the cover of Vogue, but assomeone who will appear in your video.An actor, on the other hand, will probablyhave a limited acting requirement andwill appear to either deliver dialogue or atleast convey some type of emotion.Securing a model merely involves findingsomeone who has the appropriatelook for your piece and is willing to beshot. Many times, the best way to cast a“young mom” model, for example, is tojust go find a genuine young mother andconvince her to appear in your project.Locating and evaluating an actor who willactually need to deliver lines and conveysome emotion is a little trickier.The ProjectLet’s suppose that you, as the member ofyour local service organization who ownsa Mini DV camcorder and a computerbasedediting system, have been asked tocreate a video that publicizes yourupcoming club-sponsored Kids Day. Thepurpose of the video is to highlight whatwill take place on Kids Day and toencourage local businesses to getinvolved. You need to script this projectand then secure a host or hostess to be theon-camera talent and to lead the interviews.Then, find a couple of older folks,a young couple, a high-school student anda few kids to enact short scenarios depictingwhat will happen during Kids Day.These scenarios will be loosely scripted,but you’ll probably let the actors createsome of their own dialogue to try to keep137

138 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionit sounding more authentic and lessscripted.Finding the TalentTalent can be uncovered in a variety of differentlocations. A local community theateris an obvious choice, but local choirs,churches, community organizations, serviceclubs, high schools and communitycolleges also can provide potential thespians(see Figure 28.1). You can also post amessage on an appropriate bulletin board,but actually contacting someone with someauthority and explaining what your projectinvolves is a better approach. Perhaps thatperson could solicit volunteers or, betteryet, allow you to visit the group and createsome enthusiasm for the project to actuallyget some people to commit to an audition.The local newspaper may also be agood resource: perhaps a columnist willput a mention in the paper that you have aproject and are looking for talent. Manyschools have video classes and clubs, andyou may also be able to locate a fewvideographers-in-training to help you ascrewmembers for your shoot. Of coursethe classifieds are a very direct way to getthe word out. Announce your auditionsabout two weeks before the actual auditiondate and either have everyone arriveat a given time, (a cattle-call audition) orprovide a phone number and have theindividuals call and then assign each ofthem an audition slot. I prefer the latterapproach.Organizing the AuditionI was once asked by Hal Prince, the wellknownBroadway director, how I held myauditions, and I told him that I executed avery formal, “Go stand on the white markand await instructions” audition. Afterthe talent approached the mark, a stageFigure 28.1 Where to start?—local community theaters, local choirs,community organizations, service clubs, schools, community colleges,churches.

Finding Talent for Videos 139manager would tell them to begin. Twominutes later, unless I indicated otherwise,the stage manager would say, “Thank youvery much,” and off they went.“Why do you audition that way?”Mr. Prince asked. “Well, because that’s howI’ve always been auditioned,” I answered.He went on to explain that he didn’t agreewith establishing an even more terrifyingenvironment than was already created bythe act of having to audition. He explainedthat when folks auditioned for him, it wasin a room where he greeted and spoke withthe people, putting them at ease before theyever read. This strategy gives you a betterchance of seeing what they might actuallybring to your project, he explained. I haveheld informal auditions ever since, and Ithink it has much more effectively allowedme to gauge how well someone will perform(see Figure 28.2). So, when you holdan audition, find a comfortable room whereyou can meet each person and keep itcasual (see Figure 28.3).Videotape your auditions to gain moreinsight into your applicants, but talk withthem first (see Figure 28.4). Tell them allabout the project, find out about theirexperience and then shoot the audition.Auditions should last about 10 minutesper person, but if this is your first set ofauditions, allow 15 minutes so you don’tfeel rushed.Evaluating PotentialHow do you determine whether yourchurch pastor or your bank president willbe a better host for your program? Andwhat should you look for in a host, anyway?Well, an ideal candidate would besomeone who has a pleasant voice, goodFigure 28.2 Initial comfort—keep theatmosphere warm and relaxed for thatimportant initial interview.Figure 28.3 Scripted interview—script reading is important, butactors can reveal a lot in the interview process as well.

140 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 28.4 Taped auditions—playing backrecorded auditions will refresh your memoryand help with deliberations.timbre, good diction and has a certainvocal presence or command. Someonewho possesses an interesting or uniquebut-pleasantappearance is also a consideration.You can make these initialevaluations before ever deciding to auditionthe applicants. If they meet these criteria,bring them in. If your project has ascript, have them read from it, but shootpart of an informal interview as well.When actors read, their attention focusesdown and they concentrate on just readingthe material. When you interviewthem, you get much more of a sense ofhow they will shoot (how comfortablethey appear on camera), as well as aclearer example of their personalities.When actors are on stage, they act withtheir body, but when actors act on television,they act with their eyes. So, shootparts of the interview close enough toreally capture the actor’s eyes. Shoot partof it wide enough to see the whole body,too, so you can evaluate whether the personshows any overt signs of stress, suchas tearing at cuticles or a consistentlytwitching foot (see Figure 28.5).Hopefully, you will find people who putmore into their auditions than just provingthey have mastered the ability to read.They should seem to “own” the verbiageand make it their own. A more experiencedFigure 28.5 Wide and tight—shoot both wideshots and closeups during the audition.applicant will adopt a plan of attack withyour material and immediately identifyany humor or any point resembling a climaxor a twist in the script.Considering our example, producing avideo about Kids Day, the chance for thesetypes of more sophisticated acting momentsare probably limited, but an actor maywell ask you what type of tone or styleyou are looking for in the read. An easyway to place the read in the more low-keycategory is to tell the talent you wantmore of an FM-radio sound. An AM-radiosound is more energetic. If you want themto go way over the top, just tell them youare looking for a “used car” or a “monstertruck” read, which tells them you want allthe shouting and yelling they can muster.If you are having them perform a “dryread,”and they ask for a few momentswith the material, give it to them. Anytimeyou can provide the written material

Finding Talent for Videos 141to actors before their appointments, youwill likely get better reads from them. Inaddition to actual excerpts from thescript, you should also include a shortdescription of the project and the purposeof the role for which they will read.If your video involves performing ademonstration, (cooking pancakes ormaking balloon animals might be two keycomponents of Kids Day), determinewhether just inquiring about ability oractually requiring the actor to perform thedemonstration is appropriate. For example,if you are looking for someone tocook pancakes in your video, simply askingwhether they have ever flipped a pancakeis probably enough. If you want toknow if they can actually make animalsout of balloons, (a bit more of a refinedskill), you should have some appropriateballoons available and just let them makeyou a puppy or a hat.If you are filling roles of a couple (husbandand wife, mother and son), it’s agood idea to have them read together tosee how they interact.If you plan to use a teleprompter, havethe talent actually read the material offthe prompter. Some actors are very goodat not looking like they are reading. Butteleprompters throw some actors for aloop and they not only look like they arereading, but they just look uncomfortable.The best protection against getting a dayof-the-shootsurprise is to have them readoff a prompter at the audition.Paying the TalentDo you need to pay your talent? Maybe.If you expect the host of your programto memorize the script and perform iton-camera, offer this person a small tokenpayment for the time they will have tospend memorizing the material. They maytell you that they are doing it for the experience,but a small payment on your part putsyou in a better position. You can expect thematerial to be correctly memorized.If your project is for a non-profit cause,such as Kids Day, people will probably volunteer.If your actors will wear standardstreet clothes, ask them to provide theirown. If the clothing involves any specialattire, (a uniform, a tuxedo, a formal dress),plan to provide it. Ask women to wear regulardaytime make-up and not eveningmake-up, (unless you want them to appear“made-up”). Have powder available at theshoot to powder the bright spot off a baldhead or a sweaty brow, but men don’t usuallyneed to wear any make-up aside fromclear powder you apply to reduce shine.Promise all the people who are cast thatthey will get a copy of the end product and,if the project has credits, that they willappear in them. If the shooting requirespeople to miss a meal, you should feedthem and provide some light snacks, waterand juice for the talent during the shoot.Giving Talent a TryNow that you have thought though theprocess of putting talent into your nextvideo, it’s time to go cast your Kids Dayproject. Remember, most of your talentwill be doing their first video work, so bepatient and sensitive to their needs andyou’ll do fine.The only way to get comfortable coachingperformances from actors is to do it,and then keep doing it. Just jump in, andyou may find that recruiting and shootingexperienced actors to serve as talent greatlyimproves the quality of your videos.Sidebar 1Where to start? Local community theaters, local choirs, community organizations, serviceclubs, schools, community colleges, churches.

142 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionSidebar 2Directing Tips1. Keep it simple. Don’t tell actors more than they need to know. Communicate succinctlyand give them specific suggestions.2. Reassure your actors. Explain that this is not live television and that you will simplyshoot until you get takes that work for everybody. Nobody will ever see the takes thatdon’t work.3. Don’t act like Cecil B. Demille. Don’t get caught in the trappings of video and start makinga big fuss about shooting. Keep the environment non-intimidating and friendly.4. Put the actors at ease and keep the set warm and a little loose and you’ll probably getstronger performances.

29Location Scouting:Be PreparedBill FisherWe’ve all had that unforgettably disastrousshoot, where the tape ran out or thebattery died at exactly the wrong moment,and we vowed never to let it happenagain. But there’s one kind of readinessyou might not have thought of, and it’s asessential as spare tapes and batteries.We’re talking about scouting locations, avital pre-production step that will helpyou meet almost any challenge when youshoot video in the field. Here are severaltips that will help you as you scope outpotential video shooting locations.1. Know your script. Choose a site thatmatches the setting of your story. This is thefirst rule of location scouting. As you set outto evaluate locations, you’ll likely facecountless possibilities: natural areas, historicsites, distinctive buildings, urbanlandscapes and waterfront settings, to namea few. Remember, above all, that you have astory to tell. Choose a location that lendsitself to the story you want to produce. Youshould never be bound by your locations.Locations are simply raw materials. Youneed to know what the script demandsbefore you can select a suitable location.2. Scout at the right time. Be awarethat locations can change. It’s wise tocheck your spot on the day of the weekand the time of day that you’ll be taping:these factors can produce surprisinglylarge changes on the suitability of a location(see Figure 29.1).Figure 29.1 Synchronized light—whenscouting an outdoor location visit the site thesame time of day as the scheduled shoot inorder to monitor the angles of the sun.143

144 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionAutomobile traffic and noise, visitors torecreation and entertainment spots, andtourists at scenic or historic areas (to namejust a few examples) all come in wavesthat vary dramatically based on the time ofday, the day of the week and the season.3. Look at light. Churches, ballrooms,restaurants, auditoriums and homes generallyfeature low amounts of availablelighting. Check light levels by shooting afew seconds of test footage with yourcamcorder.Solutions for poor lighting might be assimple as scouting out window blindsand curtains that can be opened to adddaylight. In some cases you may wish tobring in lights or ask permission toreplace the bulbs in accessible light fixtureswith brighter-burning units.4. Follow the sun. Outdoor lightingconditions can be as challenging as thoseindoors; exterior illumination changes allday long. As you’re scouting locations, payattention to whether a given spot is in fullsun, partial sun or full shade. Bright suncan be harsh on people’s faces, and lightcoloredsurfaces can blow out in full sunlight,causing automatic camcorder lensesto underexpose shots. Partial sun can betricky, as well; today’s camcorders, thoughsophisticated, can have trouble handlingthe high contrast in this situation.Ultimately, you may find that fully shadedlocations or overcast days produce themost consistent results (see Figure 29.2).5. Check for power supplies. Manyoutdoor locations are far from powersources and even some indoor locationscan pose AC challenges, so multiple camerabatteries are always a good idea. Butyou’ll still need to evaluate your poweroptions at any location.How will you power your lights? What ifyou do end up draining all your batteries?Is there anywhere to plug in the charger? Isthe spot remote enough to make a carlighterAC adapter a good idea? In a locationthat does have power, you may be ableFigure 29.2 Examine exposure—payattention to whether a given spot is infull sun, partial sun or full shade. Brightsun can be harsh on faces, and lightsurfaces can blow out in full sunlight.to plug in, but you’ll still need to thinkabout the system’s pre-existing load andwhether or not you can get to the fuse(breaker) box in case something blows.6. Listen. Clean, high-quality soundis critical in making a video that risesabove the ordinary, and it’s silence thatensures you get the location sound thatyou came for.The whooshing of traffic, the whitenoise of moving water, and the echoes ofvoices and movements can all get in theway of high-quality audio. As you scout alocation, check for any of these conditionsby listening to your camcorder’s microphonepickup through headphones. Testyour wireless mike at the site as well, listeningclosely for interference.7. Examine the elements. Sun, rain,wind, snow, heat, cold—all can help orhurt, depending on what you’re hoping to

Location Scouting 145capture on tape. So, it’s critical to checkthe forecast as you’re scouting.Video cameras don’t like rain, saltybeach air or moisture from waterfalls.Smeared lenses and water or salt insidethe tape transport can spell disaster.Bright, hot locations with lots of sunlightcan also be a problem: black and gray camcorderbodies absorb the sun’s rays andcan cause overheating when left exposed.A beach or patio umbrella can help protectyour gear from the elements in both sunand rain.Cold temperatures can drain batteriesand make you and your helpers uncomfortablevery quickly. Plan to keep equipmentwarm by storing it inside a coat orcar until you’re ready to shoot, and bywrapping it in a spare scarf or jacketwhile taping. And watch out when bringingcameras back into warm interiors fromthe frigid outdoors: this can cause significantamounts of moisture to condenseinside both optics and electronics.8. Decide where to set up. Make surethat there’s adequate space for you to setup all of your gear, so that you’re able toget the shots you have in mind. A smallshed may seem like the perfect locationfor a shoot, until you realize that thereisn’t enough room to position your gear.You may have plenty of room in a largespace like a church or an auditorium, butyou may not be able to roam freely. Asyou scout your locations, verify that youcan physically get to the spots you intendto shoot from.9. Get permission. Be aware that you’llneed to secure permits and other legalpermissions to shoot at certain locations.As you’re looking at a location, do a legalreality check. Have you chosen a street orsidewalk location that will impede traffic?Do you plan to shoot on someoneelse’s property? Cemeteries, malls, grocerystores, corporations and businessesare all private property. Many owners willbe happy to accommodate you if you ask,but if not, you’ll need to choose anotherlocation. It’s better to get permission inadvance than to have a shoot interruptedby the authorities (see Figure 29.3).10. Evaluate the area. Check on communications:Is there cell phone receptionin the area you’ve chosen to shoot? Howabout a nearby pay phone? If you’re drivinga long way, have you planned for abreakdown?Search the area for quick food stops tosatisfy you and your crew in the midst of abusy schedule and double-check theaddress of a local electronics store, just incase you need to replace a cable or adapter.One day, something will go wrong; it’sinevitable. But when you’ve scouted outthe backup possibilities at a location, youcan take most obstacles in stride.Figure 29.3 Take heed—don’t trespass orotherwise overstep your bounds. Pre-arrangepermission to shoot before you show up withyour crew.Figure 29.4 Note it—carry a pen and paperwith you, and take notes on each locationyou scout.

146 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production11. And finally, take notes! When yousit down to evaluate a location after a dayof exploring, you’ll be glad you have scoutingreports to refer to (see Figure 29.4). Inyour scouting expeditions for a shoot, inyour daily travels, on your family vacations,and in your mind’s eye, you’ll comeacross countless locations and changingconditions, each of which will be uniqueand potentially important to you. Writethem down, take still photos or shoot alittle video with a running audio commentary.Note the time of day, the qualityof the light, the sounds in the air, andthe things you felt. One day you mightreturn.Sidebar 1Location Scouting KitBe sure to remember the priceless places you’ve found with this list for a location scouting kit:●●●●●●●Notebook (or PDA) with writing implement for field notesStill camera for creating location archive photosCamcorder with headphones for recording test video and audioCompass for checking sunrise/sunset, wind direction, etc.Watch for time-sensitive observationsMaps especially for remote locationsCell phone just in caseSidebar 2Top Locations and Their QuirksYou’re practically guaranteed to visit one of these locations sooner or later. Here is a list ofthings to look out for.School auditoriums: poor audio, large space, hard to get close to actionChurches: low lighting, echoing sound, hard to be unobtrusiveParks and natural areas: changing weather, difficult gear transportUrban centers: background noise, high traffic and pedestrian presenceBeaches: wind noise, salt air, sand contamination, direct sunOutdoor events: competition for space, poor audio, crowd noise

30Copyright:Legal Issues YouNeed to KnowMark LevyThat diminutive encircled c symbol © canbe a powerful force for you—friendly orfrustrating. The people who create copyrightedworks that you may want to use inyour own productions include performers,composers, movie makers, still photographers,writers and artists. To understandthe limits of your rights and the rights ofothers, you should know at least a bitabout the copyright law.What is a Copyright?United States Copyright Law has its originsin the Constitution, which secures exclusiverights to authors for their writings for alimited time. People who create works thatwe all enjoy and appreciate should be compensatedfor their talent and hard work.The copyright law, officially known as theCopyright Act, ensures that we all dothe right thing: respect the effort, as wellas the intellectual property, of others.The copyright law has been updatedover the years to reflect new technology.The updates or revisions to the law expandthe definition of “authors” and “writings,”among other things. Nowadays, an“author” can still be a writer, but an authorcan also be the person who creates worksthat our Founding Fathers could neverhave envisioned. Here are just a fewdevelopments that didn’t exist in 1790,when the Copyright Office was established:photographs, sound recordings(from Edison wax cylinders to vinyl LPsto 8-track tapes to audio cassettes to CDsto MP3s), movies, soundtracks, software,and, of course, video productions on tape,laser disc, DVD or streaming Internet video.Over the years, Congress also expandedthe term of copyright enforceability. Atthe turn of the last century, you couldsecure copyright protection for 28 yearsand you could renew it for another28 years. After that, your work entered thepublic domain, so anyone could copy ormodify your work without your permission.As of 1978, however, law protectsyour work for 70 years after your demise.Until recently, the term was actually your147

148 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 30.1 You’re covered—copyright lawprovides copyright protection for anycompleted work.A good, conservative rule of thumb isthat you should assume that a work isprotected by copyright if it had been createdafter 1922, as all works createdbefore that are now in the public domain.For example, older photographs, paintings,books and sheet music are availablefor your use without permission from theauthor. Copyright law protects a musicalperformance recorded after 1922, evenif the score was composed before 1922.You can contact the U.S. Copyright Officeto find registered material. CopyrightOffice personnel can conduct a search, fora modest fee.life plus 50 years, but when Sonny Bonoserved in the House of Representatives, hehelped extend copyright protection for “IGot You Babe” (as well as all other works,of course) for an 20 additional years.Another major and relatively recent(1978) development in the copyright lawprovides copyright protection for anycompleted work (see Figure 30.1). Thecopyright notice (© your name year ofcreation) was required on all works and itis still recommended, but not mandatory.You are also strongly encouraged to registeryour work in the Copyright Office, butthat action is also not required, unlessyou intend to enforce your rights in court.For information about copyright registration,access the Library of Congress andthe Copyright Office Web site www.lcweb.loc.gov/copyright or contact anintellectual property attorney.Exclusively YoursA copyright is an exclusive right. Thatmeans you have the right to exclude allothers from copying your work or frommaking works derived from your work.The other side of the coin, of course, isthat you do not have the right to copyanother person’s work (music, screenplay,images) without permission, unless thework is in the public domain.Wedding BellsWhat do you do if you wish to use a copyrightedwork? Producing a wedding videois one typical situation. Frequently, thecouple may want you to include copyrightedmaterial, often a favorite songperformed by a favorite artist. As the producer,you can be liable for the copyrightinfringement. In fact, the copyright ownercan bring a legal action against you, personally.If you do decide to go ahead anyway,you may need an agreement withyour client (who should be wealthyenough to survive such a lawsuit) toindemnify you for a copyright infringementaction. Clients would be foolish toenter into such an agreement, and youwould be foolish to obey the client’sinstructions if you don’t get indemnification.Indemnity does not free you fromresponsibility or liability, however.The Risk of InfringementThe law is specific about what constitutescopyright infringement. Except forunusual and egregious situations, thegovernment doesn’t normally police andenforce copyright law. It is up to the copyrightholder to find copyright violationsand bring a lawsuit against the infringers.Songwriters routinely use certain societies

Copyright 149Figure 30.2 Who to ask—societies or guilds such as ASCAP and BMI canhelp you get permission to use a copyrighted song in your production.or guilds, such as ASCAP and BMI, tofind violations. These organizations sendundercover representatives to randomnightclubs, restaurants and catering hallsto police their members’ works. If theestablishment does not have a license toplay or broadcast the musical work, it maybe fined or it may become the defendant ina lawsuit. As a videographer, you mayneed to get copyright permission evenfor live or recorded music played at anevent you videotape. Ask the musicians ordisc jockeys whether they obtained alicense to play such music at the event(see Figure 30.2).If found guilty of copyright infringement,under the criminal portion of thelaw, or liable, under the civil portion, youmay face a penalty of five years imprisonmentand up to $250,000 in damages.Willful infringement is clearly more seriousthan unintentional infringement.Once again, as video producers, even ifthe law weren’t so serious, we have anethical duty to respect people who createoriginal works. Stealing another artist’swork is tantamount to stealing their car,their instruments and, literally, theirlivelihood.What is the likelihood of being caughtusing someone else’s copyrighted work?Generally, not very high. In the realworld, professional wedding videographersoften use copyrighted music withoutpermission. One important aspect ofprosecution is the demonstration of realcommercial harm to the copyright owneras a result of the infringement, which islikely to be miniscule in the case of awedding tape distributed to 10–50 people.But every once in a while, someonein the music or publishing or movieindustry decides to make an example outof a low profile person or non-profit organization.Don’t let it happen to you.Cheap and EasyYou may find that getting copyright permissionis cheaper and easier than you’dthought. In fact, it might be as simple as askingfor it (in writing) (see Figure 30.3).Explain why you need the material andhow you will be using it. (See the SampleRequest sidebar.) The difficulty ariseswhere the respective rights of a bewilderingarray of people and organizations overlap.

150 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 30.3 Put it in writing—you may find that getting copyrightpermission is cheaper and easier than you’d thought. In fact, it mightbe as simple as asking for it.For example, in order to obtain permissionto use all or part of a top 40 record, you mayhave to contact the composer, the performer,the publisher, or the professionalassociation(s) representing any or all ofthem. You may need performance rights,publishing rights, reproduction rights,mechanical rights (for copying and usingaudio/visual works), film rights, electronicrights (for use on computers or the Internet),translation rights, adaptation rights foraltering the work or making instrumentalarrangements, or even broadcast rights.Of course, you may obtain the right touse the work, but only if you pay a substantialfee. In general, unless you are makinga major motion picture, attempting toobtain a license to use copyrighted materialsmight not be worth the effort.Do the Right ThingCreating your video productions is stressfulenough without having to worry aboutcopyright infringement and the penaltiesassociated with it. Choose to do the rightthing: a) avoid potential problems by usingworks that are out of copyright or createoriginal works by yourself or with friendsand relatives; or b) belly up to the bar andobtain permission from the copyrightholder to use the work. It might be lessexpensive and easier than you think.Sidebar 1Sample Request for Permission to Use Copyrighted MaterialDear [Mr./Ms. Copyright Holder]:I am producing a 30-minute wedding video for the family of a bride and groom and wish toinclude in the video your song, “Fools Rush In.” Your song is the bride’s favorite song andhas great sentimental meaning for her. I will distribute the video only to a handful of friendsand relatives, and will not offer it for sale or broadcast.

Copyright 151I respectfully request permission to use your song or parts of it in my video production, ona non-exclusive, royalty-free basis. If you agree to this request, kindly sign and date theenclosed duplicate of this letter and return it to me in the self-addressed, stamped envelope,also enclosed.If you have any questions about my use of your song or would like a copy of the finishedvideo, please let me know. My clients and I greatly appreciate your cooperation.Sincerely,__________________________John Smith, video producerAGREED:_______________________Sal Songbird, songwriterDate: _____________Sidebar 2License to Use Music from Composer/PerformerI, ______________ [insert composer’s name], hereby grant a non-exclusive, worldwide, fullypaid-up, irrevocable license to ______________ [insert video producer’s name] to use mysong, “[song title]” or portions thereof in his/her video production, entitled, “[video title],”which may be sold, leased, displayed or broadcast by __________ [video producer] with nofurther accounting to me._____________________Signature of composerDate: ____________________

PART IIIProduction TechniquesTips for capturing the highest quality video and sound.

31Framing Good ShotsBrian PogueThe images you record are the buildingblocks and foundation of your video productions.As your foundation, some thoughtand planning should go into how yourshots are composed. A well-composedshot grabs and holds your viewer’s attention.It also influences the mood of thescene or the comfort level of the audience.When done right, the composition willnot draw attention to itself. Instead, it willinstill a sense of normalcy and stability.On the other hand, a poorly composedshot will have the opposite effect. It willdistract the audience, or worse, make ascene entirely unwatchable.In this article we’ll give you some basiccomposition guidelines that experts useas their foundation, as well as some commonpitfalls you should try to avoid.The Rule of ThirdsA basic rule of composition is the rule ofthirds. This guideline gives you ideas onwhere to place your subject within theframe. Though your tendency may be toposition your subject dead center on thescreen, the rule of thirds will give you amore compelling picture.First, imagine that two vertical and twohorizontal lines divide your viewfinderinto thirds. (Think of a slightly elongatedtic-tac-toe board). The rule of thirds suggeststhat the main subject in your shotshould fall on one of the points wherethese imaginary lines intersect. The resultingimage will be much stronger than ifyou simply place your subject in thecrosshairs (see Figure 31.1).When videotaping a person, that person’seyes are your main focal point.Whether using a wide shot or a close up,compose the shot so that the person’s eyesfall on one of the uppermost imaginaryintersections. The intersection you choosedepends on which direction the person islooking. Frame someone looking screenleft on the right third of the screen. Thisplaces the subject slightly off center andbuilds in another element of compositioncalled “look room.”155

156 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 31.1 Eye liner—keep the eyes on theupper-third line, even if you loose the top ofthe head or hair.Look Room, Lead Roomand Head RoomLook room is the space that you leave infront of someone’s face on the screen. Thisspace gives the person room to breathe, aswell as gives the impression that the personis looking at or talking to someone justoff screen. If you don’t leave enough lookroom, your subject will appear boxed-inand confined (see Figure 31.2).Be aware that the amount of look roomnecessary is dependent upon the angle ofthe subject to the camera. A person lookingdirectly toward the camera willrequire less look room than someone shotin full profile.Moving objects such as cars require asimilar buffer called “lead room.” Allowextra space in front of a moving car so thatthe viewer can see that it has someplaceto go. Without this visual padding, thecar’s progress will seem impeded.Head room is another element youshould consider when framing your subject.Headroom is the amount of space betweenthe top of someone’s head and the top of theframe. If you leave too much space, the personwill appear as if sinking in quicksand. Ifyou don’t leave enough room, the personwill seem in danger of bumping his head.By positioning the subject’s eyes on the topthird imaginary line, you will be building inthe proper amount of headroom.Figure 31.2 Look room—the top imagedoesn’t leave any look room. The framing inthe bottom image is much better.When considering head room, be surethe shot is loose enough so that you seepart of the subject’s neck or the top of theshoulders. If not, you’ll end up with whatlooks like a severed head on a platter.However, don’t be as concerned withcutting off the top of someone’s head.Viewers do not perceive this as abnormalas long as you frame the actor’s eyeswhere they should be.The BackgroundMany composition pitfalls lie in the subject’senvironment. Trees and phonepoles, vases or pictures on walls may allcause problems.Be aware of lampposts, trees or othersuch objects that are directly behind yoursubject. A flagpole protruding from thetop of an actor’s head looks ridiculous, asdoes a vase that may seem balanced on

Framing Good Shots 157someone’s shoulder. Likewise, a powerline running through the frame mayappear to be going in one of your subject’sears, and out the other. Steer clear of anysuch visual distractions (Figure 31.3).Even if these objects are not directlybehind your subject, they can still causeproblems. A lamppost running verticallythrough the middle of the frame will notonly disrupt the balance achieved by theRule of Thirds, it can also isolate or boxinthe subject. It may also take away thelook room that you’ve built into the shot.Be aware of these background objects, andwork to avoid them whenever possible.Framing Using ObjectsWhile objects in the background can causeproblems, objects placed in the foregroundcan lend a hand. This technique can adddepth and character to your shot.Try using something in the environmentto obstructed part of your shot (seeFigure 31.4). Place a piece of furniture inyour foreground and shoot past it by framingit to the extreme right or left. You canshoot through open doors, where thedoorjamb frames the edges of the screen.Be careful, however, not to over-do it.Using the environment to frame yourFigure 31.3 Watch the background—poles protruding from your subject’s head can bedistracting. The receding lines in the shot on the right add depth.Figure 31.4 Natural frames—look for object (natural or artificial) in theenvironment that act as natural frames.

158 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionshots should not be so blatant as to distractfrom what is happening in the scene.The Ultimate GoalGood composition is a means to anend. When it’s done well, the audienceshould not notice it. Instead it shouldhelp create a mood, or at the very least, asense of normalcy and stability. The nexttime you watch a movie, pay attention tohow the cinematographer frames theshots. You’ll notice that they use the ruleof thirds as their foundation, and buildfrom there.

32Shooting SteadyDr. Robert G. NulphShooting steady video is perhaps one ofthe most fundamental skills of good videoproduction. If your camera isn’t steady,your shots will be difficult to watch(unless you provide a healthy dose of seasickpills). In this column we will take alook at various ways you can shoot goodsolid video every time, no matter the subjector the situation. We’ll start out withthe fundamentals of shooting handheldvideo and move towards more sophisticatedelectronically-aided methods forkeeping your video smooth and steady.Shooting FundamentalsShooting handheld video is perhaps themost difficult way to capture images ontape. No matter how steady you think youare, even your breathing can make the cameramove and shake. If you find yourself in asituation where you must shoot handheld,there are a few things to keep in mind.One of the most important things toremember about camcorders and theirlenses is that zooming emphasizes movement.The closer you zoom, the more yourmovement is magnified. Because of this,when you are shooting handheld video,you should get as physically close to yoursubject as you possibly can and zoom outas far (wide) as the camcorder’s lens willallow. This will give you the steadiestshot possible.The second step towards good handheldshots is maintaining good posture. Keepyour back straight; legs shoulder widthapart; knees slightly bent and your elbowsclose to your body. If you are handholdinga small camcorder with an LCD screen,hold the camera with both hands in frontof your body, elbows tucked into yoursides. If shooting from the shoulder, tuckyour elbow into your side and use yourright hand and arm for support, whileyour left hand controls the focus and iris.If you have to move while activelyshooting, do so slowly and as smoothly aspossible, keeping your subject composedwell in the shot and maintaining goodsolid posture throughout the move.159

160 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 32.1 Rock stable—if you find yourselfin a situation where you don’t have a tripod,any solid surface can act as a cameraplatform. Set your camera on a rock, fencepost or parked car, or lean up against a tree orthe edge of a building.The World Around YouIf you find yourself in a situation whereyou don’t have a tripod, any solid surfacecan act as a camera platform. Set your cameraon a rock, fence post or parked car, orlean up against a tree or the edge of a building(see Figure 32.1). Use a table or chair tosteady your shot. If shooting on the beach,lay some plastic down and steady the cameraon the sand, or set the camera up on thesteps of the lifeguard tower.When using a solid platform to shootfrom, you will most likely have to tilt thecamera to get the best shot. Once again,objects around you might be useful: creditcards, cardboard, newspapers, pencils,even gum wrappers can be used to stabilizeyour shot. Once you compose yourshot, press the record button and takeyour hands away.TripodsEvery videographer should own a goodtripod (see Figure 32.2). A tripod lets youshoot solid, steady video with little effort.There are, however some things you needto keep in mind when using a tripod.Always set your tripod and camera up sothat one of the three legs is pointingtowards your subject. This will create aFigure 32.2 Required equipment—everyvideographer should own a good tripod.A tripod lets you shoot solid, steady videowith little effort.space for you to stand in between theother two legs. If you know you are goingto pan in one particular direction a lot,point the front leg of the tripod halfwaybetween the farthest left and farthest rightyour subject will move so you won’t haveto walk around or step over one of theback legs.When adjusting the height of your tripod,use your subject as your guide,instead of setting it at a level that makesyou feel comfortable. Set your tripod upso that the camera, when completely horizontal,is pointing at the neck of your subject.Unfortunately, this might mean thatyou will find yourself in some uncomfortableshooting positions, but that’s a smallprice to pay for better-looking video.If you do not have to move the shot andthe subject will not be moving, lock downthe tripod, press the record button and letgo. If you do need to move, position yourselfwith the camcorder so that you are assolid and comfortable as possible andslowly move in the direction you haveplanned. Always plan and rehearse cameramovements before making them.MonopodsA monopod is like a hiking stick with acamera mount at the top (see Figure 32.3).Monopods are primarily still-camera tools,but can be quite handy when you must be

Shooting Steady 161stabilizers are so smooth you can barelytell the camera is not sitting on a tripod.One note of caution: if you are consideringbuying one, try it out first to see if itwill work with your camcorder.You can create a flying camera support ofsorts by mounting your camcorder ontoyour tripod or monopod and lifting it off theground, using the weight of the legs to act asa counterbalance for the camcorder to keepit upright. This will not produce anythingclose to the results you’d get from a preciselyengineered and finely balanced flyingcamcorder support, but you may bepleasantly surprised at the look of the shots.Image StabilizationFigure 32.3 Fly right—handheldcounter-balanced supports allowyou to move freely while shootingand produce gliding, shake-freevideo.mobile and you still need to shoot steadyvideo. You will often see camera operatorson the sidelines at football games orother sporting events using monopods.The monopod is lighter and more manageablethan a tripod. While the monopodprevents vertical movement of the camcorder,it does nothing to stop the horizontalor tilting movement.Flying SupportsIf you have a little extra cash in yourpocket, you might want to check out oneof the many types of flying camera supportson the market. These handheldcounterbalanced supports allow you tomove freely while shooting and producegliding, shake-free video. The most famousflying camera support is the Steadicamand the brand name has become a shorthandfor the entire class of products.Beyond simple handheld devices, youcan get complex vests and harnesses thatwill help you hold the camera during longshoots. The professional gliding cameraImage stabilization is the video engineersgift to amateur videographers. Your camcorder’sbuilt-in image stabilizer seeks tosmooth out handheld video, minimizingcamera shake. Image stabilizers are foundin most camcorders today. There are twotypes: electronic and optical. Optical isgenerally better, and is typically found onhigher-end camcorders. Although theycan be quite handy if you find yourself ina situation where you must shoot handheld,they do have a couple of limitations.First, electronic image stabilization canreduce the overall number of pixels onthe CCD that are used to capture an image.This can result in a general softening ofthe picture (see Figure 32.4). Second,when the stabilizer is used during a pan,the smooth pan might jump slightly fromone point to the next as the stabilizer triesto correct your intentional movement.Still, image stabilization, both electronicand optical, can be a shotsaver whenshooting handheld.Keep It SteadyThere are times to move the camera andtimes to hold it still, but, unless you aretrying to create an earthquake effect, thereare seldom times when shaky video isgood video.

TOTAL AREA OF CCD162 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionTOTAL AREA OF CCDTOTAL AREA OF CCDTOTAL AREA OF CCDFigure 32.4 Oversized CCD—electronic image stabilization can reduce the overall number ofpixels on the CCD that are used to capture an image. This can result in a general softeningof the picture.Sidebar 1Time is of the Essence!You should never handhold shots that demand rock solid video. Long interviews, cutawaysof objects with vertical or horizontal surfaces, and steady landscapes should never be handheld.Moving subjects, shots with camera movement already built into them, such as pansand tilts and shots where the camera physically moves from one place to another can easilybe handheld. Always plan your movement and move steadily and in one direction.

33Make Your MoveMichael HammondUnlike our counterparts in still photography,those of us shooting video have awonderful advantage—motion. With someimagination, a steady hand and a good tripod,you can take your viewers on a greatvisual ride. Let’s review a few creativemoves that you can all use to add interestin your videos. Keep these in mind as youplan your next project and work them inwhere they seem to fit.Movin’ on Up: The PedestalThe pedestal move is a great way to addsome vertical action to a scene. It allowsyou to create some anticipation with aviewer, to add a greater sense of heightand importance to a subject and to linkmore than one subject in a single shot.A pedestal move involves moving theentire camera vertically (see Figure 33.1).The move is named for the adjustable centerpost found on many tripods. Unlockingthis center post allows you to raise thecamera while the tripod legs remain ina fixed position. Not all tripods have apedestal that allows you to make a nice,smooth move. In some cases a tripod isn’tpractical, so you may make this move as ahandheld shot.The trick is to keep the vertical movementas steady as possible and to set yourviewfinder before you start shooting. Ifyou’re working with a camcorder that has aflip-out LCD screen, by all means use it. Tryto position the screen so that you can keepthe framing in sight throughout the entireshot. If, for example, you’re shooting a person’sfoot and moving up the body to end onthe face, here’s how to approach it. Frameup a nicely composed shot to start andcheck for clear focus. Since you’re starting atalmost ground level in this example, beginfrom a bended knee position with the cameradirectly in front of you, albows restingjust above your knees. Slowly life the camerawith your arms and then begin to standas you rise up through the shot. Keep yourelbows tucked in as close to your body aspossible, and practical, to help keep thingssteady until you reach your end position.163

164 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionThis move could be great at a weddingto reveal a bride’s dress. An example oflinking subjects with this move might bestarting on a full-screen shot of a houseFor Sale sign and then doing a pedestalup to reveal the home behind it.Keep on Truckin’:The Truck MoveFigure 33.1 Pedestal- apedestal move involvesmoving the entire cameravertically.In a trucking move, you, the tripod andthe camera pick up and move to the left orright. This move is great for following, orcreating a stronger sense of action. Let’ssay you’re shooting someone jogging. Ifyou just pan the camera to follow the runner,you’d need to be on a pretty wideshot and there would be a pretty significantchange in the backgrounds and perspectiveas you follow the subject left orright. It also isn’t as dramatic. Set up atrucking shot and you’ll see the difference.Choose a distance from the runner,let’s say you want to keep him full-bodythroughout the shot, and set up alongsideof them with good focus. Unless you’verented or purchased a Steadicam or someother kind of stabilizing gear, if you actuallyjog beside the subject yourself thevideo will likely be unusable. You needsome wheels! Without going to greatexpense, you can use an automobile, awheelchair or a child’s wagon to provideyour motion (see Figure 33.2). Whateveryou choose, be sure you have a partner toget you moving and keep you safe and stablewhile you’re shooting. If possible,start moving the camera first, then cueyour subject to start running. Settle on acomfortable speed and nice framing. Leadroom is important in trucking shots. Givethe subject some space between his or hernose and the edge of your frame so itlooks like you’re leading them and nottrying to play catch-up. If you don’t likethe profile you get from trucking rightalongside the subject, pick up some speedand get ahead a bit. This allows you to seemore of the runners face and changes upthe background for some interest.

Make Your Move 165Figure 33.2 Truckin’—in a trucking move, you, the tripod and thecamera pick up and move to the left or right. Without going to greatexpense, you can use an automobile, a wheelchair or a child’s wagon toprovide your motion.Taking Flight: The Flying CameraThe flying camera move gives you anopportunity to take your viewer on a ride.Think of this as taking on the point ofview of an insect moving in and aroundsubjects. I started using this type of movewhen my oldest child was a toddler. Flyaround at kid-level to make the viewermore an active part of the child’s world. Ofcourse, it works for shooting adults, too.Let’s say you want to capture some treasuredmoments of a child eating in a highchair.You might hold your camera at yourwaist with arms tucked into your stomachfor stability. Begin the shot from behindthe child, showing someone feeding thelittle one, then arc around the chair to thefront. For more action, you could beginwith the camera held high, coming downand around the chair. The opportunitieswith this one are endless. Picture a tablewith a great spread of food. The camerastarts high, taking in most of the table fromabove, then sweeps camera down andruns the length of the table, flying past allof the treats. For a smooth move and goodfocus throughout the move, it works bestwith the lens zoomed out wide.Guud Eeevening:The Hitchcock ZoomThis move is one of the most dramatic,and it requires a bit of practice. AlfredHitchcock made use of this camera move,and the film Jaws used a similar version ofit. When done well, this move gives theappearance that the main subject is stationaryas the background crashes in orflies away. Set the shot up by framing thesubject with the lens zoomed out wide(see Figure 33.3). Begin to dolly awayfrom the subject as you simultaneouslyzoom in to keep the subject the same sizein the frame. The optics of the lens providea unique look. Timing is importanthere in matching the dolly speed with thezoom, but when it all works it leaves avery dramatic impression with a viewer.Try the reverse, as well, by dollying inwhile zooming out. Great moves withpowerful results.

166 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production1 × zoom5 × zoom10 × zoomFigure 33.3 Hitchcock Style— dolly away from the subject as you simultaneouslyzoom in to keep the subject the same size in the frame. This move gives theappearance that the main subject is stationary as the background crashes in orflies away.Walkin’ the Walk:The Walking ShotThis is a favorite of mine because it’s easyto execute and adds zip to a normally dryshot. Rather than a static shot of your subjectswalking, move with them. For a shotof two people passing by from behind,hold your camera about waist-level with awide lens and begin to walk ahead of yoursubjects. Cue your subjects to start walkingand overtake you, entering the framefrom behind, one on either side, and continuewalking away (see Figure 33.4). Thereverse of this would be for you to beginwalking backwards, cueing your subjectsto walk toward you, passing you on eitherside as they exit your shot. You can givethis last one an even more interesting perspectiveby zooming out as you walkbackward.Figure 33.4 Walking on by—beginwalking backwards, cueing your subjectsto walk toward you, passing you on eitherside as they exit your shot.

Make Your Move 167Sidebar 1Easy as 1-2-3Unlike still photographers, videographers can move their cameras to create action or coverseveral focal points in a single shot. This means your composition—what you choose toinclude in a shot and where you choose to put it—will change as you move. It may help tothink of every move that you make in three distinct parts.1. Beginning composition. This is where the shot begins. Choose carefully what to includein your scene and how to arrange it all for good balance. Identify this composition beforerolling tape.2. End composition. This is where the camera comes to rest. Again, identify this compositionbefore you start recording and try to achieve a good overall balance in the shot.3. The bridge. This is the camera move that connects the beginning shot with the end position.Practice the moves you intend to do as much as possible. Work to make the movesmooth, maintaining good composition and focus. You may shoot a move several timesadjusting the speed of the bridge for editing options.Sidebar 2Shoot Like an EditorThis old adage is good to remember while shooting. It’ll be of great help during editing if youthink through all of the possible uses of what you record as you plan your shots. This meansif you’re doing a camera move, record it several times at several speeds. If you’ve recordedsome fast moves and a few slower versions, you’ve covered your needs for whatever paceyou use in the final production. It’s always a good idea to record a version of the shot withouta camera move, just in case. You may find when editing that you don’t have time for acamera move after all, and trying to freeze a shot—extracting a still frame from a moving shot—may not provide the quality you’re looking for.

34Use Reflectors Like a ProJim StinsonReflectors are so versatile, useful andsimple that professional videographersdeploy them even in high-rent productions.Advanced amateurs may know howto use reflectors for outdoor fill light, butthat’s only their most obvious application.So let’s conduct a quick flyover of professionalreflector techniques, both outdoorsand in.First, lets take a quick taxonomy ofreflector species. Reflectors are either rigidor flexible. Rigid reflectors may be faced(in order, from brightest to softest) withshiny aluminum, matte aluminum, wrinkledaluminum or white paper. Paperfacedreflectors are usually foamcore: rigidStyrofoam sandwiched between papersurfaces and available at any art or craftstore. (Tip: pay the modest premium forone-inch-thick boards. They far outlastthinner ones.)Flexible reflectors are usually clothspread across thin metal hoops that canbe folded for storage. Fabrics may bemetallic for greater reflectivity or plain fora soft, diffuse effect. They come in whiteor sometimes gold, for reasons detailed inthe sidebar.Which to choose? Flexible reflectors arelight and easily stored, but they’re unstablein any breeze, making their lightwaver visibly on-screen. Hard reflectorsare cheap to buy (or easy to make foralmost nothing) but they’re bulky andrigid, making them difficult to transportand store away.Since these critters are most often usedin wide open spaces, let’s see how toemploy reflectors outdoors as key, fill, rimor background lights. (NOTE: For simplicity,we’ll describe everything via a clockface metaphor, with the subject at thecenter and the camcorder at six o’clock.)Reflector Key LightWith the sun shining, why make your primarylight a reflector? Often the sun’s inthe wrong position or the subject’s standingin adjacent shade. In fact, the sun canbecome a gorgeous rim light, outlining the168

Use Reflectors Like a Pro 1691212939366Figure 34.1 Below the shot—start byplacing your subject with the sun behindthem (between ten and two o’clock).Then use a white reflector placedbetween four and eight o’clock, close tothe subject and just below eye level,to fill in nose and chin shadows.Figure 34.2 Key reflector—more often,we’ll use the sun as the key and thereflector for the fill, with each lightsource placed between three and nineo’clock, though I personally limit the arcto four to eight on our clock face.subject’s head and shoulders and separatingthem from the background.Start by placing your subject with thesun behind them (between ten and twoo’clock). Then use a white reflector placedbetween four and eight o’clock, close tothe subject and just below eye level, to fillin nose and chin shadows (see Figure 34.1).If you want to get fancy, use a reflector oneither side, with the key unit closer, so thesubject is lighter on that side.A reflector key light also works wellwhen the subject is in the shade. Bouncethe light in, moving the reflector in or outuntil it is two to three times as bright asthe ambient shade light creating the fill.Reflector Fill LightMore often, we’ll use the sun as the keyand the reflector for the fill, with eachlight source placed between three andnine o’clock, though I personally limit thearc to four to eight on our clock face (seeFigure 34.2). As always, place the reflectorjust slightly below the subject’s eye levelto fill nose and chin shadows. Too high aposition delivers a Hitler moustache effectand too low creates a vampire. If the sun isat seven to eight o’clock, you can often geta nice effect with the reflector all the wayaround to three o’clock, filling the subject’sprofile.Every type of reflector can and shouldbe used for fill. For closeups, a diffusewhite card looks most natural, but itsintensity is too low for the throwsrequired in longer shots. If you’re shorthanded,have subjects aim a white card,held below the frame line, up at themselvesfor their closeups. It often worksgreat.When higher intensity is needed, bringin the aluminum or metallic fabric models.They have enough punch to keep thereflector out of camera range and stillwork effectively. Always try to use thesoftest version that will deliver enoughfill, starting with a metallic fabric model.Using aluminum reflectors for key orfill light requires care, because they throwa hard, narrow beam and they can makesubjects squint unattractively. Make sure

170 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionyou place them far enough away to reducetheir intensity.Reflector Rim LightThose hard aluminum surfaces are perfectfor rim-lighting the subject, especiallywhen the sun is between four and eighto’clock. Place the reflector very high andopposite the sun or as nearly opposite aspossible while staying out of frame.Rim lighting works best when a secondreflector is delivering fill light, asdescribed in the previous section. If thesun is close enough to six o’clock and lowenough in the sky, fill light may be unnecessary,but the golden glow of rim lightmight look wonderful.When the subject is in shade, rim lightingdoesn’t work, unless the protectedspot is just outside a sunny area. A hardaluminum unit in the sun can oftenbounce light off a second hard unit in theshade and back onto the subject’s hair andFigure 34.3 Versatile sun—the sun producesplenty of light for a reflector to be used as afill or light.shoulders. That’s what bright aluminumreflectors are for: very long throws of relativelynarrow light beams. In bright sunlight,I’ve seen hard aluminum units set asfar as 100 feet away, from which positionthey can spread a broad, diffuse light onsubjects without hurting their eyes (seeFigure 34.3).Reflector Background LightSuppose you have a subject in the sunwith, say, a shaded building wall as background.That makes for great facial exposure,but often a boring background. Tospark it up, fill in the backing with one ormore hard aluminum reflectors (softermodels are too low-intensity to work)(Figure 34.4a).Here, the keys to success are angleand distance. If the wall is parallel to12 o’clock, behind the subject, try to getthe reflector as close as 11 o’clock(sun angle permitting) to rake the backgroundwith an oblique wash of light(Figure 34.4b).If you have the resources, aim multiplereflectors at different areas of the background(I’ve used three or four). With care,you can produce a variegated and interestingwash of light that looks quite natural.Or you can go a step further and use animprovised cookie. A cookie, short for“cukaloris” (a word lost in the mists of theatricalhistory), is a stencil pattern ofleaves, bars or whatever you like that isplaced between a spotlight and a surface.Cookies create interesting light and shadowpatterns.Hard aluminum reflectors throw a concentratedlight beam that you can placecookies in front of them to create surfacepatterns. To control the effect, move thecookie closer to the reflector for softeredges or farther away for harder ones.Because of the large surface areas ofreflectors, the cookies must be muchlarger than those used indoors with spotlights.Outdoors, I sometimes improvise

Use Reflectors Like a Pro 171(a)1212939366(b)129Figure 34.4 Background—suppose youhave a subject in the sun with, say, abuilding wall as background. That makesfor great facial exposure, but often a boringbackground. To spark it up, fill in thebacking with one or more hard aluminumreflectors (softer models are too low-intensityto work).and use a dead branch with leaves still onit. Even if the leaves move in the wind,the effect on the background is quitenatural.Reflectors IndoorsReflectors are not as versatile indoorsbecause the light sources they depend onaren’t as powerful as sunlight. Even so,63Figure 34.5 Indoors—if you’re workingwith just one spotlight, use it as a key lightand place a large, white card out of frameon the opposite side. The result is a verysoft natural looking fill light.you can easily use them to make one lightdo the work of two.If you’re working with just one spotlight,use it as a key light and place alarge, white card out of frame on theopposite side (see Figure 34.5). The resultis a very soft, natural looking fill light.You can even soften the naturally hardspot beam a bit with spun glass diffusion(e.g. a furnace filter) and still put outenough light for the reflector.Even if you have more spotlights, youmay want a softer look to your lightingdesign. To achieve it, turn the lights awayfrom the subject and bounce them back inwith reflectors. In this application, metalliccloth or crinkled aluminum typeswork better than ultra-soft white cards.Carrying this to its logical conclusion, I’veseen studios with 8 8 foot white wallson roll-around stands that make jumbosizedreflectors delivering window lightquality soft illumination.So there’s a quick rundown on reflectors.Once you see how versatile they are,you’ll realize that reflectors aren’t lightsfor poverty-stricken productions: they’reversatile tools that pros use all the time.

172 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionSidebar 1Going for GoldFoamcore, cloth and even some hard reflectors can be colored gold instead of white. Hoopand-fabricunits are sometimes two-sided, with one side gold and one side silver.Gold reflectors are very useful for warming up the light they throw. Here are just a fewways to use them:●●●●To simulate the magic hour look of sunset.To counteract the naturally bluish cast of open shade.To warm up one light source (also useful in creating day-for-night effects).To add glamour to closeups, either as fill light or as a warm rim light on hair and shoulders.The most economical way to acquire a warm reflector is by buying a piece of tinted foamcore.Instead of true gold, try a lighter yellow color to start, then experiment until you find whatsuits your needs.Sidebar 2Zoom InA telephoto lens is excellent for closeups. Not only does it flatter human faces, but itincludes less background, letting you sneak reflectors as close as even the eleven o’clockposition.

35Three-Point Lighting inthe Real WorldDr. Robert G. NulphThree-point lighting is familiar to anyonewho has been reading Videomaker for awhile. You’ve read about it, seen picturesand understand it—in theory. In thismonths column I’ll take you with me on atypical location shoot, from the time Ichoose my equipment until shooting begins.The SituationI was recently called to do an interviewfeaturing a corporate CEO who worked ina big, beautiful corner office with hugewindows and a desk large enough to fielda pee wee football team. Behind the deskwas a long shelf that ran under the windowsand was full of awards, family picturesand knick-knacks. The CEO was apersonable guy with large glasses andshiny bald head. I had one hour to setupand complete the interview.PreparationPreparation always begins at home. Istarted with my favorite interview keylight, a large soft light. This light is a fluorescentsoft light that has the capability tochange out lamps so that you can light foran indoor or outdoor color temperature.Since I would utilize three-point lightingtechniques, I’d need a backlight and a lightto fill in the shadows. For the backlight, Ichose a Lowel Tota. This small light, aswell as its tripod and other mountingequipment, easily fits in the Caselite’scarrying case. I also tossed in some bluegels and a gel frame just in case I wantedto change the light’s color temperature, acouple of diffusion gels to add some softnessto the light and some neutral densitygels to reduce the intensity of the light ifneeded.To my accessory bag I added somegaffer’s tape, a piece of foam core, someclothes pins, a few scissors clamps, anextra light stand, extra lamps (bulbs), anextension cord, a couple three-to-twoprong electrical outlet adapters and asmall compact with neutral colored facepowder and some handkerchiefs (seeFigure 35.1).173

174 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 35.1 Pack, man—I packed gaffer’stape, foam core, clothes pins, scissors, clamps,an extension cord, electrical outlet adaptersand a small compact with face powder.Figure 35.2 Light 1—I positioned my softlight as the key light, to the right of mycamera about three feet away.On LocationWhen I got to the office, my first concernwas deciding where to put the camera anddealing with the windows. I decided toclose the vertical blinds that covered thewindow behind his desk and partiallyclose the blinds on the window to the leftof his desk. I did this for two reasons. First,the window behind the desk providedan interesting blue striped backgroundbehind the CEO during the interview. Withthe blinds completely shut, the outsidelight shaded the seams between the blindswith a light blue, adding a nice touch ofcolor to the scene. Second, the light comingthrough the partially closed blinds atthe side of the office provided a subtle bluetint to the fill light on the left side of theCEO, again adding a bit of soft, dramaticcolor. Closing the blinds let me control thelight as well as the overall color temperatureof the light in the room.The physical space was my next concern.Because the desk was so massive, Idecided to use just a corner of it, providinga surface for the CEO to rest his handsif needed, but not showing enough ofthe desk to create too big a separationbetween the CEO and the audience. I alsomade sure that the camera could see agroup of family pictures behind and to theside of the CEO’s chair, adding a personaltouch to the scene.Figure 35.3 Light 2—I clamped the smallTota light onto one of the metal strips to holdup suspended ceilings.Light 1: The KeyI used my soft light as the key light, positionedto the right of my camera aboutthree feet away (see Figure 35.2). I thenraised the light so that it was at about aforty-five degree angle above his headpointing directly at him. The soft keylight cast a smooth, even glow on the CEOand the set.Light 2: The BackI then set up my back light directly acrossfrom the key light, behind the CEO’s chair(see Figure 35.3). Using a scissors clamp, Iclamped the small Tota light onto one of

Three-Point Lighting in the Real World 175the metal strips used to hold up suspendedceilings. I then ran the cable alongthe ceiling, fastening it in place with somegaffer’s tape. This light, positioned aboutforty-five degrees above and behind theCEO, provided a light on the back of hishead and shoulders to separate him fromthe background.Light 3: The FillIt was now time to consider the fill. Atthis point, I asked the CEO to take hisplace in his chair so that I could see theeffects of the two lights I had alreadyplaced. After adjusting the back light sothat no light was shining on the top of hishead, I looked through the camera’s viewfinderto see what I had accomplished.The light coming from the side windowwas adding a little too much blue to thescene so I decided to fill in the left side ofhis face with light reflected from the backlightwith a three by four piece of foamcore (see Figure 35.4). This light dilutedthe blue from the window and filled insome of the shadows created by the keylight. If I had wanted to create really dramaticlighting, I would have moved mykey light further to the side and reducedthe intensity of my fill light, making thecamera-left side of his face darker thanthe right.Taking Care of Small ProblemsLooking through the viewfinder, I immediatelysaw the two problems I knew Iwas going to have to contend with: glassesand a bald head. The head was no problem.I pulled out the makeup powder andafter a few jokes, I patted down his foreheadand the top of his head, reducing theglare tremendously. The powder not onlyabsorbs any perspiration there may be, italso gives the skin a matte finish. Theglasses are a bigger problem. I first hadhim tilt the glasses down by slightly liftingthe back of the earpieces. This helpeda great deal. I then moved my key light abit further to the side and a bit higher,watching the glare on the glasses until itdisappeared. Some might ask, “Why gothrough all of this trouble? Just have himtake his glasses off.” Most people thatwear glasses all of the time just don’t looklike themselves if they take them off. If aCEO is making an address to the troops,he wants to look relaxed, comfortable andlike himself. It’s worth the effort.Once I fixed the glare, positioned thefamily pictures perfectly in the viewfinder(also checking for glare in their frames)and checked my talent one more time, Ipositioned myself to the left of the cameraso that my eyes were at the level of thelens and began the interview, having theCEO look at me instead of the lens.A Few Notes About theOverall ExperienceFigure 35.4 Light 3—I decided to fill in theleft side of his face with light reflected with apiece of foam core.Remember, three-point lighting will makethem look good, but it is your attitude andhow you work with them will make themfeel comfortable. In the end, the betterthey look, the better you look.

176 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionSidebar 1Dramatic IntensityKeep in mind that when doing interviews, you want to use a soft light as your primary lightsource, unless you are trying to create a very dramatic look and want to see every wrinkle inyour talent’s face. In that case, you would use a small, intense light to create a hard light withsharp shadows.Sidebar 2PeripherallyAny time you find yourself shooting an interview in someone’s office or home, use the timewhile you set up wisely. Engage your subject in conversation. Tell them what you are doingand how you will conduct the interview. Go over the first few questions with them as youposition your camera and hang your lights. I really try to get to know my subjects in the timethat I am setting up. I find it makes the interview process go a lot easier.Don’t be afraid to ask your subject if you can move things around. I have yet to ever comeacross someone who wouldn’t let me rearrange their office. Explain to them what you aredoing and why. Most of all engage them and make them feel like the whole interview processis fairly pain free and fun.

36A Dose of Reality:Lighting EffectsRobert NulphSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbookThe firelight flickered against the cabinwall, warming the cool blue light of thefull moon filtering through the tatteredcurtains. Suddenly the ominous blue thenred flash of police lights filled the smallroom and Carson knew his game was up.Suddenly the director yells “Cut!” andthe camera pulls back to reveal twoHollywood flats painted to look like cabinwalls and a squadron of techies moving amyriad of lights and other equipment tonew locations. Nowhere in sight in thecavernous sound stage is there a squadcar, a full moon or a flickering fire.For years Hollywood and independentfilmmakers as well as corporate videoproducers have used lighting techniquesto make us believe things exist that aren’treally there. You can too! It is all a matterof collecting the right lighting instrumentsand accessories and adding a largedose of imagination. Mix them all togetherto give your scene a large dose of reality.Throughout this chapter, we’ll look at avariety of ways to bring reality to yourscenes. It is all in the power of lighting.Mr. Sun and Mr. MoonIt’s a good idea to always plan the outdoorand daylight shots first for your productions,because you have more control ofindoor lighting than you do over theweather. All you need to make sunshineor moonbeams is a small, powerful lightsource and some colored gel. You can createsunshine, even at night, by placing apowerful light (1000 watts or so) outsideyour window. (It is not advisable to dothis if it is raining.) Make sure you place itat an angle similar to that of the sun at thetime your scene takes place and is out ofthe camera shot. It works best if you use asmall, intense light to create the light ofthe sun or moon because you want to imitatetheir qualities. If you think about it,the sun and moon are very small intenselights that throw very hard shadows. Abig soft light will not do the trick.To recreate the sun, you have to determinewhat time of day your scene is takingplace. If your scene is in the early morning,you may want to place a single blue177

178 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 36.1 Shine a light through a set of mini blinds to imply the existence of a window.gel in front of the light. For midday, use nogel and for evening, use a yellow/gold,orange or red/orange gel, going towardsthe red as the day progresses. A light shininginto a hard gold reflector and reflectedthrough the window makes a fabulousevening light.To recreate the moon, place two ColorTemperature Blue (CTB) gels together infront of your light. Dim the lighting in theroom to pick up the color of the moonlightand create the feeling of nighttime.If you are creating the sun or the moonon a sound stage or other big room, youcan also create windows through whichthey can shine. Place a window frame justout of camera shot so that its shadow fallsacross the floor and the background wall.Set up window blinds (Figure 36.1) andlet the light filter through the slats. Youinstantly have a wall with a window.Cars and CopsWith a little mechanical skill and a goodsense of pacing, you can easily imitate carheadlights, city streetlights, the flashinglights of a squad car or a searchlight beingused to find the bad guy. You’ll also needa couple of small, focusable lights thatyou can gel.One of the easiest, yet most effectivelighting effects you can use is the imitationof a car’s headlights. Using a four-foot long2 4, mount two narrow beam lights abouttwo feet apart. Slowly sweep the beams oflight at an angle across the darkened backwall of your set. Instant car lights. If youare shooting a scene in a car at night, youcan use the same technique both for carspassing you from the other direction aswell as those coming up from behind.In the same driving scene, you canimitate the passing of city streetlights,by rhythmically passing the beam of apowerful flashlight over the hood of thecar, avoiding the camera lens. A flashlightworks well because its lamp has ayellow color temperature and should lookdifferent from the lights you are using forheadlights.If your characters get in trouble with thelaw, you can fill the car or house withflashing blue and red lights by rhythmicallypassing a double or triple blue gelledlight then heavily gelled red light past thebackground or interior of the car. TheLowel Omni light has a comfortable softrubber grip that allows you to move itaround without being burnt. Focus yourlight’s beam to the tightest setting possibleand pass first the red then the blue past theset. You can flash the set, tilt the beamto the floor and pass it again. With twopeople, it is a bit easier, but one personcan handle it. Take the gels off one of thelights, put on a yellow gel, widen the focuson the beam and you have just created asearchlight.

A Dose of Reality 179If your scene occurs on a city street orin a seedy motel room, you can add thepulse of a red neon light. Reflect a diffusedred-gelled light onto the backgroundor into the interior of your car. Byturning the light off and on or moving aflag to cover the light occasionally, you canimitate the stuttering of an old neon sign.Add a few sound effects and your charactersare infor a long and dramatic night.Living RoomsFireplaces, televisions and lamps that yousee used in video and movie scenes moreoften than not, don’t really work the waywe think they do. You can create it allthrough the magic of lighting.If your character is supposed to bewatching television yet you don’t see thefront of the set, you can create a verybelievable TV light. Get an old TV set,remove the picture tube and tack a doubleCTB gel to the front. Inside, place a lightinginstrument that has a good quality switchon its cord. Quickly turn the light off andon; pausing at times for longer lengths ofboth light and dark. A television is neveralways bright so the flickering makes itlook more realistic. Of course, you couldalways plug in an actual TV set, but hey,that would be too easy.If your character is sitting before a warmfire, you can create the effect by setting upa small, diffused light, angled up fromfloor level. In front of the light, hang inchwide strips of red, yellow and orange gelson a broomstick. Gently shake the gels infront of the light to create the feeling offirelight movement, as in Figure 36.2.Another method uses a round wheel (likean old bicycle wheel) covered with variousorange, red and yellow gels cut withholes and layered to provide a variety ofcombinations and the occasional flash ofreal light. Turn the wheel slowly in frontof the light to create the movement of theflame. Again, add sound effects and baketo perfection.For lamps that you will see on thescreen, the first thing you need to do isFigure 36.2 Red and yellow gel strips waving in front of anorange-gelled light create the illusion of firelight.

180 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionremove the regular bulb. A sixty-watt bulbwill cause the lamp to glow on cameraand look much brighter than it should.Place a 15-watt bulb in the lamp to providea soft internal glow and supplementthe light with a diffused 600-watt or morelighting instrument. Be sure to flag thelight so that its beam does not fall on thelampshade of the light you are trying touse. If you place the lighting instrumentjust off-line from the real light, you canlight your character in a warm glow thatwill look like it is coming from the lampbeside them.Water Water EverywhereSometimes, the script calls for water ripplesreflecting in your characters eyes oron her face. Often, it just isn’t very convenientto set up lighting to get this effectusing a real water source like a creek orlake. Don’t worry, it is really a quite simpleeffect to recreate. All you need is a deeppan like a roaster or a painters roller pan.Carefully break up a mirror into two tothree inch pieces and place them in thebottom of the pan, face up. Cover the mirrorswith about three inches of water.Shine a small, intense light into the waterso that the light reflected from it falls ontothe face of your character. (See Figure 36.3.)Gently lift one end of the pan up and downto create a soft ripple effect. You should seeFigure 36.3 Light reflected off of water andbroken pieces of mirror create a shimmeringpool side effect.water ripples in your characters eyes. Ifyour scene occurs at night, add a CTB gelto your light. Add a few seagulls, somewater sounds and your ready for a day ornight in paradise.RealityAlways be aware of the world aroundyou. Look at the light that makes up ourworld, its reflections its colors and theshadows it casts. If it occurs in the realworld, you should be able to re-create itfor the camera. A bit of knowledge, a doseof imagination, and a touch of lightingmagic can create any reality you wish.

37Outdoor Lighting:What you Need to Knowto Shoot Great FootageOutdoorsMichael LoehrHow do you light the outdoor scenes inyour videos? Do you plan and stage eachshot carefully to make the most of thesun’s glow? Or do you just switch to outdoorwhite balance, call out “Action!”and roll tape?Even if you choose the latter, chancesare your videos still look pretty good.Today’s camcorders work well enough indaylight to make very acceptable pictures,even with no attention to lighting.Maybe that’s why videographers don’tworry too much about outdoor lighting.Perhaps they think making the best use ofsunlight requires expensive instrumentsand tools they can’t afford. Perhaps theyjust never learned the tricks of managingsunlight in a video project.That’s where this guide can help. In thischapter are some of the popular outdoorlighting techniques. They can help subjectslook more natural on video, andimprove the overall look of your projects.You’ll learn what tools and gadgets youneed to make the most of sunlight. Youcan build many of them with inexpensivestuff from art supply and hardware stores.We’ll even teach you how to create theillusion of a dark night in the middle ofthe afternoon.So start taking advantage of what maybe your greatest asset as a videographer:the sun.Principles of LightThe fundamental principles of good lightingapply whether you shoot video indoorsor out. However, sunlight presents uniquechallenges to videographers. On almostany given day, there is more than enoughlight outside to shoot a scene. At first, anabundance of light seems like an asset.However the hundreds and thousands oflumens cast by the sun can actually causeproblems for your camcorder. Not technicalproblems, but aesthetic ones.At its brightest, the sun can shed morethan 10 times the light of one typicalindoor instrument. When it shinesbrightly, it also casts very dark shadows.181

182 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionIn video lingo, the difference betweenthese light and dark areas is commonlycalled the contrast ratio, or contrast range.Our eyes can compensate for the highcontrast range of a bright day. Our camcorders,however, don’t react as well.They require a much lower contrast range,especially to capture detail accurately. (Ofcourse, our eyes also see better when welower the contrast range, which is why weoften wear sunglasses on sunny days.)On bright days, the contrast range isusually too high for your camcorder tomake good pictures. If you shoot withoutany lighting equipment or assistance, thesunlight won’t flatter your subjects. Darkshadows may leave unpleasant or unnaturalaccents on facial features. Yourimages may also look washed out.A high contrast ratio also affects yourcamera’s automatic iris feature. You mayhave noticed that when the auto iris is on,its position changes constantly while youshoot.As you move into a shadowed area, theiris opens to allow more light into thelens. As you move back to the brightareas, it closes again to avoid overexposure.That means you might get even, naturallighting from one angle, and harsh,overexposed lighting from another. Theconstant movement of the iris makesmaintaining continuity between differentcamera angles difficult. It’s also very distractingmid-shot.The goal of outdoor lighting design is tolower the contrast range without damagingthe natural look of the subjects andthe outdoor setting. You want a lightingsetup that looks the same to your camcorder,no matter where you put it. To dothis, you need to brighten the dark, shadowedareas, and perhaps even lower theoverall light level, depending on howbrightly the sun shines.Tools and TricksIf you’re shooting indoors and need morelight, the standard practice is to plug in alight and point toward the dark areas.Outside, you do practically the samething, only with different tools.You only have one light source—the sun.It doesn’t need extension cords or poweroutlets. Even better, it will usually give youmore than enough light to work with.All you must do is redirect some of thatexcess light toward the shadowed areas ofyour set and your subjects. The best, mostaffordable tools for redirecting light arereflectors and diffusers; they will pointlight in different directions, and alter theway it falls on a subject. Light will bounceoff a reflector, and pass through a diffuser.Learning to use reflectors is easy. Theirbehavior is somewhat constant, given thefact that light bounces in predictable angles.Reflectors vary, however, in three ways:1) how much light they reflect, 2) howlarge an area their reflection covers and3) the color of light they reflect.Foil or mirrored surfaces reflect themost light over a small area. Pure whitesurfaces usually cover larger areas, butwith less light. Some reflectors have agold foil surface; these bounce light witha warm, rich quality that really flattersskin tones.Diffusers filter direct beams of sunlight,spreading them evenly over a large area.Like reflectors, they’re easy to use andfairly predictable.A material’s porosity and transparencydetermine its diffusion characteristics.Dense or very cloudy materials allow lesslight to fall onto the subject. Highlyporous materials allow more.Diffusing sunlight is probably the mosteffective technique for taming unpleasantshadows and reducing contrast. It does anexcellent job of brightening dark areas,while retaining much of the outline andcontour.To use a diffuser, simply suspend orposition the material between your subjectand the sun. Where you place thematerial and how you angle it depends onthe look you want. To create shadows onthe face, place the diffuser close to thesubject and off to one side. To spread light

Outdoor Lighting 183(a)(b)Figure 37.1 To control excessive contrastfrom the sun (a) use an overhead canopy ofdiffusion material (b).evenly and minimize shadows, place thediffuser above and away from the subject,angled down slightly as in Figure 37.1.Experiment with the diffuser to determinethe most effective position for yourparticular scene. No matter where youput it, your camcorder will make betterpictures with diffused light.There are, however, a few drawbacksto using diffusion. It simulates the lightyou might see on a slightly overcast day,especially when you suspend the diffuseroverhead. This lighting tends to be flat—some subjects may look bland under diffusedlight.One solution: bounce more sunlighttoward the subject. This highlights thesubject and slightly increases the contrastrange.Or you can abandon diffusion altogetherand bounce light around the scenewith reflectors instead. By using reflectors,you can maintain the look of a summerday and still reduce contrast.Position the reflector to bounce excesssunlight toward shadowed areas, as inFigure 37.2. This lets your camcorder usemore incoming sunlight without washingout your subjects.If you’re shooting at midday, unpleasantshadows may appear on your subject’sface. The simplest solution is to move yoursubject out of the direct sun, if possible.(See Figure 37.3.)Another solution is to use a reflector.Try putting the reflector below the subject’sface; this should help eliminate theshadow. Be careful to avoid the “monsterlook,” however. Strong light from belowthe face is a classic horror film technique,hence the name. Unless you want yoursubject to look frightening, make sure thereflected light flatters the face. Repositionthe reflector as necessary to eliminate themonster look.One last tip: videographers on the gomay prefer reflectors to diffusers. Diffuserscan sometimes be cumbersome to set up.Reflectors offer better portability, and stillsolve many outdoor lighting problems.Simple SolutionsOther very effective and inexpensive outdoorlighting techniques involve simplystaging a scene in the proper place withrespect to the sun.You’ve heard the saying that the sunshould always be behind the camera whenyou shoot. True enough, but it doesn’t tellyou whether the sun should be to the left,the right or directly behind the camera.

184 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production(a)(a)(b)(b)(c)Figure 37.2 When shooting in direct sunlight(a) a simple reflector can bounce light backinto dark areas to improve contrast (b).Many videographers default to the centerposition, where the sun sits directlybehind the camera. This is a bad idea fortwo reasons:1. It puts the sun in the subject’s face,which almost guarantees squintingeyes in the shot (See Figure 37.4) and2. the shadow that you and your camcordercast is likely to wind up in the shot.You can avoid these rookie moves byadopting an outdoor version of the classicFigure 37.3 If you must shoot during theday, try to get your subject out of the sun(a) and into the shade of a building (b) or atree (c).

Outdoor Lighting 185Figure 37.4 Direct sunlight hitting yoursubject from the front causes squinting eyes.three-point lighting setup, which is usedto add more light to indoor shootingsituations.In the three-point setup, one lightserves as the main or “key” light. It providesmost of the light for a scene. It’spositioned to light one side of the subject,angled approximately 45 degrees horizontallyfrom the subject.A second, less intense light shines onthe opposite side of the subject. Called a“fill” light, it balances the shadows thatdefine contour and shape. It’s often somewherebetween one half and two thirds asbright as the key light.Sometimes a third light adds backlight.A backlight separates the subject fromwhat’s behind it, and provides shoulderand hair highlights on people.Here’s how you can adapt this threepointsetup to outdoor lighting situations.Instead of standing with the sun directlybehind you, change your position so thatthe sun shines from behind you over eitheryour left or right shoulder. In this positionthe sun becomes a key light, shining lighton one side of the subject’s face.This takes the light out of your subject’seyes and lowers the chance of yourshadow appearing in the shot. When thesun shines at an angle similar to a keylight, the shadows will fall away fromyou and the subject, and hopefully out ofthe shot.You can also add a very inexpensive filllight by just using another reflector. Onceyou’ve established the sun as the keylight, either clip a reflector to a spare lightstand, or have an assistant hold a reflectornear the subject on the side opposite thesun. Rotate the reflector back and forth tobounce light onto the “dark” side of thesubject. Move away to lessen the intensity,closer to raise it.If you have another spare reflector, particularlyone with a foil surface, you cansimulate a backlight. Stand just off camerabehind your subject, on the side with thekey light. Point the foil side toward thesun and rotate it until the reflection lightsup the back of your subject. Presto!Instant backlight.Occasionally you will encounter outdoorsettings where the background is asbrightly lit as the subject. This is anotheraesthetically unpleasant situation.When the subject and background areboth very bright, they conflict with eachother, creating an image viewers will finddifficult to watch for very long. To solvethis problem, you must highlight theforeground subject. Instead of trying toreflect more light onto the foreground, tryshadowing all or part of the background.The technique is subtractive lighting, or“flagging.” It involves using a card calleda “flag” to block sunlight from hitting certainareas. You can buy ready-made flagsfrom video stores, or build your own fromblack foam boards. In a pinch, a reflectorwill work as a flag, but black foam boardis better. The reflector’s white surfacesometimes bounces light where you don’twant it.To shadow the background, position theflag behind the subject, just off camera onthe key light side. Angle it so that it casts

186 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productiona shadow on the background. You mayneed to move the subjects away from thebackground to avoid casting a shadow onthem as well.(a)Position ProblemsBecause the earth rotates in space, thesun’s position, intensity and color balancechange through the course of a day. Thiscan create problems for uninitiated videographers.Understand these changes, however,and they can become tremendousassets.If you shoot a series of scenes during anentire day, you’ll notice the lightingchanges from scene to scene. Shadowsgradually change position, density anddirection, and the contrast range changes.Color temperature also changes throughoutthe day.For example: a scene shot very early inthe morning will have long horizontalshadows, a slightly orange glow and alower contrast range. A scene shot in thesame location at midday will have darkvertical shadows and a much higher contrastrange.You will experience difficulty whenyou try to edit these scenes together.Differences in shadow placement andcolor balance will reveal that you shot thescenes at different times. (See Figure 37.5)A diffuser is an excellent way to preventsuch problems. Diffusing sunlighthides the movement of the sun across thesky, and disguises the time of day. Sometimesthe earth’s atmosphere provides itsown diffusion in the form of cloud cover.If the forecast says the clouds will hangaround all day, you may not need to setup a diffuser at all.Many projects call for dramatic use oflight and shadow to convey specificmoods or emotions. If yours is such a project,avoid using diffusion; it lessens theimpact of shadows. Also avoid shootingin the middle of the day, when shadowsmake subjects look less than their best.Instead, shoot your footage either late in(b)Figure 37.5 Shooting in the evening or earlymorning results in a soft light (a). Mid-daysun is brighter and harsher (b).the day or early in the morning, when theshadows are most flattering.When the sun is near the horizon, itscolor temperature is different from whenit’s high in the sky. At noon it casts awhite light high in color temperature,usually around 5,600 K (Kelvin). Yourcamcorder’s outdoor filter works best withthis type of sunlight.At dawn and dusk, however, the sun islower in the sky, and its glow is a warm,golden-orange color. Videographers oftencall this period the “golden hour,” since

Outdoor Lighting 187it usually lasts right around an hour.Its color registers much lower than the5,600 K light of midday—usually around3,100 K.Consequently, your camera may reactdifferently when switched to the outdoorsetting. If you white balanced early in theday under regular 5,600 K light, the videowill turn more and more orange as theevening progresses. If you don’t want thislook, simply white balance your camera atthe beginning of every shot.While this change in color temperaturemay prove inappropriate, it can also beperfect for certain types of shots. Thegolden hour’s long shadows and warmlighting make it an ideal time to shootdramatic or romantic scenes.Be aware that the moment only lasts ashort time. You can extend the golden houra little by reflecting sunlight off a goldsurfacedreflector. However, once the suneither disappears in the evening, or reachesa 45 degree angle above the horizon in themorning, the golden look will be difficultto maintain. If you know exactly when thegolden hour will happen, you can plan totake advantage of it on your next project.On very rare occasions you may need toadd artificial light to make an outdoorscene suitable for shooting. This is mostcommon when shooting under either verydark clouds or heavy shadows. In thesecases it may be appropriate to use yourindoor lighting instruments instead ofreflectors to light a scene.Remember, the color temperature of sunlightis much higher than that of indoorstudio lights. To use indoor lights outdoors,you must put a blue gel in front ofthem. Also be aware that indoor lightsshine a very small amount of light whencompared to the sun. You may need twoor even three instruments to light a subjectadequately outside.Night LightsShooting outdoors at night can be troublefor professional and amateur videographersalike. Even with low-light camcorders, it’sstill very difficult to get good pictureswithout adding artificial light.To solve this problem, use a techniquecalled day-for-night shooting. It involvesshooting a carefully staged and controlledscene during the day, making it look as ifit were shot at night.Day-for-night shooting isn’t easy, and itisn’t always effective. To make it work,you must create an illusion of nighttimethat will fool your audience. To do this,pay close attention to how your eyes seeat night.Pay close attention to colors. At nightour eyes don’t see colors as well becauseof the lower light level. The same is truefor our camcorders. Dress your subjectsin muted colors to keep the color intensitydown.If your camcorder has a monochromemode, consider using it instead of thecolor mode; this will help reduce theamount of color in the scene. Some editingVCRs have chroma controls or monochromeswitches, which can also mutecolor intensity.Consider buying a blue filter for yourcamcorder. This helps create the illusionof moonlight by turning sunlight blue.Most video stores carry a selection of filtersto fit your camcorder. Be sure to getone that fits your model’s lens.When combined with the other techniques,the blue filter greatly enhancesthe nighttime look.If there are any ordinary lights in yourscene—car headlights, porch lights, windowlights—switch them on. Indeed, beforeyou shoot you should turn on any and alllights normally on at night.You also must know how to disableyour camcorder’s auto iris and auto whitebalance circuits—if it has them. Whenactivated, an auto iris circuit lets the optimalamount of light into the lens to makepictures.With day-for-night shots, you wantto limit the light entering the lens. Youcan only do this when you turn off theauto iris.

188 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionThe same applies to auto white balance.If active, the feature will try to get anaccurate white balance, even with theblue filter on the lens. The goal is to foolthe camera and ultimately the audience,so switch off the auto white balance.With the circuits off, white balance thecamera without the blue filter. Place the filteron the lens, and manually close the irisuntil a small amount of light enters the lens.Let enough light through to distinguishyour subjects, but not any more than that.The result is the nighttime look: agrainy bluish image with muted colorsand contrast. If your editing VCRs allowit, try lowering the black level and raisingthe luminance during post production.This increases the contrast enough tomatch what our eyes typically see atnighttime.Wrap It UpEnhancing your outdoor shoots withreflectors and diffusers is more art thanscience. The techniques reflect personalpreference as much as rigid rules.So use reflectors and diffusers toexpress your own visual ideas more effectively.The best way to learn is to experimentwith them.Stage a simple scene outside, and thencreate four or five different moods by justchanging the lighting design. This’ll teachyou how sunlight works, how to make themost of your tools and how your camcorderreacts to sunlight.Experiment, too, with different materialsand techniques. You may discover astyle that becomes the signature elementin your videos.

38Audio For Video:Getting it RightFrom the StartHal RobertsonSo, you’ve bought a shiny new digital videorecorder and you’re blown away by theimage quality. But what about the audio?Audio is possibly the most overlooked elementin video production. That’s too badbecause audio quality can make or breakany video project, regardless of budget.You may be able to fix some things inpost-production, but why go to all the troublewhen you can get it right the first time?This article explores 10 tips for gatheringthe best possible audio on your next shoot.Some are common sense tips, but many arehard-earned lessons from the field.Plan AheadWhen shooting on location, a smart videographerscouts the site before the shoot,looking for ideal lighting and backgroundsto produce the best image possible.For your next shoot, scout withyour ears too. Listen for traffic noises,machinery, animals and aircraft—anythingthat might ruin the audio during theshoot. Depending on your topic, somebackground noise may be acceptable oreven desirable. Just make sure you canhear your subject over the ruckus.Use an External MicrophoneUnless you have a high-end professionalcamera, your built-in microphone isabsolutely worthless for anything morethan your 3-year-old’s birthday party.First, the microphone is built into thecamera’s body, and is very sensitive tonoise from zoom, focus and tape drivemotors. The second problem is a matter ofdistance. Even though you can zoom inon a subject from across the room, themicrophone is stuck 20 feet away. Trustme, you need an external microphone.Choose the Right Microphonefor the JobOK, I’ve convinced you to use an externalmike, but what kind? There are four189

190 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionbasic types: handheld, lapel, shotgun andboundary (see Figure 38.1).Handheld mikes, typically used by newsreporters, add a newsy feel to your video.Directional handheld mikes minimizebackground noise while non-directionalmikes collect the audio flavor of the scene.News anchors and sit-down interviewparticipants often use lapel, or lavalieremicrophones. They are useful anytimeyou want to get close to the source, butminimize visual impact.Shotgun microphones, highly directionaland often used on TV shows andmovie sets, usually suspend from a boomor “fishpole.” Shotgun mikes typicallyhover just out of the video frame andpoint directly at the subject.If you shoot legal or corporate video,the boundary microphone could be yournew best friend. Boundary mikes turn anentire table, wall or floor into a pickupsurface. Unfortunately, their incrediblesensitivity is a double-edged sword. TheyDACBclearly pick up voices from every directionbut also amplify shuffling papers andair conditioner noise equally.Use a WindscreenYou’re familiar with the effect of windblowing into a microphone. The resultingrumble masks all but the loudest sounds,making the audio useless. Subjects speakingclose to a microphone also producesmall blasts of wind from their mouths. Oneof three basic windscreens will minimize oreliminate these problems altogether.Foam windscreens are the most commonsince they are inexpensive, and workgreat for both handheld and lapel microphones(see Figure 38.2). Although shotgunmikes also use foam windscreens, thepros usually use a special type called azeppelin. This special-purpose windscreengets its name from its shape. Itlooks like a long, skinny blimp. Porouscloth or fur typically covers the mike andblocks the wind, while letting soundthrough unharmed. A shotgun microphonemounts inside the zeppelin wherethe entire mike is protected from audiowreckingwind noises.When you record the narration for yournext video, consider using a hoop-stylewindscreen to improve the sound quality.Hoop screens are usually about six inchesFigure 38.1 A. Boundary Mike—also PZM,lies, flat on a table or surface and is typicallyused for miking people sitting around a table.B. Shotgun Mike—Usually has a highlyfocusedpickup pattern and best at gatheringsound at a distance or in a noisyenvironment.C. Lapel Mike—is very small and can behidden on or around the subject to completelyconceal its presence.D. Handheld Mike—comfortable to hold inthe hand, it is commonly used by televisionnewscasters, singers, public speakers andtalk-show hosts. It’s ideal when you want thetalent to directly address the camera.Figure 38.2 Screen test—a simple foamwindscreen can do wonders to minimizeoutdoor gusts and plosives in the voice.

Audio For Video 191in diameter and covered with one or twolayers of fine mesh cloth. Recording studiosworldwide use this type of windscreenon critical vocals, and you can too.Position Microphones ProperlySome simple attention to microphoneplacement can make a dramatic improvementin sound quality. Take the shotgunmike, for example. Its extreme directionalcharacteristics and high sensitivity makeit great for picking up audio from a distance.But point a shotgun up at your subjectfrom the ground (instead of overhead),and you might pick up birds singing in thetrees or the 3:30 flight to Albuquerque.Misuse of lapel microphones is just aseasy. Ideally, they are worn on the outsideof clothing, attached to a lapel, tie or shirt.However, hiding lapel mikes under clothesminimizes wind noise and visual distractions(see Figure 38.3). This location guaranteesa muffled sound and the sound ofcloth rubbing on the microphone. If windis the problem, try positioning your subjectwith their back to the wind. If cosmeticsare the issue, try a smaller microphone, aless distracting location or a shotgun mike.get the AGC working in a similar range tothe previous take, making your edit pointmore consistent. The second method isto turn the AGC off. This only works oncertain camcorders, but if yours has thisfeature, use it. You can adjust the audiolevel manually for consistent sound, takeafter take.Monitor With HeadphonesIf your camera has a headphone jack, buya pair of good headphones and keep themin your camera case (see Figure 38.4). Thenext time you shoot, you will hear exactlywhat the microphone hears, making mikepositioning easier. You will also catch badconnections, dead batteries and backgroundnoise before you commit it to tape.This is an absolute must and will save youmuch frustration and embarrassment.Learn to Deal With AGCAutomatic gain control, or AGC, is builtinto virtually every camera on the market.This seemingly magic circuit constantlymonitors your incoming audio, thenkeeps the loud sounds from getting tooloud and the soft sounds from getting toosoft. Sounds like a great idea, doesn’t it?It’s not a bad idea, but problems crop uplater during editing when you try tomatch clips from different takes. One takewill be loud and strong, but another willbe softer with more background noise.Now what are you going to do?There are a couple of solutions. First,have your talent re-take the material,starting before the break point. This willFigure 38.3 In or out?—it may be tempting toconceal a lapel mike in the clothing; however,it will cause the audio to be muffled and thesound of rubbing cloth to be picked up.

192 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 38.5 Hooking up—with a variety ofcables, adapters, and spare batteries you’ll beprepared for every audio occasion.Figure 38.4 Listen in—always useheadphones when using an external mike.Get ConnectedAudio cables and adapters are a necessityfor the videographer—just make sure youhave the right ones before you shoot (seeFigure 38.5). Wireless mikes often needjumper wires to connect the receiver to thecamera. Professional microphones usethree-pin XLR connectors that won’t pluginto most consumer and prosumer cameras.For these mikes string together severaladapters or, buy an interface box. If you’reconnecting to a sound system or otheraudio equipment, bring every adapter youown to the shoot. You’ll need them.Get In CloseRegardless of your microphone choice,the closer you get it to the subject, thecleaner your audio will sound. Positionthe handheld or lapel mike a little closerthan you previously had. Boom in asclose as possible with the shotgun. Thistechnique also reduces background noiseand further improves your audio.Bring SparesSpare cables, spare adapters, spare microphonesand spare batteries. This tip willsave your skin in an emergency and giveyou some creative freedom. Perhaps youget to the shoot and discover your singlelapel microphone won’t work becausethere are two subjects speaking. Yourspare shotgun or handheld microphonewill work even better and you’ll look likea very smart cookie.Take these ideas to heart and your nextvideo production can sound matchthe sound of a professional studio. In afuture article, we will explore how to createprofessional sounding audio in theedit suite.Sidebar 1An Audio Horror StoryLast year I shot a video for my church in a city park. I scouted the site and found a great locationfor audio and video. What I failed to notice was the railroad behind a wall of trees on theeast side of the park.

Audio For Video 193The day of the shoot threatened rain, so we had to work quickly. Unfortunately, we had tostop shooting twice for a passing train—destroying 20 precious minutes of clear sky. We gotthe video done, but we also got wet packing the equipment back to the car. Lesson learned.Sidebar 2Watch With Your Ears (or Listen With Your Eyes)Still not sure what type of microphone is best for your next shoot? Broadcast TV shows offera valuable and free resource of audio examples to help you decide what microphone to use.News broadcasts provide the perfect opportunity to listen to the differences between lapelmikes (anchors) and handheld mikes (field reporters). Close your eyes and carefully listen tothe variety of audio sources.Most sitcoms and dramas offer a chance to examine the sound of a shotgun microphone inaction. If you listen closely, you’ll begin to notice when the mike isn’t pointed exactly at thesubject.

39Outdoor AudioHal RobertsonAh, the great outdoors. It’s a videoshooter’s dream come true. Loads of freelighting, gorgeous backgrounds andbreathtaking scenery—what more couldyou want? At least visually, shooting outdoorsis a wonderful idea. For audio,however, an outdoor shoot presents a newset of challenges. Learning to deal withthese challenges is a combination of theright tools and a knowledge of all the variables.Grab your walking stick and camcorderand join us on a hike through thebackwoods of outdoor audio.It’s Not Nice to Fool Mother NatureIf you plan to shoot outdoors, rest assuredyou’ll have to deal with less than idealweather conditions from time to time. Ofparticular concern are the detrimentaleffects of rain and snow on your precious(i.e. expensive) audio and video equipment.Wet weather and electronic gearmix like oil and water, so you’ll do well toprepare for the worst.First, and most important, is to keep thewater out of your camera. Surely you’veseen the advertisements in the back ofVideomaker for rain slickers made specificallyfor cameras. These are excellentaccessories for those who shoot outdoorson a regular basis. The occasional outdoorvideographer, however, can make duewith a simple plastic trash bag. Cut a holefor your lens in one corner of the bag anda hole for the viewfinder in the other corner.You’ll still have easy access to the controlsfrom underneath, although it will bedifficult to use a flip-out LCD and certainviewfinders. It’s not as waterproof as therain capes with watertight lens holes, buta trash bag might be sufficient in a lightmist.Zipper sandwich bags come in handywith your audio equipment (see Figure39.1). A wireless microphone transmitterpack doesn’t like the wetness any morethan your camera, so keep it dry too.You’ll need a knife and some gaffer’s tapeto complete the task, but the finishedproject will keep your transmitter dry and194

Outdoor Audio 195Figure 39.1 Bag it—zip up the delicateelectronics in a sandwich baggie in extremeenvirons.away from the repair bench. Wired microphonesfare better in the elements, but it’sstill a good idea to keep the connectorsdry with a simple wrap of electrical tape.The same applies for battery doors.Exposed microphones—whether handheld,shotgun or lapel—are more of asticking point. It’s never a good idea to geta microphone wet, regardless of type orapplication. For a quick outdoor shoot, asimple foam windscreen will keep themicrophone dry enough, but extendedshoots require measures that are moredrastic. While you can cover your microphonewith the same bag as your camera,the audio will suffer. Not only will youhear the drops of rain falling on the plastic,the covering will dramatically changethe quality of the sound. Honestly, thereisn’t a simple fix for this problem. Thereare professional windscreens that makenotable improvements, but the price maybe out of reach for many casual shooters.If you’re using a lapel microphone, it’spossible to secure the element under yourtalent’s clothing or even under the brim ofa hat. These are extreme measures andwill negatively affect the sound quality,but it’s a reasonable tradeoff if the alternativeis to abort the shoot.Although not specifically audio related,it’s a good idea to avoid rapid shifts intemperature and humidity—your audioand video gear won’t like these changes andFigure 39.2 Do not eat—silica gel packs inyour camera bag can absorb moisture.may rebel. Condensation (when movingfrom cold to warm environs) will produceeverything from random glitches to acomplete shutdown to fried circuitry. Youcan minimize these effects with two simpletechniques. First, place several packs ofsilica gel in your camera case to absorbexcess humidity (see Figure 39.2). Second,when moving from a cool environment toa warm one, give the equipment severalminutes to acclimate. You’ll eliminate theembarrassment of an equipment failureand save wear-and-tear on your gear too.The Windscreen is Your FriendWhether you shoot in wetness or not, everyoutdoor shooter has to deal with windnoise. Uncontrolled, wind noise can renderyour audio useless and there is no wayto repair the damage in post-production.Regardless of the audio you capture outside,your microphone needs a windscreen.The most common type of windscreenis made from open-cell urethane foam(see Figure 39.3). Although available as anaccessory for virtually every type of microphone,some microphones come with thewindscreen permanently installed. The

196 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionNoise SourceTalentMicrophoneCameraFigure 39.3 Foam fun—cheap foam coverscan help eliminate wind noise.windscreen’s task is simple—keep the windout of the microphone. Foam windscreensvary in their ability to accomplish this mission,but they’re inexpensive, readily availableand work well in many situations.In more extreme conditions, you’ll needa professional windscreen—often called awindsock or zeppelin. These windscreensdiffer in size and construction, but mostoften use a special cloth stretched over anopen frame. The microphone is enclosedinside the frame and the cloth blocks thewind from entering. The completedassembly looks something like a blimp,hence the zeppelin reference. The windsockis effective at eliminating wind noise,but costs a good deal more than the commonfoam windscreen. In addition, thelength and diameter of your microphonefactor into the design of the enclosure. Forshooters in brutal wind conditions, theaddition of a fuzzy fur cover to the windsockcan eliminate the detrimental effectsof wind noise up to 60 miles per hour.Dealing With Background NoiseWhether outdoors means mountain streamsor traffic jams, you have to deal withunwanted noises in your audio. Thesemay manifest themselves as simple, randominterruptions or as a constant roar that allbut obscures the sound you want torecord. In any case, there are weapons atyour disposal to minimize these effects.Figure 39.4 Block it—if you’re shooting asubject using a handheld or lapel microphone,position him with his back to the noise. Hisbody will block a great deal of noise and canmake an impractical set-up feasible.Figure 39.5 Aim for the mouth—it isimportant to point directional microphonescorrectly.The simplest technique is to use naturalbarriers to block the noise. If you’re shootinga subject wearing a lapel microphone,position him with his back to the noise.His body will block a great deal of noiseand can make an impractical setup feasible(see Figure 39.4). You can exploit otherbarriers such as buildings, rocks and treesto similar effect. When using directionalhandheld or shotgun microphones, utilizethe built-in null points to your advantage(see Figure 39.5). You can leverage thisknowledge of pickup patterns by placing

Outdoor Audio 197the microphone where it will pick up themaximum amount of sound you want anda minimum of the sound you don’t.On the other hand, you are shootingoutdoors and your viewers associate certainsounds with being outside. If the areayou’re featuring contains colorful audio,capture several minutes of sound on tapeafter the shoot. Back in post-production,you’ll have a way to cover abrupt edits andscenic shots that don’t have acceptableaudio. Properly blended, these patches willsound perfectly natural, plus you’ll haveanother soundscape for your audio effectslibrary. It is better to have the option to addambient noise back into the mix in postthan to try and remove it.Shooting in the great outdoors can bechallenging, but some preparation andpractice will have you ready to tackle thoseprojects, and you’ll have some impressiveaudio to show for your efforts.Sidebar 1DIY WindsockProfessional microphone zeppelins or windsocks can cost several hundred dollars and aren’tworth the cost for casual use. A few dollars and a trip to the fabric store will supply most ofwhat you need to build a simple windsock. First, pick up a small roll of fiber batting—thetype used to fill quilts and blankets. Next, buy some costume fur with a nap of one inch orlonger. Installation is simple. First, wrap some batting around your microphone, securing itwith rubber bands. Then, do the same with the fur if you’re shooting in strong winds. Thissetup will likely thin out the sound, but wind noise won’t be as much of an issue.Sidebar 2Listen CloselyMost shooters know to monitor their audio with a pair of headphones, but monitoring outdoorsadds some complexity. Many camcorders offer skimpy headphone amplifiers, so youhave to make the most of every milliwatt. Start with a pair of sealed-cup (circumaural) headphones.These will block outside sounds and allow you to concentrate on what’s comingthrough the microphone. Several manufacturers offer excellent sealed-cup models, but trythem with your camcorder before buying if possible. As you sample several brands, you’lldiscover that some headphones play much louder than others. Find the best tradeoff ofsound quality versus volume and you’ll have an audio reference that will serve you well inevery circumstance.

40Stealth Directing:Getting The Most Outof Real PeopleMichael J. KelleyIt must have been Take 30, but we weren’tquite sure because we were no longerusing a slate, nor did we stop tape inbetween takes, for fear of losing the littlemomentum we had gained. The talentwas a beautiful young woman who hadvolunteered for the part. She was wellcastby the bank’s producer. Her considerableknowledge of the subject mattermeant that she had her lines down, buther lack of experience in front of the cameramade this training video laborious tocapture. Even worse: The experience wascompletely humiliating for her, the performancewas indeed embarrassing andshe would very likely never again volunteerfor a shoot. It can be difficult to coaxan agreeable performance out of an amateur,but it can be done.Be RealisticProfessionals know that to deliver a compellingperformance, the talent must becomfortable not only with the script, butalso with being the center of attention,where lights, microphones, camera andproduction crew all hang on every move.This alone is a tall order for most people:Remembering lines is one thing, butputting it all together with eye lines(where the talent should direct theirgaze), blocking (where the they shouldstand and move) and interacting withother players and props in a well-timedand natural way reminds us all why thereally good actors deserve the bigbucks. Even under the best of circumstances,it’s not easy to deliver a believableperformance.Using real people is a calculated risk.The successful director manages an exercisein stealth, regardless of the size andscope of the production environment.Most of the management techniques thattypically apply to pros can be tossed outfrom the beginning. From pre-productioncoaching to the first rehearsal, all the wayto the last shot, the director of amateurtalent is most successful when beingdownright sneaky.198

Stealth Directing 199Figure 40.1 Ready off the set—ready the talent off of the set, preferablyin an environment which is both familiar and relaxing.Tread LightlyStandard techniques, such as on-camerarehearsals or calling for “places, lights,camera, action,” just don’t work. Thepressure while waiting on the set is generallytoo much for amateur talent to bear,so much so that, while the shot is preparedtechnically, the stealthy directorcan best use the time to ready the talentoff of the set, preferably in an environmentwhich is both familiar and relaxing(see Figure 40.1).Aside from any artistic or technicalprowess, the director is equal parts coach,baby-sitter, mentor, friend, psychologist,boss and dentist (as some “teeth” can beextracted more painlessly than others).The director is also much like a valve,constantly bleeding off pressure whiledeveloping an acceptable flow. Finallyand always, the director is also a goodwriter (able to adapt scripts in a heartbeat),editor (able to adapt to new sequencesas they occur), and actor. You, as thedirector, must invisibly manage your ownpressures sufficiently to give every attentionto the fragile talent. Normalizing thetalent’s pressures is the your primary task,for, without an acceptable performance,all of the rest is but a drill.It’s crucial that you be so well-organizedthat your manner is relaxed and friendly,stress-free and even playful. Much of thishas to do with doing your homework andproviding ample time for the scene to becaptured. Advanced preparation reallypays off here, and a flexible productiontimetable which is able to cope with surprises,delays and unanticipated bits ofserendipity is a must.For most people, being in front of acamera is an exciting experience, completewith ego attachments, unfoundedexpectations, vain fantasies and delusionsof grandeur. Given a little extra time, aclever director can use all of that energyto great advantage.Call Talent LastIt’s best if the set is fully prepared beforethe talent ever arrives (see Figure 40.2).Stagger your call times, call the talent in aslate as possible, and, by all means, do notover-rehearse your talent. Repeat your technicalrun-throughs separately until they are

200 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 40.2 Last call—it’s best if the set is fully prepared before thetalent ever arrives.consistently on the mark. This is where thesneaky part starts: With the talent arrivingfresh and full of anticipation, the directorshould focus all attention on the talent, perhapsassigning a production assistantspecifically for the talent if possible. Thewhole crew should be welcoming andrelaxed. This first impression cannot beover-estimated. Setting an inclusive stagemakes every difference, so always providethe time for the talent to be fully introducedto the crew and the environment.Prep Off the SetNext, get the talent off the set. Applyingmakeup, tending to hair and wardrobe, oreven wiring a concealed mike may makethe talent feel important, but it also ups thepressure. These tasks are all best accomplishedoff-set. It’s also a great time for thedirector to distract the talent by casuallydiscussing the shot and how the talent willdeliver their part (see Figure 40.3).Show Time!With the crew in position, the tape cuedand everyone at the ready, escort the talentto the fully-lighted set. As the directorleads the talent through their blocking, perhapseven giving an example of how linesare to be delivered, the crew is on full alert,keenly watching for the roll cue which maybe as subtle as a silent nod or a flick of thehand. With the talent slowly and carefullymassaged into place, the director shouldcasually call for a rehearsal; that’s often thecue to roll tape too. No tally lights, no callsfor “Action!”, no extra pressure.If all goes well, you may have your shotfinished before the talent even knowsyou’ve started. Recording “rehearsals”sometimes yields the freshest, least selfconsciousdelivery. Of course, many performancesimprove with a little work andencouragement from you, but even whenconducting interviews, you’ll find thatthe best performances come from talentthat is fully prepared in advance of everreaching the set and is then gently coaxedthrough short segments with as littlehoopla as possible.After all, real people are often very talented,attractive and capable, if only thedirector and producer take the time toconceal the pressures of the process andprepare for what may be the performanceof a lifetime.

Stealth Directing 201Figure 40.3 Off-set application—applying makeup, tending to hair andwardrobe, or even wiring a concealed mike may make the talent feelimportant, but it also ups the pressure. These tasks are all bestaccomplished off-set.Sidebar 1Craft-Services Prep Pays OffA thoughtfully catered table can offer needed liquid refreshment and nourishment. Find outyour talent’s preferences ahead of time and provide meals which are appropriate for the timeand length of the production day. The talent may be a strict vegan or allergic to the almondtorte you specially prepared. You want to fuel the performance, while calming the performer,so have choices. Snacks of fresh fruit are always crowd pleasers. Carefully regulate the use ofsugar and caffeine, and save the champagne for when the shot’s in the can. Whatever you do,give the talent plenty of water, but don’t let them use ice, as it may constrict the vocal chords.Sidebar 2It’s in the EyesInterview subjects are usually experts in their fields, but most experts aren’t performers, soit’s up to you to give the talent every encouragement. Choose your questions carefully. Don’tput your expert on the spot, and, if an answer is difficult, move along and come back to arephrased version of the question later on. Your body language is very important: Attentive,upright posture and focused eye-contact, coupled with an open, pleasant smile and nods ofencouragement, will all help your talent to feel relaxed and conversational. Have themtell their stories to you in their own words, and have the stealth camera crew there, almostinvisibly capturing every nuance.

41Sets, Lies and VideotapeJim StinsonWhen you think of movie sets you probablyimagine structures built from scratchon Hollywood sound stages—structuresthat need too much big-time money, skilland space for most videographers.True, full-scale sound stage sets cancost thousands or even millions of dollars,but professional videographers routinely“build” effective video sets that cost littleor nothing in under an hour or even a veryfew minutes.But wait, you say. I shoot weddings (orfamily events or vacations or training guidesor business conferences), so I don’t use sets.Oh, yes you do. If you move a distractingpicture, fill a dull corner with a ficusplant, pull a desk away from a wall toremove a shadow—in short, if you changethe shooting environment to improve thelook of your video, you’re creating a set,however modest in scope. And if youknow the tricks of the trade, you can makemore elaborate sets—whole new environments,in fact—with a minimum of time,effort and expense. This chapter exploresthose tricks of the trade.To show you what we mean by a “set,”let’s start with a quick review of the varioustypes.Types of SetWe begin, of course, with the classic builtfrom-scratchsets you find on a Hollywoodsound stage. I don’t recommend that youconstruct one of these, even if you dohave some place to put it. Real sets areheavy, expensive and time-consuming tobuild. Interiors are generally finished inactual drywall (though it’s much thinnerthan normal), complete with taped and“mudded” seams and full paint jobs.Windows, doors and moldings are real.In short, a set requires all the buildingand finishing skills you need for a realroom. A more practical alternative: a sort oflocation set—a part of an actual environmentthat you can customize for your video.For instance, I once needed four officesfor an industrial video I was directing. Wecouldn’t work in the maze of cubicles202

Sets, Lies and Videotape 203where the client’s actual personnel toiledwithout disrupting operations, so wecommandeered a large conference room.Once emptied of furniture, what we hadwas a 25-foot square room with woodpaneling on one wall, draped windowsopposite it and neutral-toned paintedwalls at either end.Perfect! By arranging furniture in onecorner, I made an office with windows tothe left and a painted wall at the rear. Theopposite corner yielded the painted wallon the left (with different artwork) and thefancy paneling to the right. Upscale furnishingsturned this corner into an executiveoffice. The third office set used onlythe full expanse of the painted wall, againdressed with different artwork and a pottedplant.And the fourth? We obtained two panelsof the modular office dividers used inthe client’s actual offices and set them upat right angles inside the conferenceroom. By propping them up on woodenboxes (called “apple boxes”), we raisedthem high enough so that the cameracould not see over their tops and revealwhere they actually were. And since wevideotaped the actors seated at theirdesks, the camera did not show that thedivider tops were abnormally high.Improving RealityMore often, you don’t have to create a setfrom bare walls; you just want to customizean actual location to fit your needs.A desk is a desk, after all. Put a “GO,PANTHERS!” poster on the wall behindit and you have a principal’s office. A coupleof medical school diplomas and it’sa doctor’s office. A performance chart forAcme Industries and it’s an executiveoffice.The relatively low resolution of videomakes improving reality all the easier.Countless sets have been constructed orenhanced with nothing but pieces of foam,glue and spray paint. A cheap poster hungbehind a window in the set wall becomesa beautiful view. Some TV news studiosdot their sets with photo-copies of equipmentto look more impressive. Our savinggrace is that the video camera is not thatdiscerning, particularly in the consumerrealm, and especially from a distance.Often you create a set by subtractingitems as well as adding them; that is, youframe off unwanted elements so that theynever appear on screen. Once, for example,I needed to shoot into the corner of aroom with a door in one wall. The troublewas, the adjacent wall was actually anarchway into a much larger room. But I hadthree feet of solid wall before the archbegan, so I made sure that my camera neverpanned quite far enough left to reveal it. Asa result, the background “became” two fullwalls of a small room.Major PrinciplesThis example demonstrates an importantprinciple of set making: if it’s not in theframe, it doesn’t exist. Remember that thesets you build or the locations you useneed only be finished as far as the camerawill reveal.The flip side of this principle is: if youcan’t see it, you can’t tell that it’s notreally there. I once shot a scene in whatseemed like a large and busy restaurant. Itwas actually a wall with a door in it—plusjust three tables, three actors and videocrewmembers as extras.Imagine the door screen on the rightand the three tables to the left of it, alongthe wall. We put upscale paintings on thewall, added the tables with snowy whitelinen and bentwood chairs, lit the area tosimulate intimate down-lights and installedthe crewmembers as patrons.Action: over-the-shoulder of the maitre d’as two diners come in the door. He greetsthem, picks up two menus (from a tackyorange crate beside him but out of sight ofthe camera), gestures left and escorts themto the far left table as we dolly past theother “diners” to hold them. Add ambientrestaurant sound in the editing process,

204 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionand voila! a blank wall becomes a completerestaurant populated by scores of staff andcustomers.As long as we’re talking about principles,here’s another biggie: the world onthe screen has no fixed geography. Forexample, the two sides of a door are notalways the same door. I taped my dinersas they walked down an actual street,turned and entered an actual restaurant.In editing, I then cut from that exterior tothe shot of the diners entering the restaurantset. By matching the action of the dooropening—actually two different doors—I “attached” the set to the real exterior,which, in fact, was 10 miles away. In addition,the actual restaurant exterior helpedsell the reality of the set.For another video I zoomed in on a windowhigh up on a great glass skyscraper.Then, in my location office set, I placed apane of glass in front of the camera, deliberatelylit to show light reflections. Apiece of fabric hanging behind the glasson one side simulated office drapes.Then my actor stood behind the glass,staring pensively down at the “city” below,then turned and walked away, revealingthe office behind her.When making a cut from the exteriorzoom shot to this shot, I effectively placedthe office inside the skyscraper.Making Do With LessSometimes you can get away with a verysmall shooting area. In the video with thefour offices, an actor in one of them makesa phone call. I placed the actor whoanswered that call in a swivel chair infront of a painted wall on which I’d hunga framed print. This wall was in a littleusedoffice corridor.I then framed loose head-and-shouldersprofile shot of the actor as he answered thephone. There were no desks, no cabinets,no other decorations; the actor had to holdthe telephone base on his unseen knees.But by rocking and swiveling gently as hetalked, he sold the idea that he was sittingin a complete office.You tend to think of a video set as fallingbehind the actors, but it can be very usefulto place it in front of them instead. I onceneeded a shot in the stacks of a library, butit was impractical to create long rows ofsix-foot-high shelves full of books. Instead,I placed a three-by-four-foot open-backedbookcase on a table five feet out from ablank wall and filled most of it with books.The spines of the books faced the wall.Next I positioned the camera on the farside of the bookshelves so that it facedthe books, which filled the entire frame.Strategic gaps in the ranks of books let theaudience see parts of the wall beyond.The actor walked on-screen between thewall and the book case, paused with herface framed in one of the gaps betweenbooks, selected a book and walked out ofthe “library stacks.” For that scene, threeby-fourfeet of set was all I built.If you can, though, choose a room thatgives your set the most “throw.” Throw isthe distance from your camera to yoursubject, and it’s crucial for achieving certainvisual effects. If you want the compressed,flat look of a long zoom setting,you need to get your camcorder back fromyour subject. A 10-by-10 room won’tallow you this option.Remember that you’ll never be able tomake a wide shot in a small room looklike a wide shot in a large room, but it’seasy to make a large room look small.Moving OutdoorsWe tend to think of sets as indoor critters,but you can make them outdoors as well.Just remember the two key principles: ifit’s not in the frame it doesn’t exist, and inthe world on the screen there is no fixedgeography.To illustrate the first principle, I once hadto show a vigorous senior citizen playinggolf. The trouble was, we had to videotapeher at her home, far from any golf course.

Sets, Lies and Videotape 205Here’s the sequence of shots I made on herfront lawn, to solve the problem:HIGH-ANGLE CLOSE-UP: a patch ofcropped grass. A woman’s hand enters theshot, deposits a golf ball on a tee andexits. CUT TO:WORM’S EYE ANGLE (sky and treebranches fill the screen): the womanwearing a golf outfit, eye shades and golfinggloves, enters the shot and addressesthe camera with a club, as if it were theball on its tee. CUT TO:CLOSE-UP (an out-of-focus hedge fillsthe background): The woman raises herlook from the ball to the distant, off-cameragreen. She swings. CUT TO:HIGH-ANGLE CLOSE-UP: the ball beingwhacked solidly out of the shot. CUT TO:CLOSE-UP: The woman follows the ball(off-camera) as it sails (presumably) towardthe green. She smiles at the result andwalks out of frame.See? Because the telltale details of herresidential neighborhood were never inthe frame, they didn’t exist.I warped screen geography to solve aproblem in another program, in which apassing citizen comes upon a bank robbery.As the bad guys rush out of the bank,the passerby looks around, spots a phonebooth, runs to it and calls the police.Just one hitch: there was no phonebooth anywhere near the bank exterior. Tosolve the problem, I put the citizen in theforeground, watching the perps in thebackground.He looks off-screen right, sees somethingand rushes out, screen right.Pause, while the felons clear out of theshot; then the citizen runs back in fromscreen right. An hour later and three milesaway, I centered a phone booth in full shot.The citizen rushes in from screen left,enters the booth and makes his call. Thenhe runs back out the way he entered, screenleft.In editing I inserted the phone boothsequence into the bank shot, between thepoint at which the man leaves and thelater point at which he returns. The effect:to move the phone booth next door tothe bank.The Frankly Artificial SetSo far, we’ve talked about sets that workhard to convince you that they’re actuallyoffices or restaurants or golf courses. Butother sets are just, well, sets. News, gameshow and talk show sets are examples ofvideo environments that make no attemptto disguise themselves as something else.Like other studio sets, these are probablytoo elaborate for modest productions.(Imagine trying to build the set forJeopardy!) But you can use two simplealternatives to create “frankly studio” sets.Your first option is a seamless paperbacking. Available on rolls from photosupply houses, seamless paper comes in awide range of sizes, colors and patterns.Simply hang the roll high in the air andpull down as much as you need to create a“wall” behind your performers. If you selecta chromakey blue color seamless, you canuse properly equipped special effects generatorsor computer editing systems toreplace the blue color with matted-in images(like the TV weather reporter’s maps).The simplest set of all is no set whatever.Instead, you create your set by lighting theactors and furniture in the foreground andleaving the background dark.This works best when 1) you canexclude ambient light from the shootingarea and 2) your camera permits manualexposure control.For simplicity, we’ve discussed ideasfor sets one at a time, but you can combineseveral of them.For instance, one of my video studentswanted to insert an actor into an actualevent. Happening on a serious auto accidenton a busy boulevard at night, he’dtaped it with the Hi8 camcorder he carrieseverywhere.It was perfect for the public service videohe was making on safe driving. Now the

206 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productiontrick was to place his on-camera narrator atthe accident scene.Here’s how he did it. He took the actorto another busy boulevard, where theambient background sound was similar,but shooting was safer because of widesidewalks. He placed the actor under astreetlight so that the camcorder’s autoexposure system would reduce the backgroundto darkness.Then he positioned an assistant just outof frame, holding a battery-poweredrevolving light. As the actor read his linesin medium shot (down to the waist), therevolving light splashed his face with anintermittent red glare. Intercut with shotsof the real accident, the narrator seemedto be standing beside a police car at thescene.In faking his narrator into the scene, thedirector used the following principles:1. If it’s not in the frame it doesn’t exist(the technician holding the light),2. if the videographer says it exists outsidethe frame, then it does exist (the policecar) and3. screen geography is not fixed (combiningthe accident and narrator locations).If you keep these fundamental principlesin mind as you plan and shoot your programs,you can put together almost anyset you like.

42Makeup and Wardrobefor VideoCarolyn MillerThough many people equate makeup andwardrobe with high-budget Hollywoodproductions, even the most modest videocan greatly benefit by simple, inexpensiveattention in this area. Wardrobe andmakeup (this includes hair, as well) areclosely tied to the whole look and styleof a piece. They help tell the story andoffer important visual clues about thecharacters—whether they are actors,spokespersons or interview subjects.They can subtly but significantly enhanceyour presentation—or, if you haven’tdone your homework—seriously undermineit.Even if you intend to shoot your subjectsin all their raw, unblemisheduniqueness, disregarding these “vanity”concerns can turn your searingly honestpiece into an unintentional comedy. Doyou really want your audience distractedby a bald head that gleams like a light beacon,by patterns on shirts that take on ananimated life of their own, or by clankyjewelry, jarring color schemes, or facesthat look like floating heads? If not, thenyou’re going to have to devote some timeto makeup and wardrobe.Planning AheadLike every other aspect of making video,it’s a good idea to think about wardrobeand makeup well in advance of production.As you envision your completedvideo, ask yourself what overall lookyou’re striving for (for example, glamorous,upscale and sophisticated; or hip,young and wacky). Clothing style, colors,makeup and hair should all support thislook. Susan Stroh, a Los Angeles basedpro who over the years has worn manyhats on industrials and documentaries(producer, director, script supervisor,writer), calls this “image positioning,” aterm that is borrowed from the world ofcorporate marketing.Even if you’re using real people in yourvideo, as opposed to actors, you’ll want tomake sure they are dressed in a way thatfits their role in the piece. You probably207

208 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productiondon’t want your CEO to be wearing jeans,or your auto mechanic in a suit and tie.But then again, your concept may call forexactly that. Just make sure you conveyyour vision to your subjects.Joan Owens, a veteran Hollywood documentaryproducer, director and writer (TV’s“Hunt for Amazing Treasures” and“ZooLife with Jack Hanna”) feels the goal ofdocumentaries is to capture people as theyusually are, in clothing that reflects the flavorof their specific world. “Sometimespeople want to make a good impression forthe camera,” she notes, “and dress moreelegantly than they normally would.”Joan encourages her subjects to wearappropriate clothing, and also makes surethey have wardrobe changes for all thescenes they’ll be in. For instance, whilemaking a documentary about the recoveryof a Civil War submarine, one of her subjectsneeded an outfit for an on-camerainterview and a very different type of outfitfor a scene on a fishing boat to re-createan event from the past—and both sceneswere to be shot on the same day.Sometimes, though, you’ll want one ofyour performers to wear the same outfitthroughout the shoot. Joan points out thatJack Hanna, as host of his wildlife series,always wore a safari jacket. It not onlyclearly reflected the theme of the series,but also made it easier to mix and matchscenes in the editing room.Special ConsiderationsOne important wardrobe consideration iswhether or not you’ll be shooting chromakeyscenes, to electronically “transport”your talent to a different set. If yourchroma-key background is blue or green(sometimes called “shooting bluescreen” or“shooting greenscreen”) you want to makesure your talent is not wearing the samecolor garment. Otherwise, there will be agaping hole in the talent’s clothing, filled inelectronically by the chroma-key set.You should also scout your locations interms of your overall wardrobe approach.You’ll want your talent to be dressed incolors that will harmonize with the setand not clash with it. And outfits shouldbe thematically appropriate to the environment,too. For instance, if one of yourlocations is a rough-hewn hunting lodge,your talent will look better in a casualsuede jacket than in a tailored businesssuit.During the planning stage, also givesome thought to the physical appearanceof your on-screen personalities. If you’reaware of facial features that may presentspecial problems—acne scars, closely seteyes, a very round face—you’ll want tomake sure you’ve got items in your kitthat can handle this. It doesn’t mean,though, that you should attempt to turnthem into something they’re not.Greg Braun, a Chicago-based Director ofPhotography who owns his business, G.B.Productions, specializes in high-end workfor major corporations and has strongviews on this subject. “I’m not trying tore-create the person in any way,” he statesemphatically. “But I do want to enhancetheir appearance—to make them looktheir best.”If you realize you’re going to be facedwith makeup challenges that are beyondyour abilities, it may be necessary to callin a professional. This may be especiallytrue if you’re doing a fictional piece. Bothmakeup and wardrobe can be extremelydemanding in fictional dramas, particularlystories set in a different era. In projectslike this, specialists can be a bigasset. This doesn’t have to be as expensiveas it sounds, as long as you’re resourceful.Producer-director David Phyfer, basedin Geneva, IL., has a number of ideasabout how to get assistance withoutspending a fortune. His company, StageFright Productions, makes educationaland children’s videos on less than lavishbudgets. David suggests that communitybusinesses might help out. A local storemight offer clothing, costumes or shoes inreturn for a scene set in their shop; a beautysalon might provide hair or makeup serviceson the same basis. You might also be

Makeup and Wardrobe for Video 209able to get wardrobe items in return forguaranteeing product placement in thevideo, or an on-screen credit.Wardrobe Dos and Don’tsOnce you’ve decided on your wardrobeapproach, you’ll want to go over it withyour talent, since in most cases they’ll beusing their own clothing. Here are a fewexamples of what your talent should notwear:●●●●●●●●●●fabrics that wrinkle easily, like linenbaggy clothes (they make people lookheavier than they really are)shiny or noisy jewelry; dangling earringssilk (it rustles, causing sound problems,and shows sweat stains quickly)hats, unless necessary for the identity ofthe character (they cast shadows)fabrics with tight patterns, like checks,stripes, herring bone and hounds tooth(they create an unstable, vibrating,jumpy effect called a moir pattern)clothes and shoes that display brandnames or commercial logosoutfits in the latest style (fads willquickly date your video)deeply saturated colors, especially red(video doesn’t handle them well andthey tend to bleed when duplicated)bright white or extremely dark colors.This last point deserves special attention.While it’s true that video cameras are ableto deal with sharp contrasts in tone betterthan formerly, it’s still challenging to lightsomeone wearing bright white or verydark clothes. White, for instance, picks upall the light, and to compensate, facestend to be underexposed.Joan Owens recounts an incident illustratingthe problem with white. She waswriting a documentary set in an exoticforeign locale, and the cameraman shot agreat scene of the American ambassadorriding a motorcycle through the citystreets wearing a white tee-shirt—“a wonderfulMarlon Brando image.” But whenthe footage came back, everything was toodark, virtually unusable, to compensatefor the white shirt.Extremely dark colors are equally difficult,and sometimes create bizarre effects.Los Angeles producer-director BobSilburg, who’s done hundreds of PSAs(Public Service Announcements) andshort videos, ran into this problem with aPSA featuring Jack Lemmon. The subjectmatter was quite serious, so he’d askedhis star to wear a dignified navy blueblazer. Unfortunately, the office they wereshooting in had dark walls, and as a result,Jack Lemmon “…looked like a floatinghead without a body.” Luckily, Bob wasable to solve the problem by tweaking thebacklighting.For wardrobe colors, David Phyfer recommendspastels and pale shades—lightblue shirts and gray jackets, for instance.“Avoid sharp contrasts between dark andlight,” he advises, “and pull your colorstogether as much as possible.”When it comes to fabrics, naturalmaterials like wool and cotton shoot muchbetter than synthetics. Susan Stroh, forone, pays close attention to fabrics andtextures, believing they help convey themessage of the video—tweed and corduroyfor an earthy look, for example, anddamask for a luxurious look. She feelssimple clothes work best for women, andare the least distracting. She prepares adetailed wardrobe checklist for her talent,and instructs them to bring duplicates, ornear duplicates, of shirts and blouses, incase of spills or stains.For most productions, it’s a good idea tohave talent bring three completely differentoutfits, including shoes and accessories,to provide ample choices. Menshould bring a selection of ties, andwomen might be asked to bring somescarves.

210 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionOn the SetMost women in your cast will probablyapply their own makeup and do their ownhair. They should be encouraged to strivefor a natural look, which works best for avideo camera, unlike heavily exaggeratedmakeup, which works better for the stage.A good foundation is important, becauseit covers blemishes and evens out color.But if a woman is inexperienced in applyingit, watch out for makeup lines aroundthe eyes and jawline, where the foundationleaves off and the skin begins. Youmight also need to add some blush toemphasize her cheek bones or chin, oreyeliner to make her eyes look larger.Though men need makeup, too, someare uncomfortable with the idea and evenprofessional actors rarely apply their own.Greg Braun, who shoots many top executives,is careful to make sure none of theirsubordinates are nearby while he’s doingtheir makeup—the last thing they want isan audience. And he jokes a little to putthem at ease. “This is what made CharlesBronson so handsome,” he might say as hedabs on the foundation. He works fast,completing the job in two to three minutes.Bald heads—”chrome domes”—are acommon challenge. He uses a fat makeupbrush and loose powder to remove theshine. Greg carries three different shadesof powder and three shades of foundationto cover the range in skin tones.Once your talent is made up, dressedand ready to go, don’t forget to checkthem out in a color monitor before youshoot. You’re sure to catch things youhadn’t noticed with your naked eye—smudged mascara, a crooked collar, or amoir effect on a tie. But after you’vemade the necessary adjustments, don’tthink your makeup and wardrobe dutiesare over. As you shoot, be alert for wrinkledshirts, bunched up jackets and fadedlipstick. Fly-away hair and glint from buttonsand eyeglasses are extremely commonproblems. And then, always, there isfacial shine—oil and sweat brought on bythe heat and tension. But before you addmore makeup, blot off the moisture andoil with a tissue. Otherwise, you might getcaking and streaks.For fly-away hair, experts recommendspraying your hands with hair spray andlightly patting the hair, rather than sprayingthe hair directly, which can result inan unnatural “crispy” look. Shiny buttonsand jewelry can be dealt with easily withdulling spray, although be cautious withcostume jewelry, which could be damagedby. Eyeglasses are a tougher problem.Dulling spray could ruin them, and therearen’t any other good substitutes. Youmight have to take care of the glint onglasses by lighting adjustments or re-positioningthe talent.Finally, pay close attention to continuity,making sure wardrobe and makeupand consistent from scene to scene.Carelessness here can give your video asloppy look. If possible, have an assistantkeep notes as you shoot. Is there always ahanky in that pocket? How is the scarfdraped? Is there a lock of hair tuckedbehind the right ear?Clearly, there’s a great deal to considerin terms of makeup and wardrobe, andsome of it is quite minute. But each detailcontributes to the overall quality of yourproduction. Yes, your mother may havetried to convince you that beauty is onlyskin deep. But when you’re makingvideos, the visual appearance of your performersis hardly a superficial matter.

43Time-Lapse VideographyTim CowanIf you’ve ever watched a scene on televisionor in the movies where clouds raceoverhead at a supernaturally fast rate, orwhere a flower appears to blossom in seconds,then you’ve witnessed a cinematictechnique known as time-lapse. Often usedto compress the apparent passage of timeon film or video, time lapse consists ofrecording a few frames of film or tape,pausing for a certain amount of time, thenrecording a few more frames, and so on.When the sequence is played back, itappears that the action recorded is happeningmuch faster than it does in real life.In many ways, time lapse is similar toanimation, using the technique of taking asuccession of very brief shots to create theillusion of a steadily moving sequence.However, instead of fooling your mind’seye into thinking that a collection of stillimages are moving, time lapse compressesa lengthy event into a short span of time.If you’ve ever wondered how you canperform this feat with your camcorder,wonder no more; this chapter will explainthe process in detail, from setting up theshot to using the final footage in yourexisting video productions.Before You BeginThere are several ways to achieve a timelapse effect with video, depending onhow smooth you’d like the final productto be, what equipment you have and howmuch time and effort you’re willing to putinto it. However you choose to do it, thereare a couple of constants you should beaware of.For smooth recording, be sure yourcamcorder doesn’t move at all during thesequence you’re shooting. Otherwise,your footage will come out looking jumbledand unwatchable. This is best doneby mounting your camcorder securely onyour tripod and tightening the pan and tiltscrews to make sure the camcorder doesn’tmove (known as a “locked down” tripod).It’s a good idea to switch the microphoneoff while recording a time lapse oranimation sequence. If you don’t, you’ll211

212 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionend up with a quick snatch of many randomnoises on your soundtrack. Disablingthe mike can be done fairly simply if yourcamcorder has an external microphonejack; simply stick an adapter that’s notconnected to anything into the socket andyour camcorder mike will automaticallyswitch itself off.It’s probably wise to switch over tomanual focus while shooting a time-lapseor animation sequence. If you don’t, yourcamcorder’s autofocus will “hunt” forwhat it thinks to be the prominent featurein the shot to focus in on. If anythingwithin range of the auto focus momentarilybecomes more prominent than whatyou intended to shoot (i.e., a bird flyingpast while you’re shooting the clouds), itcould spoil the entire sequence.If your camcorder can manually overrideits automatic light meter, you’llprobably want to switch over to that aswell. First make sure the manual levelit’s set on leaves enough light for yourshot but not so much that it violentlyoverexposes. It’s also a good idea to makesure, before you even start shooting; thatthe light you’re shooting with highlightswhat you’re recording. After all, you wouldn’twant your time-lapse sequence of aflower growing to be shot in silhouette,would you?Most importantly, keep a close watchon your camcorder. If you’re shooting outon the street, there’s always the risk yourcamcorder could be stolen or damaged bysomeone passing by. Even if you’re inyour own backyard, there’s a chance yourcamcorder could get jostled by a child orpet, or simply pitch over lens-first due touneven weight distribution.Calculating Time LapseFiguring out the length of time needed foreither a time-lapse or animation sequenceis pretty simple, once you know what youand your equipment are capable of. SinceNTSC video always plays at 30 frames persecond (fps), a single time lapse/animationshot of, say, 1/5th of a second will go forsix frames. Five of those shots will equalthirty frames—one second of your completedvideo.Let’s say you want a 30-second timelapse sequence of clouds going by, andyou’ve decided that one shot every halfminutewill give you the desired effect.Assuming the five shots a second mentionedabove, that means that 5 (shots persecond) times .5 (minutes of real time) pershot times 30 (seconds of video time forthe sequence being shot) equals 75 minutesof shooting time.Being able to calculate the amount ofshooting time needed has a number ofuses. If you’re shooting outdoors with batterypower, for instance, it’s vital to knowjust how much time you’ll need to get thesequence you want, or if it’s even possiblegiven your batteries. Even if you don’tneed to calculate for battery time, it’s usefulto know just how long it will take inreal time to get the sequence you want.Shots Per SecondYou may have noticed that I’ve gone tosome trouble to distinguish between“frames per second” and “shots per second”when talking about time-lapse andanimation videography. That’s because, asI said above, NTSC video always playsat 30 frames per second, no matter whatimages you may have playing during thattime. Ideally, the closer you can come to30 shots per second the better, since yourresults will look a lot less choppy.While a second doesn’t seem like muchtime, it plays havoc with the smoothnessof a time-lapse or animation effect. This isbecause both video and film rely on somethingcalled “persistence of vision” toconvince you that a long string of still picturesis moving. Since your mind can’tassimilate a series of fast-moving stillimages, it assimilates them instead as onecontinuous moving picture. The instantthis collection of images slows down tothe point where you can mentally register

Time-Lapse Videography 213each single picture as such, the illusion’sblown.If you’re using time lapse simply toshow the passage of time (for instance, ashot of people setting up before a play orconcert), then one shot per second willprobably work perfectly fine. On the otherhand, if you’re hoping to do a sequencewhere a smooth flowing of the shots isessential (as in an animated sequence)then you’re probably not going to be satisfiedwith anything less than 10 shots persecond, and 15 or even 30 shots per secondwould be even better.In-Camera Time LapseThe easiest way to perform time lapse oranimation is by using a camcorder withan interval timer function built in. Usingthese camcorders is very easy—you simplymount them on a locked down tripod,switch the interval timer function on andthe camcorder does the rest. Dependingon which model camcorder you have,interval timers can record as little as1/10th of a second (3 frames) or as muchas a full second of video each time.If your camcorder doesn’t have an intervaltimer feature, you can still do a reasonablyeffective in-camera time lapse oranimation sequence—provided your camcorderhas flying erase heads (most modelsmanufactured during the last fiveyears do) and you’ve got the patience forit. Set up your camcorder on a tripod,engage and then immediately disengagethe record feature, wait for the amount oftime you want between shots, and thenrepeat the process until you have thesequence length you want. To ensure thatthe camcorder doesn’t shake when you hitrecord, you might want to use your camcorder’sremote if it has one.Depending on how well your camcorderresponds to your pushing therecord button twice in rapid succession,and how fast you are on the trigger, youcould get individual shots of as little as10 frames (3 shots per second). While not assmooth as 30 or even 15 shots per second,it’s still surprisingly effective.One last technique that may or may notwork for you is to utilize your camcorder’sedit search feature if it has one.What you do is record a couple seconds ofvideo, utilize edit search to get to thebeginning few frames of the last shot, andthen repeat until you’ve gotten what youwant. Keep in mind, though, that this isan extremely labor-intensive process, anddifficult to do if your camcorder’s editsearch function can’t jog search.Post-Production Time LapseIf you want a bit more control over whatyour final product looks like, you mightchoose not to record time lapse in realtime; instead, you can attempt it in postproductioninstead. The advantage to thisis that you can experiment with the timebetween shots to find what works best farmore easily than you can “out in thefield.” The disadvantage is that for adecent sequence, this requires a great dealof time and some fairly high-end editingequipment.First, you’ll need some footage that youcan edit your time-lapse sequence from.Place your camcorder on a locked downtripod, just as you’d do if you were shootingan in-camera time- lapse sequence,and roll tape normally for as long asyou’ve calculated you’ll need for yoursequence.Remember the technique utilizing editsearch on camcorders mentioned above?Well, it also works if you’re using a VCRwith edit search; jog shuttle and flyingerase heads as a record deck. What you dois record a couple of seconds of video,engage the edit search, then utilize the jogwheel to creep back to a few frames rightafter the first frame of the last shot. It’llrequire a little practice to figure out justhow far you’ll need to advance the tape toleave just one frame, and a great deal ofpatience, but you can get 30 shots per secondtime lapse or animation this way.

214 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionIf you’re using an edit controller to runyour playback and record decks, howclose you can get your cuts to each otherwill vary depending on the quality ofyour setup. Controllers that utilize LANCor Panasonic 5-pin edit control protocolsfor playback control and infrared remotefor recorder control probably won’t beable to get much better than one or twoshots per second. This is due to these editcontrollers’ inability to respond quicklyenough for the extremely short cut-insand cut-outs that time lapse and animationrequire.Controllers that use LANC or Panasonic5-pin protocols to control both player andrecorder can get much closer—10 shotsper second, if your playback and recorddecks are calibrated properly. By contrast,a professional editing setup utilizing timecode and frame-accurate decks can giveyou true 30-shot per second accuracy—ifyou’re willing to pay for them.So What Are You Gonna Do With It?Okay, I’ve told you a couple ways to dotime-lapse or animation recording, andI’ve even covered why the more shots yourecord per second, the better it’ll look. Butwhat’s it really good for?I’ve already mentioned the most popularuse of time lapse, compressing alengthy event like clouds rolling by orpeople setting something up. So what elsecan you do with this technique?Stop Motion Animation. This is the sortof animated sequence where an objectthat doesn’t normally move, like clay oran action figure, appears to be in motion.You’ve seen this a lot on television andin the movies, like those “CaliforniaRaisins” commercials where clay modelsof raisins dance around and sing, or theoriginal King Kong, where Kong was anarticulated doll that appeared to be a fullymoving giant gorilla.To perform stop motion animation,you’ll first need to create a space whereyou can set up your lights, camcorder,tripod and whatever you’re going to animate.The advantage to this is that, onceyou’ve gotten everything set up, you caneasily control the lighting and backgroundso that all you need to worryabout is animating your object.Once you’ve gotten your object whereyou want it to start, turn on your camcorderand take your first shot. Rememberthat, for the animation to be smooth,you’ll probably want to get at least 10shots per second, and 15 or 30 would beeven better. Then move your objectslightly and take the next shot, and so onuntil you finish your sequence.Keep in mind that for animation to lookconvincing, the audience has to get theimpression that they’re seeing the processof motion. For instance, if you’re animatingan action figure throwing a punch,you can’t simply have your first shot withthe figure’s fist up, and the next with thepunch fully thrown—you have to havethe fist moving forward with each shot soit looks like it’s getting there. To help youget some idea of how things move, itmight be a good idea to watch a video ofsomething you’d like to animate one frameat a time so you can see how it looks inreal life before you try animating it.Pixillation. A sort of variant version ofboth time lapse and stop-motion animation,pixillation is the process whereby aperson seems to move in unusual ways.The music video Sledgehammer utilizedpixillation so that Peter Gabriel appearedto slide around the room and even at onepoint seemed to be hovering above theground.To accomplish this, have your performerstand in one position while youtake your first shot, then move forwardslightly and stand still again while youtake your next shot. If you continue thislong enough, the person will appear tomove across the room without walking.Make sure that whatever movements yourperformer makes from shot to shot aren’ttoo radically different from each other, orthe sequence won’t look like a smoothmovement.

Time-Lapse Videography 215Computerized Time LapsePerforming time lapse or animationsequences utilizing a nonlinear editingsystem is surprisingly simple. Unlikevideotape, digitized video can easilyrecord one frame at a time. You simply liftthe frame off your digitized video file,drop it onto the editing software’s timeline,and look for the next frame you’dlike to use. Once you’re done, you savethe results, turn your VCR on, and “print”your edited file to videotape.Amazing as this nonlinear capability is,I think I’d better interject a few words ofcaution. First, the output quality of someolder non-linear boards has often beendescribed as “roughly VHS quality,”which means that it isn’t quite as good asVHS—you may notice some artifacting,which is what they call it when thingsthat should be round seem to have littlesquares in them. Second, video files takeup a lot of hard disk space—about 10–15megabytes per minute of highly compressedvideo. Third, if you’ve got a lot ofother boards or peripherals on your computer,there’s a chance your computer willfreeze up on you from time to time.Of course, if you’re one of the luckyones with a miniDV camcorder, and anon-linear editor on your FireWireequippedcomputer, you can create veryhigh-quality time-lapse video.You Could Always Cheat…You might want to consider shooting a timelapse or animation sequence on an oldSuper-8 movie camera. Most Super-8 moviecameras have a single-frame option built in,which will guarantee a much smoothereffect than you’d probably get with a camcorderor lower-end editing equipment.Some, like Minolta’s better Super-8 cameras,even have an automatic interval timer.To utilize a Super-8 movie camera fortime-lapse photography, you once againset up your camera on a locked-down tripod,just like you would if you were usingyour camcorder. Take one frame using thesingle-frame option, wait for a specifiedperiod of time, and take another frame,continuing until you have enough footagefor your needs. If your movie camera hasthe option of manual override of the automaticlight meter, it’s probably a goodidea to utilize that so that your framesdon’t become darker or lighter abruptly.It’s also a good idea to use Kodachrome 40film instead of Ektachrome G, since theformer is less grainy.While it’s harder than it used to be toprocess Super-8 movie film, Kodak canstill do it. Your local camera store shouldhave mailers for sale that cover the cost ofprocessing and return postage in the purchaseprice, or check out Kodak’s Website. You simply stick the appropriatepostage on the mailer, drop it in the mail,and wait for about two weeks. After youget the film back, you can either transfer itto video yourself if you still have yourSuper-8 movie projector and one of thosefilm-to-tape transfer units, or you canhave the job done professionally at yourlocal camera or video store.While this method requires both moremoney and a few more steps than any ofthe direct-to-video methods recommendedin this article, it’s worth consideringif the effect is important to you; say,for a title sequence you intend to usemore than once. It’s obviously not to beused casually; still, you’ll probably getsmoother results this way.All It Takes is TimeOnce you’ve gotten the hang of time lapseand animation, you’ll start to come up witha number of ideas on your own. The greatthing about these techniques is that theydon’t require a lot of expensive equipmentthat you wouldn’t use for anything else—even high-end editing equipment, shouldyou choose the post-production option,will be useful for all your videos. All timelapse or animation takes, really, is time—and the results will certainly be worth it.

44Move Over, MTV:A Guide to MakingMusic VideosNorm MedoffSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.On August 1, 1981, Music Televisionwent on the air and changed the world ofvideo forever. Now, years later, MTV—asMusic Television is better known—hasspawned several new music channels,and the making of music video hasbecome an art form all its own.On MTV networks, music videos areexpensive Hollywood-style productionsshot with multiple 35 mm film camerasand featuring snazzy special effects, bigname bands and exotic locations. But you,too, can produce great music videos—right in your own hometown.All you need is a little money and a lotof creativity.Keeping Costs DownIf you find it hard to believe that you canmake a quality music video on a smallbudget, consider the following points.●Since you shoot music videos “filmstyle,” you can do it with only one●●●camcorder. You just shoot many takes,which will provide different angles ofthe same action—as opposed to multicamerashooting, which records severalangles of the same action during one take.Big-budget music videos often usefancy—read costly—transitions requiringdigital video effects generators andexpensive editors. But you don’t have touse such transitions; you can producean excellent music video using cuts toconnect shots.You don’t have to pay a band to performin your music video. No matter whereyou live, you should be able to find alocal band interested in promotion. Amusic video gives a band valuable experience,both in making music videosand exposure to wider audiences. Yourmusic video could also help the band ofyour choice secure concert dates oreven a record contract.Shooting live performances is not as difficultor expensive as you might think.216

Move Over, MTV 217Professionals employ a sophisticatedand expensive camera dolly on a specialtrack that allows the camera to movearound performers; you can make dowith an old wheelchair or shopping cart.The good news is all you really need tomake music video is a camcorder and theability to perform insert edits. An insertedit allows you to add video to a soundtrack already on the tape. More on thislater.Getting StartedBefore you do anything, determine howyou’ll exhibit your music video.If you make it for private use only, youcan select any music you want—no worryingabout copyright and clearance. Butif you plan to air your video on local cableor broadcast television, or even enter it ina contest, copyright becomes an issue. Ifyou don’t own the copyright on the musicyou use, you must obtain clearance.This can be both time consuming andexpensive. First, you have to contact theAmerican Society of Composers, Authorsand Publishers (ASCAP); the people therewill direct you to the Harry Fox Agency inNew York (212-370-5330). This agencywill try to arrange clearance for you to usea particular song.You can avoid this hassle altogether byusing your own music or finding localtalent to perform their own music. If youdon’t know any musicians, check out thelocal bars, which often feature up-andcomingbands and/or solo performers.These musicians can give you permissionto use their music for your video.Try to obtain recordings of potentialperformers. In most cities, you can buyCDs or cassette tapes featuring a samplingof local performers. Such recordings canhelp you choose both a group and a songfor your music video.HINT: when listening to the music, focuson the visual imagery that pops into yourmind. Often the music you like does notconjure up any useful images. Don’t besurprised if the song that inspires thebest visual imagery is not the one youlike most.Pre-ProductionOnce you’ve selected your music and performers,you can begin the bulk of yourwork, pre-production. In this phase of theoperation, you will do the following:devise a creative approach; write a treatment;make a storyboard; create a beatsheet; select a crew and record the songfor lip sync purposes.The creative approach. This is the funpart, where you generate the images foryour video. There are three stylistic ways toproceed: illustrative, interpretive and performance.Illustrative video is the narrativeapproach that illustrates the story the songtells. Interpretive video uses the images youdeem appropriate for the music, whetherthey relate to the lyrics or not. Performancevideo is just what the name implies—themusicians performing the song.Many music videos combine all threestyles of shots: illustrative, interpretiveand performance. Resist the temptation totry one method and exclude the others.An all-performance video may rely tooheavily on the musician’s ability to beentertaining. An all-interpretive videomay confuse viewers. And an all-illustrativevideo may tax both the resources ofyour performers—can they really act outthe story?—and your budget.Some music dictates the style. Forexample, instrumentals tell no specificstory, so the most effective approach isoften an interpretive one where theimages create a mood or evoke an emotionalresponse. Country songs often tell astraightforward story, facilitating an illustrativeapproach. Rock music gives youthe most options; many rock videos areall attitude—with little or no regard forviewer orientation.

218 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionThe treatment. Now that you’ve developeda creative approach, take the time towrite a treatment or overview of yourvideo. Simply describe in a few paragraphswhat will happen in the video: thestory, the characters, the mood. A treatmentprovides a convenient way ofexplaining the video to your performersand crew.The storyboard. This step is crucial.The storyboard provides a visual record ofthe individual shots that will make upyour video. Draw a series of rough sketchesdepicting the people, places and objectsneeded for these key shots. Put them in theorder you intend to shoot them. Or use aPolaroid camera to snap the subjects andobjects in the desired locations.The beat sheet. Next, combine yourstoryboard with a beat sheet describingthe music on paper. Match shots to appropriatesections of the music. Knowingwhat visuals you want and when youwant them in your music video is the keyto your pre-production planning. It’s alsothe way the video professionals stay ontarget.The crew. You may want to do all thework yourself. That’s a lot of juggling:arranging lighting and special effects,directing talent and playing an audio versionof the song while the performers lipsync. But you will be able to do a betterjob if you plan on a crew of at least twoother people, one to act as a grip andaudio assistant and one to shoot whileyou direct. If you don’t know anybody,ask the band members if you can borrowtheir assistants or (known as roadies).The recording. At this point, youshould prepare a recording of the songyou’ll use as the sound track for yourvideo. Not just any recording will do;you’ll need an error-free version of thesong on a safe and dependable recordingmedium. A CD is probably best, especiallyif you can take a CD boom box withyou on location.The next best sound source: a hi-fi versionof the song—VHS hi-fi or Hi8 willdo. This method creates some playbackproblems; you’ll need an appropriate videoplayback machine and sound system.A reasonable compromise: a good copyof the song on audio cassette to play whileon location through a good quality boombox or a portable sound system.Quality is critical, because the performersmust lip sync to this version of the song.Be wary of cheap audio cassette playerssuffering from speed variations or muffledsound. If you use battery power, keepplenty of fresh batteries on hand.Slow audio recordings can adverselyaffect the band’s performance—not to mentioncause horrendous editing problemslater on.Shoot It RightNow it’s time to shoot the raw footage foryour music video. There are two ways toaccomplish this task.The In-Camera ShootIf your camcorder has a flying erase head,you can insert the visuals onto a videotapethat already has a copy of the song.To get the song on the videotape, youcan record the song at a live performanceusing a microphone mixer.Or, record the audio using line outputfrom a CD or audio cassette player intothe line input of your camcorder or VCR.At the time of this recording, you will alsorecord video, so try capping the camcorderand letting the picture appearblack. This blackbursting of the taperecords the video control track you’ll useto perform the insert edits later on.The next step: record video over theaudio track with a video insert. You canrecord the entire music video shot byshot. This “editing in the camera” techniquegets the job done without extraequipment or editing systems.WARNING: this technique is not as simpleas it seems; only use it if you can’t

Move Over, MTV 219edit. It may not work with every camcorder.If your unit doesn’t give the performersa few seconds of audible prerollat the beginning of a video insert, theywon’t be in sync with the music when therecording starts.If your camcorder does not give anaudible preroll, try to find a VCR thatdoes. Plug your camcorder’s video outputinto the VCR and do the inserts there.If that doesn’t work, you can alwaysinsert interpretive video segments overthose out-of-sync parts at a later time.Editing in the camera will also mean youcontinually record onto one tape: yourmaster. One serious mistake—like rewindingtoo far before you reshoot a givenscene—and you have to start all over.Shooting For The EditIf you have access to any kind of editingsystem, you should “shoot for the edit”—that is, plan your shots to provide plentyof material for the editing process.Shoot scenes either in sequence or out ofsequence, depending upon logistics. Oneeasy way to organize your shoot: have theband perform the whole song in differentlocations or with different backgroundsand costumes. Tape three or four differentversions of the song, and then mix andmatch shots from different versions. Shootseveral takes of the lead singer singing theparticularly dramatic parts of the lyric; besure to get some extreme close-ups orunusual camera angles of the entire band.Keep close-up shots of the singers short;the lip sync may not be exact.You can minimize time and travel forthe band by cutting performance shotswith location shots that help to emphasizethe mood of the music, as in Figure 44.1.Experiment. Rent a fog machine to createa dream-like setting. (Ask your localtheatrical or video production housewhere you can rent one.) Try fog filters foryour camera lens. Place your lights inunusual places, like lighting from the sideor below the performers rather than fromabove. Use colored gels over your lights orvery narrow beam lights.The shooting style of many musicvideos today incorporates vigorous cameramovement and canted camera anglesyou may want to try yourself. Also commonare combination shots taped whilethe camera is moving, i.e., zooming whiledollying.The usual rule of holding shots longenough for the audience to grasp what’sgoing on also may not apply. Quick cuts—including cuts in the middle of pans, tiltsand zooms—abound in music video. Mostshots last two or three seconds.Tracking your footage is the key to successwhen shooting for the edit. Keep avideo footage log. By the end of the shoot,you should be able to consult your footagelog to determine whether you’ve got theshots you need.Don’t leave the set/location until you’resatisfied that you’ve shot it all. Checkover your storyboard. Did you get everyshot listed there? Review the key shots.Shoot them again if you’re not satisfied.Time to EditOnce you have all the shots that you need,it’s time to edit. If you have access to yourown editor or one owned by a friend, goin with your storyboard, beat sheet, shotlog and tapes and edit at your leisure.If you plan to rent an editor or editsuite, the procedure is quite different.Here time is money, so plan all of youredits on paper before you enter the editsuite. Note: with the advance of nonlinearediting, you’ll be able to experiment withmore sophisticated editing techniqueswithout paying an arm and a leg.If you prepared a proper storyboardand beat sheet, you can review all of yourraw footage, log it with your commentsand your desired edit in and edit outpoints.List the shots you want, the order youwant them in and their exact locationrelative to the music. Such organization

220 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 44.1 Add cutaways to shots that match the feel of the song for a true music video look.is particularly important for editing illustrativevideos. Interpretive videos cutyou much more slack; their looser flowallows you to put together seeminglyunrelated shots without destroying theoverall effect.Be prepared to make 60 to 100 edits (ormore!) for a four-minute rock or country

Move Over, MTV 221video. Let the rhythm of the song suggestthe pacing of your shot changes; shots andedits should match the tempo of the song.Try changing some shots on the beat of themusic. You wouldn’t want to do this onevery beat, but it can prove effective,especially when it marks a noticeablechange in tempo.If your edit system includes a specialeffects generator or can perform some digitaleffects, experiment with transitions.Try some fancy wipes or digital effectslike page peel or tumble.Once your video is ready, make at leastone copy of your edited master for viewingpurposes. Keep the master in a safe place.Break the RulesMaking music video is an art, not a science.Remember the conventions, butdon’t let them get in your way.Go ahead and break framing, composition,exposure and transition rules—if ithelps communicate your vision.And by all means—have fun!

45Practical Special Effects:A Baker’s Ten to Improve YourVideo VisionsBernard WilkieSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbookMost videographers fall into one of twogroups. First, the snapshotters—peoplewho record scenes until their tapes arefull, then view the disconnected eventsusing the search button. Second, videographersand pros, who edit their tapes andemploy all the techniques and processesnecessary to obtain professional results.It’s not that people in the first group areunimaginative. They may not want toassemble their pictures or lay downsoundtracks, but often they do wish toadd variety to their videography. Thusthis chapter can serve snapshotters as wellas the more advanced. This list of specialeffects may also remind the experts thatsimple solutions can be the best.Deep WaterChildren mucking about in the pool occupymany tapes. However, all the action commonlyoccurs above water.More exciting footage is possiblewith an underwater periscope, enablingvideography beneath the surface. Camcordersbecome underwater cameras withoutthe need for expensive blimps or aqualungequipment.The periscope is simply a rectangular boxwith a sheet of glass cemented into the bottomof one side. It contains two mirrors,one at the bottom, one at the top. Surfacecoatedmirrors provide better pictures, buteven ordinary mirrors will produce goodresults.Set up the periscope poolside and recordevents above or below water while holdingthe camera and peering through theviewfinder in the usual manner. Weightthe device to overcome its natural buoyancy.Clamp it to something solid, like thepool steps. Those going to sea can mountthe periscope on a boat or sink it into thewater for shots of marine life.Another trick to improve watersideclose-ups involves the simple trick ofplacing a shallow tray filled with waterand broken pieces of mirror below thepicture. Ensure that the sun’s reflectionsfall on or around your subjects. Then tickle222

Practical Special Effects 223the surface of the water with your fingers.Voila! The ripple effect says your subjectsare waterside though they may really benowhere near water at all.Sound SkillsSound is perhaps the greatest specialeffect of all.The videographer seeking to create theatmosphere of a shopping mall need onlyshoot characters looking into a store window.Sound effects added later will providethe essential ingredients—childrencalling, skateboards whirring, the voicesof people walking by, a distant policesiren.For the best location atmosphere, shootscenes where you can capture the bestand most interesting off-camera sounds.When on vacation, don’t always aim forpeace and quiet. If you want footage ofyour family on a foreign railway stationplatform, wait for the moment the trainpulls out.When creating a drama, always thinksound. Sound can often say more thanpictures. Imagine a scene with two peoplewatching TV. Suddenly they react to thesound of squealing tires on the road outside.The sound of the crash that followshas them leaping towards the window.The skillful use of sound effects hasfooled viewers into believing somethinghorrific really did occur.Bet you didn’t know you can create asimulated echo using a length of gardenhose and a funnel. Just stick the funnel inone end of the hose. Place both ends closeto the microphone of a cassette recorder.Then speak. The effect is certainly weird.Different lengths of hose produce differentdelay times. This contraption is usefulfor adding echo or creating monstrousouter space voices.An even better echo results from linkingfunnel, hose and mike to one inputchannel of a stereo recorder while usingthe other channel and a second mikestraight.Mirror DimensionVideo pictures are two-dimensional, withheight and width but no depth. This factis used repeatedly to fool viewers.The scene outside a window may beonly a painted backcloth, but who cantell? A photograph of an object can lookthe same as the real object. Use photoswhen you can’t acquire the real thing—apriceless museum exhibit, for example.Photographs, or even photocopies, cansimulate multiple items such as meterdials or control panels.The fifty-fifty semi-coated mirror, orbeam-splitter, is a most useful piece ofvideography equipment. Used to superimposeone picture over another, it worksbecause half the light passes through theglass while the other half reflects backfrom the surface.Often employed to produce ghostlyapparitions, it also has other, less spectral,uses. For instance, superimposing captionsover pictures. With the mirror placed at aforty-five degree angle to the lens, illuminatethe words as they appear. This techniquecan create opening titles, or overlaywords or arrows on a demonstration video.Superimpose graphics with a box housingthe mirror and shielding it from straylight. Stand the rig in front of the camera.Light the caption from front or back. If litfrom the front, place the lamps to eitherside, To remain in focus, the superimposedmaterial must lie approximatelythe same distance from the camera as themain subject.Used with a spotlight, plain mirrorsstuck to a revolving drum provide a strobeeffect. Two stuck back to back simulatethe flashing lights of emergency vehicles.Gun FunIt’s not unusual to see a TV actor, chestriddled with bullets, stagger and fall tothe ground. If he seems to move awkwardlyit is probably due less to his supposedwounds than to the fact he’s trying not to

224 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productiontrip over the operating wires running uphis trouser leg.This effect, using small explosivesquibs secreted under clothing, is toocomplex and dangerous to discuss here.But there do exist safe alternatives,which, if used imaginatively, can appearas convincing as those in the movies.You can use a bicycle pump for bulletsin the chest. Record as a separate closeup,for it works only with a short tube close tothe pump.Suck some fake blood into the tube andseal the end with a small piece of tightlystretched party balloon. Hold the balloonin position with several turns of a rubberband. Placed under thin cloth, the pumpwill rupture the diaphragm, flipping thecloth realistically and producing a spatterof gore.For continuity, shoot the garment ona stuffed sack. Then remove and placeon the actor. A limp balloon containingblood and worn under a garmentwill produce a spreading stain when puncturedby a spike attached to a ring wornby an actor. The flow will increase bykeeping the hand in place and pressinghard.A rat-trap set up behind scenery canpunch out a piece of wall or knock a holein a door. The hole must be pre-made,filled with appropriate material to disguiseits true nature. Insert a captive pegfrom behind. When struck by the trap thepeg ejects the filling, leaving a hole.Rat-traps can also simulate a bullet hittinga mirror. Protect the front with a sheetof rigid plastic and cover the back withself-adhesive vinyl. This is essential toproduce a really good shattering effect;without it the glass just breaks.A bicycle pump with some talcum powderin the barrel will produce a convincingspurt of dust from rocks or concrete.Use energetically and apply a good ricocheteffect on the soundtrack.No bullet effect will impress withoutrealistic sound. Conversely, a poor effectcan often pass with a professional soundtrackliberally sprinkled with gunshots.Smoke and FlamesThis can be a touchy area; as always,Videomaker does not recommend youendeavor to create sequences involvingfire, smoke or explosions without assistancefrom experts.Movie and TV producers often rent anempty house or store when they need tocreate an outdoor fire sequence. To recordin a studio is too impractical and tooexpensive.However, property is property, so thesebig fire scenes are rigidly controlled toensure they don’t get out of hand.In many cases fire can be simulatedwithout actual flames. At night, backlitsmoke rising from behind a building suggestsit’s on fire. Rooms powerfully lit,with smoke pouring from the windows,imply a house afire. Stretch a clear plasticsheet behind the window and pumpsmoke up underneath it. This ensures maximumeffect at the window while preventingtoo much smoke from fillingthe room.But the fact there’s no flame doesn’tguarantee total safety. Always ensurecrew and artists have a clear exit to theoutside. No one should have to stumblearound in thick smoke and darkness.Smoke, of course, is essential for all firesequences. Much depends on the sort ofsmoke used. In moviemaking there are twotypes: pyrotechnic, and machine-made. Ofthe two, only the smoke machine is controllable.Pyrotechnics, once lit, will burnto a finish.You can rent smoke machines; thosewho don’t know where to look shouldcontact a local theater or TV studio.Smoke from reputable machines shouldcause no breathing problems, even whendischarged indoors. Pyrotechnic smoke isappropriate only for exterior work or inplaces where it won’t be inhaled.Movie studios produce controlledflames by igniting propane. The gear usuallyconsists of a fireproof and crushproofhose with a shut-off valve and pressurereducer. At the business end is a length

Practical Special Effects 225of copper tube terminating in a sort offlattened funnel.You can smatter small areas of flamearound a set by using absorbent materialtreated with a dash of kerosene, burnedon metal sheets or fireproof board. Withthe appropriate amount of smoke this willsimulate the aftermath of an explosion.House MessMany videographers must shoot in theirown homes, which can cause problemswhen trying to capture scenes of dirt anddegradation. Fortunately, it’s usually possibleto obtain materials easily cleaned upat the end of the day.Freely spread sawdust, dry peat, coconutfiber, Fullers Earth, rubber dust and torn-uppaper; all will disappear beneath broom orvacuum at the end of the shoot.It’s not easy creating convincing scenesof mess and filth. The camera has a habitof prettifying even the nastiest setups. It’stherefore often necessary to exaggerate thedirty scenes.For oil, food or paint spills, pour liquidlatex onto a sheet of glass or metal. Whenset, spray paint the mess with any color.Peel off to provide a movable puddle;place where required.Dead and dried vegetation often complementthis sort of scene. Torn plasticsheeting sprayed nasty colors andwrapped around pipes, faucets and radiatorsalso looks good.To make metal appear rusty, wipe witha smidgen of petroleum jelly. Then blowcocoa atop the grease.Cobwebs are great for dirty scenes, producedby spinning liquid latex in a specialdevice called a cobweb gun. Theseguns are for rent, the fluid available fromTV and theatrical supply houses. Spinwebs over a collection of objects bunchedclose together for the best effect. Cobwebswon’t straddle open spaces; string thincotton across voids. Blow talcum powderonto cobwebs to make them visible. Don’tapply to absorbent surfaces.Caption MakingElectronic devices to produce lettering forvideos are now available, either as separateequipment or as integral camera circuitry.Stick-on or rubdown letters comecheap and offer a variety of typefaces.Even magazines and newspapers will produceusable opening titles.No one wants to engage in the laboriouschore of cutting round letters with a stencilknife. But if you cut the letters or wordsas rectangles from white paper you canstick them to a white backing, the joinsbetween painted over with white artist’spaint or typing correction fluid. Photocopied,the joins disappear.You can apply rubdown lettering orreusable vinyl stick-ons to a sheet ofglass and place over various fancy papersor illustrations. You can also placethe glass in front of three-dimensionalobjects like flowers or coins. Tabletopcaptions are simple to produce and offermore variety than stereotypical electronicimages.A tracing paper screen and a slide projectorare also useful for graphic backgrounds.You need not project slides ontoa flat screen; you can project them ontotextured surfaces like rumpled cloth,rough plaster or piles of snow.Interesting animations can result by fixingthe lighting, the camera and the letteringto a common mount in which looseobjects such as marbles, sea shells, sand,sugar or liquids are free to move around.When you tilt the rig, the camera perceivesno movement of the backing; meanwhile,the loose objects react strangely,defying gravity and moving in a randomand seemingly unpremeditated fashion.President MatteMiniatures are models placed in front of aset to extend the scenery or provide aneffect unobtainable by other means.Mattes perform a similar task, but aresimply flat paintings on glass.

226 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionThis is an over-simplification, becausethere also exist creatures like “hangingminiatures” and “traveling mattes.” Butthese characters would take us into deeptechnical water, and we’re interested hereonly in the simple stuff.Say the action occurs in the oval officeof the White House. They won’t let youtape there, and a re-creation would eat upyour entire budget. So go for the specialeffect.You may have to hire a table and somechairs—pretty safe stuff, because who,after all, recalls exact details of the WhiteHouse?Sensibly, you’ll video your fake presidentagainst an easily-obtainable neutralwall. But at some point you’ll have toshow the room, or at least a convincingrecreation.One option is a matte. If you can procurea talented artist, take a large pane ofglass, mount it on legs and position itbetween Mr. P and the camera. With constantreference through the cameraviewfinder the artist can paint the ovaloffice, leaving a hole in the middle to perceiveMr. P, his desk and the back wall.Suppose you don’t have such an artist.So get a photo of the scene, blow it up, cutout an area where Mr. P will sit, and, ifyour photo is black-and-white, add somecolor washes. There. The White House.Miniature QuixoteLet’s try a second example: the story ofDon Quixote, the man who tried to killwindmills.Unable to take your unit to Spain,you’ll use plaster-of-paris, sawdust, sand,cardboard and other materials to constructa baseboard model of a sandy plain.On the horizon position a model windmillwith motor-driven sails. Finally, mount themodel on a rig supported from one sideonly. Put in a sloping floor in the studioand cover it with sawdust and sand. Atthe back paint a ground row to providethe horizon.Finish up with three components: thesky backing, the main scene on the floorand, sticking in from one side with itssupporting leg out of vision, a model of asandy plain and the windmill. Make sureeverything lines up and adjust the lightingto insure a complete blend.When using a miniature, join the modelto the set along natural boundaries—hedges, woods, roads—where the foreground,which we see as the background,will blend unnoticed.Don Quixote will stand on the oppositeside of the set from the windmill, pointingtowards the background and yelling,“Kill! Kill!” He’ll look at the distant windmill,which in fact sits right in front ofhim. Keep him stationary: if he strollsacross the set he’ll pass behind the modeland expose the trick.If you’d like to try a matte shot, painton a board a simple sky and set it upwhere it will cover a busy background.Make sure the bottom of the board linesup with the top of a wall or some similarfeature. Shoot it. The effect can be quiteextraordinary.Cardtoon CreationsChildren exposed to television since birthaccept everything on the screen withoutquestion, and quite often without interest.So why not give them the chance to participateas creative artists?A cardtoon is the electronic counterpartof the puppet theater, where little figuresmove around on sticks. Recording thecardtoon technique on video gives youngstersthe opportunity to design their owncharacters and write their own scripts.After the show they can sit back and viewthe results.Unfortunately, video cameras don’t workin the same way as the movie cameras thatfilm Disney cartoons, so the action andmovement must take place in real time.This is accomplished by cutting charactersfrom stiff card and articulating them withtiny rivets and paper hinges.

Practical Special Effects 227Animation comes from fixing the variousparts to hidden sticks or incorporatingcardboard levers hidden behind partsof the background.A simple example involves a picture ofthe sea, drawn as repeating lines of stylizedripples. Suddenly, up leaps a fish,attached to a cardboard lever and rotatedbetween two layers of the wave pattern.Still at sea, imagine a pirate ship sailingacross, pushed or pulled from oneside. Or a diver surfacing from beneaththe waves.All videography is a combination oflong shots and close-ups, so we’ll have tosee the faces of the pirates onboard ship.You can make them speak using a simpleup-and-down movement of the jaw. It’sthe eyes moving that most give the charactersexpression.A few versions of the same heads—leftand right profile, large and small—willresult in a really satisfying cardtoon.You can usually manipulate the partsby hand, though certain creatures mayhave to move faster than your digits can.In these cases you can employ thin dressmakingelastic as pulling springs.Trick of the LightLight, like sound, is too often taken forgranted. It can suggest things which aren’treally there; backlit smoke that looks likefire is but one example.Take a look at movie scenes set in thecountryside. The trees and the dappledsunlight through the leaves say we’re in awood, but the effect is truly produced byshining a lamp through holes cut in thinplywood sheets.Look at the two people in the front seatof a studio automobile. We know the vehicleis moving because the background isreceding—achieved via chromakey—butthe scene would look dead if it weren’t forthe fact that shadows continually sweepacross the faces of the actors. A spotlight,some plywood, flags on broom handles andsome keen staff to wave them about and weachieve the effect of an auto in motion.For night shots sweep a hand-held lampfrom front to rear.The prison scene looks a lot more sinisterif a spotlight, trained on the floor, shinesthrough a cutout silhouette of iron bars.Many of these effects cause the autofocusto hunt. Switch to manual wheneverthis occurs.Give Them a TryDoes any of this sound like fun? It is. Justremember, you’ll never know unless youget out your camcorder and do it yourself.All it takes is a little imagination.

PART IVPost-Production TechniquesHow to edit all that footage you’ve got “in the can” with precision and style.

46Getting Started inComputer Video EditingJim StinsonThe best video editing programs bend overbackward to help you learn them. Youget paper manuals, digital references, CD-ROM tutorials, training videos, sample projects,and hot links to Web-based assistance.One or two fuddy-duddy companies evenoffer phone numbers answered by humans.Sooner or later, these helpers can teach youeverything you need to know about operatingtheir editing software. But not one ofthem teaches you how to make a video.All those dandy training aids are likethe book packed with your Acme GiantCarpentry Kit, which explains how to useevery tool in your shiny new chest, butdoesn’t teach you to build so much as abreadboard, let alone a lawn chair or ahouse. The sad result is that too manyfolks who made boring incoherent videowith their camcorders and VCRs now useediting software to keep right on makingboring, incoherent programs. The onlydifference being that these are now digitalboring, incoherent programs.The cure? For starters, our Web site(www.videomaker.com) offers dozens ofarticles on video production techniques,with a lot of emphasis on editing, including[title] on basic techniques. To put thesetechniques into context, it helps to understandthe basic principles that underliethem. With these fundamental principlesand the editing techniques they support,you can tap the power of your computerbasedediting system to make programs apro would be proud of.Cutting to the chase, here are thosebasic editing principles:1. Structure. Without a coherent organization,a video is not a program but only ajumble of shots.2. Simplicity. The better the content, thesimpler its presentation tends to be andvice-versa.3. Brevity. No matter how fine your programmay be, no one else is as fascinatedwith it as you are.4. Pace. Viewers can digest an image fasterthan you think. Throw them new onesfrequently.231

232 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production5. Variety. Even at a dizzy pace, too muchof the same thing is deadly; and “toomuch” happens a lot sooner than youmight expect.With our list of principles in front ofus, let’s look a bit closer at each one inturn.StructureYour show is a failure if viewers respond,“And your point is . . . ?” Every videoneeds some form of organization to give itpurpose and direction. Programs liketraining videos have their subjects, andoften their structures, built right in; butwhat can you do to organize Susie’s 16thBirthday or Thanksgiving at Grandma’s?One approach is to give the program aworking title that announces a theme, likeThe Great Driver’s License Birthday orGrandma’s Goes Vegetarian. All of a suddenyou have built in organizers to guideyour shooting and editing.Even if you don’t think up a themebefore you shoot, you can often find onewhen you edit. Were your vacation skiesgloomy and gray? Call your video A GoodTrip in Bad Weather and start eachsequence with a visual reference to leadenskies or pouring rain. The repeated motifwill help tie your show together (seeFigure 46.1).Editing a similar travel project, I noticedthat, quite by chance, I kept appearing indifferent chapeaux: an Outback stockman’shat, a trucker’s cap, a floppy fishingsun model, etc, etc. In the finished show, Imade a freeze frame of the first appearanceof each new headgear with a superedtitle like, Hat Quest Continues or Is ThisFinally the One? This corny running gagprovided all the structure my modest familyvideo required.SimplicityDigital newbies are subject to two fataltemptations. First, because they suddenlyFigure 46.1 Structure—Make sure your videos have a clear purpose anddirection.

Getting Started in Computer Video Editing 233have the technical capacity to make a featuremovie, they think they can make afeature movie. As a former high schoolteacher, I can’t tell you how many studentepics I’ve babysat that were plannedto look like Gladiator and ended withamateur actors duking it out on a volleyballcourt.Any video more ambitious than a weekendsnapshoot is work. It can be fun, satisfyingwork like, say, a hot tennis game,but hard work nonetheless. If the projectsyou plan are too complex, the resultingvideos will be disappointing or not evenfinished. So begin with simple programconcepts and work your way toward morecomplex efforts.The second digital tempters are bells andwhistles: all the zippy transitions, whizzbangspecial effects and multiple video/audio tracks just begging to be playedwith. Resist their entreaties. Making digitalwhoopee may be a blast for the editor butthe results are often confusing, irritating,boring or all three at once for the viewer.Instead of showing off your new digitaltricks, use formal elements strictly in supportof content. After all, that content is thereason for your show’s existence. Youraudience can see better digital fireworksduring breaks on the six o’clock news.BrevityMake it snappy. How snappy? As a rule ofthumb, five minutes tops. For one thing,short plus simple equals practical: you’refar more likely to finish shooting and editingshort projects than long ones. Foranother thing, your viewers are morelikely to remain alert and receptive, not tomention present.What if you shot five hours of tape onyour Hawaiian cruise? Sorry. No matterhow much it kills you, cull it down to fiveminutes. All right, maybe ten, but no morethan that because you may take it as aniron law that no one else on the planet iseven ten percent as interested in yourfootage as you are. Give viewers onlythe very best of the very best of thoseFigure 46.2 Brevity—Keep it short. Short videos will be more satisfyingto you and your viewers.

234 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionfive hours and they’ll be pleasantly surprisedand lavish in their praise. Forcefeedthem as much as you yourself wantto see and you’ll say aloha forever to thatgroup of viewers (see Figure 46.2).PaceEven if your Hawaiian epic is as fast as awar canoe, it can still act like Novocain ifit’s nothing but, well, fast. Pace is not synonymouswith speed. Pace concerns boththe rate and the rhythm of your programmaterial. Just as a succession of similarsentences grows boring, a string of similarshots feels dull and mechanical.So if you assemble a lightning montageof Hilo shopping, follow up with aleisurely survey of lunch. Then perhaps abrisk anthology of the afternoon on ablack sand beach and a languorous, tropicalsunset. In this respect, a well-pacedvideo is like a musical composition, constantlyvarying speed and energy.But, you protest, we went wind surfingright after shopping; that’s two fast sectionsin a row. Hey, who cares about when youdid what. Move the wind surfing to afterlunch, to provide a relief from the speedof the shopping sequence.VarietyThe virtues of variety go beyond pacing.It’s good to shuffle subject matter as wellas sequence intensity. Here again, thetrick is to free your mind from the realworldchronology of the original eventsand re-sequence them to deliver a freshtopic every couple of minutes (seeFigure 46.3).That’s right: every two minutes or evenless. In a typical ten-minute program, I’dlike to see between five and sevensequences. Does that seem way too short?Study commercials to see how much contentcan be delivered in 30 seconds.By now, the underlying moral shouldbe obvious: to keep your audiences interestedin your shows and coming back formore, make your videos short, sharp andlively. And keep in mind that the awesomeFigure 46.3 Variety—Divide and shuffle your subject matter tokeep things interesting.

Getting Started in Computer Video Editing 235capabilities of your new digital systemshould operate in support of not insteadof solid content.The Hawaiian vacation’s easy becausethere’s so much to do; but what if you’vebackpacked the Great Smoky Mountainsinstead? Hike, camp, hike, camp, hike. Infact, a hiking vacation offers an amazingvariety of subjects, but it’s up to the directorto find and tape them.Sidebar 1Computer Editing: The Concepts Behind the PrinciplesThis piece focuses on the principles behind all editing techniques, but don’t forget that videoediting is based on other concepts as well. Understanding these concepts can help you learnyour new system more quickly and use it more productively.●●●●●Random Access. You can instantly find, view and process anything at any time in bothyour source material and your program.Computer Filing. Because your materials are data files on a hard drive, they must be managedas systematically as any other computer files.Multiple Display. A project’s ultimate display form (essentially, computer, TV or Web) hasimportant effects on both its technology and its aesthetics.Additive Editing. Because your materials are in discrete pieces, you work by adding themto a project that begins as an empty page or timeline.Multi-layer Audio. Computer-based audio is such a powerful tool that it demands as muchattention and creativity as video.

47Computer Editing:5 Phases of EditingJim StinsonComputer-based video editing seems cursedwith enough tools for a Sears hardwaredepartment and a learning curve steeperthan Everest. To cope with this complexity,most of us plod through half a tutorial, readrandom bits of a manual, futz with a fewsimple projects, and basically fool around,while our expertise grows like moss on atree trunk, though not quite that fast.To speed things up, we need to cut ourway out of the trees, climb that hill overthere, and look down on the whole forest.From this perspective we can see that thetangled thickets of post production in facthave a design, an evident pattern of operations.Post production falls into fivemajor phases: organizing, assembling,enhancing, synthesizing and archiving.By understanding this work flow, we canflatten the learning curve and get a grip onthe whole post-production process.As we do this, keep two major footnotesin mind:●For simplicity, we’ll pretend that youcomplete each phase in order, before●progressing to the next one. In realworldediting, you may be working inseveral phases at once.Though the five phases of post productionare more obvious in hard drive-basedediting, they’re relevant to tape-based linearcutting as well.With the fine print out of the way, let’sstart with phase one: organizing.OrganizingIn an earlier sermon from this pulpit, we’veharangued you on the importance of organizingyour material before you start editing(see November 1999 issue or read the articleonline at www.videomaker.com) so let’sjust review the material in fast-forward.Classify each and every piece of videoand/or audio material.●Identify it with a slate if it doesn’talready have one. Slate with codes (like236

Computer Editing 237●●●“27A3” meaning sequence 27, shot A,take 3). Avoid descriptive slates(“helnngcu”) because they won’t makesense a week later.Log it in a shot database (typically partof editing software packages) with adescription. A really big project mightneed fields for slate (27A3), angle (CU),content (Helen reacts to news), quality(ng), and notes ( bad framing; 1st halfOK). A short program might get awaywith a single field (27A3 CU Helen NG).Locate it by adding tape roll number,in/out-point (time code address or controltrack time), and file name (as storedon your hard drive).Stash it. For larger projects, establisha separate bin or folder for eachsequence, plus bins for music, effectsand other wild audio components. (Ofcourse, this last step doesn’t apply tolinear editing.)How compulsive should you be aboutorganizing? In direct proportion to thecomplexity of your project. If you blewhalf a roll of tape on a family picnic, hey,go ahead and wing it. But if you’re staringat ten, 60-minute cassettes on a featureintended for Sundance, you’d better classifyevery blessed shot (see Figure 47.1).Figure 47.1 Organize—Log each shot into adatabase and use coded file names for yourclips.AssemblingWith your building blocks labeled andstowed, the next step is to assemble theminto a program for your video. Every singlepiece of your video must be selected,sequenced, timed and transferred to themaster you’re constructing.In digital post especially, selectingshots is often a batch operation. It’s easierto pick and mark all the shots you wanttransferred, and then let your software dothe job for you.Typically, sequencing, timing andtransferring go together. Few editors willstick the unclipped shots in order on atimeline and then trim them all to length.Most people choose a shot, spec its inpointto match the previous shot, and layit in. Personally, I like to leave the outpointopen until I have the following shotroughed in. Then I experiment until I findthe perfect cut point and set out-point 1and in-point 2 at the same time.In linear cutting, transferring is a discretestep because you have to determinein- and out-points before copying thesource shot to the assembly tape.EnhancingEnhancing means touching up shots byimproving, conforming, or downrightredesigning them. I recommend that youdo this after assembling the show.Otherwise, you might get so hung up onminute shot adjustments that you losesight of the overall design.Improving video usually involves exposure,contrast or color balance. There’s notmuch you can do with grainy gain-up originals(though you can tweak the color saturationa skosh) but contrast is definitelytunable, especially with underexposure.Often those inky shadows do have detailslurking in them. If your software permits,use a tone curve adjustment to boost darkareas without brightening highlights.Even when a shot’s quality is alreadygood, it may not match the shots around it

238 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 47.2 Enhance—Most editing programslet you adjust contrast and color balance toimprove your shots.Figure 47.3 Synthesize—Stack and blendaudio and video layers to sweeten youproduction.because it was recorded at a differenttime you know: sunny one day and cloudythe next. That’s where conforming comesin. (In film, it’s called color timing.)Working shot by shot, you ensure thateverything in a sequence looks the same(see Figure 47.2).Redesigning means changing the basiccharacter of a shot: turning straight colorinto a sunset glow or pure black andwhite, applying slo-mo or strobe effects,adding all kinds of digital filters, or floppingshots for screen direction.If you’re making a commercial or musicvideo, you may stylize the color acrossthe whole program to create a unique specialeffect.And let’s not forget audio. You improve itby optimizing volume and equalization, conformit by matching level and perspectivefrom shot to shot, and redesign it by alteringspeed, pitch and presence. Inherentlymore plastic than video, audio can bemolded into just about anything you want.SynthesizingAudio is also more susceptible to synthesizing:stacking multiple layers of materialand blending them into a singleprogram strand. In editing, it’s common tohave two tracks each of dialogue, effects,background and music and double thatnumber for stereo. Mixing audio to synthesizea final sound track is one of themost creative and satisfying jobs in thepost production process (see Figure 47.3).With digital post, the same flexibilityhas come to the visual tracks as well asaudio. Multi-layer visuals include transitions,composites, superimpositions, multiplescreens, graphics and titles.All transitions (except for fades to/froma color) involve multiple images. Extendthe middle of a dissolve and you have asuperimposition, with two half-strengthimages sharing the entire screen. Placepicture in picture and you get multiplescreens (or carve the frame up into asmany images as you like). Super a transparentbar or square and you’re bringinggraphics into play; and with text, you’vegot titles working as well. Finally, you canchromakey a new foreground into a background,or vice-versa; and with a goodplug-in matting program you can combineall the elements seamlessly.If this sounds like quite a list, consider asingle moment that you might see on TVany time: as Mr. Announcer intones offscreen, “Up next: today’s weather on Newsat Six,” the following things happen:●A cube tumbles on screen to end as a1/4-size window.

Computer Editing 239●●●●●●The window shows the weather personin front of a chromakeyed map.A “smoked glass” rectangle fades on tofill most of the screen.A color bar sweeps in across the bottomof the screen.The numeral 6 pulsates in a square tothe left of the bar.“Channel 6 Weather” fades up on thecolor bar.The whole schmeer fades to black for acommercial break.Today, these multi-part syntheses are soho-hum that we have to enumerate theirparts to remind ourselves of how complexthey really are.ArchivingIn linear editing, storing the finished programis automatic because the assemblytape is the archive (such as it is). In digitalpost, however, you have only a virtualvideo until you’ve output it in final form;and that final form may involve multipledecisions about recording methods,media, protocols and display standards(see Figure 47.4).First decision: analog or digital? Digitalstorage wins hands-down if the only issueis permanence through perfect duplication.But for a short-term program thatwill need many copies (like a video pressrelease) an analog master may offer easiermass duplication.If you do go analog, what’s your displaystandard? NTSC, PAL or SECAM? Anddon’t forget that each standard has its subsetsfor different countries. If digital,which codec (compressor/decompressor):DV, MPEG, MJPEG, etc… and again,which flavor? If you’re streaming to theWeb, you also have to cope with screensize and frame rate.Finally, what’s your storage medium?Until recently, some kind of tape was theonly answer. But with DVD-RAM burner’sdown to $300, maybe you want to choosea disc-based medium with its advantagesof capacity, compactness and randomFigure 47.4 Archive—Store your edited master on the best media youcan to ensure the longest possible shelf life.

240 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionaccess. The moral here is that the archivingprocess that was once automatic nowrequires a number of thoughtfully considereddecisions.Organizing, assembling, enhancing, synthesizing,archiving. Okay, fine; but whatare these abstractions really good for?Basically, they take a complex and shapelessprocess and impose a kind of orderon it an order that helps you keep it allstraight. Obviously, no one is going tothink, “Having duly organized andenhanced, I will now proceed to phasefour: synthesize.”But as you edit, you can operate moreconfidently if you have an intuitive graspof the organization that underlies thepost-production process.

48Overcoming CommonComputer Editing ProblemsDon CollinsComputer editing has become extremelypopular. It provides flexible and powerfulediting that lets anyone with an artisticeye create professional-quality video.You can undo, redo, add scenes, deletetransitions, change titles and create nearlyanything you can imagine, almost instantaneously.And it just keeps getting betteras computer editing equipment becomesfaster, more robust and easier to use.However, there are still some pitfallsand hazards that every video editor willencounter that can make editing frustratingat best and a nightmare at worst.Luckily, for most of the irritating nuisancesthat crop up, there are solutions.Here are a few common problems thatcomputer editors experience, and somesuggestions for troubleshooting them.Although we use Adobe Premiere to illustratethe examples in this article, the principlestaught here apply to most editingprograms. If you’re having trouble performingcertain tasks in your editor, keepreading, this article just might have theanswer you’re looking for.Reversed TransitionsYou just placed a cool crossfade betweena shot of the sunrise and a closeup of afrying egg, sunny-side up. You render theclip and when you preview it somethingweird happens: it shows a brief glimpse ofthe egg then it fades to an even briefershot of the sun; then it cuts back to therest of the egg clip. What happened?You have inadvertently reversed thetransition. In Adobe Premiere, and othertimeline-based editing programs, youneed to set the direction of each transitioneffect. For instance, if clip A precedesclip B, your transition effect must be set tostart with clip A and end with clip B. Ifthe effect is reversed, from B to A, thesoftware will cut from clip A to clip B atthe start of the effect, perform the fadefrom B to A, then cut back to clip B (seeFigure 48.1a). It’s a common error and onethat is easily remedied.To fix the problem, double click thetransition on the timeline to open anoptions window. Once opened, you can241

242 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production(a)(b)(c)Figure 48.1 Wrong Way!—A reversedtransition effect (a) won’t play properly (notethat the arrow points the wrong direction). Tofix it, double click the effect icon and edit theproperties (b). When placed correctly, thearrow should show the signal flow from clip Ato clip B (c).click on the arrow that reverses the orderof the fade (see Figure 48.1b). Clip Ashould be on the left hand side and clip Bon the right. You can also check the ShowActual Source box, which shows an iconof the actual clips to help you visualizethe sequence.Black Frames and Razor RemnantsA random black frame or single frame ofvideo created by a razor tool can mar anotherwise perfect video. Black framesoccur when two clips placed next to oneanother on the timeline are not pushedtogether all the way. The result is a flashframe of black between the two clips.Razor remnants are single frames ofvideo inadvertently created when using arazor tool. When using the razor tool totrim a clip, you may inadvertently leave asingle frame of video on the timeline thatcannot be seen. It is easy to unknowinglyslice a single frame off the head or tail of aclip when using the razor. The singleframe that is left can cause a few problems.It can create a flash frame that playsas a glitch, or, if you remove the largerportion of the clip without deleting theloose frame, it can prevent you from placinga clip on the timeline.If there are only one or two frames ofblack or stray video, you may not detectthem when you preview your project. Oneway to scan for random frames is to usethe Zoom tool to change the time units onthe Construction window to view singleframe increments on the timeline. Thenyou can quickly scroll across your projectto check for stray frames. Be carefulthough, if you view your project in incrementsas great as one second, extraneousblack frames and razor remnants can goundetected.If you do find any, zoom in to the1-frame mode so you can delete the extraneousframe or extend a clip to bridge theblack gap. You can also use the multitrackselection tool to move all of the subsequentclips to shore up a gap caused by ablack frame.Loss Due to Computer CrashWithout a doubt, frequent crashes are oneof the most frustrating aspects of computerediting. Although they are becomingless frequent as both hardware andsoftware improve, they still happen andthey happen at the worst times. Ouradvice: save often. Preferably after eachsolidified edit or group of moves youmake. That way, if (when) your programfreezes, you’ll be covered.

Overcoming Common Computer Editing Problems 243Some software have automatic savefunctions built in. If you choose to use theauto save, use it wisely, because with eachsave you forfeit all those handy levels ofundo (32 max in Premiere). Many timesretracing your editing steps with undoscan unsnarl your production and helpyou learn from your mistakes. So in somesituations you may want to hold off onsaving until you have completed a tasksuccessfully. But once you have donethat, save, save, save!Mismatched Audio LevelsOne of the most common causes for audioproblems is assembling clips with differentaudio levels. This usually happenswhen you’ve shot in different locations. Ifyou need to edit two people conversing inan airplane hangar, with footage shot outdoorson a mountaintop and an interviewtaped in a living room, you’re going tohave three different sound qualities andlevels. It can also occur if you are editingfootage shot in the same location on differentcamcorders using different microphones.Editing software gives you control overaudio as well as video. You can adjust thelevels of an entire clip or segments withinit. You can even add EQ and effects toyour audio tracks (see Figure 48.2). Whenyou place the mountain top clip next tothe living room clip, you may need toadjust EQ and/or cross fade audio fromthe two scenes to make the change in theaudio tone smoother for the viewer.By clicking on the bottom of the audiotrack, you place handles that you can thenraise or lower. To adjust the level of anentire clip, select the sound clip, go to theClip menu, then select Gain and enter avalue from 0 to 200%. Simply matchingthe lines that represent the audio levels ofyour clips is not enough. Because clip levelsin your software are relative to thelevel at which each clip was captured,they are not reliable for balancing one clipwith another.Figure 48.2 Fine Tuning—There aremany tools in the pull-down menusthat give you control over your audio.You can equalize it, for example, byentering the clip menu, going toFilters and choosing Equalize.If all Else Fails . . .Creating professional-quality video with acomputer is becoming easier and moreaffordable than ever. Still, it’s not automatic;we’ve covered just a few of thecommon errors inherent to computervideo. Luckily, most of them are quicklyovercome. For answers to more specificproblems, consult your manual or contacttech support.

244 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionSidebar 1An Ounce of Prevention…One of the best ways to avoid editing mistakes is to visualize your final edited video beforeyou start shooting.●●●See the big picture. Run through your video from opening to the final credits in your mind.Know what shots you are going to take and visualize the transitions between shots and scenes.Plan your shots. One of the best ways to prepare for your edit is to create a storyboard. Itcan be as simple or as detailed as you want. The important thing is to know where you’regoing so that when you’re in the edit suite you aren’t missing any key shots.Keep a shot log. By keeping a log of your shots, complete with time code in-and-out pointsand a comment area for grading each shot, you’ll be way ahead of the game. That way,when you’re capturing your footage to your hard drive, you will know which shots to keepand which shots to skip. Keeping a shot log not only saves a tremendous amount of time,but valuable hard drive space as well.Sidebar 2Managing Your Project AreaOne of the most challenging aspects of editing is maintaining an organized workspace onyour computer monitor. The most common editing errors occur because editors can’t find aclip, don’t see their transition or filter windows, miss an edit mark, confuse tracks, mistakeclips and otherwise screw things up because the project area was cluttered. Here are sometips to help you keep it clean.●●●●●Collapse the timeline to gain more horizontal space—especially if you’re using only twotracks of video and two tracks of audio.Minimize seldom-used windows and adjust the size of those you do use regularly.Play with the timeline’s measurement units. For precise editing, use the 1-frame mode. Forrough edits and placement of clips, try the 1-second marker. And to gain a global view, usethe 1-minute measure to view your entire project.Use short, descriptive file names for your clips.Adjust the size of the file icon on the timeline and clip bin.

49Color TweakingBill DavisWhen we make video, our goal most ofthe time is to get lifelike images up on thescreen. We chase natural skin tones, goodexposure and proper white balance likeracing dogs after mechanical bunnies.But if you watch what’s happening inthe movies or on TV, you’re probablyalready aware that sometimes, realisticjust isn’t good enough, particularly whenit comes to color.We accept daytime scenes awash inexaggerated hyper-golden sunlight andnighttime sequences bathed in green orblue. And we even see the use of hybridscenes, where some of the footage isprocessed in black and white while otherelements retain their colors.The Countdown of BasicsThe first thing to understand about thebasics of video color is that at the baselevel, every television signal is actually acombination of two separate signal components—onefor black and white information,the other for color.In the beginning, all TV signals wereexclusively black and white. It wasn’tuntil years after TV sets started to appearin homes that engineers added a colorcomponent to the broadcast signal.The black and white part of the signal isreferred to as luminance and given theengineering shorthand, “Y,” while thecolor signal is known as chrominance andgiven the designation “C.”The standard yellow RCA video plugmixes these signals together into a composite.S-video cables, on the other hand,are sometimes referred to as Y/C cablesbecause they keep the luminance andchrominance signals separated. If youlook at the end of an S-video connector,you can see a number of separate holes orpins used to carry the signals.This split makes it a snap to take a colorTV signal from your camcorder and translateit into black and white. All that yoursoftware has to accomplish is the eliminationof the color portion of the signal.Diminishing the chrominance signal relativeto the luminance yields a reduction245

246 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionof color intensity and creates a muted pastellook. Many editing applications havebasic chrominance or saturation controlsto adjust this aspect of the video.But to dive into the more excitingaspects of colorizing your video signal, wealso need to break things down further anddelve into the three primary componentsof your signal’s color: red, green and blue.Engineering RGB SpaceColor television is said to reside in theRGB color space. It is this arrangement ofmixing and matching three basic colors tocreate the entire pallet of colors the TVcan display, that makes it a snap to manipulatethe color of your video footage.Most editing software programs allowyou to change the balance of the threeprimary colors on a global, regional oreven pixel-by-pixel basis.Editing applications usually have somebasic color manipulation tools, accessiblethrough a panel in the main program or asa plug-in. As you manipulate the colors,you can increase or decrease parameters,such as the amount of red, green orblue applied to your selected part of apicture. You can also alter brightness andcontrast, creating a washed-out feel ofpastels, or a hyper-real environment,where you deliver suppressed midrangetones and the most extreme dark and lightcomponents of your original signals to thescreen.To Boldly GoNormally, these controls need to be handledwith a light touch, since they candramatically alter the look of your video.Remember, the beauty of working in a nondestructivevideo-editing environment isthat a return to reality is always as closeas an “undo” command.Special-effects filters and plug-ins canoften modify colors in interesting ways.Just like the filters photographers havelong attached to their lenses to change theimage characteristics of their shots, thevideo filter is simply a way of changingone or more channels of information tocreate a different look for your video. Inmost situations, it is better to apply filtersin post-production, since you cannotundo on-the-lens glass filters if you don’tlike the results.Many filters have presets for popularcolor schemes such as sepia—a coloreffect that alters your footage with ayellowish-brown cast reminiscent of oldtimephotographs.Beyond these kinds of simple presetsare direct controls such as tint, which youcan quickly apply as a global colorcast ofyour choosing to your footage. All thosetrendy colorized commercials, where theworld is awash in a slightly green tint areexamples of manipulating color information.You can simulate these effects withyour color control tools.But a note of caution. Look closely at thecolorization examples in broadcast work.You’ll notice that while the environmentaround that fancy sports car often lookssurreal, the people still look pretty realistic.To achieve that kind of sophisticatedcolorized look, you need to be carefulabout maintaining healthy skin highlightsand other reality checks rather than justslathering everyone and everything with agreenish wash.That’s where the power of channelspecificeffects comes in. Look closely atyour editing interface and you may discoverthat you can apply color correctionsto narrowly-defined parts of your image.Filters and MattesThe real fun begins when you combinebasic image manipulation with the powerof masks, mattes and layers.If you’ve ever watched a music video,where a brilliantly-colored characterdanced through an otherwise black andwhite world, you’ve seen the power ofmulti-layer mattes and filters at work.

Color Tweaking 247Shots like these stack two or more synchronizedlayers of the same footage onmultiple video tracks. Then, a movingmatte applied to the dancing character isolatesit from the rest of the scene. The layerwith the foreground figure remains in colorwhile a desaturate filter, which removes allthe color information, applies to the backgroundfootage.A word of warning: pulling a qualitymoving matte out of a single video clipwithout advance planning is just aboutimpossible unless you are willing to gothrough and paint a matte for every frameof your video (30 of them for every secondof footage). But if you have the time andpatience (or a team of highly skilledanimators), there’s nothing to keep youfrom going in and isolating a character byre-shaping and moving a manually-createdmatte to follow the character. Don’t forgetto tweak the softness or blur the edges ofthe matte to make it appear more natural.The Adventure BeginsThere’s literally no limit to this other thanyour creativity and imagination. So, thenext time you’re watching TV, pay specialattention to how the producers use colortinting, layers and mattes to produce eyecatchingimages.Then, consider that many of thosesame capabilities reside right in yourown editing application, awaiting yourexploration.Sidebar 1Alpha ChannelThe separate RGB portions of video are referred to as channels. Some formats also have afourth channel, called the Alpha Channel, used to specify transparency. If your editing applicationallows you to view the Alpha Channel, it usually appears in grayscale with blackbeing 100 percent transparent and white being 100 percent opaque, although it is very easyto reverse this. The flexibility of editing software even allows you to select a specific color orrange of colors to set as the Alpha Channel.Sidebar 2TV Can’t Show it AllA typical computer monitor uses over 16 million colors to draw a picture on your screen.This includes the video-preview window in your editing application. The standard color televisionpicture in the United States is composed of only about 2 million colors. This meansthat the wonderful color modifications you see on your computer monitor will likely not lookthe same on a television. When doing any computer generated modifications to your video,you must test your adjusted video on a television before declaring your movie complete.

50Basic CompositingBill Davis248Compositing is the process of layeringmultiple on-screen elements—video, stillimages, text or graphical elements—into asingle on-screen image.A classic example of compositing thatmany people would instantly recognize isthe title sequence for the nationally syndicatedseries Baywatch. The show’s graphicdesigners specified that video clips andgraphic elements be combined into multiplelayers with images appearing behind,in front of and even within large blockletters spelling out the show’s title.But a composite doesn’t have to be anywherenear this complicated. In fact,many of the composites seen in video arereally just two separate video images combinedinto a single screen presentation.These simple composites (and even somenot-so-simple ones!) are well withinthe reach of anyone with even the mostbasic computer-based video productionsystems.Before we look at ways to create yourown simple composites, let’s take a lookat some basic compositing terminology.Talkin’ the TalkIn compositing, the term layer refers to aplane of video or graphics. A good way tovisualize layers is to imagine them aspages stacked on top of each other onyour computer desktop.In most editing programs these layerscorrespond to the program’s video tracks.The lower tracks appear further back onthe screen, and each higher video track isstacked in front.Another important concept to compositingis the use of mattes (pronounced“mats”). Mattes are the electronic equivalentof cutting a shape out of a piece ofcardboard and holding the results overa picture. If you use the hole in thecardboard as the matte, the backgroundimage shows through the hole. Ifyou use the cutout piece, you block thebackground picture with the shape ofthe cutout. Electronic mattes work thesame way.Most videographers are familiar withwipes as a way to replace one picture with

Basic Compositing 249another when editing between scenes. Incompositing, a slowly or partially executedwipe can create the same effect as amatte.Alpha channels are a way to make animage or an area of an image so that it ispartially transparent. You can also usealpha channels to define picture bordersso that they transition smoothly fromopaque to transparent. An alpha channelmatte uses shades of gray to represent theamount of transparency between the foregroundand background images.With feathering, an automated alphachannel process, the edges of an image aregently transitioned from opaque to transparentto avoid a hard line of transitionbetween the image and content on anadjacent layer.Okay, now that you’ve got some of thebasic terminology down, let’s look atsome examples of simple composites.Down to BasicsSometimes beginners get confused whenthey try to execute a composite by simplystacking two scenes on top of one anotherin their timeline. The result is typically nota composite but a regular single image. Theproblem is that, if both scenes are “fullscreen,” the picture on the highest trackwill totally block any scene behind it.In order to create a composite, the pictureclosest to the screen must be manipulatedto allow the scene (image) behind(or below) it to show through.There are dozens of ways to do this. Theforeground image can be moved partiallyaside, cropped, shrunk or made wholly orpartially transparent. In one of the computerediting world’s most useful tricks, youcan create a matte that allows all or part ofthe background picture to peek through theforeground layer (see Figure 50.1).Figure 50.1 Blending scenes—by making the first layer ofvideo semi-transparent, the second layer becomes visible.

250 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionThat’s exactly why mattes are such animportant part of compositing. They allowone track to show through to another inprecisely the way you want.Familiar Effect, New TwistBy using the same transitions you typicallyuse between scenes, but freezingthem in a state of partial completion, youcan create simple video composites.How many times have you seen thetraditional split-screen used to bringtogether two sides of a telephone conversationin a classic movie? That’s a basiccomposite. All that’s needed to create thiskind of scene is to set your transition controlsto execute a common wipe and setthe start and stop values to take place at thesame physical location (see Figure 50.2).By the way, when you plan to do this kindof effect, it’s important to pay close attentionto the framing of your two shotswhen you shoot so that you leave plentyof negative space in the areas that will becovered by the other shot.A cross-dissolve, stopped when half completed,is an equally effective form of simplecomposite. It results in a dreamlike combinationof the entering and exiting scenes.Again, you’ll need to pay special attentionto the framing of your picture whenyou record each scene. If you do, this simpletype of composite can communicatesome pretty powerful emotions.Imagine an establishing shot of a womanwashing dishes at the kitchen sink, thenmove to a head-and-shoulders shot framedwith her looking out the window. Nowpartially dissolve in a scenic shot of acruise ship sailing the blue waters of theCaribbean! The resulting composite clearlysuggests that her thoughts are far awayfrom getting the silverware clean.Other classic “switcher effects” are equallycomposite-friendly. Take the picturein-picture,for instance (see Figure 50.3).Figure 50.2 Half-Wipe Composite-Programs like Adobe Premiere allow you to stop a halfcompletedwipe by setting start and stop values to take place at the same physical location.

Basic Compositing 251With multiple tracks easily accessible inmost of today’s editing software, it’s a snapto composite two scaled-down picturesonto one master shot. If the master shot is atraditional head-and-shoulders close-up,you can use soft-edge oval mattes on twoadditional shots (placed on higher tracksthan your head-and-shoulders shot) to positiona pair of “good conscience” and “badconscience” characters over your main subject’sshoulders. You’ll have shades of the“devil-and-angel” gag that’s been a staple onthe Conan O’Brien late-night TV program.This is also a great place to use the“edge feather” feature that most moderncomputer editors provide. Instead of ovalshapedinsets with hard edges looking likea pair of antique photos, a softly featherededge will help to integrate the two mattesinto the overall composite image.All Keyed UpTo take the same multiple-picture compositeidea a step closer to professional, spendFigure 50.3 Classic PIP—the picture-inpictureis one of the most commonly-used andeasily-achieved composite effects.some time investigating your software’schromakey and lumakey capabilities.A chromakey occurs when you tell yoursoftware package to take all the pixels of aparticular color and replace them with thelive video from another shot. Traditionally,the colors used for chromakeys are eitherbright green or bright blue—two of thebasic colors that form a typical RGB videosignal.In blue-screen or green-screen compositing,video scenes are recorded with thecharacters appearing in front of an evenlylitgreen or blue surface, then the softwarereplaces the key-colored pixels with livevideo or a computer-generated background(see Figure 50.4).Keying is one area where you need toexperiment in order to get good results(see Shooting for Chromakey sidebar), butonce you achieve a decent key shot, aworld of creative options emerges.For amateur weathercasters or kids whowant to suspend their model spaceshipsover a field of stars, chromakeying orlumakeying can be just the ticket. An effectivechromakey setup can take those competingangels in the above example andmatte out the backgrounds to let them floatover the master shot, without the backgroundoval shapes spoiling the effect.A close relative to chromakeying islumakeying, which pulls mattes usingbrightness rather than color values. Asomewhat dark scene with one characterappearing in a bright white T-shirt couldbe a likely candidate for a lumakey composite.Using this technique you can doanything from simply turning the T-shirtthe precise color you choose to somethingas wild as allowing a shot of ocean wavesFigure 50.4 Angel-key—use a chromakey to achieve a seamless and realistic composite.

252 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionbreaking on the shore to replace the areaof the T-shirts. Creatively, the sky’s literallythe limit.And that’s the real magic of compositing.It frees you from the need to showyour audience only what your camera canrecord at one moment in time. Compositescan be simple and realistic, orinvoke multiple layers of live video,motion graphics, titles and effects.Have Some FunNow that you know some of the secrets ofcompositing, watch for examples in theshows you see on television. You canexpect to find scores of good examples inthe openings of network entertainmentprograms and even in nightly local newscasts.But what you might not expect isthat many of the seemingly sophisticatedeffects you’ll see are not far from the capabilitiesof your own NLE program.All that’s required is that you masterthe tools you already have! So whetheryour goal is to get your audience tobelieve that two or more composited elementsare actually part of a single scene,or just to have some fun with this cuttingedgetechnology, compositing is a creativejoy. So dive right in and let the fun begin!Sidebar 1Basic Compositing TerminologyLayer: A plane of video or graphics. Imagine them as pages stacked on top of each other onyour computer desktop.Tracks: In most NLEs layers correspond to the program’s video tracks. Lower-numberedtracks appear further back on the screen.Matte: The electronic equivalent of cutting a shape out of a piece of cardboard and holdingthe results over a picture.Wipe: A way to replace one picture with another when editing between scenes. In compositing,a slowly or partially executed wipe can create the same effect as a matte.Alpha channels: A way to encode an image or an area of an image so that it is partiallytransparent.Feathering: An automated alpha channel process in which the edges of an image are gentlytransitioned from opaque to transparent.Sidebar 2Shooting for ChromakeyThe key to effective chromakeying is always the lighting setup you use. In order for a chromakeyto be effective, the key background must be illuminated evenly without hot spots orharsh shadows. The pros typically use color balanced fluorescent arrays or large “scoop”-type fixtures with plenty of diffusion in order to make the light hitting the key background aseven as possible.

51The Art of the EditJanis LonnquistSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.When Oliver Stone turned over the massiveamount of raw footage that became JFK,editor Joe Hutshing knew it would be achallenge. “I wondered if it could even bewatchable,” Hutshing says. “It was soincredibly complicated. It was like lookingat a schematic for a TV set and thenimagining actually watching the TV.”From the mountain of raw footage, tothe first five-hour cut, to the final threehour-and-eight-minuteediting masterpiece,Hutshing had to make decisions,consider choices and re-examine goals.This is editing.Editing systems may range from sophisticateddigital suites with all the bells andwhistles to basic single-source systemsconsisting of a camera, TV and VCR. Still,the functions of editing remain the same:1. to connect shots into a sequence thattells a story or records an event,2. to correct and delete mistakes,3. to condense or expand time and4. to communicate an aesthetic.Whether you’re creating a Hollywood featurefilm or tightening a vacation video,the challenge is to take raw footage, andwithin the limitations of equipment andbudget, transform it into something compellingand watchable.Shooting With the Edit in MindEditing may be the final step of the production,but to make a truly successfulvideo, you need to begin making editingchoices in the concept stage. What willthe overall look of the piece be? Themood? The pacing? Will you cut it tomusic? What kind of music?There are several techniques that willhelp you plan. Prepare a shooting script,a storyboard or—if it is not a scriptedproduction—an overview for your program.This will be the blueprint for yourproduction.A shooting script lists the action shot byshot, along with proposed camera anglesand framing.253

254 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionIn a storyboard, actual sketches illustrateeach scene. It’s a good opportunity tosee what will work before you shoot it.An overview should include: thechronology of shots as they will appear inthe video; approximate timing for eachshot; and information about accompanyingaudio, graphics and titles for eachscene.Next, prepare a shot sheet. Make sure itincludes every shot listed in your scriptor overview. Get several shots of eachitem on the list.“You need a variety of shots,” saysKevin Corcoran, vice president of PacificMedia Center in Santa Clara, California.“In a basketball game, for example, youget shots of the crowd, shots of the scoreboard,shots of the referee, shots of theenvironment. In action that’s typicallylong and drawn out, you need to consolidateinformation. You need to haveimages to cut to in order to make it looksmooth.”Even in scripted productions, Corcoranrecommends getting a variety of shots.“I always try to get a wide shot and ahead and shoulders shot for each block oftext,” says Corcoran. “Who knows whatyou’ll find when you go into an edit?There may be something that bothers youwith continuity in the background of awide shot. Now you have a place to go.”While Joe Hutshing had massiveamounts of material to edit for JFK,Corcoran says the more common problemis too little material.“Often there are large sections to beremoved and no smooth way to cut,” saysCorcoran. “This is especially true whenyou’re editing on a two-machine, cutsonlysystem. Ideally, you will have someother framing, another angle, a reactionor some other activity happening in theenvironment. If it’s a person at a podiumtalking, you need an audience reactionshot or two or three. You must have cutawaysto consolidate a half-hour speechwithout jump cuts.”You also invariably end up with footageyou can’t use, often due to the unexpectedappearance of objects on tape that younever noticed during the shoot. Once,when editing the “dream house” segmentof a TV program, I discovered a powersupply right in the middle of the kitchenfloor. Nobody saw it in the field and everysweeping pan—all wide shots—includedthe ugly box. Other than featuring adream house with no kitchen, we had nooption but to use the embarrassing pieceof footage.“There will always be things in shotsyou don’t see when you’re shooting,”Corcoran says. “Things reflected in mirrorsor windows, things in dark areas ofthe picture. It’s important to change yourframing to avoid having problems likethis in the edit.”If you will edit your video to music,select the music in advance and timezooms and pans accordingly. If this isn’tpossible, shoot a slow, medium and fastversion of each camera move. In general,shots should be five to 15 seconds inlength. Know the pacing and shootaccordingly.You’ll enjoy a lot more options in youredit sessions if you aren’t desperately“fixing it in post.” Taking the appropriatetechnical precautions saves you fromhaving to scrap otherwise good footagedue to lighting, audio or other technicalproblems.“In an event, things will only gowrong,” Corcoran warns. “In weddings,for example, the light is nearly alwaysbad. A camera light is essential, especiallyif you don’t have gain control. And you’llneed a lot of batteries for that light.”Good lighting greatly enhances thequality of your videos; invest in a lightingseminar if you need more information. Asa rule, the brightest spot in your pictureshould be no more than 20 to 30 timesbrighter than the darkest spot or you’ll beediting silhouettes.You’ll have trouble in your edit if youdon’t white balance several times during anevent. This is particularly true during weddings,which may move from bright sunlight,to a dimly lit church, to fluorescent

The Art of the Edit 255lights in a reception hall. If you don’t whitebalance, the shots won’t match—you mayend up dissolving from a well-lit scene ofgroomsmen decorating the getaway car to ablue, blue reception.Production PainsProduction can be exhausting, with longdays of hard physical labor, but it’s vitalto stay alert.On a particularly grueling corporateproduction a few years ago, a cameraoperator, who was also monitoring audio,removed his headset during a break andforgot to put it back on. Our talent, thepresident of the corporation, removed hislavaliere microphone to stretch, and satdown on it for the remainder of the production.Try to fix that in post.Mikes can fall down, batteries can die, acable can go bad. Without headphones,you may not know until it’s too late.“If you know from your headphonesthere’s no hope for that microphone,”Corcoran says, “You can unplug it and letthe camera mike try. It’s going to be betterthan what you’ll get otherwise. Nothingcan kill a production faster than bad audio.Wear your headphones all the time.”For most productions, steady imagesmake the most sense. Always use a tripod.Hand-held looks, well, hand-held. There’sa trend right now to overuse this technique,but avoid the cinema verité, or“shaky cam” look unless you’re after astrobed look or the effect is actually motivatedby something in the script.Be sure to allow for preroll. When youswitch a camera from the stop mode torecord, it rolls back several seconds beforeit achieves “speed” and begins taping.Allow five seconds, 10 to be safe, beforecuing the talent to begin speaking or executingyour shot.Unless your edit system is very precise(plus or minus two frames) you will havetrouble editing to the word, so make surethat you have two seconds or more ofsilence before your talent begins.This is better than saying “action” tocue the talent: if the narration begins tooquickly, you may end up losing two secondsof narration in edit to cut out yourcue. Instead, count “five, four, three”…and cue talent after a silent count of twoand one.With high-end systems, you can encountera similar problem. If the tape ischecked and action begins too soon, youwon’t be able to back up over the break incontrol track to execute the edit.To allow time for a good transition,instruct your talent to fix a gaze on thecamera for two seconds before and severalseconds after a narration. A quick, sidewaysglance for approval, a swallow or alick of the lips before or after speakingmay be difficult to edit out.If you don’t have control over the talent’stiming and delivery—or example, whenshooting a training session or wedding—your cutaways and reaction shots will becritical to mask cuts. Remember to shootplenty.In the FrameGood framing and composition are vitalin achieving aesthetically pleasing videothat is cohesive and makes sense. A wellcomposedshot provides viewers with theinformation needed to follow the story. Itreveals, through spatial relationships, thecomparative importance of individuals andobjects, and the effect they have upon eachother. It focuses attention on details, sometimessubtly, even subliminally. Good compositioncan also disturb, excite and/orheighten tension if the script calls for it.You can’t fix poor framing and compositionin post. A lack of head room willmake your subject seem suspended fromthe top of the TV monitor. Framing a shot tocut at the subject’s ankles, chin, hands orhem line is an uncomfortable look thatdoesn’t allow “closure,” a process in whichthe mind fills in the missing elements.Remember the rule of thirds: placeimportant elements in the top or bottom

256 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionthird of the screen. In a closeup, place theeyes at the one-third baseline. In anextreme closeup, the eyes are at baselineof the top third, the mouth is at the baselineof the bottom third, and, through closure,the chin and forehead are filled in.Distracting or inappropriate backgroundsare nearly impossible to workaround so pay attention to every detailwhen you shoot. In one production, achildren’s singing group performed anumber in front of a blackboard. In theedit, I noticed one little girl standingdirectly in front of a large letter “M”—creating the look of two perfect, pointedears. Again, saved by the B-roll.Sometimes even balanced and thoughtfullycomposed shots don’t cut togetherwell. For example: if you’re editing aninterview or dialogue, cutting betweenhead shots of the interviewer and guest,you need the heads angled slightly towardeach other (to imply the interaction of thetwo) and off center, leaving “look space”or “nose room.” Without look space, yourinterviewer will appear to address theedge of the TV screen. Centered, we haveno sense of the spatial relationship of thetwo. They could be sitting back to back.Similarly, maintain “lead room” for yoursubject to walk, run, bike or drive into.Walk the LineOne production basic that can causemajor consternation in the edit suite is“crossing the line.”Let’s say you’re shooting a parade passingin front of you, from left to right. Apolitician waves from a passing float, herback to you. You dash across the streetand resume shooting, getting a great shotof her smiling face. When you go to edit,however, you’ll find that you crossed theline: half of your parade marches left toright and the other half marches right toleft. Cutting together footage from bothsides of the line will create a bizarre montagewhere bands and floats and motorcadesseem to run into one another.Respecting the line is especially importantin shots that track movement or wheregeography, such as movement towarda goal post, is critical to the viewer’s understandingof the action.Camera angles also play a role in theviewer’s ability to interpret and believe theaction. Let’s say you want to show a childtrying to coax a kitten from a tree. First wesee the child looking up. We cut to the kittencowering on a branch. We cut back tothe child. The scene gains impact withthe right camera angles. We see the child,framed left, looking up. Cut to a reverseangle shot looking down at the child, overthe cat’s shoulder, with the cat framedright. The camera angle duplicates the cat’sline of vision. Cut to a low angle shot of thecat from the child’s point of view. Theedited sequence is fluid and believable.There are two kinds of continuity youshould monitor for successful editing.First: continuity of the environment. Amade-for-TV movie has a scene in whicha man speaks to his doctor. He wears ashirt with the collar turned up. Cut to thedoctor. Cut back to the man, and his collaris flat. Cut to a two-shot and the collarturns up again. Productions on all levelsare full of goofs like this one. To avoidadding blooper footage of your own, payclose attention to detail both in productionand in the edit.For the best possible editing situation,you also need to watch continuity ofaction. If your talent can give you numeroustakes with identical blocking, you’llhave lots of editing options. Cuts-only editingis at its best when you can achieve amulticam look by cutting to different framingon action. Look for the apex of theaction—the full extension of the arm, thewidest part of the yawn, the clink of glassesin a toast—and use that apex as the markerto cut to a new angle of the same action.Motivate ItTransitions should occur only when motivatedby something in the story.

The Art of the Edit 257A cut is the instantaneous switch fromone shot to another. The most commontransition device, it duplicates the waywe see. (Just try panning or zooming withyour eyes.)A dissolve is the gradual replacement ofone image by another. Use it to show apassage of time or create a mood.A wipe is a special effect of one imagepushing the other image off screen. Withdigital technology, the options are nearlyendless. A wipe can erase, burn, fold, kickor flush the first image from the screen.Wipes signify the end of a segment andthe complete transition to a new time,place or concept.A fade is the gradual replacement of animage with black or vice versa, used primarilyto begin or end a program or videosegment.Creative editing, using a variety of transitions,is still possible on a cuts-only system.If you can’t fade in or dissolve, beginyour shot out of focus and gradually makethe image clear. A very fast pan—15 framesor so of light, color and motion flyingacross the screen—is almost as effective asa dissolve. Allowing your subject to exitthe shot ends a scene with the finality of awipe. Cutting to a static shot, such as aclose-up of a flower, a sign or a building,defines and separates scenes.For greater insight, learn from the pros.Rent a well-done video and create anoverview and shot sheet.There are also seminars and manyexcellent books available on framing,composition and technique. For an indepthstudy of media aesthetics, lookfor Herbert Zettl’s Sight, Sound andMotion. Of course, editing is a practicalas well as an aesthetic skill. On to thepracticalities.Editing SystemsPractically speaking, editing is simplycopying selected video from the sourcetape to the edit master or record tape. Awide variety of systems and methods areavailable.Single-Source Editing. You can performsingle-source editing from your camcorderto your VCR. Your owner’s manualwill include complete directions; basically,you control the edit by pressingPLAY on your source deck (camera) andRECORD on the record deck (your VCR),pausing and releasing as you go. The transitionsare cuts only.This type of editing becomes frustratingquickly. As the editor you must locateedit points, manually set preroll, start themachines at the same time and react atprecisely the right moment to control theedit. Frame accuracy is usually a problem.If you hit RECORD too soon, you suffervideo noise between edits. Too late,and you lose frames on the edit master.Expanded Single-Source Systems. Thefirst investment single-source editors usuallymake is an edit controller. Most editcontrollers allow you to shuttle to locatescenes, to mark in and out points, to readand display frame numbers either from apulse-count or time code system such asSMPTE or RCTC.These editors perform the preroll functionautomatically and start the machinestogether. Many systems give you: 1) theoption of insert or assemble edit, 2) theability to “trim” add or subtract a fewframes without resetting in and out pointsand 3) the ability to preview your edit.Some perform audio or video only editsand interface with a computer to store anEdit Decision List (EDL).You can also expand single-source editsystems with an audio mixer, a switcherand character generator.Multiple-Source Systems. These giveeditors the capability of A/B Roll Editing.The typical system consists of two ormore source VCRs (A and B), which supplymaterial to the video switcher or computerizedediting control unit. There, thematerial is edited, combined with effectsand sent to the record VCR. Audio fromthe source decks is also mixed and sent tothe record VCR.

258 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionMultiple-source systems allow an editorto connect two moving video sources withdissolves, wipes and other transitions.In nonlinear systems, every frame isstored in digital form and is instantlyavailable to the editor. Once you’ve designatedan edit and transition on the computerizedEDL or storyboard, the computerexecutes the edit instantly. You can grab ascene from anywhere in your sourcefootage without waiting for a tape to cue.Experimentation becomes effortless.As you move up to the more complexsystems, do your homework. Read productreviews before you make the investment.Find out what peripherals you needfor basic operations and efficient editing.Investigate the availability of classesand users groups in your area. Is there alocal production facility that rents a suitefeaturing the same system? You may needa back-up plan if your system goes downand you’re facing a deadline.Advanced Editing Systems. These systemsfeature Digital Video Effects (DVE),better compression, exciting animation,special effects, pro titles and more. Theyare revolutionizing editing, providinggreater options, accuracy and speed.The ramping of capabilities means aramping of complexity; you’ll need educationand practice to get up to speed. Thesystems are relatively expensive and thetechnology is constantly changing. It isn’teasy to know when to make the investment.Some videographers complain thatediting functions have not been designedwith editors in mind; they’re waiting forupgrades to correct this. Others have foundsystems that meet their needs well, and areusing them to produce amazing programs.Again, do your homework. If you can,rent a suite and actually do an edit on agiven system before you buy.The Final CutIt’s pay off time. You planned ahead, youpaid attention during production, andnow you can relax.Why? Because editing is going to begreat fun. Enjoy.

52Title TalkBill HarringtonYou’ve created the perfect video, greatlighting, clean audio and beautiful editing.But be careful. All your hard workcan be overshadowed if you are not carefulwith your titles. Titles, also called CGs(short for character generator), are thewords you see on the screen. But addingtitles is more than typing words onto yourvideo. Good titles look balanced on screenand add to the message. Bad titles are likean out of tune instrument—they make thewhole orchestra sound bad.When it comes to making great titles,there are a few rules to follow. Just likemaking good video, it takes a certainamount of planning, knowledge and a lotof experimentation. An eye for compositiondoesn’t hurt either. Here are somebasic concepts you can use to enhanceyour titles.Location! Location! Location!Watch network television tonight and seeif there is logo in the bottom corner of thescreen. It’s not there by accident. The bigguys understand that when it comes tothe video screen, every pixel is a preciouspiece of real estate. In real estate, locationis everything. We read from left to right,top to bottom. The bottom right corner ofthe screen is the last thing you will read.That logo stays imprinted on the mind,and when the friendly folks at Nielson askyou what station you watched, you canremember quite easily.You can use that same knowledge toyour advantage when you build yourtitles. The corners of the screen are themost powerful place for small informationalgraphics like logos or names. Theyalso work well because titles placed thereare less likely to interfere with the actionin your video.If you want to make a major statement,then place a title in the center of thescreen, demanding your audience to takenotice. This is where you would typicallyfind the title of a program. Placed in thecenter of the screen, the title becomes themost important thing on the screen. More259

260 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionSafe TitleMy Big MovieMy Big MovieFigure 52.1 Safety first—remember to observe the safe area whenever you’re creatingtitles.important than even the video that playsbeneath it.Play it SafeThere are some places that you really cannotput titles, though. Most CG softwarenow has a safe title reference built in (seeFigure 52.1). These lines represent recommendedlimits to where you place yourtitles within the viewing area. Any titlesoutside of the safe title zone risk beingunreadable due to the cropping and curvatureof the TV screen. Keeping yourtitles within a safe title area is not anabsolute, but you reduce the effectivenessof your titles if they are outside of the safetitle zone.Lastly, the text on the screen has towork with everything else the audience isseeing. Your subject’s name won’t lookgood superimposed over his face. It has tobalance with the video you’re using. Ifyou interview a vet about his WWII memoriesand he’s on camera left, try puttingthe title on the right to balance the overallpicture.The Font is the MessageSometimes it’s not what you say, but howyou say it. This applies to the fonts youuse for your titles. Graphic designers canspend years learning about font theory,but you don’t need a master’s degree tounderstand that the font—the actual shapeof the letters—sends a message to theviewer. Does the text look like ancientGreek writing or is it more futuristic?There are thousands of fonts available,and the font you choose will have a directimpact on the final product.Let’s say you videotaped a local Christmaspageant and want to add a graphic as anintroduction. A font that has a cowboy feelwouldn’t make any sense. Unless the nameof the pageant was Christmas on the Prairie,such a font would just confuse the viewer.A Christmas pageant screams for somethingwith a holiday feel. Scripted letterswould look nice and would convey theholiday spirit more effectively.Look to the video itself for clues asto what font to use. The font you useshould tie into the theme of the video(see Figure 52.2). Don’t overwhelm your

Title Talk 261not. That would be more appropriate for aHalloween project. Christmas colors—like reds, greens and whites—would workbetter.Adding color can be a tricky task. Videotends to have problems with certain colors,particularly shades of red. The concentrationof chroma/color tends to bleed acrossthe screen. If you must use red, try addinga thick black outline to contain the bleeding.Remember, colors will look brightenon TV then they do on your computer.Make your reds and greens slightly darkerthan you’d like them to appear on tape.Many titling software applications have a“safe color” mode that will warn youagainst using a color that will over-saturatethe video. Yellow tends to be the easiestcolor to read (next to white) and is oftenused for video titles.Figure 52.2audience with a lot of different fontseither. Stick to just one or two. If you needtwo separate lines of text to stand outfrom each other, try making one line boldor italicized rather than changing the font.Now We’re StylingThe style of a title is the sum of all thespecific attributes that give it a particularlook. The font plays a crucial role, but sodoes the color, edge, shadow and framingof the text. These characteristics, or thelack of them, also contribute to the messageyou are sending. For example, lighter colorstend to be easier to read and seem happier,while darker colors can add a moreurgent or even ominous tone to the title.Color is a great tool to reinforce thetheme of the project. Let’s go back to theChristmas pageant title. Should you useblack and orange for your text? Of courseWhat Did That Say?After learning all of the different ways topresent your title, you still need to ask themost important question, what will yourtitle say? First, determine if you needgraphics at all. Your titles should be limitedto only those that advance the storyin some way. Video artists often use titlesextensively to add a poetic layer to theirwork, however graphics with no real purposetend to irritate the viewer more thananything else.How long should a title stay on thescreen? Rule of thumb says that a titleshould stay up long enough for the viewerto read it aloud three times. Any shorter istoo short. Any longer and your viewersmay become distracted by the presence ofthe title. Obviously, the longer the title thelonger it must remain on the screen. Aperson’s name may remain on the screenfor as little as two or three seconds, agraphic spelling out a five-sentence quotemay need to stay on the screen for thirtyseconds or more. Of course, there areexceptions to every rule. If you have thequote read by a narrator, you can take itout after he has read it through just once.

262 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionPutting it all TogetherGreat titles don’t just happen, they takeknowledge, planning and a lot of experimentation.Like good video, the better youplan your project the better off you are inediting. Titles are no exception. Remember,your titles are written in video, not instone. When you’re building your titles,look at them critically. Do they make sensevisually? Is your spelling correct? Do theyadd to the message? Don’t hesitate toexperiment with your titles. Try somethingdifferent. If you go too far and thevisuals just don’t work, you can alwayschange them before going to tape.When it all comes together well, the titlescompliment the video and vice versa. Thisseamless integration of titles and video canmake a word worth a thousand pictures.Sidebar 1Glossary of common titling termsFont: The shape and style of the letters. There are thousands of fonts available; each uniquefont can send a different message.Border: The border of your font is the edge surrounding the letters. Changing the size or colorof the border can have a dramatic impact.Shadow: Separate from border, the shadow can either attach to the letters or not. Shadowscan be solid or have a degree of transparency.Justification: Where the words are in relation to the screen: left, center or right.Kerning: The spacing between the letters of a word. Some fonts are not consistent with theirspacing and may need some manual kerning.Leading: The spacing between lines of text.Safe Title Area: The area of a video screen where titles are easily read and without distortion:roughly the inner 60% of the screen.Sidebar 2Shadows & OutlinesWhether or not your text has a soft drop shadow or a hard outlined edge can add a subtle difference.Soft shadows and outlines communicate a softer message, while hard edges oftenimply boldness or urgency.Sidebar 3TV is the KeyWant to make better titles? Watch more TV! Study the titles that you see on television, notethe colors, fonts and styles that are used and try to copy them when you build your owntitles.

53Adventures inSound Editing:Or How Audio Post-ProductionCan Make Your Videos SoundLarger Than LifeArmand EnsanianSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.Imagine the tape you made of your kids’last campout. It’s got some crickets on thesound track. At night, didn’t those cricketsseem to chirp louder as campers grewquieter and the sky grew darker?When Bobby started telling Billie Jo thestory of the cricket that ate sisters, didn’tthose chirpings seem even louder to her?With some equalization, reverb and creativemixing of your original sound track,you could let your viewers hear those monstercrickets the way Billie Jo heard them.Sound editing can turn commonplacevideo events into adventures that seemlarger than life. With some simple electronicequipment—some of which youmay already have on your stereo system—you can polish up any raw sound track.Here’s how.Know your SoundTo make good video, you need to understandlight; likewise, to make good audio,you will need to understand sound.Webster defines sound as “mechanicalvibrations traveling through the air orother elastic medium.” How many timesthese vibrations occur in a second is thefrequency of the sound. A tuning forkvibrating back and forth 1,000 times persecond generates sound with a frequencyof 1,000 cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). Ifit vibrated 200 times per second, we’d heara frequency of 200 Hz.Variations and combinations of frequenciesaccount for all the sounds wehear. At best, the human ear can recognizefrequencies between 32 and 22,000 Hz.263

264 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionWe can perceive frequencies below 32 Hz,but as vibration, not sound. This rangedeteriorates with age or abuse. It is notuncommon for senior adults to top out at9,000 Hz, while losing all low-frequencysounds below about 150 Hz.People with ear damage will adjust soundto match their deficiency. For example, asound engineer at a rock club may set upthe PA to produce ear piercing highs tocompensate for such a loss of his high frequencysensitivity. So if you plan to usethe services of a studio, make sure yoursound engineer can hear.The interaction of two or more frequenciescreates a third sound called harmonic.Harmonics, also known as overtones, givesound its life, allowing the human ear todistinguish one voice from another. Poorrecordings reduce or eliminate harmonics,turning sound into an unintelligible mess.Good recordings recognize the harmonicsof a sound track, and enhance them—with the help of some snazzy audiopost-production devices.The MixerThe single most important tool for audioproduction is the mixer.A mixer’s number of input channelsdetermines how many different signals—read sounds—you can work with simultaneously.You need at least two for monorecordings and four for stereo. More inputsallow you to control more sound sources.Remember that the tape speed andaudio recording format will determine thefrequency response of the recordingmedium. A VHS tape recorded on the lineartrack at EP speed may yield a frequencyresponse no higher than 7,000 Hz.So stick with hi-fi audio if possible.The first step is to hook up the rightcables to the proper inputs and outputs.Do not scrimp on cables, because bad connectionscan create a lot of buzz andnoise. A good mixing console will allowan input signal to be either mike or linelevel. This compensates for low-levelmicrophone signals and high-level lineinputs, such as those arriving from VCRs,cassettes or CD players. Output will bemono or stereo, depending on your VCR.Mixers have sliders, or faders, that controlvolume for each channel. A masterfader controls overall volume. Mixers willalso feature all or some of the following:attenuation, equalization, cue sends, panpots, solo switch, monitor control, VolumeUnit (VU) meters or Liquid ElementDisplays (LEDs) and echo/reverb.Attenuation cuts down high input signalsto prevent overloading.Equalizers allow precise tone adjustmentof selected frequency ranges.Cue sends can send the signal to thevideo tape, headphone or monitor speaker.Pan pots control the spatial positionbetween right and left stereo channels.The solo switch “listens” in on anyindividual channel without interferingwith the recording process.Monitor controls adjust headphone orspeaker volume. We’ll look at echo andreverb later.The EqualizerAn equalizer (EQ) is the most commonpiece of signal processing equipment. Itallows you to divide the entire (human)32–22,000 Hz audio spectrum into separatebands you can adjust independently.With an EQ, you can raise or lower thelevels of these bands to change the tonalcharacteristics of a sound, reduce noiseand even create certain audio effects.Many mixers have a simple EQ built-in,allowing you to adjust high and low frequenciesindependently. This is fine forbroad tonal changes, but for more control,you’ll need a graphic equalizer. Though ahandful of mixers offer this level of tonalcontrol, most graphic EQs are externalunits.Whereas simple EQs use knobs—one fortreble, one for bass—graphic equalizershave vertical sliders that show the amountof correction you applied to each band of

Adventures in Sound Editing 265frequencies. Thus you can tell, at a glance,what the graphic EQ is doing to the audiblespectrum. Hence the term graphic.Think of the graphic EQ as a vastlyexpanded bass/treble dial. The more sliders,the greater the selective control.Say you have some music on yoursoundtrack that sounds flat and unexciting.Try boosting the 100 Hz and 10,000Hzsliders, while lowering the 1,000 Hz to500 Hz sliders. The graphic pattern on theequalizer will look like a suspensionbridge—what you’ll hear is rock concertsound.If you’re working with classical music,you may need to elevate the middle frequenciesto bring out specific instruments.And Aunt Trudy’s squeaky voicemay require you to slide down the highand upper midrange frequencies.Hooking up a stand-alone EQ is easy—simply connect it between the source outputand mixer input. Or, if you want toalter your whole sound mix, place the EQbetween your mixer and record deck.On the LevelIn the world of audio post-production, thestrength or “level” of an audio signal is asimportant as the way it sounds. We haveour ears to tell us that a sound is tonallycorrect; for clean recordings we need somethingto tell us about the signal’s level.VU meters and LEDs monitor the levelsso you can prevent overloading and distortingthe signal. VU meters use a uniquescale calibrated in decibels (dB), whichmeasure actual signal strength.VU meters boast an ascending scale ofvalues that start with negative numbers.Instead of being at the bottom, zero is nearthe top of the range. Why? Because zero dBindicates a full-strength signal. This wayit’s easy to remember that if a signal straysmuch above zero, distortion may result.Sometimes, simply setting a recordlevel based on the VU meter isn’t enough.Some sounds jump wildly from loud tosoft, making them distorted one secondand virtually inaudible the next. The differencebetween these very loud and softsounds is the dynamic range.Changes in dynamics, at least withinreason are good. It’s the dynamic range ofa recording or vocalist that coveys realismand power. Streisand’s vocal style isdynamic, my grandmother’s isn’t.But when recording sounds, too muchdynamic range can be a problem.Thankfully, there’s help available from anifty device called a limiter. A limiterreduces instant signal peaks, such as aloud scream or feedback from an electricguitar. A limiter allows you to set a maximumsignal level; the unit holds all soundunder that limit.A compressor works somewhat like alimiter, though its effects are less dramatic.Radio stations use compressors tomaintain high signal levels without fearingdistortion. The small sacrifice in realismmay be worth it if you plan on tapingloud live concerts or monster truck rallies.Good production mixers have limitersbuilt in, for controlling sounds at thetime of recording.ReverbSound loses energy as it moves throughthe air. Sound strength drops 6 dB everytime you double the distance between amike (or ear) and the sound source. This iswhy good microphone technique includesmoving the mike close to the sound sourceduring live shooting or narration dubbing.Sound waves bound off walls and hardobjects. Echoes are bouncing waves thatfollow more than 1/20 second after theoriginal sound; reverb is repeated reflectingwaves that sound almost continuous.Post-production electronics can simulateboth these effects. Echo and reverbunits can run the gamut from simple tapeloops, playing back what you record immediately,to sophisticated digital reverbs simulatingrooms of all shapes and sizes.Reverb units bring fullness to sound.With a reverb you can make a three-piece

266 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionband playing in the basement sound like amajor concert hall event. Reverb emulatesthe sound of a big hall. But watch out—too much reverb will make things muddy.Reverb also adds authority to a narrator’svoice. Rock and roll’s ultimate DJ,Cousin Brucie, uses a lot of reverb.Reverb, particularly when applied todrums, can make a band sound biggerthan life on tape. Now you know howrock bands maintain the ambiance of theconcert hall on recorded media.Once it’s on tape, you can’t eliminatereverb easily from a recording. That’s whyrecording engineers add it later for maximumcontrol. Use sound-absorbing dampeners—rugs,blankets, egg cartons—insmall studios whenever recording to capturea clean dry sound. Then employ electronicsin post-production to simulatereal room resonance.Digital delays are similar to reverbs.They electronically delay the input signalfor a selected amount of time. You canproduce echoes of extremely short duration.Use digital delays to double a vocal,and you can make it sound as though twopeople are singing together. And, if youtake one output channel from the delayand run it through an EQ, you may evenmake it sound like two different people.The possibilities are infinite.Phase shifters delay the incoming signalslightly, causing the delayed signal topartially cancel the original. This causeswhooshing sound effects—good for planes,trains and other speedy objects.Going for the TakeOkay, you’ve got your mixer and yourequalizer. Now you must decide whichsounds you need for the mixing session.Much pre-recorded material is available,but you may want to experience thethrill of creating you own sound effects(SFX) like they did in the old radioshows. Crumpled cellophane, for example,makes good rain or eggs frying. Butkeep in mind you only have two hands towork with and will need them for themixing board. If you can, have an assistantwith you during a mix.Say you’re audio mixing a weddingtape. You can “sweeten” up all your locationaudio through use of both techniqueand equipment. You may need to clean upand equalize the live audio vocals a bit.You’ll also want to work on the soundfrom your outdoor segments—selectivelyequalizing background noises or reducethem manually during spoken passages.That waterfall, for example, near the weddingparty blocked out some of the vocalinteraction. An EQ can help, as well as atouch of reverb on the vocalists’ voices.When possible, record musical interludespreceding the ceremony—such as asoloist’s number—on cassette rather thanrelying on a room mike during the shootitself. If the bride doesn’t object, the artistmay have a professionally recorded tape ofthe same material you can use to replacethe live track. After all, we are not focusingour attention on the soloist unless there area lot of close-ups requiring lip sync.In almost any kind of production, considerusing background or “wallpaper”music track for continuity. It will fill inthose silent gaps often associated with livefootage. One cheap trick; try an inexpensivekeyboard with built-in rhythm soundsas background. Use the individual slider onthe mixer to boost the volume of the backgroundgently during these silent periods.If you’re relying on pre-recorded music,find selections that don’t clash with thetheme of your video. For a wedding, don’tuse anything overly aggressive or dynamic;instrumentals are a safe bet. You may wishto sprinkle in some sound effects like ambienceor laughter. Stock music of applauseand laughter may follow special introductionsat the reception.By now you will have run out of hands.Starting the CD player just in time whilecross fading from the live track to an overdubmakes this a job for an octopus. Prostudios use computer sequencers andremote controls to help. It is best to try afew dry runs before actually recording

Adventures in Sound Editing 267onto the final tape. While practicing, sendthe mixer output to a cassette recorder sothat you can listen later. It is very difficultto be objective while working the mixer.With most projects, you’ll find it challengingat best to audio edit the entirelength in one pass. Use cuts and scenebreaks in the video for audio transitionsand segues. Have an assistant keep recordsof tape count and time passed as editingcues. Have them act as audio directors,coaching you through the moves.Complicated editing may require soundrecording the output to a tape recordingbefore laying it on the videotape. A minimumof two output channels will be sentto corresponding tracks on a tape recorder.You may use the individual left and rightchannels of a stereo cassette recorder fortwo-track mono recording. This is ideal foradding narratives that may require numeroustakes. You can then mix the two-trackmaster directly onto the video. You’ll havecontrol over each individual channel.Successive generations do add noise,but what a small price to pay for suchflexibility. You can also add noise suppressionor filters for the final mix-down.Four, eight, twelve, sixteen and twentyfourtrack audio recorders are available atrecording studios for complicated mixesof numerous audio elements.It takes a lot of practice to learn properaudio mixing technique. Even a smallvideo switcher/audio mixer demandsa lot of attention. The results, however,are light-years ahead of what you producein-camera.

54In The Audible Mood:Sound Effects and Music,Evocative, Legal andInexpensiveArmand Ensanian268Imagine Popeye without toot toot, Casablancawithout As Time Goes By, Jawswithout bum BUM bum BUM bum BUM.The soundtrack is the very lifebloodof a video, setting the mood and enliveningeach scene of your work.The trick is to find the right set ofsounds to accompany your video. Theoptions are many, from creating soundeffects yourself—a la old-time radio—tobuying mood music from a music library.In this chapter, we’ll explore theseoptions, and discuss the legal and financialramifications of your choices.The Copyright ChallengeThe availability and affordability of a simplespecial effects generator (SEG) withbuilt-in audio mixing has prompted manyvideographers to try adding music to videoduring editing.It’s harmless fun, attaching a favoritesong to a tender moment between motherand child, a hot rock tune to fast-pacedfootage at the track or some BennyGoodman to Grandma and Grandpa’s 50thanniversary party tape. After all, you’renot planning to make thousands of copiesfor distribution. What are the chances thatthe composer, publisher or lyricist of thesongs will ever see this tape, anyway?Slim at best; no one’s going to bust you forborrowing a tune or two for personal use.The trouble begins when you turn proor even semi-pro.Every serious videographer will eventuallyland a real-world assignment: a weddingvideo, local commercial or contestentry video. Whatever the application,you cannot use someone else’s work withoutpermission in any video offered forsale, profit and/or distribution. Music islike photography, sculpture or any art youcan hold in your hands. Yet the fact thatyou can’t hold it in your hands makesmusic ripe for theft by otherwise lawabidingcitizens.You needn’t stoop to theft. You can buygreat sound effects and music for yourvideos from a number of sources. The first

In The Audible Mood 269is the most expensive. It involves buyingthe rights, for one-time use, of a pop songperformed by a noted artist.Your clients will request this sort ofthing often. After all, most clients canonly relate to what they know and hear onthe radio. You’ll have to explain that yousimply can’t use the pop song withoutgetting permission from the artist’s representativesfirst.This means the artist’s publisher orlicensing agency, such as the AmericanSociety of Composers, Authors andPublishers (ASCAP). You’ve seen thename on almost every record, cassettetape or CD you own. ASCAP operates likea big collection agency, collecting fees forthe use of their artists’ material. It’s a fairsystem that keeps artists from gettingripped off—but it’s an expensive one forvideographers.The price you pay for one-time userights of a pop song depends on how youdistribute the tape. Radio stations, TV stationsand local bars with a jukebox payagencies like ASCAP a blanket fee.This fee may range from thousands ofdollars for a radio station to a few hundreddollars a year for that jukebox. (Formore info, call ASCAP in New York212-595-3050.)Unless you expect your video to make abig profit, paying for rights to use a hittune may be unwise. There are cheaperways to go.One way is to create your own music. Ifyou’ve the talent and the time, this is aworthwhile option. You can use yourdesktop video equipment to make music;MIDI interfaces to Macs and PCs providethe musically inclined with unlimitedcreative potential.Software and sound cards can producedigital sound that rivals the best CDs.Some even come with hundreds of digitalsound samples, ranging from pianos toxylophones.Despite all this automation, you’ll stillneed to have a musical ear, somethingthat’s not included. If you don’t havean ear for music, find local musicians toparticipate in your production. They’llhave both the equipment and the ear youneed. You’ll find, however, that the morepeople involved, the longer the process.Just make sure all parties sign an agreementtransferring the rights to use thematerial over to you. Handshake dealsdon’t carry the weight they once did.The simplest solution, and perhaps thebest bang for the buck, is to buy the musicfrom a music library. The quality of thematerial will be as good as or better thanyou’d expect. You have heard music librarysoundtracks all your life. Commercials,opening scenes to sport events, TV newsshows and presentation videos all usemusic made to augment video productions.In fact, most of the music is somuch like what you hear on the radio thatit’s often easy to persuade clients to usemusic library tracks. Moreover, much ofwhat’s available was written and composedby award-winning musicians; thequality is first rate.LibrariesYou’d be surprised at how well musiclibraries categorize music . . . broadcastpromotional, broadcast show theme, corporateimaging, corporate icon build, creditroll, documentary, events such as weddingsbirthdays and anniversaries, industrialpresentations, news and information,movie soundtrack, retail presentation,retail promotional, sound-alike, sports/action and underscore—to name a few.All of us have a good sense of whatthese many categories sound like. Justwatch some TV or look at a promo tape atthe local travel agency. Still unsure?Music libraries will gladly send you atape or disk of material for approval for aspecific tune; some even offer sample CDs.There are many ways to buy music frommusic libraries. The traditional methodcharges per needle drop. This meansyou pay only for a specific selection ofmusic used from their records, tapes orCDs. The term comes from the days of the

270 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionphonograph, but applies to tapes and CDsas well. Most large music libraries willhelp you find exactly what you need.Computer databases allow quick searchesfrom tens of thousands of titles.The dollars add up quickly here, butyou may obtain a very distinct tune, for aone-time production, that’s not availablefrom any other source. This is ideal forvideographers who don’t produce a lot ofvideos, but who need a unique style ofmusic when they do.Music library charges for needle dropsdepend mostly on the extent of use. Forexample, the charge for broadcasting thesame music on the same video will vary,depending on whether it’s broadcast inSmalltown, USA or Metropolis. Determinedby the number of viewers, needledropfees may range from $150 for anetwork TV broadcast opening title toonly $50 for a local TV program. The onlyother cost: $20 for leasing the CD that containsthe material. You make your choicefrom the CD, report the piece of musicyou will use and pay for it.There are other methods of dealing withmusic libraries. You may buy a production-blanketwhere you pay only for themusic for a given production. Typicallyyou select a CD with a variety of musicalthemes from a library, and use as much ofit as you wish, provided you restrict thatuse to that production. Costs depend onthe size of the project and distribution,but average in the hundreds of dollars.Annual-blanket fees allow you to buylicensing rights to a group of CDs forunlimited use during a given year. Popularwith high-volume videographers, radioand TV stations, fees from reputable largefirms are around $1,000 for a group of overa dozen or two different theme CDs for theyear. You can also sign multi-year contractswith CD upgrades.The best value: a buy-out library. Hereyou pay a one-time price for a CD, or set ofCDs, that contains the music you need.You may use the CD as often as you wish,for as long as you live. You can betterappreciate this deal when you know thatyou can purchase buy-out libraries for aslittle as $5 per sample tape from smallindependent producers advertising in theback of magazines.But cheap can also mean poor quality.Listen to sample disks and tapes beforeyou buy.Sound SubscriptionYou may want to subscribe to a libraryservice. Here you receive a CD everymonth or two, and have the option tokeep it for a one-time fee. Beware, though:you may soon find yourself way overstocked,and stuck with soundtracksyou’ll never use.It’s like that videotape collection youstarted a few years back; despite the varietyyou always seem to stick with a fewfavorites. A variation on the subscriptiontheme: lease the entire contents of amusic library for a term, such as a year,and receive new CDs every month or twoto add to that library.One last note of caution: music librariesare licensed to individuals or productioncompanies. Borrowing a library CD from afriend, and then putting your name on thefinished product is a direct violation ofcopyright.Stay honest. It’ll pay off in the long run.

55Dig ’m Out, Dust ’Em OffJim StinsonSooner or later, you’ll come upon thatdrawer awash in color print packets, thatcarton bulging with slide boxes, that cratestuffed with round rolls of movie film andyou will feel regret and a sort of mildguilt. All those precious records. All thateffort and money. And you never look atthem.Why? Because there has never been aquick, convenient way to do so. Sure, youcan arrange prints in albums, but forslides or movies you have to haul out theprojector, wrestle with the screen, loadthe trays or thread the film and round upa patient if unenthusiastic audience.So you don’t, and there your family picturessit, year in and year out, in mute buteloquent reproach.But now that you have a camcorder,you have a way to turn your photographicarchives into video programs that are asexciting as they are easy to show. You cantransfer your movies, slides and prints totape. And in doing this you can enjoy thefun and satisfaction that truly creativework delivers, because you aren’t justcopying materials, you’re transformingthem into video programs.So this chapter offers a bundle of tips tohelp you copy photo materials to video.We’ll start with suggestions that apply toall video copying, whether the sourcematerial is movies, slides or prints. Thenwe’ll cover transferring movies and slides.The chapter that follows this one concludeswith a look at the challenge ofvideotaping photographic prints andother artwork.General TipsHere, then, are tips that apply to all typesof video copying.Copying with a Monitor. First, alwaysuse an external monitor to set up andcheck your work. It will give you a farmore accurate image than you can obtainfrom any camcorder viewfinder, and incopying it’s essential that you frame youroriginals precisely. You can run a cable271

272 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionfrom most camcorders to a monitorthrough composite or S-video jacks.Adjust the monitor to show color, brightnessand contrast as accurately as possible.If you can’t generate color bars and setup your monitor on a vectorscope, use agood quality store-bought video as a referencestandard. Once you figure out howthe tape should look, you’ll be able to useit to dial in almost any monitor.I set up my monitors with a commercialexercise tape. It has high video quality,carefully lit flesh tones for many skin colorsand bright but realistic colors.Rely on your monitor as you checkand adjust focus, composition and colorbalance.Controlling Color. Color balance is criticalin copying. Usually you want to matchthe colors of the original, but sometimesyou need to change the original colors tocorrect them or create special effects. Tohelp control color, make sure you set thecamera’s white balance correctly. Mostmodern movie and slide projectors—aswell as the lights on pro copy stands—uselamps with a color temperature of 3,200 K(degrees Kelvin). That is exactly the colortemperature of your camera’s “indoor”white balance setting, so set your camerato indoor—or “incandescent”. If the colorbalance seems off when viewed on yourwell-adjusted external monitor, warm thelight or cool it with photographic colorcompensation (CC) filters obtainable atphoto stores.For more color control, run the imagethrough a color processor before recordingit. To do this, don’t use the “corder”part of your camcorder. Instead, just runthe video signal out of the camera sectionto a color processor. From there, run thesignal to a VCR.Then, using your camcorder as if itwere simply a camera, record theprocessed image directly on the VCR.Steady as She Goes. Since a still imageshows no movement of its own, it revealsthe least little bit of camera shake; so besure to set up your camcorder on a sturdytripod. Here’s a cheap trick if you need toset your camcorder securely on a table orother flat surface. Obtain a bolt threadedto match the unit’s tripod socket and useit to secure your camera to a simple plywoodbase plate. Recess the bolt into asingle piece of plywood, or put small feeton either side of the bolt.If your camera has a remote control, byall means use it. You’ll find many cameraon/off buttons on the handgrip, so pressingthem will no doubt jiggle the camera.Using the record/pause button on theremote guarantees jitter-free images. Onsome camcorders, you can even controlthe zoom, add titles and engage autofocusfrom the remote. Perform photo transfers,and the infrared remote becomes yourbest friend.Keeping Things Quiet. Your final programwill probably have sound—narration,music or both—but when you’rerecording you don’t want to pick up projectornoise or other ambient sound. Toprevent this, disable your camcorder’smicrophone by inserting a plug into theexternal mike jack. The trick: use a plugthat’s not connected to anything. I findthat a mini-to-RCA converter plug worksfine with my camcorder.On the other hand, you may wish to usethe video soundtrack as a notepad to recorddata about your pictures as you transferthem. (“That’s Aunt Florrie and the filmcan says Lake Runamuck, Summer, 1956.”)When you assemble this raw footage intoyour final program, you can use these vocalnotes to help create your final narration.These tips cover all types of copying.Now let’s look at copying movies andslides, beginning with some suggestionsthat apply to both media.Copying Projected ImagesFirst of all, decide whether you want touse conversion hardware or simply record

Dig ’Em Out, Dust ’Em Off 273the projected image off a wall or screen.You’ve seen film/slide transfer systems—arrangements of screens and mirrors thatlet you set up projector and camcorder atright angles and videotape the projectedimage.While these can be quite useful, theysometimes limit your flexibility in selectingwhich portion of the image you wantto record. It may be better and cheaper foryou to project the original images onto awhite surface and aim your camcorderdirectly at that surface. To make highqualitycopies with this front-projectionsystem:●●●●Make sure that projector and camcorderare perfectly level and that their lensesare at the same height.Place projector and camcorder as closetogether as possible, at equal angles tothe screen. This will keep the imageborders rectangular and the picturesundistorted.Use a smooth, white screen—never abeaded movie screen. I find that thewhite back of a poster printed on glossystock works fine. Almost any high-qualitywhite paper will work. Don’t be afraidto try many types of papers—after all,they’re cheap.Place the screen as far away as you can,while still getting an acceptably brightimage (use your external monitor tocheck). The farther the screen from theprojector and the camera, the shallowerthe angle between them—and thesmaller the chance of picture distortion.Put it too far away, and the camcordermay try to compensate for the dimmerimage by cranking up its gain. Theresult: a grainy image.By setting up your copy operation like thisyou can make high-quality transfers andretain better control over the images. If thoseimages are 8 mm or 16 mm films, you’ll needto make a few extra adjustments.Copying MoviesMovies are simple to copy to video becausethe screen proportions of the two media arethe same: 4 to 3. Simply adjust your camcorderlens so that the projected image fillsthe frame and you’re in business.But movies are also hard to copybecause of differing projection speeds.Your camcorder, of course, records thirtyframes (images) per second. Film, on theother hand, runs at 24, 18 or 16 frames persecond. The trouble is, these are onlynominal speeds, and none of themmatches the 30 fps of video. As a result, anunpleasant flickering effect often marksvideo transfers.Fortunately, most film projectors havespeed controls that you can use to varythe actual number of frames per second.The best way to use the speed control isto change the film projection speed graduallywhile eyeballing the effect on yourmonitor. When you’ve found the best settingfor your video outfit, leave the projectorat that speed and transfer yourfootage.You can also stop many projectors sothat they project a single frame as a stillimage; you can transfer these frozenmoments to video. The problem is, oncethe movie film stops in the projector gate,it’s protected from the hot projector lampby a thick glass heat filter that degradesthe quality of the image. If you have agood four-head video system you may getbetter results by transferring the movies inreal time, displaying a selected frame as avideo still and then re-copying that.A final tip: because of the magnificationrequired of tiny 8 mm film images, theyoften show dirt, fuzz and fingerprints.Clean movie film by pulling it gentlythrough a fine, lint-free cloth saturatedwith film cleaner bought at a photo store(or with carbon tetrachloride).Never use a water-based solution; filmemulsion is industrial Jell-O and you canguess what happens when it’s soakedin water. Also, be sure to clean the gunk

274 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionout of the projector’s film gate—that’s thepair of metal plates holding the film as it’sprojected.Copying SlidesWhether you use rear-screen or front-screenprojection, copying slides is much likecopying movies. But copying photographictransparencies can be trickier because theirshape does not match that of a video screenin two crucial ways. First, slides orient vertically—portrait—aswell as horizontally—landscape. Secondly, even horizontal slideswill not fit a TV screen because the ratio oftheir sides is three to two instead of four tothree (see Figure 55.1). So, in transferringslides, you must compensate.TV frameSlideframeFigure 55.1 Copying slides can be tricky dueto their shape.Timing Your Slide TransfersA slide will sit there on the screen untilyou advance the projector tray, so howlong should you roll tape on each photo?I find that between 5 and 20 seconds perimage is ample, depending on how muchthere is to see. Clearly, you don’t need aslong to look over a simple road sign asyou do the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Ifyou doubt that 20 seconds is longer thananyone wants to stare at even the mostvisually interesting slide; try it, you’ll see.Pre-Programmed Slide ShowsMany dedicated slide photographersshow their programs on two or more projectors,dissolving between them with aprogrammer unit controlled by pulses onan audiocassette. The cassette also carriesa synchronized sound track.By far the easiest way to transfer slidesto video is by creating a complete programin this manner, plugging the cassetteplayer audio into the camera’s line-in jackand recording the program in real time.Another advantage: your complete programis first generation video! The big disadvantage:you can’t compose your videoframe for each slide.But whichever way you choose, you’llend up with video footage that you can editinto a program you’ll be proud to show.

56Easy CopyJim StinsonVideo is probably the most convenient andeffective way to display precious movies,slides and photographic records. The precedingchapter showed you how to transfermovies and slides to video. Now we’ll lookat the fascinating process of copying photographicprints and other forms of flat art.To transfer flat art to video, you’ll needa copy stand, copy lights and suitablebackgrounds on which to place your subjects.You can put these elements togethercheaply and easily.lightphotocameralightglass platenYour Basic Copy StandA copy stand simply holds the camcorder,lights, and artwork (see Figure 56.1) Stillcameracopy stands, available at betterphotography stores, aren’t always suitablefor video, however. Many video lenseswon’t focus close enough at the camera-tosubjectdistance imposed by copy standsintended for 35 mm cameras. You’ll oftenget better results by assembling your ownvideo copying stand.Figure 56.1 A copy stand.In building a stand, consider how toorient it. You can use your tripod as cameramount for a horizontal stand, butholding the artwork in place verticallycan be a nuisance (see Figure 56.2).On the other hand, a vertical stand requiresyou to build a special mount for yourcamcorder, since it’s usually impractical275

276 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionR G B colorprocessorvcrFigure 56.2 A horizontal stand using atripod.monitor90°Figure 56.4 A rig set at about 30 degreesworks well.45°90°Figure 56.3 A vertical stand requiresyou to build a special mount for yourcamcorder.to shoot straight down from a tripod (seeFigure 56.3).I find it’s best to compromise. A rig setup at about 30 degrees from horizontallets you use your tripod, but still preventsphotos from sliding off their backgrounds(see Figure 56.4).Elemental LightNow that you have a place to shoot yourphotos, you need to light them. Rig yourlights on either side of your artwork support,at 90 degrees from each other and45°Figure 56.5 Lights placed at 45 degreesoff lens axis won’t reflect into the lens.45 degrees from the artwork and camcorder.Since the angle of incidenceequals the angle of refraction (as yourecall from high school physics), lightsplaced 45 degrees off the lens axis willnot reflect into the lens (see Figure 56.5).What kinds of lights? If you copy nothingbut black and white originals, a pair offluorescent shop lights work great andcost very little. You can’t use them forcolor, though. They may seem to matchdaylight white balance, but they really

Easy Copy 277don’t and the mismatch will be visiblewhen you copy color prints.For color, use halogen (quartz) lights,whose 3,200-degree Kelvin color temperatureexactly matches your camcorder’s“indoor” or “incandescent” white-balancesetting. (Never use standard householdbulbs. Their lower color temperatures createa slight orange cast.)For inexpensive halogen lighting, buy acouple of clamp-on work lights and fitthem with halogen PAR floodlights.Or modify a halogen work light -thekind with two heads on an adjustablefloor stand- for a better and more versatilelighting setup.If you’re at all handy, you can modifyone of these work lights for use as an allpurposevideo light. Or dismount its headsand rig them as individual copy lights.Simply replace their electrical cords withplugged power cords, add a junction box tothe lamp yoke, and remove the lamps fromtheir yoke to use them with your copystand (see Figure 56.6).If you don’t care to mess with electricalmodifications, you can buy these samehalogen heads as individual work lightsthat squat on low feet.With camcorder and lighting in place,you need a way to support-and displayyourphotos or artworkA Little BackgroundFor simply copying drugstore color prints,you may not need a background for yourartwork. Instead, simply set your rig soeach print fills the frame. But to transferimages that don’t fit the 4-to-3 video proportions,you need a background to fill therest of the frame around them.For an “invisible” background, you canplace your photos on black cloth or cardboard.But this is rarely successful sincebright copy lights invariably bring outsome backing texture, resulting in tattletalegray on your screen. It’s better to backyour artwork with a dark, pleasing colorlike burgundy or rich blue.Textured backgrounds (like burlap,monk’s cloth, or velvet) contribute evenmore. The 45-degree lighting accents thebackground texture, adding dimensionalityto the shot. For variety, try inexpensivedining table place mats. They come in awide range of colors, patterns, and textandthey’re just the right size.Perfectly flat prints and artwork are rare,so you may need to press them againsttheir backing with a platen—a simple paneof glass. Professionals use “optically flat”glass free of imperfections, but you’ll dowell enough by checking the glass sheet forripples and distortions before you select it.Be careful—glass is notoriously reflectiveand hard to light.Overcoming ProblemsFigure 56.6 A work light modified foruse as an all-purpose video light.To light materials for copying, you mustcope with reflections and excess heatfrom the lights.To defeat reflections from a glass coveror from glossy color prints, make sure toset your lights at the recommended45-degree angle. If that doesn’t work, try apolarizing filter on the camera lens.To completely kill reflections, someprofessional copiers use polarizing gelson the lamps as well.Heat from your lamps can cause problems.Halogen bulbs put out enough of it

278 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionto damage delicate artwork if positionedtoo close. Fortunately, two 500-watt halogenlamps throw plenty of light on thesubject from four or five feet. (Be carefulhow you handle hot lamp housings.Professional gaffers wear gloves.)But you need to keep the lights as closeas you prudently can, to increase “depthof field”—the zone behind and (especially,in copying) in front of what youfocus on that’s still acceptably sharp.In copying, you’re usually workingwith your zoom lens set at its longestfocal length and focused at its shortestdistance. Both reduce depth of field to theminimum. Since the size of the lens openingalso affects depth of field, you needlots of light to achieve the smallest possibleaperture.As an experiment, I aimed a camcorderat a copy surface and held a ruler at rightangles to that surface. I studied the resultingimage on a monitor to see how muchof the ruler remained sharp as its markingsgot farther from the plane of focus. Inambient room light the depth of fieldextended less than 1/4-inch from theplane of focus. But when I turned on two500-watt halogen lights the zone of sharpnessjumped to over an inch.You need as much depth of field as possiblefor two reasons. First, despite yourbest efforts, your camcorder may not beabsolutely at right angles to your artwork.Part of the art will be soft if the depth offield is too shallow.Second, you need a bit of focus leeway.In copying, you often have to focus bymoving the camcorder instead of byadjusting the lens. You generally haveyour lens set at its closest focus, and can’tadjust it any further. To fine-tune thefocus you have to move the camcorderslightly instead.Why not get around the problem withyour lens’s macro setting? Many camcorderlenses offer macro capability forclose work, and yours may be fine forcopying.I tested the same camcorder with it’s8–80 mm zoom and 4-foot minimumcamera-to-subject distance and found thatat 80 mm, the minimum field was 2.25 by3 inches—small enough to copy walletsizepictures.When I switched to macro (which operatesonly at the winde-angle end of the zoonrange), the minimum size was almost thesame, but the lens hood was now only halfan inch from the artwork! Needless to say,this makes lighting the art impossible.In shooting photographic prints a colorprocessor patched between camcorderand recording VCR can be indispensable.You can color-correct age-faded photos.Typically, elderly color prints that havebeen exposed to light show a sicklymagenta cast. Adjusting color balance canreduce this somewhat. And color adjustmentscan improve the originals: pumpup the orange glow of a sunset or enhancethe blue-white of snow. Add a slight sepiatone to black and white prints for an oldtimeeffect (but don’t overdo it—it canlook hokey). Or set the colors to zero toguarantee black and white originals don’ttake on a color cast when viewed on acolor monitor.The Copy SessionChanging camcorder distance, focus,lighting, backgrounds, and such can betedious, so the best procedure is to gangall similar artwork together. Sort photosby size, and then by portrait (vertical) orlandscape (horizontal) orientation.Sort by proportion, too: prints from35 mm originals are usually 3 to 2; instamaticor Polaroid prints have differentproportions. The more originals you cancopy before you have to change the setup,the faster the process will go.One nice thing about copying is thatyour finished programs can be first generationvideo. To do this, I create a completemusic track, dub it to an assembly tape,and then load the tape into a VCR.Next, I set up my camcorder to copyphotos and cable it to the VCR. Using thevideo insert mode, I record the camera

Easy Copy 279signal, timing it to the music as I wouldany editing element.For stereo hi-fi sound and/or narration,copy the finished tape, relaying the musicand adding voice-over narration. Thefinal program tape will still be only secondgeneration.What’s in Store?The exciting future of video copying isalready here! You need only a desktopcomputer, a card that accepts and outputsNTSC video, and a software package forretouching images.You import a photo from your copy camcorderto your computer, which digitizesthe video signal from NTSC. You take allthe time you need to revise and improvethe picture to your taste, reconvert it toNTSC and export it to your VCR.You can remove Junior’s acne; improvecolor, brightness and contrast; erase cracksand spots from that priceless familydaguerreotype. Software packages willcombine photos, mix photos and artwork,and “morph” a person into somebody (orsome thing) else!All the hardware and software you needfor a “Digital Darkroom” is currentlyavailable and—with the rapid decline inprices—widely affordable. But even withoutcomputerized retouching, you can useyour skills to pull those wonderful photosout of dark drawers and dusty albums andput them up on the screen where everyonecan enjoy them.

PART VTelevision DistributionBroadcasting your programs through cable and over-the-air TV.

57Commercial Distribution:Mapping Your Way to FinancialSuccessWilliam RonatSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.Making video means working withmotion, sound, color, words, composition,light—all combined in a maximumcreative effort. That’s fun.Many have produced enough video toget good at it. This means putting in longhours planning, shooting and editing programs.That’s work.When you work for a company, youexpect a paycheck when you finish yourwork. That’s reasonable.When you work for yourself, however, youcan expect to work just as hard to sell yourproduct as you did to make it. That’s life.Fun and ProfitTo sell your product, several things haveto happen. People have to know yourproduct exists. They have to decide thatthe product is something they want. Thenthey have to pull their money out of theirpockets and hand it to you.This exchange can take the form of ticketsat a theater, credit card information overthe phone, money from the advertisers runningcommercials on your show or checksfrom all those networks buying your product.It all boils down to this: you get paid.That’s what you want. You may travelmany paths to this destination. You cansell directly to the consumer throughmagazine ads or direct mail; you can workthrough a distributor; you can sell yourprogram to broadcast TV: or you can buyairtime from a cable company, and thensell commercials during your show.The path you choose (Figure 57.1) dependson your product and, to some extent,how deep your pockets are. Being in businessinvolves taking risks, which meansyou sometimes have to shell out somecash before it starts to flow back to you.Is It Good?The first step in the process is to take along, very critical look at your product.Is this a show that other people will wantto watch? Would they pay money to watch283

284 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionintellectually compelling and technicallyflawless (congratulations). Now you’reready to distribute that perfect video. Let’sstart with the cheapest way to do it—byyourself.Birth of a SalesmanFigure 57.1it? Would you? Ask your friends to watch itand tell you what they think. Now do thesame with your enemies. That should giveyou a nice range of viewpoints.Is the target audience large enough tojustify the production costs? You can producethe greatest video ever on GrowingBeans in Sandy Soil, but if this subjectdoesn’t appeal to enough people, thenyou may not get your investment back—even if every potential member of yourtarget audience buys your product. Youhave to believe strongly in your product—just make sure you can justify that belief.Your next consideration: productionvalue. Producing on consumer-level equipmentwill work for some uses, but if youplan to sell your show to a broadcast ormajor cable network, you may want towork with professional gear. Also, use thebest crew and talent that you can afford.If your show is perfect, except for thelighting, or the audio, or the on-cameraspokesperson’s delivery, you could be introuble; one of these flaws alone couldflag your project for rejection.Let’s say that (based on your long andsuccessful track record) your product isThis method seems fair and natural to mostpeople. You worked hard on your video;it’s only right that you should enjoy all theprofit from this effort. Remember, however,that this also means assuming all the riskand fronting all the money for the advertising,postage, dubbing costs, shipping andso on. Also figure in time and effort foranswering inquiries about your product, aswell as packaging and addressing thesepackages when you do make a sale.Let’s say your glorious video details theproper maintenance of inboard marineengines. Is this program any good? Youthink so. Your friends think so. Even yourenemies admit to liking it. But these opinionswon’t do you much good when itcomes time to sell. What you need is areview.Check all the magazines covering yoursubject (Inboard Boating Illustrated, MarineEngine World and so on) and read them.Do they review books or videos of interestto their readers? If they do, write a professionalcover letter to the editor of each,describing your show in a straightforwardmanner. (If they don’t, send out letters(Figure 57.2) anyway; your product may begood enough to set a few precedents.)Don’t hype your product at this point; journalistsdon’t like that approach. Also sendalong VHS dubs of your program for theeditors to pass on to their reviewers.Don’t expect replies, unless you alsoenclose a SASE (Self-Addressed StampedEnvelope) in each letter. If you want yourdub back, then send a SASE with enoughpostage to cover its weight.Getting a review is not a quick process.The reviewer has to view your show, writeup the review and get the review to themagazine. Depending on the publication,

Commercial Distribution 285it may be two to three months from thepoint the review reaches the editor’s deskuntil it actually gets into print.If the review is favorable, your show hasjust taken a big step toward legitimacy. Amajor publication (Inboard BoatingIllustrated, no less) has complimentedyour show in print. This tells your potentialbuyers that your program is for real,that you did not just fall off of a turniptruck and that the video is worth spendingtheir money to see.Another way to lend legitimacy to yourtape is to have an expert introduce thematerial. You can also put the expert’spicture on the cover of the tape’s package.Potential buyers see their favorite inboardengine expert on the tape and say to themselves,“Hey, I trust Joe Inboard. This tapemust be good.” Of course, Joe Inboard willprobably ask you to pay for his image, orhe may even ask for a piece of the action(such as a percentage of the profits).If Inboard Boating Illustrated uses a ratingsystem (four little boats equal excellent,and three little boats equal good), then youhave a perfect element for your next step inselling your product—advertising in themagazine. In your display ads, you’ll feature“FOUR BOATS—Inboard BoatingIllustrated” as prominently as possible.The cost of your ad will vary according tothe number of people who read the magazine,how much space your ad takes up andhow many colors appear in the ad. As youmight expect, the price goes up as readers,colors and space requirements go up. If yourun an ad run more than once (which youalmost always have to do to have anyimpact), the amount per issue goes down.Magazines often offer breaks for running anad three times (3) or six times (6).FulfillmentFigure 57.2Once the ad runs, the orders start to pour in.But how do you get them? Do customersorder by credit card over the phone (anytime of the day or night)? Or do they sendyou a check? Do you wait for checks toclear before you send customers theirtapes? What if the check bounces? Which—if any—credit cards will you accept? Whatabout a money-back guarantee?You can avoid some of these headachesby working out a deal with a fulfillmenthouse. I once used a service from a companythat made dubs of my show and keptthem on hand. The company provided mewith its 800 number, which I used in myads. My customers placed their orderswith this company. The company performeda number of services for me:●●●●recording the pertinent customer information,accepting credit cards,waiting for checks to clear andsending out the videos, using a preprintedslip sleeve that I provided.At the end of each month, the companysent me a statement telling me how manyunits sold during that time, along with acheck—minus the fees they charged fortheir fulfillment services.This is a good, convenient service; butit does mean additional expense. Also,fulfillment services typically require theassurance that they make a minimumamount of money per month, whichmeans selling a minimum number of your

286 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionvideos each month. If the total falls belowthis, you may pay a penalty.Direct MailAnother method of reaching potential customersis direct mail. You get direct mailfrom advertisers at home all the time; youprobably think of it as junk mail. But it’sonly junk if the ad is trying to sell yousomething you don’t want. That’s why youmust make sure that the people you mailyour ad to are the people who want yourproduct.There are companies that sell lists ofbusiness names, preformatted on stickylabels for easy use. These lists break downaccording to type of business, number ofemployees, region of operation and so on.Be selective, and you can buy the right listfor your target market.Also, Inboard Boating Illustrated probablysells its subscriber list to advertisers.Consider buying subscriber lists fromappropriate publications.Once you buy the right list, find a localcompany that handles large mailings. Thisway, you won’t have to stuff any envelopes.If you’ve ever licked more than twentystamps at a sitting, you’ll know this serviceis worth the expense.When you determine the price of yourprogram, remember to figure in the advertisingcosts. For example, if you buy a listof 10,000 names from a magazine, printup 10,000 ads and stuff 10,000 stampedenvelopes for your direct mailing, you’veshelled out some serious money. Thedirect mail industry considers a one percentresponse rate “good;” that’s 100orders from a mailing of 10,000. So youcould lose money if you don’t chargeenough for your product.There are public libraries, collegelibraries, high school libraries and more.Most have videotape departments stockedwith a variety of videos; especially popularare how-to programs.Check out the magazines covering thismarket: Booklist (you won’t find it at thenewsstand, it goes out directly to librarians);School Library Journal; LibraryJournal; and Wilson Library Bulletin.Each of these publications reviews videotapes,so getting a review is a good placeto start.The local video rental store (Figure 57.3)is another option. One method would beto walk in, ask to see the owner and try tosell the show then and there. But thiswould be much like trying to teach a pigto sing. It wastes your time and annoysthe pig.Rental stores buy their programs almostexclusively from major distributors thatpublish catalogs every week. One is theMajor Video Concept catalog (800-365-0150), which boasts lots of four-color adsfor Hollywood features. One page advertisesforeign films and other videos.Libraries & Video Rental StoresAfter you’ve fully exploited the inboardboating market, exploit libraries.Figure 57.3

Commercial Distribution 287DistributorsWhen you distribute a product, such as avideotape, there is a certain amount ofinfrastructure that has to be in place. Youmust let the customer know that the productis available, you must be able to takeorders and fulfill them. This is true whetheryou have one product in your line or athousand. Obviously, this infrastructure isless expensive per product if you have athousand products. This is why there arecompanies called distributors.In the early years of the motion pictureindustry, there were no major film studios.The people who owned the theatersneeded product. Viewers didn’t ask formuch, they would watch a man petting adog or a horse running down a road andbe happy. But they always wanted more.Finally, the people who owned lots oftheaters and thus needed the most productdecided to make their own movies.That’s how the major studios were born.Distribution was the key.For video, there are hundreds of smallspecialty distributors. One distributormight serve a market of gardeners. Everyfew months the distributor sends a catalogto these gardeners featuring all the booksand videos on pruning and planting. Thegardener can pick out several and orderall of them at the same time. Convenient.You can usually find a list of distributorsat your local library. Books listing allthe video products available for the currentyear often include a list of distributorsfor ordering purposes.The names may not tell you muchabout the distributors. So before you sendout copies of your program to distributors,call the companies and chat with theowners about your product. Even if thesepeople show no interest in your video,they may recommend distributors whomight.When a distributor decides to handleyour show, you’ll negotiate a contract. Youwon’t sell the show, but rather license it.This means that while you still own thematerial, the distributor will receive a percentageof the retail price of product sold.This could be a healthy percentage, like75 percent. Or it could be less, dependingon how good a negotiator you are and howmuch the distributor wants the product.When negotiating remember that thedistributor is paying for advertising, fulfillment,storage and so on; you assumenone of the risk. These services are worthsomething.The Big ScreenYou’ve always dreamed of seeing your workon the big screen. This means selling yourwork to film distributors—not an easy sell.Major film festivals are a good place toshow off your work to distributors. Eventssuch as the Berlin Film Festival and theSundance Film Festival are places to seeand be seen by “the players”. Before youcan enter your show, however, check theentrance requirements. Pay particular attentionto format. If you shot on video, you willhave to transfer the master to 16 mm or35 mm. Expect to pay a couple of thousanddollars for this process.There are many video festivals as well.Entering and winning prizes for qualityand great content can’t hurt your chancesof interesting a distributor in your show.And the price of a dub for your entry willbe less expensive than a 35 mm film print.Seeing your work “on the air,” either ona broadcast or a cable station, is always athrill. Again, there are many avenues youcan take to reach this goal.Vid News is Good NewsMany local news shows encouragevideographers to be on the lookout fornewsworthy events. (Figure 57.4.) Even inlarge markets, a news director has only alimited number of crews to cover the station’sarea. Given the improved quality ofconsumer gear, stations are more likely toget footage of dramatic events as they

288 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 57.4happen if a quick-thinking videographerhappens to be on the scene.The value of the footage depends on itsnewsworthiness; most stations pay $50 to$100 for short news pieces. You canexpect a lot more if you get the Loch Nessmonster, Bigfoot or some natural or manmadedisaster on tape.If you live in an area which has a lowpowertelevision (LPTV) station or a smallcable company, you might be able to geton the air by forging a partnership. If thestation or company doesn’t have a productionarm, make yourself useful tothem by offering to: (1) cover city councilmeetings, (2) produce promotional spots,and (3) shoot public service work.Could you do this out of the goodness ofyour heart? You could, or you could offerto do all this work in exchange for airtimeon the channel, say an hour a week.On the AirNow you own an hour of airtime; how doyou profit by it? There are a number ofways to boost your bottom line. If you livein an area that attracts lots of tourists, createa show that reviews restaurants, profilesinteresting people and recommendslocal hot spots. Sell 30-second spots on theshow to some of these same businesses.Figure 57.5Then produce the 30-second spots for them,charging for production services.Or take your hour of airtime and sell it toa syndicator. The syndicator will then fillthe time with an infomercial or an entertainmentprogram, commercials included.Or you could run a telethon and ask fordonations from viewers in order to keepyour telethon on the air. (If you succeed atthis one, be sure to tell me about it.)Leased Access & Satellite TimeIf you have a great programming idea andlive in an area where the cable companycarries more than 36 channels, you may beable to lease your own time. The CableAct of 1992 requires cable operators to setaside a certain percentage of their channelsfor lease by independent programmers.This sounds good; but some cable companieshesitate to sell time to independents,and others charge too much whenthey do. Contact your local cable operator(Figure 57.5) and ask about its leased

Commercial Distribution 289access policy; be ready to fight for thetime that is legally yours.If national exposure appeals to you, trya satellite TV network such as ChannelAmerica. Channel America is a 24-hoursatellite channel affiliated with 110 fulland low-power TV stations and cableaffiliates in the U.S., reaching some25 million households.On-air hours are open to programmingin the following categories: Talk, Events,Emerging Sports, College Network,Nostalgia, Travel, Lifestyle, Talent Showcase,Outdoors, Hunting, Fishing, FinancialOpportunities, Your Money, Music AcrossAmerica, New Age, Hobbies, Crafts andCollecting, International and Health andFitness.Airtime on Channel America isn’t free,however. And the satellite channel won’tpay you for your programming. There areways around these financial obstacles,however. Say you’ve reformatted yourinboard marine engines video; it’s now ahalf-hour show with breaks for commercials.Approach national inboard enginemanufacturers; ask them to buy the timeon Channel America for your program, inexchange for exclusive commercial time.Of course, they would also pay you for theproduction.Destination DistributionDistribution paths are many. Someinvolve risking your money; some involvespending your time; and others involvesharing your profits with others.The key is to find the ones that work foryou and your video. Persevere and youcan sell your show.All it takes is a little effort and a littleluck . . . and a great product.

58Public Access:Produce Your Own TV ShowSofia Davis290You can have your own TV show. It’seasier than you might think and best ofall, it’s absolutely free! How, you ask? Theanswer is public access.Public access television is noncommercialairtime made available to thepublic, free of charge. The only requirementto utilize public access, it that youlive in the community where the showwill be produced. Most public access facilitiesoffer training in shooting, audioand editing, and provide all the equipmentyou’ll need.While the law no longer requires thatcable companies air public access programs,a certain percentage of cable revenuein any market must go to the hostcity or municipality. A portion of thismoney goes towards public access television,so most markets (even small ones)have a public access channel and a modeststudio.Does producing and broadcasting yourown public access TV show sound enticingto you? This article will tell you howto get started.Getting StartedThe first step is to contact your local publicaccess station and sign up for an orientationclass. Most facilities have ongoingseminars and continuing education tohelp you increase your production knowledge.If you have questions during ashoot, a staff person is usually available tohelp you (see Figure 58.1).Once you finish the orientation and gettested on the equipment, you’re ready toproduce your show. Usually, you mustsubmit a finished program to the publicaccess facility before it airs so someone canview your tape and make sure it fits thestation’s guidelines. Once approved, youwill receive a time slot for your show to air.Remember, your program has to be noncommercial;that means you cannot say orshow phone numbers, dates of events,prices or store names within the showitself. You can put phone numbers at theend of the show, typically for no longerthan 10 seconds. Anything longer thanthat is considered advertising.

Public Access 291Figure 58.1 Teach me—you often need to be trained to use theequipment this is a great opportunity to learn.Figure 58.2 Equip me—the gear at the station might be ancient or itmight be the latest and the greatest.Everything You NeedIf you have no experience with video orTV production, public access can be agreat place for you to start. At most publicaccess stations everything is provided foryou—a studio for shooting, editing facilities,digital video cameras for locationshooting, computer editing systems, microphonesand audio cables, dressing roomsand more. This is a big help for a beginneror a person that does not have equipment(see Figure 58.2).Although most studios now have wellmaintaineddigital equipment, this is publicaccess, so don’t necessarily expect

292 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productioncutting-edge equipment. They will, however,provide everything you need toshoot and edit a program.Other producers are usually available tocrew for you, and in turn, it is expectedthat you will crew for them. Most facilitieshave a book that lists people who arecertified and available to work on a productioncrew.Different Time, Same ChannelDepending on your city, you may have towait for a time slot before your program canair. And, you don’t always have the optionof choosing the time slot you like.Typically, you will not have a time slotfor more than 13 weeks, so it can be hardto build an audience to follow your program.You may be on Saturday at 8 p.m.and then moved to Wednesday at 7 a.m.Your 8 p.m. audience will wonder whereyou went. You cannot advertise the movein advance, because you won’t knowwhere you’re going until the move hasbeen made. There is typically nothing youcan do about this. The facility has to makespace for new producers.If you are in a facility that has a lot of producers,you may be asked to go off the air (ifyour show has been airing for a period oftime), to give new producers a chance.The Golden RuleEach station will have it’s own rules andregulations about the use of equipment,crew and timeslots. Check with your localaccess station for specifics. However,there is one guideline to which all publicaccess programs must adhere: You cannotmake any money from the show.The station staff will watch your showcarefully. If they find that you’ve produceda commercial show, you can be bannedfrom having a show, or using the facilitiesand editing equipment.You’ve Got AccessThe opportunity is there for you to takeyour own program to the airwaves. Despitesome restrictions and scheduling irregularities,managing your own public accesstime slot is a wonderful opportunity.Sidebar 1Insurance?Since your show is non-commercial, insurance is not required. You do not have to haveErrors & Omission Insurance to produce a show.Sidebar 2Public Access Hints●●●●Take as many educational classes as possible.Crew for everyone you can. If there are people that are particularly experienced, crew forthem; you will learn a lot.Volunteer to help edit someone else’s show. Sit in with them to learn how they edit andwhy.Follow the rules of the facility. Most provide these services free; if you had to pay for it,it could really cost you. Therefore, be respectful of the rules.

59Leased Access:A Unique Cable OpportunitySheldon I. AltfeldBroadcasting your program on leased accesscable, an opportunity offered by most U.S.cable systems, can be an extremely costeffectiveway to launch new programmingconcepts or sell products. And best of all,leased access can actually provide you witha revenue stream.The practice has been used successfullyby videographers and producers in a widevariety of programming concepts, includinghow-to’s, infomercials, travelogues,talk shows, children’s programs, comedyshows, restaurant reviews and localmusic videos, to name just a few.The Federal Communications Commissiongot the leased access ball rollingwhen it established the Cable CommunicationsPolicy Act of 1984. The legislationcompelled cable operators of systems withmore than 36 channels to set aside 10 to15 percent of their stations for commercialuse.“Leased access,” the act stated, “is aimedat bringing about the widest possiblediversity of information sources for cablesubscribers.”Locally produced infomercials tend tobe the most popular form of leased accessprogramming because of their moneymakingpotential. The process for gettingyour program on leased access is rathersimple.Leased Access and PublicAccess—Two Separate AnimalsIt is important not to confuse leased accesswith public access. Public access is one armof a three-part federal program that mandateseach cable system to provide publicaccess, educational access and governmentaccess programming. Cable systems allocatethese non-commercial channels to servetheir communities. Leased access, on theother hand, offers a commercial programmingchannel, or channels, to enable producerstime to display their programs. Theonly restrictions are programs deemed“inappropriate for the community standards,due to gratuitous sex, violence orprofanity.”293

294 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionThe Cost of Leased AccessLeased access on-air time is extremelyreasonable. Generally, the cost is approximately$100 per half-hour for leasedaccess time on larger cable systems, andas little as $10 on smaller systems (seeFigure 59.1). The cable system is permitted,however, to charge different rates fordifferent time-slots (as is common inbroadcast television), so the time for aprogram carried in peak-time would bemore expensive than one in off-peak.You may also be required to provideproof of a $1 million general liability insurancepolicy (and possibly a $2 millionerrors & omissions policy) naming thecable system as co-insured. Once that policyis in place, your insurance agent canadd each additional cable system you workwith as a rider for a very nominal fee.Since you are paying for the time on thecable system, you are at liberty to selladvertising for your program. Aside fromthe leased access time and perhaps a fewoperational fees, the cable system generallydoes not take a percentage of youradvertising revenue.Let your Advertisers Pay for ItLet’s assume that you’re producing ashow about gardening, and you’re goingto lease broadcast time on your local cablesystem. Potential advertisers, who wouldinclude nurseries, gardeners, flower shops,tree-trimmers and landscapers shouldoffset your broadcast costs. Not only couldyou charge them an advertising fee, but aproduction fee as well, since most smallbusinesses haven’t already produced acommercial. You’ll provide the service ofcreating one for them (see Figure 59.2).You might take out an ad in a localnewspaper to promote the fact that yourprogram will be on XYZ Cable at suchand-sucha time. Mention the advertisersin the ad. It will act as another incentivefor them to buy their advertising timefrom you.Also, contact the cable operator aboutplacing cross-channel promotional ads foryour program, where they’ll promote yourshow on other channels.The general rule-of-thumb to determinehow much to charge for your advertisingis to take the total expense of producingFigure 59.1 Such a deal—leased access on-air time costs only about$100 per half-hour on larger cable systems and as little as $10 insmaller markets.

Leased Access 295Figure 59.2 Ad Dollars—when you lease cable time for a show, youcan sell ads to offset the cost. If your client doesn’t have acommercial, you can create one charge a production fee too.your show and divide that figure by thenumber of 30-second spots you haveavailable to sell. That will tell you howmuch to sell each ad for in order to breakeven. Add 15 or 20 percent to determineyour basic ad rate.Many leased access producers maximizetheir profits by purchasing time(and selling ads) for the same program onseveral cable systems in their area. And byrunning the show on additional cable systems,the advertising rate can be reducedand the profit-per-spot can increase.Don’t Forget the QualityOne of the most important aspects of producingleased access programming is theoverall production quality. Unlike publicaccess, which generally features “talkingheads” in a very bland setting, with awilted plastic plant in the background,leased access programs reflect the reputationof the videographers and producersputting the programming together. Likeeverything else a professional does, theleased access programs need to be professional.Decent production values are crucial—notonly for the advertisers, but forthe audience as well. Remember that whatpeople see on television with your name onit is your only real promotional brochure.Get the Format RightThe cable system may accept your programin 3/4-inch U-Matic, BetacamSP or a digitalformat, so check with the system todetermine which format they prefer. It ishighly unlikely that a cable system willaccept a VHS tape, as the quality wouldnot generally be up to acceptable engineeringstandards. While digital formats thatrecord high quality images are becomingthe format of choice for producers, manycable stations still do not accept submissionson Mini DV or Digital8. Many stationsdo, however, provide a large formatrecord deck so producers can transfer theirfootage to the proper format for broadcast.Producers should discuss format requirementsand tape transfer options with the

296 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productioncable company up front. Also, when youbring the tape to the cable system, it needsto include everything in it—program, commercials,credits etc.Leased access can open a wholenew medium for videographers. As cabletelevision becomes more diversified anddigital set-top boxes begins to offer consumersliterally hundreds of new channels,leased access enables entrepreneursthe opportunity to be an integral part ofan exciting and ever-growing industry.Sidebar 1The Down Side of Leased AccessSome cable operators present leased access producers with obstacles in order to buy time ontheir systems. Some common roadblocks include:●●●●Expensive (and required) $1 million general liability insurance policy premiums.Arbitrary program schedule changes.Refusal of some systems to make any leased access time available.Exorbitant fee charges for tape playback, tape changes, viewing of tapes for indecent content,etc.Since the FCC mandated leased access in 1984, every cable system is obligated to accommodateproducers. Friendly negotiations with the system will generally overcome most hurdlesand establish long-term working relationships between the entrepreneur and the cable operator.Sidebar 2A 20-minute Half-hourThe total running time of the average half-hour program is actually 28:30; with 90-secondsused by the cable system for its own internal promotion. The standard format for a 30-minuteshow that includes commercials would look something like this:Time Item Cumm.00:30 Opening Tease 00:3002:00 SPOT BREAK #1 02:3010:00 Segment I 12:3002:00 SPOT BREAK #2 14:3010:00 Segment II 24:3002:00 SPOT BREAK #3 26:3002:00 Bye Bye/Credits 28:30

Leased Access 297Sidebar 3Trying to Create a Network out of Leased AccessThe good news is that nearly all of the 12,000-plus cable systems in the United States have aleased access channel. The bad news is that the cost of getting a program on all of themwould be astronomical.Imagine buying leased access time on 100 cable systems for a 30-minute program. At anaverage of $50 each, it would cost $5,000. Believe it or not, most cable systems are still using3/4-inch U-Matic tape. At $12 each and you’re looking at another $1,200 expense. Andfinally, add $1,500 for shipping and your cost thus far is $7,700.The premium for the requisite general liability insurance policy runs abound $5,000 ayear, and add approximately $150 per system for each system named as co-insured.So, to establish a “network” of 100 cable systems, you can figure on spending nearly $28,000.And by the way, you still have to employ a staff to sell advertising for your 100-systemnetwork.

60PBS and ITVS:Fertile Soil for IndependentVideographersAlessia CoweeSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.If you’ve ever dreamed of seeing yourvideo production on television or bringingyour vision to a broader audience thanfriends and family, now is the time andPBS is the place. PBS—both independentlyand through its liaison with ITVS—offers unparalleled opportunities forvideographers with unique vision and acompelling story. You’ll find a surprisingnumber of opportunities with ongoingseries (such as Frontline, AmericanMasters, POV, and American Experience),limited jointly-curated series (like DigitalDivide and Independent Lens) and one-offs(stand-alone, independent films). This articlewill help you evaluate whether yourproject is PBS/ITVS material and showyou how to break into this ever-expandingmarket.PBS, ITVS and You: The Timeis NowPBS has a strong tradition of working withindependent producers. It’s a commonmisconception, but PBS is not a televisionnetwork. Instead, it is a membershiporganization made up of independent publictelevision stations around the country,funded, in part, by the Corporation forPublic Broadcasting, a private corporationcreated by the US Congress in 1967. PBS isavailable to 99% of US households andstrives to reach all portions of the populationwith quality, accessible, relevantprogramming. Pat Mitchell, PBS Presidentand CEO, says key components of the PBSmission are “to inform, to inspire and toeducate.”Independent producers frequently challengeconvention and provide in-depthanalyses of complex topics. PBS makesavailable programming designed to spurdiscussion and active community involvementin social issues. Their goal is to providethorough examination of a story,theme or issue, including all conflictingpoints of view.The Independent Television Service(ITVS) was created in 1991 in responseto demand from independent media298

PBS and ITVS 299Figure 60.1 Acting as guide and gateway into the public television arena,ITVS links independent producers with public television programmingopportunities.producers and community activists forprogramming by and for diverse, underrepresentedaudiences (such as minoritiesand children) not adequately served bythe networks or by PBS.Acting as guide and gateway into thepublic television arena, ITVS linksindependent producers with public televisionprogramming opportunities (seeFigure 60.1). ITVS offers producers feedbackduring the creative process (includingprograms which apply, but are rejected forfinancial aid), content development assistance,funding options and an extensivemarketing and publicity package in conjunctionwith Community ConnectionsProject (CCP—a network of communityorganizers).Content Confab: ProgrammingPossibilitiesWhat are PBS and ITVS looking for andhow do you know if your program is rightfor them? The most obvious question isoften the most overlooked: Do you wantto produce a program or a series? If yourlong-range goal is theatrical release, PBSis probably not the proper venue for yourproject. Some films, however, do get additionalplay after a public TV release, forexample, in educational distribution, atfestivals and in home video and foreignbroadcast markets.Though the guidelines and needs varyfor each program and funding initiative,it can be said that PBS and ITVS seek

300 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productioninnovative, adventurous, compelling storiestold in distinctive, contemporary andengaging formats. Of special interest areprojects that provide interactive opportunitiesfor community participation. No subjectis taboo, though projects too narrow inscope may not have many market options.Wide-market appeal creates more programmingpossibilities, but success is notstrictly about raw ratings in public broadcasting.You should also avoid controversyfor controversy’s sake. Journalistic integrityin research, documentation and developmentis expected.Is it easier for emerging or establishedvideographers to break in with a one-off orwith a series segment? ITVS ExecutiveDirector, Sally Jo Fifer explains, “It’s alwaysdifficult to get funding because the competitionis so fierce. The one essential is tohave a great idea and tell it in a creative,thorough, smart proposal. Tell a greatstory in a unique, ‘the viewer can’t stopwatching’ way.”FundingITVS offers several initiatives for producersseeking financial support for completionof a film, although it actually fundsless than five percent of proposed projects.Open Call accepts proposals in anygenre and funding rounds occur twiceyearly (in February and August). LinCS(Local Independents Collaborating withStations) provides matching ITVS fundsfor producers who pair up with a specificpublic television station and is perfect forprograms with a more local appeal.PBS is currently implementing a program,called In The Works, to supportproduction on a limited number of projectsfor use with its series, POV as fundingbecomes available. An excellent way tokeep abreast of developments is to subscribeto the Beyond the Box newsletter(see Figure 60.2). Available funding andapplication procedures vary for eachprogram and initiative.Public television is commercial-free, butother outside opportunities exist for acquiringfinancial assistance. Corporate andminority consortia funds are available forresourceful producers, as are grants fromstate and national arts councils.Getting the Green LightITVS uses a peer-reviewed process toscreen applicants for funding. ITVSselects juries based on diversity of ethnicity,vocation, religion, geographic regionand other demographic criteria. The juryconsiders each application on its ownmerits, individually evaluated and scored.The screening process has three levels,with weaker proposals eliminated at eachstage. The panels often request additionalapplication materials from producers whoadvance to the next level during thereview process. At the full panel meetings,members advocate for their favorite projectsuntil they can arrive at a consensus onwhich proposals to fund for that round.Criteria the panel may consider whenreviewing your project:●●●●Is the project accessible, relevant, formattedin the most effective manner?Is the treatment thorough, concise, writtenwith passion? Does it clearly showthe project trajectory and structure?Is the audience easily identifiable? Is itbroad enough? Does it represent ITVSand PBS mission statements?Is the producer or the team experiencedenough to complete the project on budgetand on deadline?Ms. Fifer warns that producers frequentlydo not read the application guidelinescarefully enough. She also suggeststhat producers weigh the appeal of theirprojects, “Programmers tell us repeatedlythat they don’t need six shows on onesubject. They especially don’t need six

PBS and ITVS 301Figure 60.2 An excellent way to keep abreast of developments is tosubscribe to the Beyond the Box newsletter.okay shows on one subject. What theyneed is one great show on that subject.”Sample materials and written treatmentsmust outshine their competitors.There are not nearly enough programminghours available for the number of submissionsreceived by PBS and ITVS, ofcourse, and top-notch productions oftendo not make the cut the first time around.You may find the keys to the public programmingkingdom in the feedback youget even if your proposal is rejected. Butremember, not all venues are suited to allprograms. Keep reevaluating your projectto determine where it fits best.Technical SpecificationsAlmost any shooting format is viablefor PBS/ITVS programming. Choose theformat that most effectively showcasesyour subject matter or the one that is mostreadily available. In the end, however, thefinal video must be digitally mastered andmust meet all of the very rigorous PBStechnical requirements, as set forth in theTechnical Operating Specifications (TOS)(see Figure 60.3). This handbook and theITVS Production manual are available forpurchase online. Standard program lengthsfor PBS/ITVS are 26:40 and 56:40. Featurefilms of non-standard length are consideredon a case-by-case basis.Ready, Set, VideoYou’ve set your sights on PBS and chosenthe appropriate funding initiative. You’vestudied existing series strands and talkedwith producers who have worked with

302 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 60.3 Your video must meet all of thevery rigorous PBS technical requirements, asset forth in the Technical OperatingSpecifications (TOS).PBS. Your sample and treatment are flawlesslyprepared and you can meet all ofthe technical specifications. The storyyou’ve chosen to tell is unique, passionfilledand appeals to a broad audiencewhile remaining interesting and diverse.Now what?Once you mail your application, thereview process may take up to six months.If your proposal is selected, you musttypically complete the project within oneyear of acceptance. Should ITVS licenseyour film, they may offer it to stationsdirectly, without benefit of a time-slot oran airdate. The film could be distributedover PBS Plus or on a soft-feed, whichallows member stations to fit the programinto available airtime. It might even earn aspot on the National Program Service(hard-feed) or another subscription servicessuch as Independent Lens or POV.It takes perseverance, persistence,resourcefulness and a dedication to vision,voice and mission, but dozens of independentvideo producers share compellingstories and unique perspectives via PBSevery year. This could be the year the spotlightshines on your work.Sidebar 1Electric ShadowsITVS is breaking ground with digital technology. If interactive media and Web release is whatyou crave, check out Electric Shadows, an extraordinary blend of digital audio, video, interviewsand still photography, enhanced with feedback forums and lesson plan suggestions.Sidebar 2PBS.orgStay current with the needs of PBS. PBS updates their Web site frequently with contentpriorities. Preview the strands you are interested in producing for before submitting yourfilm or applying for funding. Does your format, vision, style and subject matter fit within theprogram’s parameters? If not, consider another strand or funding source.Sidebar 3ITVS InformationIndependent Television Service501 York StreetSan Francisco, CA 94110Phone: (415) 356-8383email: itvs@itvs.org

PBS and ITVS 303Sidebar 4Online Resources for ProducersProducing for PBShttp://www.pbs.org/producers/Online Version of PBS Redbookhttp://www.pbs.org/insidepbs/redbook/index.htmlPBS Production Guidelineshttp://www.pbs.org/insidepbs/guidelines/index.htmlBeyond the Box Online Content:http://www.beyondthebox.org/ITVS Funding Applications and Guidelineshttp://www.itvs.org/producers/funding.html

61Paths to Broadcast TelevisionMark Steven BoskoSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.Let me relate to you the story of a fellowvideographer who “made good.” Johnstarted like most of us, goofing aroundwith his parents’ film equipment. Thoughjust a child, the creative art of cinematographyreally clicked for him. He createdone film after another to the delight of hisfamily and friends.Though the passion for this “art” festeredinside John, he became frustratedwith the what seemed like a wasting of histime. The whole purpose of producing amovie was for an audience’s enjoyment.After five years of basement screenings,family and friends hardly qualified as alegitimate audience anymore. John knewthere just had to be a better way, but didn’tlatch onto it quite yet. Much later, in college,John enrolled in the school’s teleproductionclass. He knew a little bit about TVproduction, but was still mainly a “film”guy. It was here that he discovered whatwould later “rule” his world—videotape.Even with excellent marks, John stillyearned for that elusive “audience”.Luckily, he was outspoken about thisneed, and a professor took notice. Theprofessor, as it happens, was on the boardof the local public television station. Hewas primarily responsible for developmentof new local programming.Thinking of John’s desires, and some ofthe super productions the students wereshowing, the teacher came up with a“Young Filmmaker’s” showcase program.The show would give aspiring film andvideographers (now John’s medium ofchoice due to cost and time considerations)a place to present their programmingto a potentially large viewership.Happy ending: John got his audience,the station got quality programming, andviewers got some alternative shows towatch.Not all stories involving broadcast TV areso inspiring, and sometimes PBS networksare the hardest nuts to crack. But the exampleabove does point out the many opportunitiesthat exist for videographers lookingfor distribution of their productions withinthese “hallowed halls.” For some reason oranother, broadcast television stations have304

Paths to Broadcast Television 305the image of an “insider’s club.” You’ve gotto know someone or already work there ina lower capacity to get an in. If you weren’ta part of the community’s filmmaking“elite,” your chances for broadcast were nil.Maybe ten or so years ago that was true, buttoday, this is simply not the case. Especiallyfor dedicated, experienced videographers.One of the reasons for this “opening”may be attributable to the increase innumber and types of broadcast outlets onthe map. Before everyone in America hadcable, there existed a strong distinctionbetween broadcast and cable fare. Broadcastprogramming was free, contained asome locally produced programming (createdat the station, not by independents),and carried the network shows as they“came down the line.” Cable, on the otherhand, carried new movies and other, nontraditionaltelevision material. It was alsoperceived (rightly so) as being very costly.As the years passed and more mediamoguls developed, the number of cable stationsquadrupled, the cost for the serviceplummeted and the demand by consumerswho “wanted their MTV” skyrocketed.This led to the confusing mix of cable andbroadcast stations that currently exists onyour channel selector. This influx of newentertainment choices spurred a huge voidin the supply of programming able to fulfillthe scheduling needs of the stations.Another reason broadcast stationsunlocked their doors to outsiders was thefact that now they wanted to compete withthe trendy and popular cable networks.The old, stodgy rules of operation werechanging, and any new face that had somethingto add to the party was welcome.And, in recent years, a new broadcastoutlet, Low Power Television (LPTV)became popular. The limited signal putout by these stations reaches a relativelysmall, geographically close audience. TheLPTV stations tend to be carriers of downloadablenational satellite programming,mixed with an unusually high amount(for broadcast) of local fare.While all of this is certainly encouraging(if not educational) for the future of aspiringvideographers, what real opportunitiesexist now, in the present, for those of youwho can’t wait a lifetime for their dreamsto be fulfilled? What does broadcast televisionoffer you in the form of distribution?VHFYou’ve got a job (that you like) and possesssome fine-tuned production abilities. Youown a little equipment, no Industrial Lightand Magic, but a respectable “studio” onyour own right. You’ve made some industrials,a whole slew of weddings, even aninstructional tape on gardening for yourspouse. You got some good ideas for programmingthat you think will go over bigwith the locals, but how do you get it onthe tube?Time saving tip number one: skip theVHF channels in your broadcasting area.VHF slots, usually reserved for networkaffiliates, offer the independent videographerlittle in the form of finding anaudience. The stations are network controlled,meaning they have mega-bucksat their resources. They’re not rude, butwhy would they want to mess with your$1.98 Talent Show when they can programa re-rerun of Who’s the Boss? It justdoesn’t make sense for the big boys to playwith you.About the only exposure you mayachieve through a VHF outlet is sale ofnews-type footage. And this comes frompersonal experience. My town was literallyburning down. A huge fire started inthe historical district, and I happened to beat the right place at the right time with mycamcorder. I got some great shots beforeany of the large news crews showed up.They were aware of my presence andasked to buy the footage for inclusion inthe coverage of the story. I was only tooglad to succumb to their wishes. But don’tplan on getting rich from selling newsfootage. These deep-pocketed networkguys could only scrape together $50 for thewhole 30-minute tape. And then I didn’teven get an on-air credit!

306 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionUHFIf you’ve seen the Weird Al movie of thesame name, then you are aware of the possibilitiesavailable for independent programmingto air on these channels. Whileit’s not quite as zany as the Weird Al film,opportunities do exist (especially insmaller markets) for videographers to findan audience.Many UHF stations are becoming networkaffiliates (FOX has conquered quite a few),so the chances with these stations are slimming.If you live in a large TV city (onewith more than four or five UHF channels),then you should be able to locate a willingoutlet. In the Cleveland-area, a late-nighttelevision host on a UHF channel hosts aviewer’s film’s series. It’s a great show comprisedof shorts (one shot-on-video featurehas played) broken up with interviews ofthe videographers. There is no payinvolved, but the audience is pretty big,and loyal. The program is also popularwith local advertisers who recognize thelocal customer base tuning in.If there is a late-night gig in your city,why not hit up the host with this idea? Itmakes his or her job infinitely easier, andbecomes attractive to sales personnel atthe station.Sunday morning talk and “city” showsalso seem popular with UHF channels.Easily produced, these programs focus oncommunity events and personalities.Often, the production may center on onespecific area, and the show is a submissionfrom a freelance videographer.Fairly new to the broadcast arena, LowPower Television Stations are basicallyUFH stations, only with less signal amplification.These stations function muchlike their big cousins, only with a greaterconcentration of the local goods.Cashing InKnowing that there’s some distributionavenues available in UHF and LPTV is goodnews, but, you’d like some compensationfor your efforts, right? Well, just like theVHF networks, these stations pull in thereins when it comes time to pay. In fact, youmay be the one paying them to show yourprogram.WAI-TV, part of a three-channel LPTVnetwork in Cleveland and Akron, offers airtimefor sale. Going for $250 and up per halfhour(depending what day and time youbuy) the channel is a natural for independents.“We have space for sale just likeevery other television network. It just happensthat ours is available to the independent,”says Bill Klaus, owner of the station.Klaus makes it clear that the reason anindependent can buy time from his networkis because it is affordable. “Sure,someone with a home-grown productioncould go to their local VHF station and buya half-hour of time to broadcast the show,but they’d probably have to mortgage theirhouse to do it. My network makes it affordable,and we often barter time as well so thevideographer can actually make a buck.”Bartering, as Klaus mentioned, isanother favored option of UHF and LPTVprogrammers. What this means is that youretain some of the commercial time allottedwithin your programming block. Asan example, let’s say you buy a half-hourof air time for $200. That’s the flat rate.With that price, you are the owner of all8 minutes of commercial space. You candeal with the station, letting them keep4 minutes of ad time, dropping your paymentto $100. And, it also works inreverse. If they want to buy your show(yes—that actually happens sometimes),they may offer you the commercial timein exchange for any payment. This waythey don’t have a cash outlay, but fill theirschedule. You, on the other hand, havefound a profitable distribution outlet.The large, network-affiliated stationswill not likely be interested in your bargainbroadcasting, but many independentstations will take a look. Local interest,interview shows, documentaries, communityaffairs and sporting events are allgood ideas to present to any small broadcasterin your neighborhood.

Paths to Broadcast Television 307When you go door knocking, bringan attractive demo and a professionalpresentation package outlining your programmingideas. This packet shouldpresent your work in its best possible light.While you may think you are the onlyindie out there (or at least the only one inthe neighborhood), the fact is that programmingmanagers deal with many proposalsfrom many people. “It’s probablyhard to believe, but I get at least a proposala week from independent videoproducers,” states Klaus. “Most of the productionideas have no substance. If I gotone backed by a demo, or put together in aprofessional manner, I might pay moreattention to them. But too many of themlook like a half-hearted effort to get a showon the air.”“I don’t mind working with independents,”Klaus continues. “In fact I like it,but they just have to be more professionalin their approach. If a videographer wantsto make some money by getting his programmingon the air, instead of spendingit to buy time, he should prepare the ideaas completely as possible. That wouldbe the type of producer I would look towork with.”There are no set rules here. Just rememberthat it’s the fact that people are able toview your production through their televisionsets for free that’s important, notthe amount of bills you have wadded inyour pocket.The multitude of small and low-powerbroadcasting outlets has created a void oforiginal, low-cost scheduling alternatives.There are only so many stations that canbroadcast The Andy Griffith Show at anyone time, and it’s that fact that opens upthe audiences to you.

62Promotion Strategies:Fame and Fortune on a BudgetMark Steven BoskoSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.If you don’t tell people about your video,they won’t even know it exists. The moreaware the public is of your work, thegreater fame and fortune you’ll eventuallyachieve.You can promote your work in manyways—from buying expensive full-colormagazine advertising to sending out asimple press release. Full-blown promotionalplans practically guarantee increasedvideo sales, but they’re often too expensivefor the first-time videographer.But there are less expensive ways topromote your work. In this chapter, we’llsurvey a selection of promotion strategiesthat will cost you little more than the priceof pen and paper—and some hard work.The Press ReleaseThe press release is the most widelyused and abused promotional technique.This one-page synopsis tells the mediawhat you want them to know about yourvideo. Media outlets such as newspapers,magazines and broadcasters receivehundreds of these daily; to make sureyours receives proper attention you needto (a) submit it in regulation form and(b) make it stand out from all the others.Press releases follow a standard format.Deviate from this format and no one willread it. This sounds harsh but it’s true. Ifyou want the press to read it:● Keep it short. You don’t need 10 pagesto communicate your message. One pageis best, two is the maximum. If it is longer,re-write it; include just the basics.● Title it. Without a headline, they won’tknow what the release is about. Trust me:they won’t take the time to read it to findout. The best headlines are short and to thepoint.● Say who sent it. The upper left-handcorner of the page should set out thefollowing information: your company’sname, address, telephone number and—most important—a contact to call for furtherinformation. You’re the best contact; if308

Promotion Strategies 309you can’t do it make sure you choose acontact well versed in all aspects of yourvideo.● Provide a release date. Write “ForImmediate Release” on the press release;this tells the press that they can use theinformation revealed in your release rightnow. If you don’t want the informationreleased until a specific date, then providethis “embargo date” in place of the usual“For Immediate Release” (i.e., “For ReleaseOctober 10, 2003”).● Use the standard form. Type therelease, double-spaced with ample marginareas. Check for any errors in spelling,punctuation, grammar or content; this kindof mistake screams amateurism.Now you think your press release is goingto look like all the others—and if the formatis correct, it probably will. But JoeReporter down at the Daily Globe doesn’tcare about fancy formats; he’s looking forinteresting content. Write your release soit not only answers the stock journalismquestions—who, what, where, when, howand why—but also leaves the readerwanting to know more. Appeal to the naturalcuriosity of the reporter—withoutgetting cute—and no doubt your videowill see some press.Mail, fax, transmit electronically orhand deliver your release to every possiblemedia outlet. The wider the distribution,the better your chances of gettingpress.Radio and TV InterviewsTurn on the radio. Flip through the stations.Listen. You hear a lot of talk, don’tyou? Radio stations live on music andtalk; they have plenty of music, but theyneed the talk. That’s where you come in.More than 80 percent of the 11,000radio stations in the United States airsome sort of interview program; getting onone of these interview shows is easierthan you might think. Best of all, it’s free.Call the stations you know that airinterview programs and ask how theybook their guests. Send the person in chargeof booking a press release, some datasheets naming the subject, cast, crew, locationsand length of your video and a coverletter. The cover letter is important; thinkof it as a sales letter selling you and yourvideo. This letter should persuade thebooking manager that your video is anideal choice for the program—due to itsexploitative elements, controversial theme,local interest or whatever “hook” will proveirresistible to the station.With any luck, someone will give you acall to find out more about your projectand determine if you would make a suitableguest for the show. When you get thecall, be sure to answer all queries withconfidence and grace; you want to proveyou’re a coherent, interesting individualwho won’t freeze up during the program.Interviews are great promotional vehicle,but they do offer one distinct disadvantage:lack of control. You don’t havethe benefit of complete pre-planning. Youcan’t predict what the interviewer willask you or what part or parts of the interviewwill air. With live, call-in formats,you face the additional challenge of fieldingquestions from the listening public,who may or may not approve of you andyour video. Two suggestions for handlingradio interviews:1. Restrict contact with the media to yourselfor one or two other people associatedwith your production. You shouldcoach these people—talent, director,producer—on appropriate responses topossible questions. You certainly don’twant to hear your cameraman givingout details that contradict your pressrelease.2. Listen to the radio program beforeappearing on the show. Observe howthe DJ deals with guests. By listening,you’ll discover if the host and callersare friendly or abusive, the show is liveor taped and whether the focus is

310 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionstraight news or fluff. Prepare youranswers based on your observations.Now that you’ve successfully conqueredradio, turn your attention to the other halfof the broadcast spectrum: television.Compared with radio, the market for TVguests is small; the chances of landing aninterview are smaller still. To boost thosechances, approach the TV station about aninterview in the same way you approachthe radio stations, but do more follow up.Don’t wait for someone to call you; makethose return calls yourself. TV people arealways busy, and they believe that if youwant to book yourself on a show youshould do all the work.You do have one advantage: you’re promotinga video. Videos are visual and naturallylend themselves to the medium oftelevision. Include a trailer of your bestscenes—those most visually compelling—with your press release. This way the personin charge will know you havesomething unique to offer.Most local television interview programsare not overwhelmed by low-budgetvideo producers trying to land spots asguests on a regular basis. You’re one of akind; play up the glitz and glamour youbring to your hometown.Tell the show’s producers about anypublicity stunts you plan and ask thatthey cover it to air with your interview.Keep the subject exciting and visual, andyou shouldn’t have any problems.Screeners/Trailers“We want to see the video.”That’s what you can expect to hear hundredsof times while promoting your project.The press wants to see a screener.A screener is a full-length, promotionalcopy of your tape, provided free of chargeto media personnel upon request.They need to see first-hand what yourvideo is all about. Screeners allowreporters to check out such considerationsas budget, acting, effects and productionvalues. Now your video must live up tothe expectations you’ve created for it. Didyou exaggerate too much in your pressreleases?The press uses screeners most often forreviewing purposes; media outlets occasionallyrequest them as well, primarily tocheck out authenticity. Nobody wants todevote space to a “phantom” video, especiallynational magazines.Providing these screeners for everyonewho asks becomes an expensive proposition.There is, however, a low-cost alternative:the trailer.Short compilations of your best scenes,trailers can accomplish all a full-lengthscreener can—at less than a third of thecost.A general rule of thumb: use screenersfor press outlets that want to review yourprogram and trailers for those who justwant to “take a look.” Some suggestions:●●●●Use a disclaimer on screeners. Whenduplicating screeners to send to mediaoutlets, superimpose or key the words“For Promotional Use Only” over thevideo during its entire duration. Notthat the press is dishonest, but if yourvideo lands in the wrong hands, nothingwill stop those hands from sellingthe video as their own. The practice ofusing a disclaimer offends no one; it’salways better to be safe than sorry. Thistip comes from a video newsletter inCalifornia investigating a small cablestation making illegal dupes to sell inMexico. So protect your property!Duplicate screeners and trailers onB-grade tape. Most of these videos willbe viewed only once or twice, making ahigh-grade tape unnecessary. The pressoutlets can handle a little dropout.Use a copyright. Place a copyrightnotice prominently on all screeners andtrailers. Put a notice physically on thetape and within the program itself.Limit trailers to 5 minutes or less. Thisis adequate time to show your tape’shighlights. Keep it “lean and mean.”

Promotion Strategies 311●●Make your trailer available in broadcastformats. Some broadcast press outletsmay want to include your trailer aspart of the story on your project. Don’tmiss out on this free advertising bynot having the proper tape available.Most stations can work with threequarter-inchformat. It’s cheap and widelyavailable.Include any televised press on distributors’screeners. Tag a mini-trailer of anytelevised news stories about your projectonto the beginning of the screener.How impressed will that distributor bewhen he sees your story as it appearedon Entertainment Tonight? A lot moreimpressed than he’ll be when you justtell him about it. Be sure to check withnews agencies concerning legalities ofduplicating such stories.Press KitIt’s now time to compile all of the pressyou’ve received thanks to your promotionstrategies and organize it into a press kit.The most useful weapon in your promotionalarsenal, a press kit representsthe culmination of all your efforts. Its purpose:to show the attention your projecthas received, proving that your video isworthy of further coverage such as newspaperspace and TV airtime.Some people say to include only the big“headline” stories. I say include everything—fromthat one-paragraph blurb inyour local new paper to the full-pagestory in Variety.Press is press. The more you can show amedia outlet, the easier it is to get morecoverage.Some tips on putting together a decentpress kit:1. Use a high-quality bond for reproductionof the originals. The heavierweight paper lends a classy look.2. Check the clarity of copies, especiallywhen articles include photographs.3. Place articles in descending order ofimportance, starting with the mostprestigious—usually national media.4. Articles buried in the editorial sectionshould be shown with the cover ormasthead of the publication; copy itand place it on the reproduction withthe article.5. Allow for only one article per page,unless the articles are extremely shortand from the same publication.6. Use the proper tape formats whenincluding televised or radio coverage.7. Put all the print elements along with acover letter into a slick folder.The press release P.R. strategy aloneshould garner enough press for a substantialpress kit. And if you’ve employed theother promotional strategies as well, youmay find you cannot include everything—your kit would be so thick, you’d go brokeon postage. So choose only the best ofyour material for your press kit.Publicity StuntsPublicity stunts can be a great low-costpromotional technique, attracting bothmedia and public attention to your videoproject.Used with great success by the filmindustry, publicity stunts have traditionallyaccompanied the release of newmovies. The “golden age” of publicitystunts was the 1950s, when the followingtactics drew big crowds:●●Nurses in theater lobbies, placed thereby smart promotional men asking viewersto sign medical releases, in the caseof heart attacks brought on by theshocking subject matter they were aboutto see. A particular favorite of sciencefiction and horror film promoters.Bogus pickets, carried by “protesters”hired by a film company’s publicitydepartment to demonstrate against afilm’s sex and violence quotients.

312 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production●Film “banning,” which implied that amovie’s subject matter was so offensiveit should not be shown in certain areas.Your own publicity stunts don’t have tobe so melodramatic, however. Try settingup a live magic act in the video storesstocking your Magic Made Simple video.Or, celebrate the release of your Keep OurTown Clean video with a litter collectioncontest for local school kids; offer thewinners some free production time. Anystunt you can think of that involves thepublic and creates interest in your videomakes for good publicity.To ensure success: keep the pressinformed and keep it legal. Check out alllocal laws that may apply to your particularstunt.9 Ways to Cut Promotion CostsMailing and distributing press kits andscreeners can prove expensive. Still, thereare ways to economize:1. Don’t use envelopes when mailingpress releases. Tri-fold the paper andstaple the bottom.2. For big mailings use pre-printed postcards—they’recheaper to mail andcheaper to produce.3. Order return address stickers bearingyour company name from one of themany mail-order catalogs that offer suchmerchandise. They look good and costsubstantially less than printed versions.4. Shop for supplies and copy services ata large office supply store. Many ofthese places duplicate the same documentfor as little as two cents a page.5. Mail screeners fourth class. Fourthclass costs less than half the first-classrate and takes only two to four moredays to deliver.6. Save on postage by using air bubbleenvelopes instead of cardboard VHStape mailers for screeners.7. Put together a trailer instead of mailingout full-length screeners; this reducespostage and duplication costs.8. Save big on phone bills by using tollfreephone numbers when callingdistributors, TV/radio stations andpublications. You’ll find them listed inthe toll-free directory at your locallibrary.9. When making long-distance toll calls,place them when it’s most cost effective;keep time zone changes in mind.Contact your long-distance carrier forspecifics.The Bitter Fruits of PublicityExecute a proper and thorough lowbudgetvideo promotional campaign, andyour life will drastically change.The good news is people will see yourwork. The bad news is more complicated.First, you’re apt to lose much of yourleisure time to your publicity efforts.Sure, it is great to come home, pop open abeer and settle in to watch Divorce Court.But you’re not going to get on any magazinecovers that way. Not that you mustdevote every waking minute to the promotionof your video—we all need sometime to relax—it’s just that sooner or laterthe marketing machine you create willtake on a life of its own. Instead of playingcards with the guys or hitting the mall,you will probably find yourself fieldingphone calls and writing letters. If theprocess threatens to consume you, write“free time” right into your work schedule.Promoting your video does not have toalienate you from friends and family,though this often proves the case. So goshoot hoops with friends or spend somequiet time with your spouse when you can.The second source of grief that accompaniespromotion efforts: reviews. Reviewsare a necessary part of the marketingprocess; you’ll need to develop a “thickskin” to survive the nastier negative criticism.Remember, you are sending outyour video to literally hundreds of outlets,

Promotion Strategies 313hoping to generate publicity and resourcesfor a press kit. Among all these peoplewatching your tape there will undoubtedlybe some who don’t like your work, forwhatever reasons.Who cares? What do critics do, anyway?They sit in front of a monitor all day,pointing out faults in something theynever had the guts to try to do themselves.These people make their living by proclaimingwhat—in their own minds—isgood and what is bad.At least this is what you must tell yourselfwhen bad reviews come in. You will,on the other hand, admire the intelligenceand good taste of the reviewer who ravesabout your show.There’s one sort of criticism to whichyou should pay special attention—that ofyour fellow videographers. Send yourvideo around to other producers whohave “made it” in your field. Suggestionsand insight from such individuals arevery valuable, often saving you time andmoney on your next production.A final thought: prepare yourself for thefame that will haunt you after your namebegins to appear in the media. No longerwill you be able to venture out into theworld a nobody. You’ll become a localcelebrity and if your video is a big hit,national fame will follow. Standing in thelimelight is fun, but it can be dangerous.If you’re flitting around like some selfimportantmedia butterfly and your projecttakes an unexpected turn for the worse,your fall from grace will hurt all the more.Promoting your video should be a funand exciting experience. Be sure it staysthat way!Tell ’Em and Sell ’Em AgainWith the right promotion strategies, fameand fortune can be yours. The key is persistence.It takes time to create and executea promotion plan, but it’s worth it.If you believe in your video’s success,as you surely do, nothing can stop you.

63The Demo TapeMark Steven BoskoSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.With so many of today’s ideographersrelying on their video skills and equipmentfor income, marketplace competition iskeener than ever. To succeed, these courageousentrepreneurs (or hopefuls) need allthe help they can get.A good demo tape should be your numberone marketing tool. There’s nothinglike it to showcase (and sell) your videographytalent. A well-done demo attractsnew clients, creates good public relations,and can even lure competent employees.Unfortunately, a good demo is not thateasy to make. In this chapter we exploreelements of the demo tape—its reason forbeing, its creation, its uses. Once you seewhat a demo can do, you’ll wonder whyyou never got around to making one before.Why You Need OneSay Uncle Bob, the dentist, needs a marketingvideo. He wants to feature basicinformation on his facility—friendly staff,low prices, after-work appointment hours.He’ll show the tape around to factoriesand large corporations. The vast numbersof employees within these companiespermit him to offer attractive discountplans.In production terms, the video soundseasy. Some interior shooting. A couple ofstaff interviews. You’ll finish it off withnarration and graphics. You’re a member ofthe family, so getting the job’s no problem,right?But during your meeting with Bob, heasks to see something you’ve done. A representationof past work. Some evidenceyou’re competent to make a video to hisliking.Uncle Bob wants a demo. You have one,don’t you?If you’re like many small video companiesand independent producers, theanswer is probably no. But it takes morethan smooth talk to convince clients—evenUncle Bob—that they can trust you withtheir money. Videos aren’t tangible things.Until a camera comes out of the bag, they’rejust talk and writing. Investing in someone’s314

The Demo Tape 315videography skills without having viewedhis work is like buying a car based on nothingbut a sales pitch.Videos often record those once-in-alifetimeevents. A potential client must becertain you’ll get it right the first time. Hecan’t stage his daughter’s wedding againbecause you forgot a microphone. Heneeds a good look at your “credentials.”The demo also is a simple way to attractnew business. It shows off the power of themedium. It gets your foot in the door.As a fund-raising tool, a demo can’t bebeat. Whether you hope to make a lowbudgetfeature, a social issues documentaryor an instructional tape, it takesmore than expendable income to pay for avision.To paraphrase, “Demos talk. Braggingwalks.” Investors must see proof of yourabilities. No amount of pipe-dream descriptionwill get you the cash you need.Low-budget producers often shoot acouple of scenes of the planned work, andpresent this “demo” to potential investors.J.R. Bookwalter of Akron, Ohio, is thedefinitive real-life example. He admiredthe work of Hollywood producer SamRaimi (Darkman, The Evil Dead), andpegged him as a possible backer. Raimiscreened the novice filmmaker’s previousefforts. He was so impressed by the badlyexposed Super 8 “demos” he agreed tofinance a low-budget film.To the tune of $125,000.“Raimi told me that of all the proposalshe’d received at that point, only mine wasaccompanied by a representation of myexperience,” Bookwalter says. “I’m sure ifI hadn’t screened my films, the dealwould never have gone through.”This isn’t a common scenario, but itproves the demo’s potential.Just remember: No demo has moreimpact than a bad demo, while a greatdemo pays the bills.Creating a truly effective demo tapetakes more than some assemble editsand a blank tape. Careful planning is thefirst step.Consider the ContentYou want to show off only your very bestwork in your demo tape. Scan all yourvideos, noting outstanding shots, imaginativecamera-work and good productionvalues. You want to show a broad spectrumof abilities.If a particular vacation video looks good,include it. Earmark for use any weddingfootage that came out better than normal.Sporting events, community functions andfilm-to-video transfers all provide rawmaterial for a demo.Don’t be impatient. Getting the bestpossible footage may mean scanning threeentire weddings to find that gorgeoussunset kiss sequence. Any extra effortinvested at this point will only make thedemo that much more powerful.Let’s say your video services have justbecome available. Let’s also say that youreally haven’t had any legitimate (paying)jobs yet. Sure, you’ve goofed around withcamcorders for a couple of years. But untilnow, videography wasn’t something you’dconsidered a career choice. How can youput a demo together without footage?By creating what you need.For example, to target the wedding andevent video market, you’ll need footage ofa wedding or two. Check nuptial schedulesof area churches and get permissionfrom some couples-to-be to shoot somefootage. You don’t have to cover the entirewedding. Just get a few shots good enoughto convince a prospective client you canhandle the job.Nobody wants to be your first client. Ifyou include wedding footage in yourdemo you’ll appear to have experience inthis area.One caveat. Be certain you really canadequately produce a wedding video.Acquiring a few stray shots and actuallyshooting and editing a cohesive and attractiveceremony are two very different things.You don’t want to misrepresent yourself.Which leads us to another option foracquiring demo footage: Shoot it for free.

316 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionDon’t cringe. I realize making money isthe whole point. But we all should pay afew dues. Free production work is oneway to do this.Hundreds of organizations gladly acceptthe donation of video work. Any nonprofitentity (your local food bank? SPCA?) isa good place to start. Call. Explain yoursituation. Make your offer of free service.Beyond getting demo material, this philanthropicpractice increases your workingexperience. And it’s not bad for yourreputation, either.Inform local press of your charitablevideo “donations.” This is great freeadvertising. Doesn’t it feel good to helpout others?A Manual of StyleHow you edit your demo can have asmuch impact as its contents.First, set an appropriate length for yourtape. Your projected audience pretty muchdetermines this. A 3-minute demo isn’treally long enough to warrant an awardof cash.Nor would you want to solicit a commercialaccount with a half-hour production.The client wants a 30-second spot,not a TV series.Rule of thumb: Keep it short. For thegeneral production market, 5 to 10 minutesis about right. It’s not so long the viewergets bored but not so short a potentialclient will question your experience. There’sample time to display your best work,professionally and courteously.Applying the term “courteous” to a demotape may seem odd, but your customerslead busy lives. They have better things todo than sit through your 30-minute extravaganza.Like anyone else, they want to gettheir information as quickly as possible.(You can always include supplementalmaterials with tapes you send to majorfunders.)You’ve decided on a 5-minute demo.Now you’re ready to edit footage, right?Wrong. We’re not done planning:Determine the order and style for presentingyour experience before you start cutting.And it’s a good idea to create adetailed script. Map out the order of eachsegment of footage.Now consider style. Who’s your targetmarket? How can you reach them mosteffectively?If they’re serious business people, try astraightforward presentation—interspersingyour footage with defining graphics andaugment it with a clean voiceover. Thekey here is quick-paced editing with aclear demonstration of your abilities.Perhaps you plan to approach severalmarkets using a single demo tape. Intersperseinterviews shot expressly for thedemo—remarks from enthusiastic pastclients—with cuts of your footage.Taping these interviews means a littleextra work, but it’s well worth it. The boastof a satisfied customer impresses potentialclients more than any claim you can make.The testimonial is popular for all facetsof advertising—just check out the commercialsduring network prime time. Usingthis technique in a small-town frameworkpays off especially well.Business people and ordinary citizenssee neighbors and friends—familiar faces—on the tape. If a prospect’s competition orfriend up the street is using you, chancesare good you’ve found a new client.The truly motivated may want to hosttheir demos. The hosted demo is an innovativeapproach most smaller productioncompanies seldom take advantage of.If you’re not a smooth talker, find someonewho is. Create a script and have theemcee introduce each clip or segment.You can structure this many ways, for aserious, comedic or down-home feel.Take care, though, if you’re going forlaughs. Your sense of humor might not bethat of the general public. It’s less risky tobe serious.Consider your host’s setting, wardrobeand narrative. All these play a big part inthe presentation’s effectiveness.

The Demo Tape 317Experiment. You may want to combinestyles. Try a hosted demo that includesinterviews with satisfied clients. Voiceoverclient comments while rolling footagefrom a particular job. Incorporate shots ofyour equipment in the demo.Interview yourself—talk about customersatisfaction, your state-of-the-art gear, yoursincere goal of creating the best possibleproduct.Shameless self-promotion adds a personaltouch, and it’s as popular as the testimonial.Again, just take a look at anynetwork TV program for abundant proof.Technical ConcernsPlanning and assembling a slick demo doesyou no good if the tape itself is defective.This sounds obvious, but it’s a legitimateconsideration. When putting yourproduction together, work with the lowestgenerationtape available. If you use a weddingshot, pull it from the original footage.This applies to any material included inthe tape.If raw footage isn’t available, be sureyour editing set-up allows for the cleanestpossible dub. Remember—you’ll dub thedemo again for client copies. If you use asecond-generation shot, it will be fourthgenerationwhen a client views it.Seen much good-looking fourthgenerationfootage lately?Keep a quality-control check on footage,graphics and narration recorded specificallyfor the demo. Your amazing shotswon’t impress if they’re book-ended byamateurish on-screen intros from an inexperiencedhost. Be sure graphics andvoiceovers complement the rest of thetape. It may seem funny to have your voicetalent talk like Elmer Fudd, but does thisreally show you in a professional light?Distribute your demo on VHS. Othervideo formats are gaining popularity, butVHS is still most widely used. Businesses,organizations and individuals welcome thistape size. If someone requests a differentformat, make it available. Conversionservices are plentiful and cheap. It’s worththe expense if you get the job.Packaging affords you another chanceto get a jump on the competition. True,you can’t judge a book by its cover. But itdoesn’t hurt to impress when theres achance to. Most demos I see come in plaincardboard or plastic sleeves. Boring. Whynot take advantage of those nifty fullsleeveinsert shells? Create a cover ordesign with photos from your business,high-tech images or even your logo. The8-1/2 by 11-inch layout facilitates low-costcolor copies. Slip your custom cover inthe sleeve and you’ve got a package thatreally stands out.Or you can print professional face orspine labels on colored stock. Considerdubbing onto tapes with colored shells. Itcosts a bit more, but it separates you fromthe masses.Mail your demos in bubble-linedenvelopes—they cost less to mail thancardboard shippers, and they allow you toinsert additional materials. Always includea cover letter, a short note informing therecipient of your intentions.If you’re sending the tape in response toa request be sure and point this out.Enclose any press you’ve received. Lettersof recommendation are good, too. Praisefrom past clients impresses potential ones.Show It AroundThere are a surprising number of additionalways to get your tape to roll whereit counts most:●●●Event videographers should keep a tapeavailable for loan at photography studios.Drop a couple at local bridal and tuxbusinesses.Film-to-tape transfer specialists mightleave a copy at film shops.Attend county fairs, business expos orvideo industry trade shows with demo

318 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production●in hand. These functions are tailor-madeto sell your business. You’ll meet businessowners and potential clients faceto-face.Present your demo to church, schooland community groups. These organizationsalways have some sort of functionin the works. Allow them to witness theadvantages of having videotape recordingof their event.Following UpPeople can be lazy. Your demo may piquetheir interest, but you’re dreaming if youthink it’s enough to inspire every viewerto make the call. It often takes some additionalsales effort to get the job.Back to tooth-man Bob. As he considersa marketing plan, he gets your demo tapein the mail. Until now, direct mail, printads and weekly shoppers had seemed theway to go. They require little effort on hispart, pricing is reasonable, and audiencedelivery is good.But now he’s struck by the impact oflive, talking images. Potential patients can“tour” his high-tech facility. Nurses andstaff can show their friendly faces. Bobhimself can make an earnest plea forhealthy teeth. Done well, the demo mayintrigue Bob enough to give you a call.Or you could call him. Dispel the highcostmyth associated with video production.Explain how the video will attractclients just as it attracted him to yourwork. Let Bob know he can be as involvedas he wants in making the tape.Putting together an effective, professionalqualitydemo is not something you doone afternoon out of boredom. It takes patience,planning, creativity and hard work.You want to show yourself at your best.To do just that, keep a few key ideas inmind.●●●●●●●●●Include only your best work. Don’t beimpatient when scanning your videosfor footage. You want to show a broadspectrum of ability. If necessary, createthe footage you need.Set an appropriate length. Rule of Thumb:Keep it short. Five to 10 minutes is aboutright.Plan order and style before editingyour footage. Keep in mind your targetmarket. When possible, create a detailedscript. Try incorporating testimonialsand self-promotion. You may even wantto host your demo.If you need funding, shoot a couple ofscenes of your planned work. Presentthis “demo” to potential investors.Work with the earliest generation tapeavailable. Remember, it will be aboutfourth-generation by the time yourclient views it.Distribute your demo on VHS. If someonerequests a different format, make itavailable.Package your demo creatively. Use fullsleeveinsert covers and colored spinelabels and tape shells.Mail demos in bubble-lined envelopes.Be sure to include a cover letter andsupplementary materials.Follow up your demo presentationswith a personal sales effort. Dispel thehigh-cost myth. Explain how yourvideos will benefit your client.Rely on these key ideas and you’ll create ademo impressive enough to convince evenUncle Bob.

PART VIInternet DistributionGetting your videos seen on screens all over the World Wide Web.

64The Web:Little Screen, BigOpportunitiesCarolyn MillerNatalie MacGowan Spencer produced herfirst video for the Web just a few monthsago, but by Internet standards that makesher an “old timer.” It’s been plenty longenough to convince her that the Web is aviable and exciting new medium for upand coming video producers. “It’s allowedme to spread my wings and fly,” shedeclared recently. “All the video editors Iknow want to try it out, to play with it. Wedon’t know what it can do yet, and we wantto check out its creative possibilities. We’reall stimulated by it and tickled by it.”Before discovering the Web, LondonbornNatalie had made short films anddone hair and makeup for music celebritiesand commercials. Her debut piece forthe Web was a music video of the Britishband Olive. Created specifically for theWeb, it was made for Eveo (www.eveo.com). Its bold, assertive style swiftlyattracted a great deal of attention and itbecame one of the hits of the site.“When you’re making something for theInternet,” she said, “the screen space is somuch smaller that you want your visualsto be extremely strong, so they really popout at you, almost like a 3-D effect. Andwhen you’re shooting on video, youshould build on what video does best andnot try to imitate film. Film is soft andsubtler, but video is very literal and theimages are very striking. In my opinion,you shouldn’t fight it, you should go for it.”Developing a Distinct FormatEveo, the site that Natalie made her musicvideo for, is one of many Web sites thatfeature shorts. However, the site is of specialinterest to videographers because ofits emphasis on pieces created on video.Most of the other sites feature shorts firstmade on film, often for the film festivalcircuit, and then transferred to video.Alan Sternfeld, Chief Content Officer ofEveo, explained recently that the goal ofEveo is to give videographers a forum formaking and showing short, self-expressivepieces, “little movies.” Sternfeld saysthese original pieces, each termed an321

322 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production“eveo” (short for “e-video”), “can be madeby anyone about anything.” He sees Webshorts as a distinctly new format and saidthey are being introduced at his site muchin the same way music videos were firstdeveloped and promoted by MTV. Eveohas an open-door policy and solicits work“from people who just got a camcorder forChristmas right up to the pros,” accordingto Sternfeld.Eveo’s library contains a large portionof non-fiction pieces, an area that oftenappeals to video hobbyists operatingon lower budgets or with less experience.The subject matter is wildly diverse—everything from true stories about homelesspeople to a love triangle involvingthree kindergartners (see Figure 64.1). Tocreate a successful non-fiction video forthe Web, Sternfeld advises that videographersdo something based on personalexperience. “Use this as an opportunity toreveal something about the world you livein,” he recommended.Sternfeld believes working in this newarena can be a tremendously liberatingexperience and unlike television, with itsrigid formulas and set program lengths,the Web offers uncharted creative freedom.He also applauds the fact there are fewerhuman roadblocks. “The Internet is a greatdisintermediary phenomenon,” he asserted.“It cuts out all the middlemen and gatekeepers.”Charting New TerritoryOne team of creators who has benefitedby the Web’s freedom is the small group offriends who made a startling short calledSunday’s Game (see Figure 64.2).According to David Garrett, one of theshort’s two producers, the group deliberatelyset out to make something thatwould both shake people up and showcasetheir sensibilities. The short tells thestory of a seemingly bland quintet ofelderly ladies who spend Sunday afternoonplaying a lethal game of RussianRoulette. Although the four creators ofSunday’s Game had shot it on film andenvisioned it as a calling card piece to beshown at film festivals, every festival theyFigure 64.1 Take your pick—eveo offers a wide selection ofcategories for submitted videos.

The Web 323Figure 64.2 Sunday’s game—a video thatbreaks new ground and takes risks—a recipefor success on the web.approached rejected it. It wasn’t untilexecutives at the Web site Ifilm (www.ifilm.com) recognized its merits—and saw itsstrong subject matter as an asset, not aliability—that the short got its chance.When the piece debuted on Ifilm, itreceived so much positive attention (as wellas stirring up heated controversy) thatmembers of the team now have various TVand motion-picture deals at top Hollywoodstudios.Their story is real-life rags to riches: atthe time they made Sunday’s Game, theywere unemployed. One of them even hadhis car repossessed before success hit.None of the team had gone to film school;Garrett, for example, was an attorney.“Our school was the school of hardknocks,” he commented recently. “Webroke a lot of rules. The pace of Sunday’sGame was really slow, especially for MTVfans, and it had a lot of old lady talk. Infact, it broke three taboos: against usingold people, against guns and againstsuicide.” Garrett believes that one of themain reasons Sunday’s Game was so successfulon the Web was because it wasFigure 64.3 Billy Jones—A Web short that wontop honors in Yahoo’s online film festival.unique in both viewpoint and subjectmatter. His advice for making shorts forthe Internet? “Make something you can’tsee anywhere else,” he said.A New Place to ShineLike David Garrett, Christopher Bell isconvinced that content is critically important.He, too, originally set out to make afilm to be shown at film festivals, but hisquirky labor of love, Billy Jones, took himthree years to complete, and by the timeit was finished, the Web had maturedenough to be a desirable venue (seeFigure 64.3). Like Sunday’s Game, itmade its debut on the Internet site, Ifilm.And it seems to have brought Bell thekind of attention that would be hard toattract in the film festival world: he wontop honors at the first annual YahooInternet Life Online Film Festival, andhe’s had a flurry of meetings at top studiosand talent agencies.

324 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionBilly Jones is a dark comedy about a12-year-old smoker, and not only contains astrong anti-smoking message, but is done ina highly original visual style. Bell said thathe was inspired to make the film because agood friend of his was hooked on smoking.“It’s a story I really wanted to tell,” he commentedrecently. “And I got other people tobelieve in what I was doing, too, and to dotop quality work on it… sometimes forfree.” Though produced on a small budgetby Hollywood standards, Bell paid closeattention to every detail. “Everything in aframe should have a reason for being,” hestressed. “Especially on the Internet, youneed to avoid visual clutter.”Another director whose work unexpectedlyfound a home on the Internet isRafael Fernandez. His short, Oregon, is aminimalist, chilly sci-fi story that hasreceived glowing comments from viewerswho have watched it on the Web. Madeon film, Oregon debuted simultaneouslyon Ifilm and at the prestigious South bySouthwest Film Festival.Like a number of other Internet successstories, it was Fernandez’ first production.Before making Oregon, he had spentfive years working as a computer programmer.Though he had studied writingin college, he had no other skills relatingto making a film. So, to make up for hislack of production experience, he assembleda “kitchen cabinet” of friends andacquaintances that were experts in variousspecialties. He was still working at hisday job while shooting the short. “Italmost killed me,” he confessed recently.Like Garrett and Bell, Fernandez believesthat to be successful on the Internet, youmust first start with the subject matter. Asfor shooting, he advises keeping the realFigure 64.4 Post it—think you’ve got the next big Web title?Post your work at a site like ifilm.

The Web 325estate—the small screen space—in mind,and avoiding such obvious pitfalls asgiant establishing shots or shots of tiny,intimate details. Overall, though, hebelieves it isn’t necessary to worry aboutthe technology or the limitations of theInternet (see Figure 64.4). “You can getaround the limitations,” he assertedrecently. “And the technology is going tocatch up, anyway. I think of the story Iwant to tell first, and the venue second.”Although he was initially hesitantabout putting Oregon on the Web, itproved to be a good move for him. It led tonumerous professional contacts andopportunities. Overall, he feels that thegamble he took in making his shorthas more than paid off. Currently he hasa contract to make music videos and apossible deal with the Sci-Fi Channel.“It’s been a life-altering experience,” heaffirmed.Sidebar 1Creating Your Own Web Calling CardDo you want to make a video that will shine on the Web? The experts offer the following tips,which apply equally well to non-fiction and story based pieces:1. Choose a strong concept. A concept that’s original or has a surprising slant—especiallysomething that is meaningful to you. Don’t be afraid of a controversial theme, as long as itdoesn’t involve gratuitous violence or explicit sex. Craft your topic so it can be explored in ashort span of time.2. Don’t sacrifice production quality. The higher the production quality, the better it willlook on the Web.Remember that strong visuals, close-ups and extreme close-ups work better than wide andlong shots on the Web. If you’ll be streaming your production, keep your backgrounds simpleand avoid rapid camera movements, moving backgrounds transition effects and quick cutting.3. Pay attention to lighting. Keep things on the bright side; dark scenes tend to be hard tosee on the Internet, and any grain, caused by low light, will be interpreted as motion when youencode your video for streaming, making your files more complicated and harder to stream.4. Don’t neglect your sound. Use good mikes and avoid shooting where there’s backgroundnoise. Sound is especially important on the Web, since visual quality and smallscreen size make images more difficult to “read.”5. Select a catchy title or “log line” (short description). These can help put your short inthe limelight.Sidebar 2Sites to Check OutThe following list of sites, while by no means exhaustive, is a good starting place to investigatesome of the many venues for shorts on the Web. Be forewarned, however: the fortunes ofWeb sites rise and fall like the tides.●Ifilm (www.ifilm.com): largest venue for shorts on the Web; extremely democratic,inclusive polices.

326 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production●●●●●AtomFilms (www.atomfilms.com): smaller library than Ifilm; highly selective; prides itselfon top quality offerings.Eveo (www.eveo.com): specifically designed for videographers; open-door policy; goodvenue for non-fiction shorts.MediaTrip (www.mediatrip.com): highly popular destination; showcases some of thebiggest hits on the Web.RealNetworks (www.realnetworks.com): home of major streaming media tools; also showsshorts and offers useful information.Cinemanow (www.cinemanow.com): specializes in independent films; offers free homepagesfor directors and others to promote their own work.Sidebar 3Three Elements of SuccessDavid Garrett, one of the producers of the Web hit Sunday’s Game, believes there are threekeys to maximizing the potential benefits of having your short on the Internet.1. BUZZ. For your short to stand out, it needs to create buzz. The pieces that generate buzz,he feels, are the ones that are highly original and that are top quality products.2. ACCESS. Buzz gains you access to places you couldn’t go before—to top talent agencies,studios and money people.3. IDEAS. Even though buzz will open doors for you, this access is of little use unlessyou come in with good ideas, Garrett believes. You need to be prepared to discuss newprojects in order to take advantage of your moment in the sun.

65Eleven Easy Steps toStreamingCharles MohnikeWhether your pet video project is ExposingThe Chattanooga City Council or BabyTimmy Makes a Mud Pie it’s likely you’vebeen tempted by the possibility of streamingit over the Internet. Putting videoon the Web is a great way to show yourwork to others, whether you plan to offersample clips that might lead to a lucrativesale of your tape, or to just display yourwork to friends, relatives and admirers. Ifyou’re new to the Web, you might think thatgetting your video into streaming formatsrequires lots of tricky mouse-jockeying anda hefty wallet, but that’s no longer the case.The latest crop of streaming-mediapackages makes it easier than ever toincorporate streaming video into yourexisting Web site—whether or not yourWeb provider runs a video-streamingserver. In the following 12 steps, we’llshow you how to start with a standardWindows movie file (.avi) and turn it intoa streaming video presentation.Our example uses RealNetworks’ Real-Producer Plus, one of the most popularstreaming video tools, but by no meansthe only one. The concepts in this examplealso apply to stream-building packagessuch as Sonic Foundry’s all-in-oneStream Anywhere, Terran Interactive’sMedia Cleaner Pro, the native Macintoshapplication QuickTime Pro as well asMicrosoft’s Windows Media Tools.The ProcessOn launching RealProducer Plus, you’ll beasked a series of questions to find outwhat type of video you want to create andwhat to do with the thing once it’s created.Step 1: Select Recording Options.Turning this feature on will allow othersto “record” your streaming video by savingit to their hard drives as it plays. Ifyou’re working with copyrighted materialor have worries about others stealing yourthunder, it’s best to turn this feature off.Step 2: Choose a Recording Wizard.Fortunately, RealNetworks has followedthe lead of many software providers andditched the animated wizard characters.327

328 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionInstead they use the term to describe aseries of dialog boxes that guide youthrough an otherwise tooth-gnashingprocess. There are three to choose from.●●●Record from File. Allows you to convertan existing .avi, .mov or MPEG-1movie file into streaming RealVideo.Record from Media Device. Allows youto record video directly from an inputdevice such as a VCR, camcorder orWebCam, but you’ll need the necessarycapture hardware installed in your computerif you intend to record from anexternal source/device.Live Broadcast. Sets up your computerto serve streaming video to a compatibleRealServer elsewhere on the Net for alive Webcast. This method might beused to broadcast a meeting, a televisionnewscast or even your appendectomy ifyou’re so inclined.Step 3: Choose a File. When youchoose the “Record from File” option,RealProducer prompts you find the moviefile on your hard drive using a standarddialog box. Again, this example assumesthat you’re working with a single existingmovie file. In most cases, an edited projectrendered to a single .avi or .mov file(see Figure 65.1).Step 4: Supply RealMedia ClipInformation. RealProducer next promptsfor details to include in your video file.It’s a good idea to include things like copyrightinformation (to thwart the thunderstealers),a description and some pertinentkeywords.Step 5: Select a File Type. The selectionyou make in this Window determinesFigure 65.1 Take your pick—you can encode footage froma file on your hard drive, from tape or from a live camera.

Eleven Easy Steps to Streaming 329the type of file RealProducer will createfrom your video.●●Multi-Rate. If your Web site host usesRealServer G2, count yourself amongthe truly privileged. G2 servers automaticallydetect the user’s connectionspeed and then serve up an optimizedvideo, meaning that your users alwayssee the best quality video for their connectionwhether they’re on a cable connectionnext door or a budget modemsomewhere in the Himalayas.Single Rate. If your Web host doesn’t runRealServer G2, you can still serve streamingvideo on any standard Web serverwith this method. With Single Rate, youhave to create one or more video filesoptimized to different connection speeds,and then allow your users to choose onethat suits them (see Figure 65.2).Step 6: Select your Target Audience.We’ll assume that you don’t have accessto a RealServer G2 and that you’ll serveyour video from a standard Web host.When you select “Single Rate” you’ll beprompted to choose one or more “targetaudiences” that will view your file. If youchoose more than one, RealProducerwill create a separate video file for each.For example, if you choose 28.8k modemand ISDN RealProducer will make twofiles, one with smaller file size and lowervideo quality to serve over 28.8 modems,and one with larger file size and bettervideo quality to take advantage of broaderbandwidths.Step 7: Select an Audio Format. Real-Producer next asks you to select the audioquality for your video. Lower selectionslike “Voice Only” mean smaller files andmore room in the stream for better-lookingvideo. The trade-off is that lower rates canalso make certain audio sound like someonewith a mouthful of enchilada shoutinginto a tin can. In general, it’s best to trythe lower-quality options first and use theFigure 65.2 The right rate—select multiple file types for viewerswith various connection speeds.

330 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 65.3 Sound off—select lower audio quality in favor of highquality video.higher rates only if your resulting audio isunintelligible, or if your project has amore complex audio track with music andsound effects (see Figure 65.3).Step 8: Select a Video Format. Like theAudio Format dialog, this screen allowsyou to choose the quality of your resultingvideo. In practice, we have found that“Smoothest Motion” delivers pretty fairvideo quality, but “Normal Motion” occasionallymakes actors appear as if they’dbeen painted during Picasso’s Cubistperiod. Sorrenson video compression usedin products like Media Cleaner Pro has aDevelopers Edition that uses Variable BitRate (VBR) to dramatically smooth outsome of these artifacts. Experiment to findthe best rate and product for your content(see Figure 65.4).Step 9: Choose an Output File. Real-Producer next prompts you to specify afilename and location to save your Real-Video file. It supplies a filename based onthat of your input file, but if that titledoesn’t grab you, choose the “Save As”option to customize it.Step 10: Encode your Video. Finally,RealProducer provides a summary of theoptions you’ve chosen and returns you toits main screen. If you need to make anylast-minute changes to the encodingoptions, this would be the time. Press theStart button to begin the encoding. You’llsee your video whiz by in the display, lettingyou know that RealProducer’s magicfairies have begun their handiwork (seeFigure 65.5).Step 11: Publish Your Video to theWeb. You now have a properly encodedRealVideo file on your hard drive, but it’snot doing you much good there. You’llneed to create a Web page to announceyour clip to the world. To begin, choose“Create Web Page” from RealProducer’spull-down Tools menu. The wizard willprompt you for the name of the video fileand ask whether you want users to view itin their browsers (Embedded Player) or intheir stand-alone RealPlayer (Pop-UpPlayer). Finally, the wizard asks you to providea caption for the Web page and a locationto store the page on your hard drive.

Eleven Easy Steps to Streaming 331Figure 65.4 Looking good—experiment with video quality to makethe most of your bandwidth.Figure 65.5 Ready to roll—review your settings, then press start tobegin.

332 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionOnce the Web page is saved, you canupload it and your video file to your Webhost using standard methods such as anFTP program, or you can choose PublishWeb Page from the Tools menu to haveRealProducer automate the process withanother nifty Wizard.That’s it. Your streaming video is nowpublicly available and it’s likely you’ll soonbe contacted by eager fans around theglobe, assuming you put your actual e-mailaddress into your video’s informationboxes instead of using me@you.com as youdo with all those Web forms. Good luck.Sidebar 1Five Tips for Better-Looking Streams1. Balance encoding rate with image quality. The higher the encoding rate or “target audience,”the larger the video file that will be stored on your server. If your Web host is stingywith the storage space, you can get more bang for your buck by using lower encoding ratesat the expense of video quality.2. Avoid Stereo. Even if your source video contains stereo audio, it’s best to avoid the tempting“Stereo Music” option unless it’s absolutely required by your content. At lower encodingrates, mono audio will usually sound better than stereo because the single track won’trequire as much compression.3. Let your content drive quality. When choosing a video quality, consider your program’scontent. For example, if your presentation contains mostly still images, definitely choose“Slide Show”—your users will see extremely clear picture quality even if their modemsdate back to the Reagan-Bush administration.4. Filter to reduce artifacts. If your resulting RealVideo contains artifacts like interlacing ornoise, choose Preferences from the Options menu and select the Video Filter tab. Thereyou’ll find some optional filters that may help you pull your picture and audio out of themuck.5. Capture the best quality you can. It’s usually best to first capture your video using the softwarethat comes with your capture card and convert it to RealVideo later. Capturingdirectly from RealProducer saves you a step, but if your computer’s processor can’t cut themustard you’ll get ugly glitches in your final RealVideo.

66Squish! Shooting forStreamingBill DavisIn order to get your video creations to fitwithin the bandwidth limitations of Netdeliveredstreaming video (and storage/-playback media such as VCDs), your videois going to be subject to compression.While the “data pipes” available to thegeneral public are getting bigger, in orderto use them for something as data intensiveas streaming video, you’ll want tocondense your video data stream as muchas you possibly can.The Holy GrailThe overall goal of video compression isto reduce the bandwidth requirements ofyour data stream so that it can travelquickly and efficiently through the copperand silicon that make up today’s computerizedvideo systems.It’s the electronic equivalent of makingsausage. You take a big bunch of stuff(data) and figure out a way to squeeze itinto its smallest possible form.But don’t get me wrong. Compressioncan be a good thing. In fact, every digitalvideo format that enjoys widespread popularityalready incorporates some form ofvideo compression. But how much, andwhat kind of compression can have a bigeffect on how your video will look.Of course, the ingredients of digitalvideo are numbers—and without a doubt,data compression is a lot less messy thanmaking sausage. But as I learned watchingmy mother-in-law in her kitchen, trying tostuff a lot of something into a little space,no matter what type of compression you’recontemplating, isn’t likely to be pretty.The Basic ConceptThe root concepts behind most data compressionschemes are easy to understand.Imagine that you and a friend are sitting at atable in front of 100 coins. Set up in 10 rowsof 10 coins each; they create a simple grid.Your job is to tell your friend how to makepatterns in the coins. You could develop apattern from the coins by describing themone at a time. You could say, “Make the firstcoin heads, the second one heads, the third333

334 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionone tails,” and so on. And continue alongfor each of the 100 coins.And that’s similar to what an uncompresseddigital signal represents. Theinformation describing each separatepixel is stored, transmitted and translatedinto the picture raster separately.Since each pixel has to have enoughcode to represent the required levels of itsspecific color and brightness, you end upwith a whole lot of descriptive numbers,i.e. a whole lot of data.But what if you could simply tell yourfriend, “Make the first 50 heads and therest tails.” Bingo. In one simple instruction,you can describe a whole range ofcoins.Most compression schemes take a similarapproach. They look for repetitive patternsin the data and instead of describingthem in discrete steps, they attempt toexpress them in condensed mathematicalshorthand (see Figure 66.1).If your goal is to shoot footage that willcompress well, the first step is to payclose attention to how much detail yourshots contain.If you put your subject in front of aflatly lit, solid color wall, your softwarewill have lots of excellent compressionopportunities (see Figure 66.2).But there’s a danger here. Putting everysubject in front of such a flat backgroundcan make for pretty boring video. So, thechallenge is to learn about how to createshots that are both compression-friendlyand visually interesting.On the opposite extreme, putting a subjectin front of a large, leafy tree on awindy day is a classic example of footagethat will compress poorly. Your poor pixelstry to portray millions of leaves alternatingbetween light and dark, and as thebreeze blows, nearly every pixel in everyframe changes. The result is that there’shardly any chance for your compressionsoftware to find repetitive patterns fromframe to frame.Combine that kind of compressionhostilescene with a video system thatapplies a large amount of compression toFigure 66.1 Intraframecompression is accomplished byaveraging pixels. In this example,four pixels of information areaveraged and stored as a singlepiece of information.Figure 66.2 Solid-colored backgroundscompress better than complex or busybackgrounds.

Squish! Shooting for Streaming 335the signal and you can be left with somepretty ugly footage.The results are often described as “compressionanomalies” or “compression artifacts,”convenient shorthand terms for arange of picture problems, includingblockiness, which can result from poorcompression results.Spare ChangeSince the object of making compressionfriendlyvideo is keeping the intraframe(between pixels within a given frame) andinterframe (between adjacent frames) differencesto a minimum, anything thatmakes one pixel different from the precedingone works against you. This includessuch simple camera moves as pans andzooms. Think about it; when you zoominto a scene, the view constantly changes.And the same holds true for pans andtilts. Under certain circumstances, thesemoves can decrease the ability of yoursoftware to compress your scene. Even theslightest camera move can cause compressionproblems. Thinking of shootinghandheld? Forget it! A tripod is essentialwhen shooting video for streaming.But Not AlwaysConsider a shot of a white wall with asolid black square on it. Simply panningacross the scene won’t change the abilityof your software to compress it. After all,the differences between the elementsaren’t increasing, only changing locationon the raster. And if you zoom-in on asimilar scene, the compression penaltywill also be small. The black square getslarger, but with only two simple colors (ortwo regions to describe), your softwarewill still be able to do a good job ofdecreasing the size of the data stream.So, if you’ve established a compressionfriendlyscene, it’s not always necessaryto be super-conservative with your camerawork. Make your own judgment. AndFigure 66.3 Complex moving backgrounds,such as the plants shown here, do notcompress well. The first order of businesswhen you’re thinking about compressionfriendlyshots is to look at your landscapewith an eye to detail.understanding how compression workswill help you make better judgments.The Devil’s in the DetailsIf a major obstacle to compression isscene detail, it stands to reason that simplyremoving some of the fine detail fromyour scene will help increase your abilityto compress it (see Figure 66.3).If there are busy patterns in paintings,wall hangings or light and dark details,such as narrow window blinds, try to reframewith an eye on minimizing and eliminatingcompression-unfriendly material.A good example might be a shot that usesa large bookcase as a background. Rowupon row of colorful book jacket spines,with contrasting type, is another typeof scene that would typically compresspoorly.Moving the subject in front of aplain background would make a bigimprovement.Plumbing the DepthsIf, however, you’re faced with a scenewhere background detail is unavoidable,

336 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 66.4 Clever us of depth of field tocreate a soft focus on the background canalso improve compression.one of the easiest ways to improve yourcompression results is to use the tricks ofdepth of field to throw the backgroundout of focus (see Figure 66.4).If you’ve been reading Videomaker forlong, you already know about controllingdepth of field, leaving your subject in sharpfocus while allowing your background togo soft. Because soft backgrounds have lessdetail, they will compress much better thansharp backgrounds.If you have ample camera-to-subject-tobackgroundroom available and can keepyour scene’s light levels low enough, openup your iris or increase your shutter speedto make your depth of field shallow,throwing your background out of focus.Another great compression trick (ifyou have the technical capabilities) is toshoot your subject against a blue screen orgreen screen and matte in a still photoinstead of a “live” background. Then nomatter how complicated the backgroundimage, the complete lack of motionbetween frames will make it easy for yourcomputer to compress the interframedifferences.The key here is to keep a sharp eye outfor anything that will lead to large interframechanges.Compress the FutureAs video migrates from television sets tothe Web, VCDs and other cutting-edgestorage media such as Flash memorycards, memory sticks and more, compressionis going to be an increasingly importantpart of video content delivery.A part of effective video production inthe future could be the ability to judgehow well a scene will compress for streaming.As with most other video skills,trial and error is a good teacher. So, asyou start to prepare your video for thesenew delivery technologies, pay specialattention to the effects of compression onyour work. Keeping your eye tuned toshooting compression-friendly video is askill you’ll likely be using for a long timeto come.Sidebar 1A Compressionist by TradeAs compression gets more and more important in the delivery of video content, there is agrowing trend of individuals who are specializing in this field.The video compressionist is an individual who either understands how to deliver thelargest amount of content in the smallest stream of data, or who understands the best type ofcompression to employ in order to get the best looking video playback on a particular system.The fact that there are specialists doing this work is a good indicator of how complicatedthe underlying technology can be. But don’t worry, for the vast majority of us, the hardwareand software tools we use do an excellent job of compression without the need for anyhuman input at all.

Squish! Shooting for Streaming 337Sidebar 2Be Afraid of the DarkWell lit shots cut back on grain, making the image easier to compress, easier to send and easieron the eye of the Web viewer. As strange as it may seem, you will want to use bright lightingfor roughly the same reason as limiting movement in the frame. Grain (also known asnoise) in an image is seen as motion by compression programs, eating up file space andresulting in degraded images. A simple, stable, grainy image can be as difficult for a compressionprogram to work with as a complicated image with lots of motion. Good lookingstreaming video requires that you shoot well-lit raw footage.

67A Step-by-Step Guideto Encoding for the WebJohn DavisWhen you started your production, youhad a vision; you may have had a simplemessage to communicate, a joke to tell ora story to share. After shooting, you spenttime editing your footage and makingyour masterpiece come to life. Finally,your work is at an end and your finishedproduction sits in an .avi file on your harddrive. Now what do you do? The onlything left is to output your production soyou can share it with others.How can you share your project with allthe people that you want to see it? Youcould output your project to tape andmake duplicates to send to your friends.Or, you could put your finished programon the Web, either as a downloadable fileor as streaming media for the entire worldto see. In this article you will learn how totake your video file from your hard drive,create a streaming media file and thenpost it to a Web site.Although the specific mouse clicksmay vary depending on the software youuse, the basic steps are the same. Usingthis article as a guide, you’ll be able toget your project ready for your audienceto view.Video on the WebYou can post video files on a Web site andmake them available for downloading justlike you can any other type of file.Because video files can be quite large,with correspondingly large downloadtimes, many people choose to offer theirvideo as streaming media. Streamingrefers to media files that can be viewed asthey are downloaded. Since viewerswatch streaming video on the fly, theydon’t have to wait for long downloads.Only a small part of the file stays on yourcomputer while you are watching thevideo.The first thing that you must do ifyou’re going to stream your video is toconvert your video file into a streamingformat (see Figure 67.1). There are severaldifferent software programs that will performthe necessary file conversions; some338

Encoding for the Web 339Figure 67.1 A Complete video—once you’ve finished your production,it’s ready to be converted, to a streaming format.will also help you clean up your projectand tweak it for the smaller formatand ower quality that’s required for theWeb. Before you go out and buy encodingsoftware, you might want to check theediting software you now have. Some ofthe newer versions, such as SonicFoundry’s Vegas Video, have encodingoptions built into their output choices.Similarly, encoders from both RealMediaand Microsoft Windows Media are availableas free plugins to popular editingpackages like Adobe Premiere and evenMicrosoft’s PowerPoint. For more productsyou can see a detailed list inthe Streaming, MPEG and QuickTimeEncoders Buyer’s Guide, on page 9 in thisissue.We have selected one of the productsfeatured in that buyer’s guide, MediaCleaner Pro 4 from Terran Interactive, toillustrate the necessary steps to get avideo from your computer to the WorldWide Web. Although other programs willoperate differently, the concepts will beuniversal and consistent.Getting StartedFirst, make sure you have your finishedvideo project and the encoding software.For our example, we will encode a60-second video for a project that we shotand mastered on the Mini DV format. Thefinal edit of the video resides on our harddrive as a 720 480, 30-frame-per-second,32-bit color .avi file with 16-bit stereoaudio, sampled at 44.1 kHz. Sound complicated?Don’t worry. These are standard settingsfor video captured to a computerfrom a digital camcorder using an IEEE1394 (FireWire) cable. Your settings maydiffer, but that doesn’t matter. You simplyneed to have the video you’d like to streamon your computer’s hard drive to begin.When you start the encoding program,you will likely have two choices: you can

340 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 67.2 Capture it—load your video into the Batch window to beginthe encoding process.use the program’s wizard to help you customizeyour project or you can specify allthe advanced settings yourself. Choosingthe wizard is a good way to start, as itwalks you step-by-step through theencoding process. For this article we’lldiscuss the advanced settings option.When you’re ready to begin encoding,you first need to load the video that youwant to encode into the encoding program.You can do this by dragging theactual .avi file you’ll use into the Batchwindow or you can choose Add to Batchfrom the File Menu (see Figure 67.2). Ifthe Batch window is not available, simplyselect New Batch from the file menu.Once you have your production in theProcess window, you can then go to theAdvanced Settings dialog by selectingAdvanced Settings from the Windowsmenu. It is here where you will tell thesoftware how you would like to encodeyour streaming media file.Output OptionsThe first settings in the Advanced Settingswindow are on the Output tab. The mostbasic decision is the output file format: doyou want a Real Video, QuickTime orWindows Media file? Or do you want allthree? Although there are significant differencesin the way that each format isencoded, the image quality of each is onpar with the others. You may end up choosingone format over another out of personalpreference or due to where you will ultimatelypost your file. Some formats havefeatures that the others don’t, so be sure toread up on each of the formats. Dependingon the encoder you use, you may not havemany choices. Not all encoders output allof the file types. We are using MediaCleaner Pro for this example because ithandles all of the common file formats.The output options that follow depend onthe format you’ve chosen (see Figure 67.3).

Encoding for the Web 341Figure 67.3 Focus on format—the output window is where youdecide what type of format you’d like to use to stream your video.If you choose RealVideo, for example, youwill see choices for RealPlayer compatibility.You can also choose to encode usingSureStream, which automatically adjuststo the viewer’s connection speed, or youcan choose to encode to a single stream.Next, you need to choose the frame size(see Figure 67.4). You do not want to use720 480, as the file size would be enormousand take forever to view. Often, toensure speedy delivery, Internet video isquite small, sometimes less than 100 pixelswide and/or tall. Generally, thesmaller the frame size, the smoother thestream. For our project, we chose to createa streaming file at 160 120 pixels.Now it’s time to consider frame rate.Each frame adds to the total size of yourfile and slows down the whole streamingprocess. The human threshold for discerningmotion happens to be 12 imagesper second. Anything less than that(roughly) will appear as a fast slide show.With this in mind, many streaming mediafiles are lowered to 12 FPS. This reducesfile size so that viewers are able to watchyour video with less pauses, glitches andstutters.Keeping in mind that both audio andvideo travel down that same narrowmodem line, let’s turn our attention to theaudio portion of our project. Some fileformats support different codecs than others.The RealVideo format, for example,allows you to adjust audio gain, low pass,high pass, noise removal, dynamic range(difference between highest high and lowestlow frequency), noise gate, notch andoddly enough, reverb. Play with these settingsto find what works best for your project(see Figure 67.5). Because Internetaudio tends to be low quality, you maychoose to cut some corners with thesound quality so you can preserve preciousbandwidth for your visuals (seeFigure 67.6).

342 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 67.4 Size matters—choose a frame size that will ensurespeedy delivery of your video over the Internet. The smallerthe better.Figure 67.5 Sound it out—work with the audio settings to getgood sound without compromising the video image.

Encoding for the Web 343Figure 67.6 Review it—the summary tab allows you to verify all yoursettings options before you encode the video file.Encoding the Output FileOnce you have set all the options, go backthrough and verify them. Many of theseprograms have a setting’s summary whichyou can view before you encode. In MediaCleaner Pro, the summary is alwaysavailable as another tab in the Advancedsettings.After you verify your settings, clickApply. It is here that you might consideradding alternate outputs, likeQuickTime and Windows, so that you canwalk away and come back to find severaloutput files finished. For our project,however, we selected RealVideo as ouronly output file and pressed Start.It took 10.5 seconds to create the outputfile for this 60-second project. Encodingspeed depends on several factors, includingprocessor speed. Media Cleaner Prohas a cool feature that lets you watch asplit-screen view of the before (source)and after (destination) (see Figure 67.7).This can be especially helpful to see whatyou have selected, if you are makingadjustments such as cropping or colorcorrection.After you have encoded your file, youshould view it before you put it on theWeb. Make sure it looks okay on yourcomputer before you send it to someoneelse. This step can save you time andtrouble later. If everything looks good, youcan now upload your file to the Web.Publishing to the WebThe last step in this process is getting yourencoded file to your Web host. You cansend it electronically from your computervia the Internet to your Web host, you cansend a floppy disk with the encoded filevia snail mail or you can send the editedproject on tape and have the Web host

344 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 67.7 Before and after—media Cleaner Pro has a split-screen feature that allowsyou to view the original as the new file is created.encode it (see sidebar). For more informationon hosting services, check out “WebHosting,” in this special guide.When you publish to the Web, you’rereally just storing your file in a folder ordirectory on a host computer. That computerruns specialized server-softwarethat allows it to share files to users allover the world. Getting your streamingmedia file to the server is the same asmoving it to another folder on your computer.The main difference is that thefolder where you are moving your filesmight be 3,000 miles away!Some programs that encode media filesalso help publish your finished productsto the Web. Depending on who your Webhost is, you may have some online uploadingaids or step-by-step instructions availableto you. In either case, consult the hostsite’s technical support for directions.Typically, you will upload the file via FTP(file transfer protocol) to your Web host(see Figure 67.8). You can almost alwaysaccomplish this by using a shareware FTPclient such as Cute FTP (Windows) orAnarchie (Mac).Once you have uploaded your file toyour host, you will need to make it availableto your viewers. Follow your encodingsoftware’s directions for serving andembedding your streaming media files inWeb pages, as the directions will varybetween formats.Surf’s UpOnce you’ve invested your time and effortinto a production, you want it to be seenby as many people and as easily as possible.Getting it onto the Web can accomplishthat. By learning to encode youroriginal project into a streamed file, youcan make it happen in a way that will getmore viewers to your show.Using encoding software can be extremelysimple. These encoders can takeyour finished product and squish it down tothe size of a postage stamp, if need be. Their

Encoding for the Web 345Figure 67.8 Post it—an FTP shareware program can upload yourencoded project to your Web host.specialty is keeping your carefully-wroughtimages intact when they squish the file.If you haven’t already experienced thethrill of publishing on the World WideWeb and having people from all overwatch your productions almost as fast asyou can make them, you do not knowwhat you’ve been missing!

68Why and How WouldI Get a Streaming Server?Larry Lemm346To provide video over the Internet, youneed to have a server. Hosting your ownstreaming server is a good idea only if youalready have a Web server with at least aT1 line running to it. If you have a Webserver with no more than phone or ISDNlines you will not be able to stream videoeffectively.Many people who create video contentwould rather spend their days shootingand editing video than maintaining anordinary Web server, much less one thatstreams video. For them, a remote serverhosted by someone else is a good idea.If you do have your own Web server,you can provide a hyperlink to the videohosting company’s Web site. Alternately,you could keep all your Web content—including your video content—on aremote video streaming server and avoidthe need for maintaining a Web server ofyour own. Another advantage of enlistinga remote host: a large video serving companycould also draw more people to yourvideo than you could draw to your ownweb page alone.There are many considerations to keepin mind when choosing a streamingserver. The first and foremost is how many“streams” you are allotted. A single streamwould allow only one viewer to watch onevideo clip at a time. The more streams thatare available, the more viewers can bewatching at one time. For many Web sites,10 streams would be plenty. If you had20 minutes of streamed video on demand,10 streams would allow up to720 peopleto watch that video in a 24-hour period.Some servers charge you by the numberof streams you want available to potentialviewers, while others charge you by thenumber of streams they actually served toviewers of your video.If you are going through the trouble ofhaving someone else host your video, youshould choose one of the multiple protocolstreaming software packages. Alongwith choosing a server, you will need todecide what software you want to use toserve your video. Each package has its ownfeatures and drawbacks. Some programsrequire clients to download browser

Getting a Streaming Server 347plug-ins to watch the video; others do not;still others cram a plug-in into yourbrowser with the power of Java.The streamers that don’t require a plugintransmit video through the Web’s HTTPprotocol. These are convenient for theuser because they are easiest to setup anduse. However, they do not take advantageof alternative protocols that are designedto deliver video more quickly and accurately.Non-HTTP software packages use“non-reliable” protocols to send everythingbut the control information and arethus inherently faster.When shopping for a streaming servercompany, consider the amount of bandwidththat it makes available for yourcontent. The more bandwidth you have,the faster and better your video willstream to viewers. Some servers may usea process known as multicasting. Multicastingsends only one stream of video toa collection of servers. Those servers thenre-transmit the video to viewers in theirarea. This process saves bandwidth on thebackbone of the Internet, and allows formore video to be streamed without cloggingthe ‘Net with video. The downside isthat multicasting eliminates the ondemandaspect, you can watch a multicastonly while it is being transmitted; youcan’t initiate one on your own.Choosing the right server is the mostimportant decision you make after decidingthat streaming video is for you. If theidea of setting up a high-bandwidth videoserver makes your head spin with unknownacronyms and arcane nerdspeak, thenchoose a remote video hosting companyto stream your video for you.

69Slide into “Thin Streaming”Larry LemmSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.348Someday soon Internet video-on-demandwill democratize video distribution,allowing everyone the opportunity to distributevideo to a worldwide audiencewithout having a multi-billion dollartelevision-broadcasting studio.But what is there to do in the meantime?How can I put my productions onthe Internet today?The answer lies in the slideshow. Iremember the first time I watched videoon-demandvia the Internet. “Amazing,” Ithought to myself as I clicked on the buttonthat started the video. Having alreadydownloaded and installed the utility thatallowed this technological miracle, Iwas ready to experience “click-and-watch”video. What a letdown.The video was tiny, roughly the size of asaltine cracker on my 17-inch monitor.The picture was barely discernible, withlarge digital-artifacts appearing wherethe software’s compression utility hadn’tquite done its math correctly. Themost obvious problem was the lack ofmotion. The video sputtered along at twoor three frames per second. I had almostgiven up hope for Internet video, when Iremembered how I was connected to theInternet: through an old, slow, copperphone wire.Then I imagined the super-fast connectionthe phone companies are promisingover the next couple of years. If theycan transmit almost-video over myancient phone line now, full-motion, fullscreenvideo-on-demand will be a realitywhen the super-fast Internet connectioncomes. Until then, I can distributemy work on the Web in the form of aslideshow.Internet slideshows are a fast and inexpensiveway to get your ideas out toa mass audience, without having toresort to slow, chunky and tiny video.By using the basic story-telling conceptsof a storyboard, you can easily turn anyvideo into a multimedia web-basedslideshow. Slideshows also play great ona television, opening your Web slideshowto a wider potential audience of Web TVsurfers.

Slide into “Thin Streaming” 349Making Slides to ShowThere are two basic ways to create digitalslides. First, you can use a still camera.Your still camera can be either a standardfilm-based camera, in which case youwould have to use a scanner to digitizethe photos, or a digital camera that savesstills on a disk in an Internet-ready format.Or, you can use a video camera, andtake stills from video (Figure 69.1).The first method requires little or nospecial equipment, save a scanner if youare using a film-based still camera. If youhave a FireWire based digital camcorder itis easy to create stills that are transferableto your computer through a simple connector.If you want to use existing analogvideotape taken from a standard camcorder,making digital stills requires aspecial piece of equipment called a digitizer.This can be either a special videocaptureboard that you install into yourcomputer, or an external device like PlayInc’s Snappy (Figure 69.2), that plugs intothe ports in the back.Either way, you can use these tools tocapture “still frames” from your video.These devices will usually save the stillframes in any of the standard digitalphoto formats including .gif, .jpg, .bmp,and .tga. After you have selected the stillsyou want to use, you’ll need to put themin an order that tells a story. For example,if you are making a how-to slideshowabout organic gardening your first slidecould be of your untilled garden. The nextcould be a slide of tilling the garden, followedby slides of rebuilding the soil withcompost, planting the garden, chemicalfreepest control techniques, harvestingand so forth. After you have selected yourslides, you can create an audio track thatexplains each step, and match the changingslides to your audio track.Tools to Slide the ShowNow that you have slides to show, you areready to put them on the Internet. ForFigure 69.1 Your camcorder is all you need togather images for your Internet slideshow.Figure 69.2 Video stills can be capturedusing an inexpensive device like Play, Inc.’sSnappy.those of you who aren’t experienced inHTML Web programming, I’d recommendusing an existing video streaming programlike the Real Video Producer (Figure 69.3)or a special slideshow program such asInMedia’s Slides and Sounds.To make a slideshow in Slides andSounds (Figure 69.4), simply place your

350 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productione-mailed to family and friends, or select the“save as HTML” option from the file menu.This will create a Web ready HTML filethat will play on most browsers (in InternetExplorer, you might have to go to the“view” menu, “options” section, “securitylevel” button, and select the medium securitysetting to permit a small file to be temporarilyused to play the slideshow).Getting Your Slideshow on the WebFigure 69.3 RealVideo allows you to makestreaming slideshows by showing a videoframe every four seconds.Figure 69.4 InMedia’s Slides and Sounds isdesigned to make creating Internet slideshowseasy.selected slides in order in the slideshowcreation menu. Captions and sound effectscan be added to each slide by simply clickingthe “add sound” and “add caption” buttons.Transitions between slides can thenbe selected from the F/X menu. Blankslides can also be created to add simpletitles at the start or finish of yourslideshow. It’s that easy. To finish theslideshow, save it as a file that can beNow that your slideshow is ready for theweb, you’ll need to publish it to your Webpage. There are numerous Web hostingcompanies, and each offers its own packageof options for your site. Users of InMedia’sSlides and Sound who don’t want to hosttheir own Web site can have a slideshowserved by InMedia.If you plan to use a video-streamingpackage to create your slideshow,make sure that the hosting company youchoose supports the streaming packageyou plan on using. There are some sites onthe Web that will even give you a freeweb site to display your slideshow.Geocities (www.geocities.com) and Tripod(www.tripod.com) will host a small sitefor free as long as it is a not-for-profitendeavor. (See Figure 69.5.)Until the majority of the wired world hasa high-bandwidth Internet connection thatstreams video full-size and full motion,slideshows are the low-bandwidth alternativeof choice for camcorder enthusiasts.Making a Slideshow in HTMLIt is easy to make a series of Web pages actlike a slideshow is you already know thebasics of HTML. To perform this feat ofcoding magic, simply use this tag above ofyour HTML header (make it the first thinglisted in an HTML source).META HTTP-EQUIV “Refresh” content=“5;URL http://www.yoururl.com/nextslide.htm”

Slide into “Thin Streaming” 351Figure 69.5 An easy way to get your show on the Web (if you’re anon-profit outfit) is to utilize a free host like Geocities or Tripod.In this example, the refresh call is the“slideshow” command, the content number(5 in the example) is the number ofseconds the page will wait before cyclingto the next page in the slideshow, whichis the URL listed in the tag. To use this bitof HTML magic, replace the sample URLwith the URL of your next slide, andreplace the 5 in the content call with thenumber of seconds you want yourslideshow to be displayed.Create your web pages for theslideshow with the images and textyou want displayed, as you would createany web page. If you use an HTML generatorsuch as Pagemill, you can create thepages normally, then add the Meta-Refresh tag above any other coding. Anexample of this style of slideshow is availableat www.adventureliving.com/home/slideshow/ index.html.Using RealVideo to Make aSlideshowVideo streaming software such asVivoActive or RealVideo can also be usedto make an Internet slideshow. The downsideof this method is that viewers willhave to download a special player plug-into watch your slideshow. On the upside,the streaming packages allow for a continuoussoundtrack of narration or music tobe added to your slideshow.The RealVideo encoder, for example,has a pre-defined slideshow setting thatwill take a video clip, and stream it withhigh-quality sound, and a single framefrom the video is shown every four seconds.This is the easiest way to makea slideshow from a video. Another wayto use RealVideo to make a slideshow isto make an audio-only RealMedia file.

352 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionThen you create a series of web pagesholding the images you want shownin your slideshow. The next step is tomake a text file that will list the webpages you want synchronized to theaudio with a time marker next to each,and it will begin loading that page at thatpoint in the audio file. As the audio fileplays, the web pages are automaticallydisplayed.A stellar example of a RealVideoslideshow is at www.starwars.com/dewback/index.html. Here you will seeGeorge Lucas explain some moviemakingmagic while his Web site employs someWeb-Jedi tricks.

70Put MPEGs on YourHome PageJoe McCleskeySee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.MPEG (emm-peg): Moving Picture ExpertsGroup 1) A working group of digital videoexperts who meet regularly under theauspices of the International StandardsOrganization (ISO) and the InternationalElectro-technical Commission (IEC) todevelop standards for compressed digitalvideo. 2) A compressed digital video clip,often found on the World Wide Web or inmultimedia CD-ROM products.If you’ve spent any time at all on theWorld Wide Web, you’re probably familiarwith the MPEG acronym by now.That’s because MPEGs are one of the maintypes of digital video files availableon Web pages, some of the others beingMicrosoft’s Windows Media (formerlyknown as Video for Windows),RealNetworks’ RealMedia and Apple’sQuickTime. MPEG compression is theolder brother to MPEG-2 compressionwhich is used to encode video for DVDsas well as DSS. MPEG compressionhas been designed to compress digitalvideo to manageable size while retainingpicture quality.“Okay,” you say, “that’s all very welland good, but how do I get these MPEGsonto my home page?”Glad you asked. What follows is a conciseguide to putting your own shortvideo clips onto the World Wide Web.We’ll cover the shooting and digitizing ofthese clips in somewhat less detail; whatwe’re really after here is the simplest wayto 1) compress your digital video filesusing the MPEG-1 CODEC, and 2) postthese files to a Web page using the storeand-forwardmethod.When you’ve finished with the article,you’ll be able to put the entire Web audiencejust a few mouse clicks away fromviewing your short video clips.Store and ForwardCurrently, the most popular method fordistributing digital video on the Internetis known as the “store and forward”method. The concept is pretty simple: avideographer makes a digitized video clip353

354 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionavailable on his or her Web page, wherethe Internet public at large may downloadit onto their own computer and play attheir leisure. It’s nearly identical to theshareware concept of computer softwaredistribution, with one condition: theshared software is a video clip instead of asoftware package or application.There are some drawbacks to thismethod. The biggest problem is time;video files tend to be rather large, so ittakes some time to download them on atypical (56.6 kilobaud) modem. A thirtysecondMPEG clip, for example, can easilyoccupy 1 MB of hard drive space—which,in turn, will take approximately five minutesto download on a 56.6 Kb modem.Fortunately, there are ways to make theprocess a little bit more palatable. Commonpractice is to place a single frame of thevideo clip onto your Web page near thelocation of the MPEG itself; this givespotential viewers a look at what they’regetting before they commit some of theirvaluable online time.LimitationsBefore you get ready to start digitizingyour favorite video clips, you’ll need toconsider the method that your audiencewill most likely use to view your MPEGs.Most multimedia systems offer only asmall, low-res window for viewing digitalvideo.Brand-new computer systems can handlebigger window sizes and better resolutions,but you can’t count on everyone inyour potential audience having a brandnewcomputer. For this reason, we suggestoffering your MPEGs in a 320 240 formator smaller, and 15 frames per secondor less. This tiny window will place limitson the kind of video clips you can use.The most obvious limit is size; if youwant to show a stunning wide-angle shotof a mountain range, for example, it won’tlook like much once you’ve reduced it tofit, stutteringly, into a tiny little box on acomputer screen.These and other factors will unfortunatelymake most of your existing videofootage difficult to watch in a small window.The solution: either sort through thefootage you have for the appropriateshots, or start from scratch and shoot avideo project with the above-mentionedconcepts in mind.Another problem with MPEGs is audio.Many software MPEG encoders won’thandle MPEG audio, and just as manysoftware MPEG playback applicationswon’t play MPEG audio even if you takethe time and effort to include it in yourvideo clip. For this reason, MPEG videoartists might find themselves operating ina visual-only medium. (The easiest way toget around this? Go with the standard .avior .mov formats instead of MPEG.)Shooting Video for MultimediaOnce you decide on what footage to use,you’ll have to get the video into the computerwith a video digitizer. Digitizers areavailable in a wide range of performancelevels and prices. Note that a 60-field-persecond,full-screen video digitizer is notnecessary to produce a suitable digitalvideo clip. Many of the older low-costdigitizers were designed with the smallmultimedia video presentation in mind,so if you’ve got one of these, you’re set togo. If you’re in the market for a new videodigitizer, however, and you’re willing tospend a little extra, it’s a good idea to getthe best model you can afford. A betterdigitizer will not only give you a betteroverall image (even at these small sizes);it’ll be there for you when you’re ready toupgrade your DTV workstation.One more thing to look for if you’re inthe market for a video digitizer: check tosee if the model you’re interested in comeswith MPEG encoding software bundled.Many of the newer video digitizers comecomplete with software for nonlinearediting, 3D animation, photo enhancementand other applications. For our purposes, asoftware-only MPEG encoder is a direct hit.

Put MPEGs on Your Home Page 355Software MPEG EncodingNow that you’ve digitized your shot-formultimediafootage, it’s time to use MPEGto bring your video files down to a moremanageable size.You can accomplish this by two means:through a hardware MPEG encoder, suchas might be integrated with your capturecard, or by using a software MPEG solution.An hardware encoding solution isusually faster (real-time or better), butgenerally costs more, while a softwaresolution might leave you waiting, butwith more money in your wallet.Once you’ve successfully encodedthem to MPEG, your video clips shouldoccupy a much smaller space, requiringless online time for your audience todownload. Now it’s time to post it to aWeb page. In order to do so, you’ll eitherhave to pay someone who knows how (i.e.an Internet service provider or consultant),or roll up your sleeves and get friendlywith HTML, the language of the Web.Post ItDon’t panic: the basics of HTML (hypertextmarkup language) are quite easy tolearn. For a primer on Web productionfundamentals, take a look at “A Beginner’sGuide to HTML”. (www.ncsa.uiuc.edu/General/Internet/WWW/HTMLPrimer.html.) An alternative would be to use oneof the WYSIWYG (“What You See Is WhatYou Get”) Web page editors, such asMicrosoft’s FrontPage or Adobe’s PageMill,which handle all the “coding” for you.There are also shareware and even freewareeditors available for download, sodon’t feel compelled to learn HTML.Besides knowledge of the basics ofHTML (or at least a method of creating it),you’re going to need access to the rightkind of Internet service. Specifically,you’ll need the type that allows usersto create and post their own Web pages.The major online service providers(AOL, CompuServe, etc.) offer limited Webpages to their clients, but the large numberof individual pages this creates makesit necessary to severely limit them in size.For this reason, your best option for Webpublishing is likely to be one of the manyfree web-hosting service providers, such asiDrive (http://www.idrive.com), Driveway(http://www.driveway.com) or K-Turn(http://www.kturn.com).Here’s how it usually works: you createyour HTML files, then “post” them toyour assigned site, either through FTP orthrough the HTML editing program you’reusing (e.g., Microsoft FrontPage allowsyou to manage your site through anExplorer-like interface, with folders andfile icons).Students who are lucky enough toattend schools that offer them Web spacecan take advantage of this opportunity,but bear in mind that you’ll probably beon your own for the actual posting.Consult your campus information centerto find out how your school handlesstudent Web pages.For those who already have some experienceproducing Web pages, here’s a tip:posting MPEGs (or any other kind ofvideo file, for that matter) is easier than itmay seem. Just link the MPEG file(video.mpg, for example) the same wayyou would create an internal link toanother Web page. The HTML might looklike this: Click a href”video.mpg”here/a to download my latest MPEG.When you do this, a person viewingyour page has only to click on the word“here” to download your video clip.(Note: in the above example, you’d haveto make sure that the file “video.mpg”was in the same directory as the page listingthe link. Otherwise, you’d have to putthe directory information ahead of the filename, e.g. “mpegs\video.mpg”.)Confused? Don’t worry; a visit tothe above-mentioned HTML tutorialshould help to sort things out a bit. And ifall else fails, you can always bribe oneof your computer-nerd friends with asix pack of Jolt Cola; this always worksfor me.

356 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionWhat For?Now that you know how to post MPEGson the Web, what will you do with thisknowledge? Here’s a short list of applicationsyou might consider: Illustrate aprocess. Provide talking-head narration.Make a preview of a longer work. Create aweekly 30-second Internet TV show.Advertise a product. Smile and wave toyour Web audience. Give the Web a “virtual”tour of your backyard. Introduceyour pets. Expose a scandal. Sell your car.Create a video personal ad. Or anythingelse you might think of.

PART VIIAuthoring DVDs and CDsBurning video onto discs that will play in DVD players and computer drives.

71Getting Your VideoOnto a DVDMatthew YorkDVD players were the only category inconsumer electronics hardware thatshowed major growth last year. At leastthree factors have fueled this rapid adoption.First, the quality of DVD-video is farsuperior to VHS, especially the soundquality. Second, most video rental storescarry a wide selection of DVD titles forrent. Third, the retail price for a DVDplayer has plummeted below $100, so theyare quite affordable. This is important topeople who make video because we nowhave another distribution medium to use.VHS videotape has been the standardvideo format for distribution for yearsbecause nearly every home has a VHSVCR connected. Now, there are enoughDVD players in use for everyone makingvideo to consider making duplicates oftheir videos on both VHS and DVD. Theprice to duplicate DVDs has dropped dramaticallywithin the past year. Individualcopies made at home might cost as littleas 70 cents per disc and the cost to professionallyduplicate 1,000 copies of a DVDis about the same as 2-hour VHS tape.DVD is clearly becoming the new standardvideo format for distribution. Butwhat does that mean for video producers?DVDs can be played back on personalcomputers or living room DVD players.When played on a personal computer,other information can be included likestill images, games, software applications,documents and even Internet links. Thesebonus features are something that allvideographers should consider when theyhave the chance to use DVD to distributetheir work.The most important aspect of usingDVD for video is navigation. With a VCR,the remote control is the only navigationtool available. The menu choices arecrude and inaccurate: pause, stop, rewind,play and fast-forward. The content creatorhas no control over the navigation and,therefore, it is assumed that the viewerwill simply play the video from the beginningto the end. Since videotape is a linearmedium, this is a good assumption. It isimpractical to instruct the viewer to pressthe fast forward button on their VCR’s359

360 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionremote to simulate random access of thevideo. Besides, the fast-forward button isimprecise and the TV screen may be blankwhile the tape is fast-forwarding toanother spot on the video.DVD, on the other hand, is nonlinear.This means that the viewers can jump toany point of the video at any time. DVDmenus, when properly designed, are aboon to multimedia presentations. Thisone seemingly simple capacity actuallytransforms the entire video production(and viewing) experience.From the outset, video production hasreally just been an extension of radio.Early TV shows where comprised of cameraspointed at radio personalities as theydid their radio shows. These shows were,in turn, an extension of motion pictures,theatrical plays and Vaudeville acts.Collectively, it is all really story telling,which is in turn largely what being humanis about. Stories are linear. They start witha beginning, have a middle and concludeat the end. Since most videos are storieson a TV screen, the linear nature of videotapeis perfectly suited for this purpose.Of course a series of loosely related shortstories can be collected together in a singlevolume. The Bible is a good example ofthis. The Bible is not one long story, but isinstead a series of short stories arranged inbooks and chapters. Vaudeville acts werealso comprised of short individual liveperformances. Variety shows (on the radioor TV) are also collections of short stories.This fundamental idea of making avideo that is, in essence, a series of shortstories is enhanced by DVD. DVD authoringwill challenge all video producers toconsider the idea of a nonlinear presentation.Creating this type of video is anentirely different endeavor right from thefirst stages of planning.

72Burn Your Own:A Guide to Creating YourOwn CDs and DVDsLoren AlldrinSee video clips at www.videomaker.com/handbook.Been to a video store lately? If so, you’veprobably noticed that you can rent movieson something other than good-old VHStape. More and more releases are nowavailable on DVD, a shiny disc that holdsmoving images and sounds in a digitalformat. DVD delivers excellent audio andvideo quality plus the potential for interactivity:viewer-selectable camera angles,alternate edits, multiple languages andmuch more. Intrigued? As a videographer,you should be!Unfortunately, due to the high cost ofhardware putting your own videos ontoDVD has been an unaffordable dream formost. But this is rapidly changing—hardwareprices are dropping to the pointwhere burning your own DVD (or CD-ROMor Video CD) isn’t outrageously expensive.What it still is, though, is confusing. Manyvideographers have tried to burn their ownvideo discs but found themselves lost in amaze of acronyms, technical jargon andfast-moving standards.Sound familiar? If so, you’ve come to theright place. We’ll do our best to explain thebasic concepts of recording to DVD-Video,CD-R video and Video CD discs.The Big PictureWhen you boil it all down, there are twomain issues at work when it comes torecording video onto a disc. First, youhave the physical disc format itself. Thereare just two to consider—CD and DVD.Both use tiny pits in a reflective mediumto represent digital data, but the newerDVD technology packs much more dataon the disc. You can think of both as simplestorage devices that store any type ofdata without bias.The bigger issue is what type of data agiven disc holds and how that data isstructured. DVD-Video, for example, issimply a DVD disc with MPEG-2 video,audio and a file structure that makes senseto a DVD player. A Video CD’s medium isjust like that of an audio CD, but the videoand audio files are saved in the specificformat a Video CD player expects.361

362 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionKeep in mind that CD and DVD canstore any type of information, not just thelatest DVD Video movie or MicrosoftOffice 2004. This means you can use a CDor DVD to hold digital video and audiothat’s not formatted for a specific hardwaredevice (such as a DVD player). Sincethis is sort of like a cross between thestrictly data and strictly video applications,you’d use a computer to read andplay back these files. It’s just good toremember that DVD Video, for example,represents just one way to store digitalvideo and audio on a DVD.If you’re reading between the lines,you’ve probably already figured out thegood news—computers that have a CD-Rdrive are physically capable of writing aVideo CD, and those with a DVD-R drivecan write a DVD Video disc. When itcomes to burning 1s and 0s into that shinysilver disc, you’re already equipped.But as we mentioned above, the physicalformat of the disc is only half ofthe equation. The other half is gettingyour video and audio files in the correctformat—and in the right place—for playbackin a stand-alone player. This is wherespecific software comes into play toencode and author.Blend, Pour, BakeWhether you’re making just one copy foryourself or creating a master to send offfor duplication, the DVD and CD-ROMcreation process is essentially the same:digitize, encode, author and burn. (SeeFigure 72.1.)The encoding step converts digitalvideo and audio files from one format toanother, usually reducing their size dramaticallyalong the way. Encoding for aDVD Video, for example, involves compressingvideo files with the MPEG-2standard. The software then encodesaudio files into any of several formats(surround, 5.1 surround, stereo, etc.) recognizedby DVD players. The encodingprocess is similar for a Video CD, but softwareuses lower-quality MPEG-1 compressionfor the video and audio.At the encoding stage, DVD makers havenumerous parameters at their disposal forcontrolling image and sound quality, aswell as the amount of video that will fiton the disc. Good DVD encoding fits therequired amount of video on the disc atthe highest-possible quality, with nowasted space. For a major motion picture,this might equate to roughly two hours ofFigure 72.1 1) Transfer your video from tape to hard drive. 2) Apply the appropriatecompression/decompression (codec) scheme to your video. 3) Design the operatinginterface for your video. 4) Copy your finished video to a disc.

Burn Your Own 363video. Drop the quality down to the VHSlevel, and you could fit 10 or more hoursof video on the smallest-capacity DVD. Beforewarned: depending on quality settings,the software you use and the speedof your computer, encoding MPEG-2 canbe a lengthy process.Authoring software then takes theencoded video and audio files and formatsthem according to their intended purpose.For DVD, the encoding software recordsvarious special codes required for correctplayback, as well as such optional goodiesas chapter points, navigational aids, menusand overlayed graphics. Because capabilitiesof the Video CD aren’t as advanced,Video CD authoring software is simplerand less costly than DVD authoring software.Some software packages combineencoding and authoring into one step.The final step is to actually burn theaudio, video and other special files to ablank DVD-R or CD-R disc (about $30 and$1 respectively). Everything is just a seriesof numbers at this point, and the recorderwill lay these bits onto the disc as fastas the burner hardware (or the operator)will allow. Since DVD and CD-R burnersrange in speed from 2x to 12x and beyond(CD-R), the process doesn’t happen in realtime. If your hardware is very fast, forexample, you may be able to burn a full74-minute Video CD in about 5 minutes.Burning For YouIs everything rosy in the world of homecookedDVDs? Not entirely. DVD-R drivesrecord permanently on a disc, offer thebest compatibility with home DVD players,but still cost several thousands of dollars.Most professional DVD authors useDVD-R drives.Rewritable DVD drives have dippedbelow the $1,000 mark, and may be availablefor less than $500 by the time you readthis. Unfortunately, the rewriteable DVDmarket is in the middle of a bitter formatwar. Three competing standards (DVD-RW,DVDRW and DVD-RAM) are availableand each has its advantages and disadvantages.Compatibility with existing homeDVD Video drives and computer DVD-ROM drives is one of the hottest topics, sobe sure to check for late-breaking newsbefore you purchase a drive.Folks wanting to burn their own VideoCDs have it easy. They may already haveeverything they need, provided their CD-Rbundle included the correct software.ABCs of AcronymsOne of the first obstacles to get over whenmoving from a video cassette to a silverdisc is the mountain of acronyms thatseems to pile up with every new technology.Here are some of the key acronymsand terms that you need to know:CD (Compact Disc): a digital “bit bucket”that can store any type of data, be it audio,video or computer software. One CD holdsroughly 650 megabytes (MB) of data.●●●CD-R (CD Recordable): a CD you canrecord your own data on. You can’terase or re-record a CD-R.CD-ROM (CD Read Only Memory): a CDpre-recorded with computer data thatcan’t be changed or erased.CD-RW (CD Rewritable): a CD you canwrite and re-write to thousands oftimes.DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): like a CD,holds digital data of any kind. Today’sDVDs hold roughly 5, 9 or 13 gigabytes(GB) of data on one, two or three data layers.A 13 GB DVD holds the equivalent toabout 20 normal CDs.●DVD-R (DVD Recordable): a DVD thatyou can record your own data onto onlyone time. DVD-ROM (DVD Read OnlyMemory): a DVD pre-recorded withcomputer data that can’t be changed orerased.

364 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Production●●DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD RW: competingrewriteable DVD standards embroiledin a heated format scuffle.DVD-Video: a DVD disc that holdsMPEG-2 video and any of several differenttypes of audio. When you rent aDVD, this is what you get.MPEG-1 (Motion Picture Experts Group,first standard): a highly efficient way ofcompressing digital video for lower resolutions(i.e. 320 horizontal lines).For a look at the physical differencesbetween a rewritable CD and at recordableCD, take a look at Figure 72.2.Keeping up with digital video is allabout learning new technology and newtechniques and the latest trend away fromtape and toward DVD is no exception.Someday soon, a silver disc may bethe final destination for all your videoprojects.When that day comes, you’ll be ready toburn.● MPEG-2 (MPEG, second standard):offers better quality and higher resolutionthan MPEG-1. DVD players useMPEG-2 with a horizontal resolution of720 lines.●VCD (Video CD): just like a regular CD,but holds MPEG-1 video and audio forplayback in reasonably fast CD-ROMand DVD-ROM drives and currentgenerationDVD video players; as wellas Video CD players not readily availablein the U.S.Web LinksThe Internet is one of the best places tostay abreast of rapid-fire changes in theDVD and CD-ROM markets. Visit theseinformative Web sites for the latest newsand product information.General InfoDVD FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions)www.videodiscovery.com/vdyweb/dvd/dvdfaq.htmlFigure 72.2 Rewritable/recordable comparison.

Burn Your Own 365DVD for Not-so-Dummieswww.nimbuscd.com/dvd.htmlMPEG Home Pagewww.cselt.stet.it/mpegMPEG Pointers and Resourceswww.mpeg.orgCanopuswww.canopuscorp.comCreative Labswww.soundblaster.comDigigamiwww.digigami.comFast Multimediawww.fastmultimedia.comVitec Multimediawww.vitecmm.com

73DVD Authoring Software:Special Buyer’s GuideD. Eric FranksA year ago, we were excited, but conservativelyoptimistic about home DVDauthoring. High prices and compatibilityloomed large in our thinking. With secondand third-generation recorders droppingbelow $300 and blank media dippingwell under $1 a disc, price is no longerprohibitive. Software is also entering anew generation, with fewer bugs andgreater stability. Fierce competition hasalso meant better quality, more featuresand lower prices. This is good news forthe would-be home DVD maker, as itmeans that you can concentrate on the artof making DVDs, and not the technology.Easier than EditingDVD authoring software typically performsthree functions: encoding video,menu authoring and burning the disc.Perhaps surprisingly, almost all basicapplications support all three functions,but some of the more advanced,professional and specialized authoringapplications only author and do not encodeor burn.● Encoding. Most people do not wantto deal with the complexities of encoding,so you’ll want to make sure that yourauthoring app has an encoder (which is inmost products from Main Concept). Forthose of you who are interested in the artof the compressionist, there are advancedapplications such as Canopus ProCoder orDiscreet Cleaner, as well as MPEG specialistslike the Tsunami encoder (TMPGenc).● Burning. Burning is even less interestingthan encoding and should probablynot be any more complex than clickingthe Burn button. You should make sureyour authoring application can burn ifyou need it, however. Most do have burningcapabilities.● Menu authoring. DVD authoring applicationsare primarily about creatingattractive and functional menus. A typicalmenu will have a background image, atitle and smaller thumbnail images that366

DVD Authoring Software 367represent the various chapters or movieson the disc. The focus of authoring is layoutand design, which is really pretty fun.For those of us who do not have degrees inlayout, many programs offer professionallydesigned templates. Not only areattractive templates a boon to the artisticallychallenged, but they can also be hugetimesavers. The only potential downsideto templates is that they might limit yourfreedom. For DVD novices, we really likeapplications like Apple iDVD and SonicMyDVD that start you out with templates,but also give you the freedom to changeanything you want later. Another approachwe like, used in applications like DazzleDVD Complete, is a software Wizard whichcan walk you through the DVD menu creationprocess step-by-step.Bells and WhistlesWe’re not going to tell you how to createyour DVD (in this article), but we willsuggest that once you have a single attractivemenu with thumbnails to navigate tothe various chapters, that is probably allyou need. When you design your disc,always keep your view in mind, especiallywhen you consider the extra bellsand whistles offered by some programs,such as Ulead DVD Workshop or SonicDVDit!● Submenus. Complex DVDs mightneed submenus, but you should alwayscount the number of clicks it takes usersbefore they can actually play the movie.Also consider that your viewer isn’t youand a complex disc structure might resultin people getting lost or confused when allthey really want to do is watch your video.● Animations. Many authoring applicationsallow you to animate the backgroundand the individual menu thumbnails(referred to as motion menus and backgrounds).These features typically addrendering time to the disc creation processand often add nothing to the actual information,content or ease of navigation ofthe disc. But we must admit that it sure iscool and it is an optional feature we like.● Background music. Background musiccan also be annoying, but not if it is donewell. It can be tricky to get the music to loopproperly (making the end transition seamlesslyback to the start of the music), butmost Hollywood DVDs have a music bed.● Start up splashes. When you first popthat disc in the player, wouldn’t it be neatto have a logo swoosh in? This is called a“first play” movie and, again, is completelyoptional. You should make sure that youdon’t have a horrible intro before orbetween every menu. You may personallythink it is cool, but trust us: like Web siteswith annoying Flash Intros (“Skip Intro”),your viewers will be vexed if they repeatedlyhave to see your extreme cleverness.Seeing it once as a “first play” is enough.Advanced FeaturesWe consider the previously mentionedBells and Whistles to be fun but optionalextras (unless your client or bossdemands them). The following list highlightsa number of important advancedfeatures that that might not be a part ofmore basic authoring applications. Somereasonably priced applications that supportsome or all of these more advancedfeatures are Apple DVD Studio Pro,Pinnacle Impression and Sonic Reel DVD.● Subtitles. If you need subtitles (andwidely distributed productions shouldhave them to accommodate the broadestaudience), make sure your chosen authoringapplication allows you to insert them.Subtitling is an extremely labor-intensivetask, so you should carefully consider yoursubtitling needs beyond simply finding anapplication that supports this feature.● Audio compression. DVD audio compressionis more complex than it shouldbe. Uncompressed PCM audio is officiallya part of the DVD specification and iswidely supported, but this type of audio

368 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productiontakes up inordinate amounts of preciousdisc space. A more efficient solution isMPEG-1 Layer 3 audio and you should lookfor this feature if you decide you want it.Although it is not officially in the DVDspecification, it is widely supported inAsia, which is where almost all DVD playersare manufactured, which means thatmost DVD players here in the US also supportthis type of audio. But it isn’t universal.● Dolby surround. Many applicationssupport AC-3 Dolby audio, but (as of thiswriting) only a few actually encode Dolby.Even stereo Dolby encoding is rare andstill slightly expensive, but this is changingvery quickly (see sidebar). 5.1 Dolbysurround encoding is even more rare andalso needs an application that can mix sixchannels (5 1) to take advantage of thisvery cool DVD feature. Dolby AC-3 is avery important technology, since basic AC-3stereo audio takes up much less room onyour disc than uncompressed PCM audioand is more widely (and officially) supportedthan MPEG-1 layer 3 audio.● Alternate video tracks. Part of theoriginal hype of DVD was that you couldinclude multiple video streams in a singletrack, which would allow the viewer topress the Angle button on the remote tosee the same scene from a different angle.While this is only rarely used in HollywoodDVDs, it is an advanced feature you mightbe interested in for multi-camera shoots atconcerts, weddings or plays.● Multiple languages. Like multiplevideo streams, you can also place multipleaudio streams on your DVD. This is mostoften used for multiple languages, but is alsofrequently utilized for director’s comments.● DLT output. If you need to massproduceyour DVD, duplication housesoften require you to submit your projecton digital linear tape (DLT). This maychange as time goes on, but the reason forthis is at least partially pragmatic: homeburnedDVDs are limited to 4.7 GB whiledual-layer professionally stamped DVDscan hold 9 GB.Almost PerfectHome DVD authoring is here and now.From a small handful of first generationproducts a year ago, DVD authoring applicationsare now maturing and diversifying.Independent professionals may be disappointedto learn that while we have seenalmost every sub-$1,000 application available,we haven’t found one that doeseverything described in this article.Novices and home hobbyists will bepleased to hear that there are many excellentprograms for putting your video ondisc to share with your family, friends orsmall organization (see the figures below).Our recommendation: get the hardware,try out the included software and troll theWeb for free trial versions before youdecide. Perhaps the best news about homeDVD for jaded video veterans: DVD authoringis (relative to shooting and editing) funand easy. Nothing since the invention ofthe Star Wipe has generated so many“wow, cool” responses from our viewers.

DVD Authoring Software 369Figure 73.1 Ahead Software: Nero 5, $69.Figure 73.2 Dazzle: DVD Complete, $100.

370 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 73.3 Apple: iDVD 2.1, $20.Figure 73.4 Mediostream: neoDVD plus, $50.

DVD Authoring Software 371Figure 73.5 Pinnacle: Expression, $50.Figure 73.6 Sonic: ReelDVD, $999.

372 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionSidebar 1CompatibilityDuring the past year, we’ve learned that compatibility, while important for authors, is largelyout of their control. Some DVD players play home-burned DVDs and some don’t, and there isvery little you can do to change this. In our tests, we’ve found that the particular piece of softwareused to create the disc is mostly irrelevant to the final compatibility of the disc.Sidebar 2DVD-R vs. DVD RThe short answer for the relationship of authoring software and the DVD format war is that itis irrelevant. Most authoring software just doesn’t care what kind of media you are using. Justmake sure your burning software supports the particular drive you want to use (e.g. PioneerDVR-A05) and you are good to go.Sidebar 3Dolby EncodingUntil recently, Dolby Laboratories was charging premium fees for encoding licenses. By “premium”we mean that you could not find end-user Dolby 5.1 surround encoding software formuch under $1,000 and even simple stereo encoding was at least $100. Fortunately, thatappears to be changing, with Dolby charging roughly $50 per unit to the software manufacturer(this is still a huge licensing fee per box). As of this writing, proper surround mixingstarts at around $350 for Sonic Foundry ACID, plus another $200–300 for the Sonic Foundry5.1 encoding plug-in.

74Burner Basics:An Introduction toDVD BurnersCharles FultonWhen the first CD burners hit the market,the equipment was very expensive,but prices fell rapidly and, today, mostentry-level computers come with a CDburner. One could safely expect that thiswill soon be the situation with DVDburners.Times were simpler back when thefirst CD burners came out, though. Therewas really only one standard with twotypes of discs: the write once discs(CD-R) and the rewritable discs (CD-RW).DVD is a little more complex. The firstrecordable DVD formats developed by theDVD Forum were DVD-R, DVD-RW andDVD-RAM. The DVDRW Alliance, ledby Philips and Sony, created a differentformat: DVDRW and DVDR. Boththe DVD Forum (-R) and DVDRWAlliance (R) claim better compatibility.For the consumer, this can seemconfusing. Rest assured, this format warshouldn’t cause the end user to lose toomuch sleep.Will It Play in Peoria?Naturally, both the proponents of theDVDR/RW and those of the DVD-R/-RWformats claim that their discs are the mostcompatible with the installed base of livingroom DVD players. Who’s right?Many factors contribute to whether agiven disc will play in a given player. Forthe home DVD author, the hardwareburner, the authoring software and type ofblank media are all part of the equation.In the end, however, we’ve found that thebulk of compatibility problems are withthe player. In our tests, living room DVDplayers that play DVD-R discs also tend toplay DVDR discs, and vice versa. This isa broad generalization and is not 100%true across the board.That said, it is our responsibility as contentcreators to do everything we can tomake the most compatible discs possibleand the material on the disc itself is sometimesthe problem. Many complex projects373

374 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionmust be tweaked and re-built before theproject can be widely distributed. We’veexperienced this firsthand when buildingour own Basics of Videography DVD. Itcan take a lot of patience (as well as a tallrack of DVD players and an intern to dosome quality assurance tests) to find all ofthe problems that might crop up in a disc.Who Makes ’Em?The big players to watch are the manufacturersof the drive mechanisms, primarilyPioneer for DVD-R/RW mechanisms andRicoh for DVDR/RW mechanisms (andPanasonic for DVD-RAM mechanisms).There are a wide cross-section of computerperipheral manufacturers thatare offering branded-DVD burners, includingVerbatim, TDK, Memorex, Pioneer,Panasonic, Toshiba, HP, Sony and LG. (Seethe DVD Burner Manufacturer Listingsidebar for the entire gamut.) There arealso companies who repackage drives intheir own enclosures, and bundle themwith software and cables to create a convenientand consumer-friendly single-boxDVD authoring solution (such as PacificDigital, QPS, EZQuest, Fantom Drives andLaCie). Shop around and you’re sure tofind something that meets all of yourneeds, whether it’s a complete kit or abare drive.Speed DemonsNeed that disc yesterday? Drives get fasterevery day, with the fastest Pioneerdrive currently burning at 4x. (This driveinitially had a firmware problem thathas since been corrected. If you havean older drive with a Pioneer mechanism,be sure to visit Pioneer’s Website at www.pioneerelectronics.com/hs/.)Confusingly, 1x for DVD (1,321 KB/s) isnot the same as 1x for CD (150 KB/s). Inother words, 1x DVD 9x CD. DVD burners,whether R/RW or -R/RW will burnCDs also, although they can’t burn CDsas fast as some of the newer CD burners onthe market.A Bigger Buffer is BetterA feature to watch for when buying a DVDburner is the size of the internal buffer.The buffer is a bit of RAM on the drivethat temporarily stores data before it isburned onto the disc. The disc-masteringprogram that you use will try to keep thebuffer as full as possible. There is animportant reason for this: DVD burners(and CD burners, for that matter) need asteady flow of data. The buffer on theburner compensates for a certain amountof variability in the data stream, withlarger buffers able to handle more difficulties.Most DVDR/RW drives have a 2 MBbuffer, while newer DVD-R/RW drivesgenerally have a more generous 8 MBbuffer (we’d expect this to change veryrapidly). Buffer underruns were a commoncause of CD-coasters a few shortyears ago, but modern technologies caneasily deal with interruptions in thedata flow, using such tactics as throttlingdown the drive to a lower speed whenthe buffer level falls below a specificpoint.InterfacesAmong internally mounted drives, IDE(ATAPI) drives are by far the most common.Only a handful of SCSI drives existanymore, although they once were common.Externally, FireWire is the interfaceof choice, but a number of drives usingthe fast USB 2.0 standard also look verypromising. Several companies that marketoff-the-shelf drives in custom enclosuresoffer external drives with both FireWireand USB 2.0 connections.Laptop DVD burners are not common atthis point. If the trailblazing CD-R driveshave taught us anything, it’s that DVDdrives will become faster, smaller, lessexpensive and more available. Currently,

Burner Basics 375Toshiba and Apple offer recordable DVDdrives on laptops, but we fully expect thatother manufacturers will have this featurein the near future.The War is OverAt the beginning of this article, we toldyou not to worry about the DVD Forumvs. DVDRW Alliance format war toomuch. In a very real sense, the war is overfor consumers, although a winner has notbeen declared. TDK and Sony now offerwriters that burn both DVD-R/RW andDVDR/RW discs. We’d expect moremanufacturers to offer more format agnosticburners over the coming year. Thesedrives are a little more expensive, but ifyou are concerned about compatibility,this is the way to go. You’ll still have todecide on the media you use, but at a dollaror so a disc, the cost of burning incompatiblediscs is not high.The FutureRecordable DVD is still a young technology,although second and third generationdevices are making it to market as wewrite. We expect the combination offuture drives and future software to yielddiscs that are even more compatible thandiscs authored with today’s drives andsoftware. Prices will also continuing tofall somewhat, although not as rapidly asthey did over the last year. Of course, betterliving room players are also comingout, and that should help home authorsas well.Witnessing the rapid rollout (and rapidprice drop) of recordable DVD technologymakes us wonder what will happen whenthe recordable version of the next highcapacityoptical format comes around.We’re brimming with excitement to seewhat the future will bring, but we arealso very happy with the state of today’stechnology (see the figures below).Figure 74.1 Memorex: DVDRW/R Internal Rewritable Drive, $380.

376 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 74.2 Sony: DRU-500A, $349.Figure 74.3 TDK: Indi DVD AID420N, $349.Figure 74.4 Pioneer DVR-A05, $299.Sidebar 1No Computer? No Problem!One of the latest consumer electronic products to hit the shelves is the standalone livingroom DVD burner. Externally, these devices look exactly like the DVD player already connectedto your TV. Functionally, they work more like your VCR: just press Record. All haveinputs for analog video, but we are especially excited about the recorders that have FireWireinput. While prices may be a bit high this year, with so many products from so many

Burner Basics 377manufacturers, we expect standalone DVD recorders to be the next must-have product for theliving room, and a neat extra for videographers who want simple DVD-recording functionality.Would-be DVD authors should note that while these standalones will record video todisc, they do not offer a means of creating custom menus or fancy navigational structures.Sidebar 2General vs. Authoring MediaIf you’ve ever shopped for blank DVD-R discs, you’ve undoubtedly seen references to authoringdiscs (as opposed to general purpose discs). These discs are written with a different laserwavelength (635 nm, as compared to 650 nm for general discs). Authoring discs can’t beburned in drives meant for general media, and vice versa.So why in the world are there authoring DVDs, anyway? Authoring DVDs were originallydesigned for professional use, and can hold information that general discs can’t. For example,an authoring DVD with standardized Cutting Master Format (CMF) data can be submittedto a duplication house instead of a DLT (digital linear tape). Authoring burners are, ofcourse, significantly more expensive than the general burners discussed in this article.Sidebar 3Don’t Call it “Minus!”When the burnable DVD world consisted solely of DVD-R drives, everyone just called them“Dee Vee Dee Arr.” When the first DVDRW drives came out, a distinction had to be made.Many people instinctively said “Dee Vee Dee Plus Arr Double-You.” And, logically, theoppositeof “plus” is “minus” and many people began talking about DVD-R as “Dee Vee DeeMinus Arr.” The DVD Forum folks in charge of marketing DVD-R are not terribly fond ofthe negative connotation of “minus” and would respectfully request that you call it “Dee VeeDee Dash Arr” instead. We suppose you could refer to it as “Dee Vee Dee Hyphen Arr,” but,officially, it’s a dash.

75DVD Flavors:What’s the Deal withDVD Compatibility?Roger B. Wyatt378Good-bye, stretched tapes and dropouts—hello, pristine digital images, generationafter generation. With the right hardwareand software you can simply burn anedited project to DVD with the click of amouse. Sound like a dream? It’s not. Thefirst affordable DVD recording devices arealready in stores, in mail-order catalogsand on the Net. While first generationunits were in the $5,000 range, today’srecorders list for under $1,000, with streetprices below $800.Unfortunately, there is more to DVDthan meets the eye. When DVD manufacturerstold us that the initials “DVD”stood for “digital versatile disc,” theyweren’t kidding. The recordable standardsvying for your dollars are DVD-RAM, DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVDR andDVDRW. The good news is these areall very exciting technologies, some excellingat high capacity data storage andsome offering convenient distribution.The bad news is they aren’t all compatiblewith each other, and most won’t play inthe DVD player you have in your livingroom. Before you commit to a DVD format,you’d better know the difference. Tohelp you understand these emerging formats,we’ve developed this handy guideto bring you up to speed on all of theissues.DVD-VideoThe standard that started it all was DVD-Video (and DVD-Audio, too), those discsyou pop in your DVD Player to watchfeature films and interactive productions.The standard supports a capacity extensionup to 8.5 GB per side, but this is notavailable at this time. DVD-Video is aplayback-only format.DVD standards (including DVD-Video)have been developed over the years by theDVD Forum (dvdforum.org), which iscomposed of over 220 companies includingHitachi, JVC, Matsushita, Mitsubishi,Philips, Pioneer, Sony, Thomson, TimeWarner, IBM, Intel, NEC, Samsung, Sharpand Toshiba, among others. It’s a veritable

DVD Flavors 379who’s who of consumer electronics. Whenit came to DVD-Video, this broad consortiumspoke with one voice, and anindustry standard was born.Somehow, that group unity on theplayback-only standard fractured whenrecordable DVD standards were developed.DVD-RAMDVD-RAM is a recordable and rewritablestandard that the DVD Forum supports(see Figure 75.1). The current secondgenerationdiscs store 4.7 GB per side (fora total of 9.4 GB), and cost as low as $20,although other sizes and capacities areavailable. DVD-RAM discs come in a plasticcartridge or housing that makes themphysically incompatible with non-DVD-RAM drives and therefore can only beplayed back in DVD-RAM drives.An interesting variation on DVD-RAMis the small 80 mm (8-centimeter) disc.Those little discs hold 1.46 GB per sideand are used in the new MPEG-2 digitalcamcorders, such as the ones from Hitachi,and in some digital still cameras from Sony.With this feature, you can shoot and editwithout the tedious step of capturing;assuming you had a DVD-RAM drive orhybrid DVD drive on your computer.(However, see the MPEG-2 Cams—Not theUltimate Sidebar for an important caveat.)DVD-R and DVD-RWDVD-R is a write-once format, fully supportedby the DVD Forum (see Figure75.2). It is single-sided, has a top capacityof 4.7 GB and is rapidly extending into theemerging DVD-RW format. Like DVD-R,DVD-RW (the format formerly known asDVD-R/W) is optimized for video, but canbe written to numerous times. Clearly, thisformat is very significant to videographers.These formats strive to be analogous to thenow standard CD-R and CD-RW formats.DVD-R discs are rapidly falling in price,approaching the $6 per disc range, whileDVD-RW disc prices are also falling, butremain more expensive at about $16 perdisc. The first DVD-R/ DVD-RW drive,Figure 75.1 DVD-RAM; (a) best for multiplerewrites, (b) good for data and files, (c) oftenneeds a cartridge, (d) DVD-RAM: $12. DVD-RAM discs act similar to a hard disk, allowingyou to write and rewrite with random access.Figure 75.2 DVD-R and DVD-RW; (a) best forsequential writes, (b) good for large files, suchas movies, (c) claimed compatible with DVDvideo players, (d) DVD-R: $4, (e) DVD-RW:$13. The DVD-R/RW format is touted as thelogical extension of CD-R/RW technology weare all used to.

380 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionthe Pioneer DVR-A03, is very reasonablypriced. Expect to see a number of competitorsand a corresponding drop in pricesoon. DVD-R and DVD-RW discs aredesigned to work with DVD-ROM drives aswell as standalone DVD players, providedthe disc is correctly formatted. There are,however, occasional compatibility problemsmostly associated with older devices.These issues will disappear as the formatmatures. The DVD-R and DVD-RW formatis good for creating standard DVD-Videoformatted discs as well as long format datasuch as video files.DVDRW and DVDRDVDRW is the rewritable standard thatSony, Philips and Hewlett-Packard originallydeveloped to compete with DVD-RAM (confusingly, not with DVD-RW,although it is now a competitor of that formatas well) (see Figure 75.3). Note theuse of the plus sign () instead of thehyphen (-). Philips and Sony (both membersof the DVD Forum) argue that theirnon-DVD Forum-sanctioned DVDRWformat is more compatible than DVD-RAM, largely because DVDRW discsdo not use a physically incompatible cartridge.They are right, but the compatibilityargument was largely rendered muteby the DVD-RW format, which also use nocartridge. At press time, we couldn’t findany DVDRW discs for sale, but weexpect the price to be competitive withDVD-RW. DVDRW is designed forgreater compatibility with existing standaloneDVD-Video players, but this claimis impossible to test at this time.The DVDRW camp has also announced,a bit backwards chronologically perhaps,that it will support a DVDR formatthat will allow write-once capabilities. TheDVDR and DVDRW formats are theoreticallygood for creating standard DVD-Video formatted discs (although, at presstime, there were no DVDRW units on themarket to be tested) as well as long formatdata such as video files.RAM vs. RWFigure 75.3 DVDRW and DVDR.(a) best for sequential writes, (b) good forlarge files, such as movies, (c) claimedcompatible with DVD video players,(d) DVDRW: $14, (e) DVDR: unavailable,The DVDRW format is the newest formatand claims to be more compatible thanothers. DVDR has not yet been rolled out.The RAM in DVD-RAM stands for randomaccess memory. DVD-RAM discs readand write much the same way as yourhard disks. This is an important aspect ofthis format and differs from the otherread/write DVD formats (-RW and RW),which are optimized for sequential recording.In other words, DVD-RAM is a datastorage format that is perfectly happy scatteringthousands of tiny files (and parts offiles) here and there across the entire disc.This allows for faster access times andyields a more robust rewriting and erasingformat. DVD-RW and DVDRW, in contrast,do not offer random access in thesame way, are not as robust as rewritersand are not designed to act like a harddisk. They are, however, optimized forlong, sequential reads/writes and occasionalrewrites of large chunks of data,which is exactly what videographers need.

DVD Flavors 381Standards ShmandardsDo multiple standards guarantee trouble?Not really. The DVD Forum came up witha plan to prevent conflicts among DVDformats and assure compatibility betweenDVD products. They call it DVD Multi, aset of hardware specifications that enablesdisc and manufacturer compatibility forvirtually all DVD Forum consumer electronicsand personal computers formats.Look for a logo identifying DVD Multiproducts. The specification covers manyformats including DVD-Video, DVD-ROM, DVD-Audio, DVD-RAM, DVD-Rand DVD-RW.You can measure these discs’ capacitiesin two ways. First, for finished productions,MPEG-2 DVD-Video can have a durationas long as two hours. MPEG-2 videois compressed, often resulting in compressionartifacts, which can range from unnoticeableto debilitating, depending on thequality of the encoding. Compressed videois not suitable for editing, mastering orstorage purposes. Second, capacity can bemeasured in terms of data storage andexpressed in gigabytes. At S-VHS quality,each minute of video data might occupy120 MB of storage (although it couldbe much more). So, 4.7 GB works out toalmost 40 minutes of recording capacity,per side. DV data occupies roughly 216 MBof space for a minute of video, or approximately22 minutes per side, per DVD disc.New hardware devices are hitting themarket almost every day. The first DVD-R,DVD-RW drives, such as the Pioneer DVR-A03 or the Panasonic LF-D311, are widelyavailable at less than $500. Also, watchfor hybrid DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD-RAMcombo drives (called DVD Multi) that canread and write the three DVD Forum formats.One model from Panasonic (LF-D311) sells for just under $500. This driveallows you to avoid much of the formatwar controversy, writing and rewriting toDVD-RAM for your personal use and writingDVD-R discs to play on your television.We are extremely excited about thistechnology and hope that is does not sufferfrom the compatibility problems thatplagued the first CD-R drives.The DVDRW camp, on the other hand,is aggressively marketing recordable andrewritable DVDRW drives. Other computermanufacturers, like Apple andCompaq, are shipping boxes with DVD-Rdrives built-in.Early Adopters Only?Is it time to move to DVD optical recording?For data purposes, permanently savingyour video projects, media and all,has become a distinct possibility for thefirst time. And burning your productionsto DVD for playback on standalone DVDplayers gives you a very high quality wayto conveniently distribute your work. At$500 for a recorder and $6 per disc, DVDrecording is at a very tempting price pointfor the home video enthusiast, althoughwe certainly expect prices to fall over thenext year. With the right purchase, youcan enjoy recordable DVD products thatwill play on all your gear.Sidebar 1MPEG-2 Cams—Not the UltimateAre they the best things since sliced bread? Probably not. While the quality of DVD-Video isvery high, it is nonetheless MPEG-2 compressed video. As such, it is very problematic to editand you should not consider it for mastering, archiving or editing purposes. A good digitalstrategy is to shoot and capture at the highest quality (e.g. DV or MJPEG), edit at highest quality,master at highest quality and finally, distribute MPEG-2 on DVD.

382 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionSidebar 2Yes, MasterOne undeniably exciting aspect of the latest multi-format hybrid DVD recorders is the possibilityof burning DVD-Video discs to send high-quality versions of your movies to yourfriends and then burning a DVD-RAM disc (two-sided 9.4 GB) of the project as a master. Howmany times have you watched a movie you created two years ago and cringed, wishing youcould fix it up? Although burn speeds and transfer rates mean taking some time to backupand restore a project, it is undoubtedly faster than recapturing and recreating a project fromscratch.Sidebar 3The MediaFormat: DV DVD VCD SVCD MiniDVDResolution 720 480 720 480 352 240 480 480 720 480Recording 60 mins tape 2 hrs 74 mins 35 mins 15 minsTimeVideo DV MPEG2 MPEG1 MPEG2 MPEG2CompressionAudio PCM MPEG2, AC3 MPEG1 MPEG1 MPEG2, AC3CompressionSize/min 216 MB/min 30–70 MB/min 10 MB/min 10–20 MB/min 30–70 MB/minDVD Player None Excellent Great (2/3) Good (1/3) PoorCompatibilityQuality Excellent Great Fair Good Great* Table by Scott Anderson.

76Step by Step Guideto Making DVDsD. Eric FranksMore and more of this magazine is beingdevoted to DVD each month. DVD gear,DVD media, DVD software, but we’reafraid we are missing the forest for thetrees. If you’ve been reading the magazineand have a good grip on what you need,here is a path through the trees: our Stepby Step Guide to Making DVDs.OverviewFirst, a little encouragement: DVD creationon a computer is considerably easierthan editing video. The entire process canbe summed up in four steps (but see thesidebar for a One-Step Solution).XX Capture. You need to get video ontoyour computer. How you edit it is entireup to you and is not what this article isabout, so we are going to assume that youhave a tape with video on it that you wanton DVD.XX Encode. Once your video is on yourcomputer, it needs to be transformedand encoded into DVD-friendly MPEG-2video. This process can be one-click easyor hardcore technical and tedious.XX Author. Authoring is what we callthe process of actually designing and creatingthe DVD menus. This is the fun part.XX Burn. Yawn. This process shoulddefinitely be one-click easy.CaptureSo you have a video tape that you’d loveto distribute on DVD. What is the easiestway? We have two answers for you, onefor digital video and one for analog tapes.First, for those of you with digital video(DV) source material, you should use yourFireWire port on your computer to dumpyour digital data to your computer. Youdon’t need a fancy computer or expensiveediting software, but you will need a tonof hard disk space, about 20 GB for anhour of video for a complete DVD project.On a Windows XP or Mac, the capturetools you need are included with yourcomputer.383

384 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionDV is so easy because the video isalready in a format your computer canhandle. If you have analog video tapes(such as VHS), you need to convert thatvideo into digital data for your computer.To do this, you’ll need some kind of capturecard, otherwise known as a digitizer.Some computers come with analog capturecards (e.g. an Ati All-In-Wonder card),but most do not. If you are not interestedin hacking about inside of your computerto install a new card (and who is), thereare a few devices that digitize your videoand then send the data to your Windowscomputer via a USB 2.0 connection. ADSTech’s Instant DVD 2.0, Adaptec’s VideOh!DVD and Pinnacle’s Dazzle Digital VideoCreator 150 are three competitive products(all less than $200) worth researching. Themost convenient aspect of these boxesis that they digitize straight to MPEG-2video.EncodeIf the video on your computer is not DVDready, you will need to encode it to theMPEG-2 format. This is what you willneed to do with FireWire-transferred DVvideo and DV video projects from yourediting software. The encoding process(also called compression or transcoding)can happen immediately when you finishediting, although most DVD authoringprograms now automatically encode anyvideo of any format that you use on yourDVD. In your editing software, you’ll usuallybe able to find an Export or Render Asoption that will open an encoding dialog.In this dialog, select a DVD MPEG-2encoding template and render away.Encoding is very computationally intensive,so get ready to wait a long time forthe process to finish, typically twice aslong as your video’s duration. We usuallystart encoding before we go to bed at night.Of course encoding can be much morecomplicated. There are entire applicationsdedicated to the task (e.g. cleaner,ProCoder, Squeeze), books explaining thetechnology (like the ones from BenWaggoner) and experts in Hollywood whoare Career Compressionists. For this article,it is only important that you knowthat all of your media (video, audio andstills) needs to be in DVD-compatibleMPEG-2 format before it can be put ona disc. Hopefully, your authoring softwarewill take care of it for you.AuthorAuthoring is the fun part of creatinga DVD. The process requires some organizationalskills, a little design talent and adollop of artistry, but you can usually getby even if you aren’t particularly gifted inthese areas.The first step is to start a new project andcollect your media together. This will ofcourse include your video, but also mightinvolve stills for a slide show and musicfor menu backgrounds. Again, everything,even stills and audio, will end up ina DVD-compatible format, but for now youonly have to organize the pieces and parts.The next step involves designing thenavigation of your disc. Like the Web,DVD discs have buttons that you can highlightand click, although you use your DVDplayer’s remote control to make the click.DVDs are much simpler than Web pages,however, and you basically need onlya Play button to allow folks to watch yourmovie and maybe a Scenes button to allowthem to jump to the various parts of yourmovie that they want to skip to. You canhave more complex navigation schemesand special features, but work conservativelyand cautiously so that you don’toverwhelm and confuse your viewers. Thedozens of Hollywood discs you’ve rentedcan serve as examples, both good and bad,for you to emulate or at least learn from.The final part of authoring is the bestpart: designing attractive menus. Frombackgrounds to buttons, the DVD menu isgoing to be the first impression your viewerswill get of your project. Most DVDauthoring programs come with a bunch of

Step by Step Guide to Making DVDs 385templates that can be used as-is or thatcan be used as jumping off points for yourown unique discs. In our reviews of DVDauthoring programs, pay careful attentionto what the writer says about the templatesand how much they can be customized.If you only need a quick discand aren’t very interested in authoring,templates may be all you need. If you area production house with a talented designprofessional onboard, make sure yoursoftware lets her do her thing.BurnWe call the actual process of writing a DVD“burning” and it is just about as boring ascan be. Usually, it involves inserting a blankdisc into your DVD drive and clicking abutton or, at most, selecting a menu item. Iteither works or it is broken. Fortunately, italmost always works nowadays.Compatibility with stand alone, livingroom DVD players is a serious issue. Inalmost every case, compatibility problemsare not caused by the burning process. Infact, almost all compatibility problems arecaused by the DVD player and not by theDVD authoring process outlined here. Itdoesn’t much matter whether you areusing an HP 300i or a Pioneer DVR-105, orwhether you are using DVD-R or DVDR(don’t use rewritable discs for distribution).The discs are designed to play backin the same players. Once you find a DVDplayer that plays one kind of disc, you’llfind that it plays back most kinds. Ofcourse we are skimming over many issueshere that are covered in much more depthin other articles in this magazine (such asthe Winter 2003 issue).As far as media goes, there are twoapproaches. You can play it safe and gowith a branded media, like Verbatim orTDK (or even Ritek) or you can get a spindleof generic discs. The advantage ofgoing with a branded disc is that you get aguarantee from the company and can beassured that there was some quality controlduring the manufacturing process.Generic discs are cheaper, of course, andcan be of very high quality, but the problemis that you just don’t know until youhave some experience. Some blank mediacompanies offer sampler packs of variouskinds that you can test. As of this writing,we look for 4x certified media, which isrequired for newer burners. Ultimately,you shouldn’t sweat the media too much:if it is going to fail, it’ll fail during theburn process.Best Thing Since Sliced BreadCapture, encode, author and burn. That’sall there is to it. Sure, each step warrants itsown article and that’s part of Videomaker’sgoal each month, but we hope this articlehas encouraged you to give DVD a shot. It’snot nearly as hard as other computer videotasks. Durable blank discs cost less thana dollar, postage costs less than a dollarand nearly everyone you know has a DVDplayer in their living room. Home DVDauthoring is the best thing to happen to ussince the advent of digital video.Sidebar 1One-Step DVD SolutionsOK, we hear you: four steps are too many, especially the part about capturing video. If youcan operate a VCR, we have a one-step solution for you. If you haven’t already seen them, godown to your local electronics store and check out the standalone living room DVD burnerson sale. Prices have dropped significantly below $600 on many models and they work justlike a VCR. Pop in a blank disc, hook up your camcorder and press Record. The menus usuallyaren’t very attractive, but they get your video onto a disc and you don’t even have tothink about capture/encode/author/burn.

77Video Out:MPEG-2s for Me and YouLarry Lemm386In the last year, DVDs have really takenoff in popularity. Consumers are embracingthem at a pace faster than they everembraced VHS or any other video format.As a videographer, you’ll soon want toburn your videos into DVDs, lest you getleft behind as the one guy who still usesvideotape. Not only that, but there is somuch more you can do with a DVD thanyou can with videotape. It opens new levelsof creativity for the video artist.DVD BasicsMost of you are probably familiar withDVDs by now, but just for the record, let’srun down some of the advantages and disadvantagesof the format.First, DVDs are digital. This is both anadvantage and a disadvantage. For the mostpart, the picture on a DVD will blow thedoors off of VHS (see Figure 77.1). It ismuch sharper (400–500 lines of resolutionfor DVD versus 200ish for VHS) and it hasbrighter colors. If there is a disadvantage toDVD, it is that an improperly compressedDVD can have visible artifacts. Many of theearly Hollywood-released DVDs were notcompressed properly, and you can see theirartifacts in scene after scene. However,when done right, the format’s picture issharp and clean.Second, DVD offers more sound.Instead of the hi-fi stereo of VHS, you getDolby Digital AC-3 audio. This allowsyou to output five separate channels ofaudio, just like a professional filmmaker.Unlike the mono “surround” channels of“Dolby surround” the rear “surround”speakers of AC-3 are themselves stereo.Third, and here’s where you get intofeatures of DVD that you may not haveknown about: you can make your owninteractive menu systems and provideseveral different versions of the samebasic movie on the same disc. You canmake a director’s cut of your video withouthaving to record the whole second versionon the disc. You can just have thedifferent scenes and have the DVD piece ittogether seamlessly as it plays by, skipping

Video Out 387Figure 77.1 Crystal Clear—DVD nearly doubles the resolution of VHS,and it reproduces richer color and sound.certain chapters and including others.This makes the DVD disc an option fornon-linear video entertainment becauseyou don’t have to store your video on thedisc in the order in which it will play.With these options, DVDs are a wholenew world for video creativity.Harnessing the PowerIf you want to make your own DVDs,you’re in luck these days. Easy to use,consumer-oriented, DVD-creation toolsare already on the market. They all aimtoward the same basic goal of creating thenecessary introductory menu system andallowing you to include whichever additionalmultimedia files that you wantsuch as graphics, text, sound or videofiles. Most of these software packageseven come bundled with newer MPEG-2-based capture boards. This way, if youbuy the capture board that captures videointo the MPEG-2 format, you’ll alreadyhave the software necessary to make thoseMPEG-2s into DVD files.The bundled programs include titlessuch as Minerva Impressions, Sonic Solutions’DVDit! and Spruce Technologies’DVD Virtuoso. These aren’t the only fish inthe sea of DVD, but they are some of thebig ones. You’ll be in good company if youchoose one of these programs because theyhave established themselves in this firstwave of consumer DVD authoring packages(see Figure 77.2).Minerva Impressions comes bundledwith hardware from Pinnacle Systems.Impressions competes directly with theSpruce DVD Virtuoso, which comes bundledwith Canopus’ Amber DVD hardware.You don’t have to buy hardware to get theseDVD authoring software, however. SonicSolutions’ DVDit!, for example, isn’t bundledwith hardware, but it offers discountsto owners of other hardware/software packages.This way, you can afford to use thisother software, even if you’ve investedmost of your available DVD-authoring cashinto MPEG-2 capture hardware.If you get MPEG-2 hardware, you won’thave to perform a lengthy re-encoding ofthe video from whatever format you’reusing into MPEG-2. Having the hardwarewill usually result in a better picture thanusing software alone, and it will be a lotfaster to output onto disc. Even if the softwareisn’t bundled with the hardware, youwon’t pay much more for DVD-creationsoftware than you would for editingsoftware.You don’t use these DVD software packagesto edit video. For editing, you still

388 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 77.2 Author, Author!—DVD authoring software is becomingmore common and less expensive. In the near future price will nolonger be an issue.use the same video editing software thatyou’ve grown to know and love. Once youhave a final rendered edit of your video,complete with titles, trailers and whateverelse you want to include, you’re ready tocreate a DVD. These packages can makeyour DVDs play like Hollywood’s or youcan add even more interactivity than mostof what Hollywood offers up today onDVD (see Figure 77.3).First, you take all of your clips andmake them into “chapters” on your disc.This way, the viewers can freely fast forwardand rewind through your video, likeusing the track markers on a CD. If youplan on making several different versionsof the same movie on the same disc, payspecial attention to where you mark yourchapters. The order of these chapters willlet you include and discard certain clipsin the video when you play it back,depending on the version of the video theviewer has chosen to play.After you’ve specified the chapters ofthe video, you’ll want to create the menusystem that your DVD will use to let viewersnavigate through the disc to seeexactly what they want. You create yourmenus in a program like PhotoShop andimport them into the DVD-creator program.Then use the DVD-creator programto link together the hot spots you want.These links act much like hyperlinks doon a Web page. This way you can builda computer-like multimedia page that youcan use from a standard DVD player. Thisis exactly what you are looking for inDVD-creation software.Basically, you keep adding clips to thedisc and create a menu system that allowsyou to access the clips in whatever orderyou specify. Normally, this would includeputting the clips of a movie in a linearorder, but seeing as this is a new medium,and most videographers are not makingtwo-hour feature films, this approach toDVD may not be appropriate for you.Make full use of the options that DVDoffers because the first people to use theseoptions in a creative fashion will be thevanguard of the DVD generation.There is also a language option availableon DVD that lets you include severaldifferent versions of the soundtrack. ManyHollywood discs include a soundtrackthat includes the director, producer and

Video Out 389Figure 77.3 DVD Video—VHS may soon be abandoned by videoeditors in favor of DVD.actors talking “behind the scenes” aboutthe production of the movie. You couldalso use this type of approach to allowyour video to be “kid-friendly” and omitany adult language, if that’s what youwant to do.Getting it on DiscOnce you’ve completed your DVD file,you’ll have to take it to a DVD-duplicatinghouse (making your own discs is stillexpensive). Many duping houses willaccept masters on DVD-RAM. Find onethat does, then copy your project to a DVD-RAM cartridge. A DVD-RAM cartridge is abit expensive (about $40 a pop) to use formaking simple copies, but its great storagecapacity makes it great for making mastersto send to the duplicating house. You canget DVD-RAM drives from companies likePanasonic for around $500.Once you’ve finished creating your masterdisc and the graphics for your cases,you’ll be ready to have your productionrunof discs. Then it’s up to you to getenough people to buy them. Or you canjust get your DVD-making skills down pat,and in a year or so, the tools to duplicateyour own discs for mass production probablywill have dropped enough to make itcost-effective to do from your home oroffice.When that price shift happens, you canbe sure that burning a DVD will be ascommon and as easy as burning a CD istoday. Think of how exciting it will be towatch your own multimedia creationsright on your television set. DVDs are thewave of the future for video. Get ready toride it.

78Burning Down the House:Creating Video on CDsDon CollinsMy brother, who lives in Europe, shootsalmost as much home video as I do. Foryears, we’ve wanted to send each otherfamily videos, but we haven’t been able toget past the PAL/NTSC barrier. The twobroadcast formats, PAL in Europe andNTSC in the U.S. are incompatible. Ilooked into transfer services that convertNTSC signal to PAL, but the cost wasexorbitant. We even tried sending eachother video e-mails but the files werehuge. Then it hit me. What if I recordedvideo onto a CD-ROM and sent that to mybrother? After all, CD-ROMs are universal.They’ll play in any computer: PC orMac. We wouldn’t have to fiddle withtapes or try to open humongous e-mails.I had created a few audio CDs before, butI never tried to put video onto a disc.I decided to go for it and send a home videoon CD-ROM to my brother for his birthday.Guess what? I found that it’s easy, fast andbest of all, I already had everything thatI needed on my new computer. In this article,you will learn the basic steps it takes toput your own video onto CD-ROM.Virtual Studio in your ComputerIf you already edit video on your computer,chances are you’ve already goteverything you need. Here’s a quickchecklist of hardware and software thatyou’ll need to create a video CD.●●●●Video input: You’re going to need to beable to get your video onto your computereither through a digital FireWireor USB port or through a digitizing cardor external device.Editing software: You need to edit yourvideo for length and size. The softwarecan be as basic as Windows MovieMakeror as complex as Adobe Premiere.CD-R/CD-RW drive: Of course, you’llneed a CD-R or CD-RW drive and CDrecordingsoftware.CD-R discs: Discs are cheaper than VHStapes. As far as I can tell, the biggest differencein the cost of CD-ROMs is thejewel cases that come with them.390

Burning Down the House 391Getting StartedFirst, you need to edit your video. If youalready have a video project that you’vecreated you can open the project andmake a new movie to export. If youhaven’t already done so, render your projectand watch it to make sure you’rehappy with the way it plays.We’ll Adobe Premiere to illustrate thebasic steps required for editing video forCD. Though every editing program isunique, the basic steps will be the same.Creating a Movie for CDOnce you’ve loaded your project and renderedyour video, you’re set to exportyour movie. In Premiere 6.0, go to the Filemenu, select Export Timeline and chooseMovie. A settings dialog window willopen to show you the current settings (seeFigure 78.1). Click the Export Settingsbutton and then click on Load. This willopen another dialog window with a list ofsettings. Choose Multimedia Video forWindows, which has a 320 240 framesize and a frame rate of 15 frames per second(fps). You can customize your settingsas well. I chose to work with 15 fpsso it would run smoothly on an older (andslower) machine and a newer Pentium IIIor 4. If you know your audience has a fastcomputer, you may want to choose 30 fpsfor a smoother picture. Experiment with afew different settings and see how theylook to you.One thing to remember, the larger theframe size and the more frames per second,the larger the final .avi file size willbe. At 15 fps, one minute of video willtake up about 24 MB of CD space. Sincemost CD-ROMs hold about 650 to 700 MB,you can fit 25 to 30 minutes of video ona CD-ROM. Audio takes up significantlyless space than video, so don’t be too concernedabout space (see Figure 78.2).Burning Your Video to DiskIf you’ve got a CD-burner on your computeror if you recently bought one, chances areFigure 78.1 Finishing touch—in Premiere 6.0, finish your project bygoing to the File window, then choosing Export Timeline and saving it toa folder.

392 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 78.2 Compression scheme—in the Settings window chooseMultimedia Video for Windows to compress your project so it fits nicelyon a CD and can be played back in most computers.it came with some kind of CD-creationsoftware. This software makes the processvery simple. It’s basically a drag-and-dropoperation. You choose the files you want,record them and seal the disk. My computercame bundled with Adaptec EasyCD Creator 4. This application copiesdata, image, audio and video files to disc.But since this was my first go at this, Iwanted to keep it simple and record onlyone .avi file to the disc.Open your CD-creation software (seeFigure 78.3). With Easy CD Creator, yousimply launch the program and chooseData from the opening dialogue window.Open the folder where your .avi fileresides. Select the file and drag it to theCD Layout window. Easy CD Creator willthen automatically indicate how muchspace is left on your targeted CD.Once you’ve loaded all the files thatyou want to record to disc, hit Create CD.The CD-creation Setup window will open.It is here you can indicate drive, recordspeed, and whether you want a testfile or not. I first selected the CD-R drive.Then I selected a moderate recording rateof 8X 1200 Kb/sec to ensure a qualityrecording.With CD-RW (rewritable) drives and theproper CD, you can record over the sameCD as many times as you like. With CD-Rdrives, however, you can only record toa disc once.Sealing the DealThe final step for recording to a one-timeonly CD-R disk is closing the session orsealing the disc, indicating that you likewhat you’ve got and don’t want to add ordelete anything else. If you’ve got a CD-RW drive, this step won’t apply.In the CD Creation Setup, you canchoose to close the session after the softwarerecords to the disk or you canchoose Test, which puts the file on theCD but does not close the session (seeFigure 78.4). Since I was happy with whatI had, I chose create Disc-at-Once methodso that it would automatically close mysession, thus sealing my CD and myvideo fate. I hit OK and in less than five

Burning Down the House 393Figure 78.3 Ready to burn—from inside the CD-creation software,open the file of your finished movie and drag it to the CD layoutwindow.Figure 78.4 Creation theory—when you’re ready to finish your CD, theCreation Setup windows allows you to select the destination of yourfinished movie.minutes, I had my very first video onCD-ROM.When I first told my brother I was goingto create a video on CD, he sounded a littleskeptical. But after he received the CD andplayed it in his Mac, he was amazed. It wasthe first time his family got to see and hearmy family. When I outlined the basic steps

394 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionto him, he practically dropped the phoneto start creating his own video on CD.If you’ve got a CD-R drive on your computeror if you’ve been thinking aboutbuying one to make video CDs, go for it.It’s one of the easiest, least expensive,most efficient and universal modes of distribution.CD-R drives have come down somuch in price, it doesn’t make sense notto own one.Sidebar 1CD-R Versus CD-RW●●CD-R (recordable) drives can record once to a CD-R disc. Once you’ve finished recordingfiles to the disc, you have to close the CD so that you can later play it in a CD-ROM drive.CD-RW (rewritable) drives and discs allow you to record to a CD as many times as you like.In many ways, CD-RW has become even better than Zip disks, with much larger storagecapacities.Originally, CD-RW drives were far more expensive than CD-R drives. But that’s changed.Although they still cost more, the difference is nominal. CD-R drives can be found for about$100 while CD-RWs typically cost around $250.Sidebar 2Five Tips for Creating Video for CD-ROM1. Select 320 240 Frame Size. This half-screen-size option seems to be ideal for computerbasedplayback of video. It balances screen size with file size. If you want to fit more videoon the CD you can save space by choosing a quarter-screen (160 120) setting.2. Plan your recording session. If your CD-creation software offers it, look at the availablespace total. You will encounter an error if your clip’s file size is larger than the spaceavailable.3. Edit for the computer. If you’re taking an existing video and editing it for CD, take the timeto delete any unwanted or unnecessarily complicated scenes. Complex your scenes(including transition effects, etc.), can slow your computer down and impair playback.This is particularly noticeable on older computers.4. Shoot Tight. If you’re shooting with CD in mind, it’s best to frame your subject large in theframe. Since your video will occupy a small part of the viewer’s screen. In order for viewersto see details, you’ll need to shoot in closeup. Also, limit your camera movement.Avoid excessive zooms and pans.5. Keep it Short. When the file size is smaller, it’s easier to handle and less likely to undergoproblems while playing back on a computer. Hone your editing skills and make less more.An added bonus of keeping it short: your audience will be left begging for more, not turningyour video off because they get bored.

79Video Out:Make Your OwnCD-ROM VideosJoe McCleskeyNow that CD-R (recordable compact disc)drives have become affordable and ablank CD-R disk costs about the same as ablank VHS videotape, isn’t it time to thinkabout putting some of your videos ontoCD-ROM? It doesn’t take a super-powerfulcomputer to get the job done; all you reallyneed is a video capture card that’s capableof recording video at 320 240 resolutionor greater, some sort of video editing software,a sound card and a CD-R drive.The benefits of recording video ontoCD-ROM are many. Though the size andresolution of CD-ROM-based videos arenot as good as videotape, CDs are a betterarchiving medium than tape. Also, makingmultiple-generation copies for familyor friends is a snap, and results in perfectduplicates with no generation loss. It’salso easy to incorporate your home videosinto your own CD-ROM multimedia presentations,using the right software.So if you’re interested in making yourown CDs full of home video, fire up yourcamcorder, buy some blank CDs and getready to burn some home movies.Planning and ShootingBefore you begin shooting your CD-ROMvideo masterpiece, take some time outbefore hand to plan the production.The most important thing to rememberwhen you’re planning a CD-ROM-basedvideo production is that whatever elseyour video is going to be, it’s certainlygoing to be small. The typical resolutionused for CD-ROM video is somewhere inthe range of 320 240 (or, if you’re workingwith DV video, 360 240). This resolutionis handy because it’s one-fourth theresolution of a typical full-screen digitalvideo file (640 480, or 720 480 for DV).At such small resolutions, it’s difficult tomake out any kind of detail, so the mostimportant things to remember are: getclose and keep it simple (see Figure 79.1).Imagine, for example, that you’ve shot alineup of 50 or more people at a familyreunion. If you simply set up a wide shotof the whole group, you might be able topick out Aunt Louise when you laterwatch the videotape on a TV monitor.395

396 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionTime to EditFigure 79.1 A. Shoot close-ups and keepmovement to a minimum. B. Avoid busyclothing and background patterns.Digitize the footage at 320 240 resolution,however, and you’ll be lucky if youcan tell the men from the women. A goodsolution for this kind of problem wouldbe to get closer and shoot a slow pan orhandheld dolly shot of each face.Also, when shooting for CD-ROMvideo, be sure to keep the camera movesto a minimum. The small size of the videomakes it more difficult to follow busy,confusing shots. As always, you shouldmove the camera only when you have agood reason to do so. The above exampleof the pan or dolly shot illustrates a goodreason to move the camera; even better,however, might be to get a succession ofstatic shots with only a few people in theframe for each shot. This will make itmuch easier for the viewer to keep trackof who’s who and what’s going on.What you’re aiming for here is simplicity,and that includes the location youshoot in as well as the patterns of theclothes that people wear. When advisingyour talent what to wear, stick tosolid colors, and avoid busy patterns likepaisley or plaid.Once you’ve finished shooting your CD-ROM video footage, it’s time to capturethose clips onto your hard drive andbegin editing. Probably the most importantthing to remember when capturingyour clips is to set the resolution to whatit will be when you output the finishedvideo. This will help you to avoid the horribleartifacts that sometimes result whenyou re-size a clip. If you find that youmust capture at a higher resolution thanyou plan to output (this may be the casewith some FireWire capture cards), thenplan to output your video at a resolutionthat’s an exact multiple of the capture resolution.So if you capture DV at 720 480, set your editing software for outputat 360 240 (exactly one-fourth the resolutionof 720 480).The rules for editing pretty much followthe rules outlined above for capturing:keep it simple. A few effects might be nice,but highly complicated, high-resolutionfilter effects may not be visible in the tinyscreen that CD-ROM video relies on forplayback.When choosing titles, be sure to use afont that’s relatively large in comparisonto the overall size of the video, or else youmay have a readability problem. Also,resist the urge to use complex patternswith your titles, and choose a color thatcontrasts well with the background video(see Figure 79.2).Rendering IssuesWhen you’ve made all of your editingdecisions and it’s time to render yourfinal movie, it’s important to consider themost limiting factor in CD-ROM video:space. There just isn’t that much room ona CD-ROM (around 650 megabytes) andwhat space there is gets taken up fast bydigital video.Of primary importance is the typeof codec (compression/decompressionscheme) you use to compress the video.

Video Out 397Figure 79.2 A. Keep titles and graphics largeand simple. B. Use basic colors and avoidcomplicated high resolution effects.For maximizing space at the expense ofresolution and overall quality, MPEG-1 ishard to beat. Remember, too, that yourproduction won’t have to be output tovideotape, so you don’t have to worryabout using hardware-assisted codecs(like MJPEG and DV) when you render thevideo. This may make rendering times alittle slower, but it’ll result in a video thatcan be viewed on anyone’s computer.Don’t hesitate to try several test renderingsof your video, just to see what itlooks like and how much space it takes upat several different compression ratios. Ifyou have a lot of video you’d like to fitonto one CD, and you can squeeze thevideo a bit more without a major drop inquality, then go ahead and crank up thecompression ratio a notch or two.Conversely, if you don’t have that muchvideo to fit onto the disc, then ease backon the compression a little and get thebest quality you can.One final note about compression andrendering: it’s important to bear in mindthat the CD-ROM drive you use to playback a video may be faster or slower thansomeone else’s CD-ROM drive. This meansthat although your lightning-fast 44x speedCD-ROM drive plays your video just fine,your friend’s old-school 12x drive mightnot be able to keep up. So before you render,decide what speed you’d like to beable to play the CD-ROM at, and thenadjust your compression accordingly.In general, video that’s more highlycompressed will play better on slowerCD-ROM drives. If your MPEG compressionsoftware or video editing softwareallows you to dictate the playback datarate you desire, use the following formulato determine the rate you want:Desired data rate target CD-ROM playbackspeed 150 Kilobits/secondIf, for example, you want your CD-ROMvideo to be viewable on a 12x CD-ROMdrive, then your finished video shouldplay back at something under 1800 Kilobitsper second. Note that the desired datarate should be less than, and not equivalentto, the target CD-ROM’s playbackrate, because the listed speeds for mostdrives are maximum speeds, not sustainedspeeds. If you shoot for half ormaybe three-quarters of the listed speedof the drive, you shouldn’t encounter anyplayback problems.Burn Baby BurnBefore you begin to burn your videos ontoa CD, consider your options. Would youlike to present your videos in an organizedgraphical format, like a CD-ROMbasedWeb page or a Microsoft PowerPointpresentation? Or do you prefer to conservespace and simply burn a list of video filesonto the CD, with maybe a text file todescribe the contents of each clip? Thechoice is yours.If you know a little HTML, or if you haveaccess to an HTML editing program, thenbuilding a simple CD-based Web pagewith links to your videos is a good way toorganize your project (see Figure 79.3).Almost all computers nowadays have

398 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionFigure 79.3 If you know a little HTML, or if you have someWeb-page creation software, you can create a simple index of yourCD-ROM videos.Web browsers, so all a potential viewer ofyour CD-ROM-based videos would have todo is double-click your index.html file tolaunch a Web browser and begin viewingyour clips.Now that you know how to create yourown CD-ROM videos, go ahead and give ita try for yourself. It’s much easier than itlooks, and it’s a great way to share yourvideos with friends and family.

Jargon:A Glossary of VideographyTerms.asf Active Streaming Format.avi Short for Audio Video Interleave,the file format for Microsoft’s Video forWindows standard..gif Graphics Interchange Format—a bitmappedgraphics file format used bythe World Wide Web, CompuServe andmany BBSs. GIF supports color and variousresolutions. It also includes datacompression, making it especially effectivefor scanned photos..jpeg Joint Photographic Experts Groupimage format. A popular Internet compressionformat for color images..mov File extension used with Quick-Time movies..mov File extension used with Quicktime,a popular file format for video on a computerdeveloped by Apple..rm Most common file extension usedwith RealMedia files..wav A sound format for storing soundin files developed jointly by Microsoftand IBM. Support for WAV files wasbuilt into Windows 95 making it thede facto standard for sound on PCs.WAV sound files end with a .wavextension.8mm Compact videocassette format,popularized by camcorders, employing8-millimeter-wide videotape.[See Hi8]A/B roll editing Two video sourcesplayed simultaneously, to be mixed orcut between.A/V (Audio/Video) A common shorthandfor multimedia audio and video.action axis An imaginary line drawnbetween two subjects or along a line ofmotion to maintain continuity ofscreen direction. Crossing it from oneshot to the next creates an error in continuity.It is also referred to as the“180-degree rule.”gree rule.”ad-lib Unrehearsed, spontaneous act ofspeaking, performing, or otherwiseimprovising on-camera activity withoutpreparation.aDSL Asymmetric (or Asynchronous)Digital Subscriber Line. A ‘fat pipe.’New technology to carry high-speeddata over typical twisted-pair copper399

400 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productiontelephone lines. ADSL promises be upto 70 times as fast as a 28.8 modem.AFM (audio frequency modulation) Theanalog soundtrack of the 8mm andHi8 video format. [See PCM.]AGC (automatic gain control) A circuiton most camcorders that automaticallyadjusts a microphone’s gain(volume) to match environmentalsound levels.ambient sound (ambience) Natural backgroundaudio representative of a givenrecording environment. On-camera dialogmight be primary sound; trafficnoise and refrigerator hum would beambient.amplify To magnify an audio signal formixing, distribution and transducingpurposes.analog An electrical signal is referred toas either analog or digital. Analog signalsare those signals directly generatedfrom a stimulus such as a lightstriking a camera picture tube. You canconvert an analog signal to a digitalsignal by using an analog to digitalconverter.animation Visual special effect wherebyprogressive still images displayed inrapid succession creates the illusion ofmovement.aperture/exposure A setting that manipulatesthe amount of light falling ontothe camera’s CCD(s). This controladjusts the size of the camcorder’s iris.apps (application) Software that performsa specific function.artifacting The occurrence of unwantedvisual distortions that appear in avideo image, such as cross-color artifacts,cross-luminance artifacts, jitter,blocking, ghosts, etc. Artifacting is acommon side effect of compression,especially at lower bit rates.artifacts Unwanted visual distortionsthat appear in a video image, such ascross-color artifacts, cross-luminanceartifacts, jitter, blocking, ghosts, etc.artificial light Human-made illuminationnot limited to “indoor” variety:fluorescent bulbs, jack-o’-lanterns anda car’s headlights all qualify. Typically, ithas lower color temperature thannatural light, and thus more reddishqualities. (See color temperature, naturallight.)aspect ratio Proportional width andheight of on-screen picture. Currentstandard for a conventional monitor is4:3 (four-by-three); 16:9 for HDTV.assemble edit Recording video and/oraudio clips in sequence immediatelyfollowing previous material; does notbreak control track. Consecutive editsform complete program. [See edit,insert edit.]ATV (amateur television) Specializeddomain of ham radio, transmits standardTV signals on UHF radio bands.audio dub Result of recording over prerecordedvideotape soundtrack, or aportion thereof, without affecting prerecordedimages.audio frequency modulation (AFM)Method of recording hi-fi audio onvideotape along with video signals.Used in VHS Hi-Fi Audio, and also theanalog soundtrack of the 8mm andHi8 video formats.audio mixer The piece of equipmentused to gather, mix and amplify soundsfrom multiple microphones and sendthe signal on to its destination.automatic exposure Circuitry that monitorslight levels and adjusts camcorderiris accordingly, compensating forchanging light conditions.automatic gain control (AGC) Circuitryfound on most camcorders thatadjusts incoming audio levels automaticallyto match environmentalsound levels.available light Amount of illuminationpresent in a particular environment:natural light, artificial light or a combinationof the two.AVI (Audio Video Interleave) One of theoldest file formats for digital videoon PCs.back light Lamp providing illuminationfrom behind. Creates sense of depthby separating foreground subject from

Glossary 401background area. Applied erroneously,causes severe silhouetting. (See filllight, key light, three-point lighting.)balanced line Audio cables that havethree wires: one for positive, one fornegative and one for ground.bandwidth A measure of the capacity ofa user’s data line. Video looks itsbest on a high-bandwidth connection,like DSL, cable modems or satellitemodems. Conversely, trying to downloador stream video on a low-bandwidthconnection like a dial-up modemcan be a frustrating experience.bandwidth compression Reducing thebandwidth that is required for transmissionof a given digital data rate.barndoors Accessories for video lights;adjustable folding flaps that controllight distribution.batch capture The ability of certain computer-basedediting systems to automaticallycapture whole lists or “batches” ofclips from source videotapes.Betamax More commonly known as“Beta,” half-inch videotape formatdeveloped by Sony, eclipsed by VHSin home video market popularity. [SeeED Beta.]bidirectional Microphone pickup patternwhereby sound is absorbedequally from two sides only. [Seeomnidirectional, unidirectional.]black box Generic term for wide varietyof video image manipulation deviceswith perceived mysterious or “magical”capabilities, including proc amps,enhancers, SEGs, and TBCs.bleedingBNCVideo image imperfection characterizedby blurring of color borders;colors spill over defined boundaries,“run” into neighboring areas.(Bayonet Fitting Connector akaBritish Naval Connector) A durable“professional” cable connector,attaches to VCRs for transfer of highfrequencycomposite video in/out signals.Connects with a push and a twist.boomAny device for suspending amicrophone above and in front of aperformer.booming Camera move above or belowsubject with aid of a balanced “boomarm,” creating sense of floating into orout of a scene. Can combine effects ofpanning, tilting, and pedding in onefluid movement.C See chrominance.cable/community access Channel(s) of alocal cable television system dedicatedto community-based programming.Access centers provide free orlow-cost training and use of video productionequipment and facilities.cameo lighting Foreground subjects illuminatedby highly directional light,appearing before a completely blackbackground.Cannon See XLR.capacitor The part of the condensermike that stores electrical energy andpermits the flow of alternating current.capture card A piece of computer hardwarethat captures digital video andaudio to a hard drive, typicallythrough a FireWire (IEEE 1394) port.cardioid A microphone that picks upsound in a heart-shaped pattern.CCD (charge coupled device) Lightsensitiveintegrated circuit in videocameras that converts images intoelectrical signals. Sometimes referredto as a “chip.”character generator A device that electronicallybuilds text which can becombined with a video signal. The textis created with a keyboard and programthat has a selection of font andbackgrounds.chroma Characteristics of color a videotapeabsorbs with recorded signal,divided into two categories: AM (amplitudemodulation) indicates color intensity;PM (phase modulation) indicatescolor purity.chromakey Method of electronicallyinserting an image from one videosource into the image of anotherthrough areas designated as its “keycolor.” It is frequently used on newsprograms to display weather graphicsbehind talent.

402 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionchrominance Portion of video signalthat carries color information (hue andsaturation, but not brightness); frequentlyabbreviated as “C,” asin “Y/C” for luminance/chrominance.[See luminance.]clapstick Identification slate with hinged,striped top that smacks together for oncamerascene initiation. Originallyused to synchronize movie sound withpicture. [See lip-sync.]closeup (CU) A tightly framed camerashot in which the principal subject isviewed at close range, appearing largeand dominant on screen. Pulled backslightly is a “medium closeup” whilezoomed in very close is an “extremecloseup (ECU or XCU).”CODEC (compressor/decompressor) Apiece of software that converts a rawstream of uncompressed video to acompressed form. The same piece ofsoftware can also play the compressedvideo on-screen.color bars Standard test signal containingsamples of primary and secondarycolors, used as reference in aligningcolor video equipment. Generatedelectronically by a “color bar generator,”often viewed on broadcast televisionin off-air hours. [See test pattern.]color corrector Electronic device thatdissects the colors of a videosignal, allowing them to be adjustedindividually.color temperature Relative amount of“white” light’s reddish or bluish qualities,measured in degrees Kelvin.Desirable readings for video are 3,200 Kindoors, 5,600 K outdoors. (See artificial,natural light.)comet tailing Smear of light resultingfrom inability of camera’s pickup toprocess bright objects—especially indarker settings. Object or camera inmotion creates appearance of flyingfireball. [See lag.]component video Signal transmissionsystem, resembling S-video concept,employed with professional videotapeformats. Separates one luminanceand two chrominance channels toavoid quality loss from NTSC or PALencoding.composite video Single video signalcombining luminance and chrominancesignals through an encodingprocess, including RGB (red, green,blue) elements and sync information.compositing Superimposing multiplelayers of video or images. Each layermay move independently. Titles area simple and common example ofcompositing.composition Visual make-up of a videopicture, including such variables asbalance, framing, field of view and texture—allaesthetic considerations.Combined qualities form an imagethat’s pleasing to view.compression An encoding process thatreduces the digital data in a videoframe, typically from nearly onemegabyte to 300 kilobytes or less. Thisis accomplished by throwing awayinformation the eye can’t see and/orredundant information in areas of thevideo frame that do not change. JPEG,Motion-JPEG, MPEG, DV, Indeo,Fractal and Wavelet are all compressionschemes.condenser mike A high-quality mikewhose transducer consists of a diaphragm,backplate and capacitor.continuity [1:visual] Logical successionof recorded or edited events, necessitatingconsistent placement of props,positioning of characters, and progressionof time.contrast Difference between a picture’sbrightest and darkest areas. Whenhigh, image contains sharp blacks andwhites; when low, image limited tovariations in gray tones.control track A portion of the videotapecontaining information to synchronizeplayback and linear videotape editingoperations.Control-L A two-way communicationsystem used to coordinate tape transportcommands for linear editing.Primarily found in Mini DV, Digital8,Hi8 and 8mm camcorders and VCRs.(See Control-S, synchro edit.)

Glossary 403Control-S A one-way communicationsystem that treats a VCR or camcorderas a slave unit, with edit commandsemanating from an external edit controlleror compatible deck. Primarilyfound on 8mm VCRs and camcorders.(See Control-L, synchro edit.)cookie (cucalorus) Lighting accessoryconsisting of random cutout shapesthat cast patterned shadows whenlight passes through. Used to imitateshadows of natural lighting.crawl Text or graphics, usually specialannouncements that move across thescreen horizontally, typically from rightto left across the bottom of the screen.cross-fade Simultaneous fade-in of oneaudio or video source as another fadesout so that they overlap temporarily.Also called a dissolve.cucalorus (cookie) Lighting accessoryconsisting of random pattern ofcutouts that forms shadows when lightpasses through it. Used to imitateshadows of natural lighting.cue [1] Signal to begin, end, or otherwiseinfluence on-camera activity whilerecording. [2] Presetting specific startingpoints of audio or video material soit’s available for immediate and preciseplayback when required.cut Instantaneous change from one shotto another.cutaway Shot of something other thanprincipal action (but peripherallyrelated), frequently used as transitionalfootage or to avoid a jump cut.cuts-only editing Editing limited toimmediate shifts from one scene toanother, without smoother image transitioncapabilities such as dissolvingor wiping. [See cut, edit.]D1, D2, D3, D5, Digital-S, DVCPRO,DVCAM, Digital Betacam Entirely digital“professional” videotape recordingformats.decibel (dB) A unit of measurement ofsound that compares the relativeintensity of different sound sources.decompression The decoding of a compressedvideo data stream to allowplayback.deinterlace To convert interlaced videointo progressively-scanned video, foruse with computers.depth of field Range in front of a camera’slens in which objects appear infocus. Varies with subject-to-cameradistance, focal length of a camera lensand a camera’s aperture setting.desktop video (DTV) Fusion of personalcomputers and home video componentsfor elaborate videomaking capabilitiesrivaling those of broadcastfacilities.diaphragm The vibrating element in amicrophone that responds to the compressedair molecules of sound waves.diffused light Indistinctly illuminatesrelatively large area. Produces softlight quality with soft shadows.diffuser Gauzy or translucent materialthat alters the quality of light passingthrough it to produce less intense, flatterlighting with softer, less noticeableshadows.diffusion filter Mounted at front of camcorderlens, gives videotaped images afoggy, fuzzy, dreamy look. [See filter.]digital audio Sounds that have beenconverted to digital information.digital video effects (DVE) Electronicanalog-to-digital picture modificationyielding specialty image patternsand maneuvers: tumbling, strobing,page turning, mosaic, posterization,solarization, etc.digitization The process of converting acontinuous analog video or audio signalto digital data for computer storageand manipulation.digitizer Device that imports and convertsanalog video images into digital informationfor hard drive-based editing.directional light Light that illuminatesin a relatively small area with distinctlight beam; usually created with spotlight,yields harsh, defined shadows.dissolve Image transition effect of one picturegradually disappearing as anotherappears. Analogous to audio and lightingcross-fade. [See cross-fade.]distribution amp (distribution amplifier)Divides single video or audio

404 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionsignals, while boosting their strength,for delivery to multiple audio/video acceptors. Allows simultaneousrecording on multiple VCR’s from thesame source, especially useful for tapeduplication.DivX ;-) A recent codec for MPEG-4video, developed on the Internet.dolly dolly Camera movement toward oraway from a subject. The effect mayseem to be the same as zooming, butdollying in or out results in a moredramatic change in perspective thanusing the zoom.dollying Camera movement toward oraway from a subject. Effect may appearsame as zooming, which reduces andmagnifies the image, but dollying in orout maintains perspective whilechanging picture size.dongle A device that prevents the unauthorizeduse of hardware or software.A dongle usually consists of a smallcord attached to a device or key thatsecures the hardware. The term is alsoused to signify a generic adapter forperipherals.download and play A way of viewingWeb video that requires a user todownload a video before playing it.Download and play files are usuallyhigher quality than streamed video.dropout Videotape signal voids, viewedas fleeting white specks or streaks.Usually result of minute “bare spots”on a tape’s magnetic particle coating,or tape debris covering particles andblocking signals.DTV Desktop video.dubDVDVE[1] Process or result of duplicating avideotape in its entirety. [2] Editingtechnique whereby new audio orvideo replaces portion(s) of existingrecording.(Digital Video) With a capital “D”and a capital “V,” DV is a specificvideo format; both a tape format (likeHi8) and a data format specification.(Digital Video Effect) Electronicspecial effects and picture modificationyielding specialty image patternsand maneuvers, such as tumbling,strobing, page turning, mosaic, posterization,solarization, etc. [See F/X.]dynamic mike A rugged microphonewhose transducer consists of a diaphragmconnected to a moveable coil.ED Beta (extended definition Beta)Improved version of the original halfinchBetamax video format, yieldingsharper pictures with 500-lineresolution. [See Betamax.]edit Process or result of selectivelyrecording video and/or audio on finishedvideotape. Typically involvesreviewing raw footage and transferringdesired segments from master tape(s)onto new tape in a predeterminedsequence. [See assemble edit, in-cameraediting.]edit control protocols Types of signalsdesigned to communicate betweenediting components, including computers,tape decks and camcorders.Allows components to transmitinstructions for various operationssuch as play, stop, fast forward,rewind, record, pause, etc.edit controller Electronic programmerused in conjunction with VCRs/camcordersto facilitate automated linearvideotape editing with speed, precisionand convenience.edit decision list (EDL) Handwritten orcomputer-generated compilation of alledits (marked by their time code inpoints and out points) to be executedin a video production.edited master Original recorded videotapefootage; “edited master” impliesoriginal copy of tape in its edited form.Duplications constitute generationaldifferences.editing appliance An self-containedmachine, essentially a small computer,which only edits video. Editing appliancesusually contain most featuresfound in standard computer-basedediting systems.EDL (edit decision list) Handwritten orcomputer-generated compilation of alledits (marked by their time code in

Glossary 405points and out points) planned for executionin a video production.EFP (Electronic field production) Filmstyleproduction approach using a singlecamera to record on location.Typically shot for post-productionapplication, non-live feed.EIS (electronic image stabilization) Aprocess of limiting shaky camera shotswith digital processing within a camcorder.[See OIS.]electret condenser Microphone typeincorporating a pre-charged element,eliminating need for bulky powersources. [See condenser.]electronic image stabilization (EIS) Aprocess that limits shaky camera shotswith digital processing found within acamcorder. [See OIS.]encoder Device that translates a videosignal into a different format—RGB tocomposite, DV to MPEG,etc.encoding The actual process of compressingvideo for streaming or fordownloading.ENG (Electronic news gathering) Use ofportable video cameras, lighting andsound equipment to record newsevents in the field quickly, conveniently,and efficiently.enhancer (Image enhancer) Video signalprocessor that compensates forpicture detail losses and distortionoccurring in recording and playback.Exaggerates transitions between lightand dark areas by enhancing high frequencyregion of video spectrum.EP (Extended play) Slowest tape speedof a VHS VCR, accommodating sixhourrecordings. [See LP, SP.]equalization Emphasizing specificaudio or video frequencies and eliminatingothers as signal control measure,usually to produce particular sonicqualities. Achieved with equalizer.equalize To emphasize, lessen or eliminatecertain audio frequencies.essential area Boundaries within whichcontents of a television picture aresure to be seen, regardless of maskingdifferences in receiver displays. Alsocalled the “critical area” or “safeaction area,” it encompasses the inner80 percent of the screen.establishing shot Opening image of aprogram or scene. Usually, it’s a wideand/or distant perspective that orientsviewers to the overall setting andsurroundings.extra Accessory talent not essential to aproduction, assuming some peripheralon-camera role. In movie work, performerswith fewer than five lines arecalled “under fives.”f-stop Numbers corresponding to variablesize of a camera’s iris opening, and thusthe amount of light passing through thelens. The higher the number, thesmaller the iris diameter, which meansless light enters the camcorder.F/X Special effects. Visual tricks andillusions—electronic or on camera—employed in film and video to define,distort or defy reality.fade Gradual diminishing or heighteningof visual and/or audio intensity.“Fade out” or “fade to black,” “fade in”or “up from black” are common terms.feed Act or result of transmitting a videosignal from one point to another.feedback [1:video] Infinite loop ofvisual patterns from signal outputbeing fed back as input; achieved byaiming live camera at receiving monitor.[2:audio] Echo effect at low levels,howl or piercing squeal at extremes,from audio signal being fed back toitself.fieldHalf a scanning cycle. Two fieldscomprise a complete video frame.Composed of either all odd lines or alleven lines.field of view Extent of a shot that is visiblethrough a particular lens; its vista.fill light Supplementary illumination,usually from a soft light positioned tothe side of the subject, which lightensshadows created by the key light.(See back light, key light, three-pointlighting.)film-style Out-of-sequence shooting approach,to be edited in appropriate order

406 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionat post-production stage. Advantageousfor concentrating on and completingrecording at one location at a time, continuityand convenience assured.filter Transparent or semi-transparentmaterial, typically glass, mounted at thefront of a camcorder’s lens to changelight passing through. Manipulates colorsand image patterns, often for specialeffect purposes.filter effect Digital effect added to colorizeor otherwise alter a clip in postproduction.FireWire (IEEE 1394 or i.LINK) A highspeedbus that was developed byApple Computer. It is used, amongother things, to connect digital camcordersto computers.fishpole A small, lightweight arm towhich a microphone is attached, handheld by an audio assistant outside ofthe picture frame.flare Bright flashes evident in video.Caused by excessive light beaminginto a camera’s lens and reflecting offits internal glass elements.flat lighting Illumination characterizedby even, diffused light without shadows,highlights or contrast. Mayimpede viewer’s sense of depth,dimension.floodlight Radiates a diffused, scatteredblanket of light with soft, indistinctshadows. Best used to spread illuminationon broad areas, whereas spotlightsfocus on individual subjects.fluid head Tripod mount type containingviscous fluid which lubricatesmoving parts, dampens friction.Design facilitates smooth cameramoves, alleviates jerkiness. [See frictionhead.]flying erase head Accessory video headmounted on spinning head drum,incorporated in many camcorders andVCRs to eliminate glitches and rainbownoise between scenes recorded oredited. By design, all 8mm-family andDV-family equipment has flying eraseheads.focal length Distance from a camcorder’slens to a focused image withthe lens focused on infinity. Shortfocal lengths offer a broad field ofview (wide angle); long focal lengthsoffer a narrow field of view (telephoto).Zoom lenses have a variablefocal length.follow focusControlling lens focus sothat an image maintains sharpness andclarity despite camcorder and/or subjectmovement.foot-candleA unit of illumination equalto the light emitted by a candle at thedistance of one foot. One foot-candleequals 10.764 lux. (See lux.)formatVideotape and video equipmentdesign differences—physical and technical—dictatingcompatibility andquality. In most basic sense, refers tostandardized tape widths, videocassettesizes. [See Betamax, D1/D2, 8mm, three-quarter-inch, VHS.]FPS (frames per second) Measures therate or speed of video or film. Film istypically shot and played back at24 fps. Video is recorded and playedback at 30 fps.frame1) One complete image. In NTSCvideo a frame is composed of twofields. One 30th of a second. 2) Theviewable area or composition of animage.framing Act of composing a shot in acamcorder’s viewfinder for desiredcontent, angle and field of view.freeze frame Single frame paused anddisplayed for an extended period duringvideo playback; suspended motionperceived as still snapshot.frequencyNumber of vibrations producedby a signal or sound, usuallyexpressed as cycles per second, orhertz (Hz).frequency response Measure of the rangeof frequencies a medium can respond toand reproduce. Good video responsemaintains picture detail; good audioresponse accommodates the broadestrange, most exacting sound.

Glossary 407friction head Tripod mount type withstrong spring that counterbalancescamera weight, relying on friction tohold its position. More appropriate forstill photography than movementorientedvideomaking. [See fluid head.]full-motion video A standard for videoplayback on a computer; refers tosmooth-flowing, full-color video at30 frames per second, regardless of thescreen resolution.gaffer Production crew technicianresponsible for placement and riggingof all lighting instruments.gain Video amplification, signal strength.“Riding gain” means varying controlsto achieve desired contrast levels.GB (Gigabyte) Giga- is a prefix thatmeans one billion, so a Gigabyte is1,000,000,000 bytes. Most commonlyused to measure hard disk space.gel Colored material placed in front ofa light source to alter its hue. Usefulfor special effects and correcting mismatchesin lighting, as in sceneslit by both daylight and artificiallight.generation Relationship between a mastervideo recording and a given copy ofthat master. A copy of a copy of theoriginal master constitutes a secondgenerationduplication.generation loss Degradation in pictureand sound quality resulting from ananalog duplication of original mastervideo recording. Copying a copy andall successive duplication compoundsgeneration loss. Digital transfers arefree of generation loss.genlock (generator locking device)Synchronizes two video sources,allowing part or all of their signals tobe displayed together. Necessary foroverlaying computer graphics withvideo, for example.ghosting Undesirable faint doublescreen image caused by signal reflectionor improperly balanced video circuitry.“Ringing” appears as repeatedimage edges.giraffe A small boom that consists of acounterweighted arm supported by atripod, usually on casters.glitch Momentary picture disturbance.grain Blanketed signal noise viewed asfuzziness, unsmooth images—attributableto lumination inadequacies.grip Production crew stagehand responsiblefor handling equipment, props,and scenery before, during, and afterproduction.group master fader A volume control onan audio board that handles a subgroupof input channels before theyare sent to the master fader.handheld mike A microphone that aperson holds to speak or sing into.hard disk Common digital storage componentin a computer.HDTV (high-definition television) “Inthe works” television system standardaffording greater resolution forsharper pictures and wide-screenviewing via specially-designed TVequipment.head Electromagnetic component withincamcorders and VCRs that records,receives and erases video and audiosignals on magnetic tape.headroom Space between the top of asubject’s head and a monitor’s upperscreenedge. Too much headroommakes the subject appear to fall out ofthe frame.hi-fi (high fidelity) Generalized termdefining audio quality approachingthe limits of human hearing, pertinentto high-quality sound reproductionsystems.Hi8 (high-band 8mm) Improved versionof 8mm videotape format characterizedby higher luminance resolutionfor a sharper picture. Compact “conceptualequivalent” of Super-VHS.[See 8mm]high impedance A characteristic ofmicrophones that have a great dealof opposition to the flow of alternatingcurrent through them and thereforemust have short cables; they

408 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionare less likely to be used in professionalsituations than low impedancemicrophones.hiss Primary background signal interferencein audio recording, result of circuitnoise from a playback recorder’samplifiers or from a tape’s residualmagnetism.horizontal resolution Specification denotingamount of discernable detail across ascreen’s width. Measured in pixels, thehigher the number, the better the picturequality.IEEE 1394 (Institute of Electrical andElectronics Engineers) Pronounced“eye-triple-E thirteen-ninety-four” theinstitute establishes standards andprotocols for a wide range of computerand communications technologies,including IEEE 1394, which is a specificationFireWire data transmissionwidely used in DV. Sony refers to theports on its products with the proprietaryterm, “i.LINK.”image enhancer Video signal processorthat compensates for picture detail lossesand distortion occurring in recordingand playback. Exaggeratestransitions between light and darkareas by enhancing high frequencyregion of video spectrum.image sensor A video camera’s imagesensing element, either CCD (chargecoupled device) or MOS (metal oxidesemiconductor); converts light to electricalenergy. [See CCD.]impedance Opposition to the flow of anaudio signal in a microphone and itscable.in-camera editing Assembling finishedprogram “on the fly” as you videotapesimply by activating and pausing camcorder’srecord function.incident light That which emanatesdirectly from a light source. Measuredfrom the object it strikes to the source.(See reflected light.)indexingAbility of some VCRs to electronicallymark specific points onvideotape for future access, either duringthe recording process (VISS: VHSindex search system) or as scenes areplayed back (VASS: VHS address searchsystem).input channel On an audio board, thecontrol into which a microphone, taperecorder or other source is plugged.insert edit Recording video and/oraudio on tape over a portion of existingfootage without disturbing whatprecedes and follows. Must replacerecording of same length.interlaceTo split a TV picture into twofields of odd and even lines. Under theinterlaced method, every other line isscanned during the first pass, then theremaining lines are scanned in the secondpass. All analog TV formats (NTSC,PAL and SECAM) use interlaced video.interlaced video Process of scanningframes in two passes, each paintingevery other line on the screen, withscan lines alternately displayed ineven and odd fields. NTSC video isinterlaced; most computers producea noninterlaced video signal. [See noninterlacedvideo.]irisjackCamcorder’s lens opening or aperture,regulates amount of light enteringcamera. Diameter is measured in f-stops. [See f-stop.]Any female socket or receptacle,usually on the backside of video andaudio equipment; accepts plug for circuitconnection.jitter Video image aberration seen asslight, fast vertical or horizontal shiftingof a picture or portion of one.jog/shuttle Manual control on someVCRs, facilitates viewing and editingprecision and convenience. Jog ringmoves tape short distances to show aframe at a time; shuttle dial transportstape forward or reverse more rapidlyfor faster scanning.jump cut Unnatural, abrupt switchbetween shots identical in subject butslightly different in screen location, sothe subject appears to jump from onescreen location to another. Can beremedied with a cutaway or shot froma different angle.

Glossary 409Kelvin Temperature scale used to definethe color of a light source; abbreviatedas “K.” [See color temperature.]key light Principal illumination sourceon a subject or scene. Normally positionedslightly off-center and angled toprovide shadow detail. (See back light,fill light, three-point lighting.)keyframe A complete image, used as areference for subsequent images. Tokeep the data rate low, other framesonly have data for the parts of the picturethat change.keystoning Perspective distortion froma flat object being shot by a camera atother than a perpendicular angle.Nearer portion of object appears largerthan farther part.Killer app An application of such technologicalimportance and wide acceptancethat it surpasses (i.e., kills) itscompetitors.lag Camera pickup’s retention of animage after the camera has beenmoved, most common under low lightlevels. Comet tailing is a form of lag.lapel mike A small mike often clippedinside clothing or on a tie or lapel.lavalier A small mike that can be wornaround the neck on a cord.LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)Commonly used in digital watches,camcorder viewscreens and laptopcomputer screens, LCD panels arelight-weight and low-power displaydevices.LiIon (Lithium Ion) The most commonbattery type among new camcorders.More expensive, but has a highercapacity and fewer memory rechangingproblems.linear editing Tape-based VCR-to-VCRediting. Called linear because scenesare recorded in chronological order onthe tape.lip sync Proper synchronization ofvideo with audio—lip movement withaudible speech.long shot (LS) Camera view of a subjector scene from a distance, showing abroad perspective.LP (long play) Middle tape speed of aVHS VCR, accommodating four-hourrecordings. [See EP, SP.]LTC (longitudinal time code) Frameidentification numbers encoded asaudio signals and recorded lengthwiseon the edge of a tape, typically on alinear audio track of VHS or S-VHStape. (See time code, VITC.)luminance Black-and-white portion ofvideo signal, carries brightness informationrepresenting picture contrast,light and dark qualities; frequentlyabbreviated as “Y.”lux A metric unit of illumination equalto the light of a candle falling on a surfaceof one square meter. One luxequals 0.0929 foot-candle.macro Lens capable of extreme closeupfocusing, useful for intimate views ofsmall subjects.master Original recorded videotapefootage; “edited master” implies originaltape in its edited form.master fader The audio volume controlthat is located after all the input channelcontrols and after the submastercontrols.matched dissolve Dissolve from oneimage to another that’s similar inappearance or shot size.media player A program that plays backaudio or video. Examples includeMicrosoft Windows Media Player,Apple’s QuickTime Player, andRealPlayer.medium shot (MS) Defines any cameraperspective between long shot andcloseup, viewing the subjects from amedium distance.memory effect Power-loss phenomenonalleged of NiCad—camcorder batteries,attributed to precisely repetitivepartial discharge followed by completerecharge, or long-term overcharge.Considered misnomerfor “voltage depression” and “cellimbalance.”MIDI (musical instrument digital interface)System of communicationbetween digital electronic instruments

410 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionallowing synchronization and distributionof musical information.mike (also “mic”) short for microphone.mix [1:audio] Combining sound sourcesto achieve a desired program balance.Finished output may be mono, stereoor surround. [2:video] Combining videosignals from two or more sources.model release Agreement to be signedby anyone appearing in a video work,protecting videomaker from right ofprivacy lawsuit. Specifies event, date,compensation provisions, and rightsbeing waived.monitor [1:video] Television set withoutreceiving circuitry, wired to camcorderor VCR for display of live orrecorded video signals. Most standardTVs have dual-function capability asmonitor and receiver. [See receiver.][2:audio] Synonymous with speaker.monopod One-legged camera support.[See tripod.]montage A sequence of shots assembledin juxtaposition to each other to communicatea particular idea or mood.Often bridged with cross-fades and setto music.mosaic Electronic special effectwhereby individual pixels comprisingan image are blown up into largerblocks—a kind of checkerboard effect.MPEG (MPEG-1) A video compressionstandard set by the Moving PictureExperts Group. It involves changingonly those elements of a video imagethat actually change from frame toframe and leaving everything else inthe image the same.MPEG-2 The highest quality digitalvideo compression currently available.MPEG-2 is less blocky thanMPEG-1 and is used in DVDs and DBSsatellite TV systems.MPEG-4 A recent data compression formatthat can get better quality out of agiven amount of bandwidth. MPEG-4can compress a feature film onto a CD-ROM disc with VHS quality.natural light Planetary illumination—from the sun, the moon, stars—whetherindoors or out. Has higher color temperaturethan artificial light, and thusmore bluish qualities. (See artificiallight, color temperature.)neutral-density filter (ND) Mounted atfront of camcorder lens, reduces lightintensity without affecting its colorqualities. [See filter.]NiCad (nickel cadmium) Abbreviationcoined and popularized by SAFTAmerica for lightweight camcorderbattery type designed to maintainpower longer than traditional leadacidbatteries. Rare among new camcorders,supplanted by Li-Ion andNiMH.NiMH (nickel metal hydride) Batterytechnology similar to NiCad, but moreenvironmentally friendly, with highercapacity and fewer memory rechargingproblems.NLE (nonlinear editor/editing) Harddrive-based editing system defined byits ability to randomly access and insertvideo in any order at any time. This is incontrast to linear, tape-to-tape editingwhich requires rewinding and fast forwardingto access material.noise Unwanted sound or static in anaudio signal or unwanted electronic disturbanceof snow in the video signal.noninterlaced video Process of scanningcomplete frames in one pass,painting every line on the screen,yielding higher picture quality thanthat of interlaced video. Most computersproduce a noninterlaced videosignal; NTSC is interlaced. AKAprogressive scan.nonlinear editing Digital randomaccess editing that uses a hard driveinstead of tape to store video.Random access allows easy arrangementof scenes in any order. It alsoeliminates the need for rewinding andallows for multiple dubs without generationloss.nonsynchronous sound Audio withoutprecisely matching visuals. Usuallyrecorded separately, includeswild sound, sound effects, or music

Glossary 411incorporated in post-production. [Seesynchronous sound.]nose room The distance between thesubject and the edge of the frame inthe direction the subject is looking.Also called “look room.”NTSC (National Television StandardsCommittee) U.S. television broadcastingspecifications. NTSC refers toall video systems conforming to this525-line 59.94-field-per-second signalstandard. [See PAL, SECAM.]Off-line Until recently, the low qualityof computer video images limits theDTV computer to “off-line” work. Thatis, making the edit-point decisions(EDL) for use in a later “on-line” session,using the original tapes to assemblethe edit master. Today’s editingsystems are capable of on-line qualityoutput by themsleves, relegating thisterm to history.OIS (optical image stabilization) Aprocess of limiting shaky camera shotswith mechanical movement of theoptical system within a camcorder.[See EIS.]omnidirectional A microphone thatpicks up sound from all directions.outtake Footage not to be included infinal production.over-the-shoulder shot View of the primarysubject with the back of anotherperson’s shoulder and head in the foreground.Often used in interview situations.PAL (phase alternate line) 625-line50-field-per-second television signalstandard used in Europe and SouthAmerica. Incompatible with NTSC.[See NTSC, SECAM.]pan Horizontal camera pivot, right toleft or left to right, from a stationaryposition.PCM (pulse code modulation) A popularmethod of encoding digital audio.[See AFM.]pedestal A camera move vertically loweringor raising the camcorder,approaching either the floor or ceiling,while keeping the camera level.phone plug Sturdy male connector compatiblewith audio accessories, particularlyfor insertion of microphone andheadphone cables. Frequently referredto by their sizes, usually 1/4-inch and1/8-inch. Not to be confused withphono plug.phono plug (RCA) Shrouded male connectorused for audio and video connections.Frequently referred to asRCA plugs, they only come in onesize. Not to be confused with phoneplugs.pickup [1] A video camera’s image sensingelement, either CCD (charge coupleddevice) or MOS (metal oxidesemiconductor); converts light to electricalenergy. [See CCD.] [2] A microphone’ssound reception.pickup pattern Defines a microphone’sresponse to sounds arriving from variousdirections or angles. [See omnidirectional,unidirectional.]PiP (picture in picture, p-in-p, pix in pix)Image from a second video sourceinset on a screen’s main picture, thebig and small pictures usually beinginterchangeable.playback Videotaped material viewedand heard as recorded, facilitated bycamcorder or VCR.playback VCR Playback source of rawvideo footage (master or workprint) inbasic player/recorder editing setup.[See recording VCR.]point-of-view shot (POV) Shot perspectivewhereby the video cameraassumes a subject’s view and thusviewers see what the subject sees.polarizing filter Mounted at the front ofcamcorder lens, thwarts undesirableglare and reflections. [See filter.]post production (post) Any video productionactivity following initialrecording. Typically involves editing,addition of background music,voiceover, sound effects, titles, and/orvarious electronic visual effects.Results in completed production.posterization Electronic special effecttransforming a normal video image into

412 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productiona collage of flattened single-coloredareas, without graduations of color andbrightness.POV (point of view) The apparent positionof the observer in a shoot thatdefines the camera’s position.pre-roll [1] Slight backing-up functionof camcorders and VCRs when preparingfor linear tape-to-tape editing;ensures smooth, uninterrupted transitionsbetween scenes.preamp An electronic device that magnifiesthe low signal output of microphonesand other transducers beforethe signal is sent to a mixing board orto other amplifiers.proc amp (processing amplifier) Videoimage processor that boosts video signal’sluminance, chroma, and synccomponents to correct such problemsas low light, weak color, or wrong tint.Progressive scan A method of displayingthe horizontal video lines in computerdisplays and digital TVbroadcasts. Each horizontal line is displayedin sequence (1, 2, 3, etc.), untilthe screen is filled; as opposed tointerlaced (e.g. first fields of odd-numberedlines, then fields of even-numberedlines).props Short for “properties,” objectsused either in decorating a set (setprops) or by talent (hand props).PZM (pressure zone microphone)Small, sensitive condenser mike, usuallyattached to a metal backing plate.Senses air pressure changes in tiny gapbetween mike element and plate.Trademark of Crown International.Generically, “boundary microphone”is preferred.QuickTimeComputer system softwarethat defines a format for video andaudio data, so different applicationscan open and play synchronizedsound and movie files.rack focusShifting focus between subjectsin the background and foregroundso a viewer’s attention movesfrom subject to subject as the focusshifts.RAID Acronym for Redundant Array ofIndependent Disks. Hard drivesinstalled in multiples that are accessedas a single volume. RAID 0 systems(stripe sets) are common in higher-endvideo editing systems, as they allowfor faster access to video. Other RAIDconfigurations are used in someservers to keep important data accessibleand protected, allowing access todata even after one of the hard drivescrash.RAM (Random Access Memory) Theshort-term memory of a computerwhich temporarily holds informationwhile your computer is on. Distinctfrom storage, which is more permanentand is held on hard disks or someother media, such as CD-ROM.raw footage Pre-edited footage, usuallydirect from the camcorder.RCA plug (Recording Corporation ofAmerica) A popular cable connectorfor home audio as well as video components.The standard connection fordirect audio/video inputs and outputs.RCTC (rewritable consumer time code)The time-code format used with 8mmand Hi8 formats.reaction shot A cutaway to someone orsomething showing their facial responseto the primary action or subject.real time Occurring immediately, withoutdelay for rendering. If a transitionoccurs in real time, there is no waiting;the computer creates the effect or transitionon the fly, showing it immediately.Real-time previewing is differentfrom real-time rendering.real-time counter Tallying device thataccounts for videotape playing/recordingby measure of hours, minutes andseconds.RealNetworks Developed the leadingstreaming technology for transmittinglive video over the Internet using avariety of data compression techniquesand works with IP and IPMulticast connections.RealPlayer A program developed byRealNetworks to play live and

Glossary 413on-demand RealAudio and RealVideofiles.RealVideo A streaming technologydeveloped by RealNetworks for transmittinglive video over the Internet.RealVideo uses a variety of data compressionalgorithms.recording VCR Recipient of raw videofeed (master or workprint) andrecorder of edited videotape in basicplayer/recorder editing setup. [Seeplayback VCR.]reflected light That which bounces offthe illuminated subject. Light redirectedby a reflector. (See incidentlight.)reflector Lighting accessory helpful forbouncing light onto a subject. Oftenmade of lightweight reflective material.remote Video shoot performed on location,outside a controlled studioenvironment.render The processing a computerundertakes when creating an appliedeffect, transition or composite.render time The time it takes an editingcomputer to composite source elementsand commands into a singlevideo file so the sequence, includingtitles and transition effects, can play infull motion.resolution Amount of picture detailreproduced by a video system, influencedby a camera’s pickup, lens, internaloptics, recording medium andplayback monitor. The more detail, thesharper and better defined the picture.[See horizontal resolution.]Rewritable Consumer (RC) Time codesent trhoug Control-L interface permittingextremely accurate edits. Eachframe is assigned a unique addressexpressed in hours:minutes:seconds:frames.RF (radio frequency) Combination ofaudio and video signals coded as achannel number, necessary for televisionbroadcasts as well as someclosed-circuit distribution.RF converter Device that converts audioand video signals into a combinedRF signal suitable for reception by astandard TV.RGB (red, green, blue) Video signaltransmission system that differentiatesand processes all color information inseparate red, green and blue components—theprimary color of light—foroptimum image quality. Also definestype of color monitor.ringingUndesirable faint double screenimage caused by signal reflection orimproperly balanced video circuitry.“Ringing” appears as repeated imageedges.RM (Real Media) A popular file formatused for streaming video over theInternet.roll Text or graphics, usually credits,that move up or down the screen, typicallyfrom bottom to top.rough cut Preliminary edit of footage inthe approximate sequence, length andcontent of finished program.rule of thirds Composition theory basedon dividing the screen into thirds verticallyand horizontally and the placementof the main subject along thoselines.S-videoAlso known as Y/C video, signaltype employed with Hi8 andS-VHS video formats. Transmits luminance(Y) and chrominance (C) portionsseparately via multiple wires(pins), thereby avoiding the NTSCencoding process and its inevitablepicture-quality degradation.S/N RatioRelationship between signalstrength and a medium’s inherentnoise. Video S/N indicates how grainyor snowy a picture will be, plus coloraccuracy; audio S/N specifies amountof background tape hiss present withlow- or no-volume recordings.safe title area The recommended areathat will produce legible titles on mostTV screens; 80 percent of the visiblearea, measured from the center.scan converter Device that changes scanrate of a video signal, possibly convertingit from noninterlaced to interlacedmode. Allows computer graphics

414 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionto be displayed on a standard videoscreen.scan line Result of television’s swiftscanning process which sweeps out aseries of horizontal lines from left toright, then down a bit and left to rightagain. Complete NTSC picture consistsof 525 scan lines per frame.scan rate Number of times a screen is“redrawn” per second. Computer displaysoperate at different scan ratesthan standard video.scene In the language of moving images,a sequence of related shots usuallyconstituting action in one particularlocation. [See shot.]scrim Lighting accessory made of wiremesh. Lessens intensity of light sourcewithout softening it. Half scrims andgraduated scrims reduce illuminationin more specific areas.script Text specifying content of a productionor performance, used as aguide. May include character and settingprofiles, production directives(audio, lighting, scenery, cameramoves), as well as dialogue to berecited by talent. [See storyboard.]SECAM (sequential color and memory)625-line 25-frame-per-second televisionsignal standard used in Franceand the Soviet Republic. Incompatiblewith NTSC; PAL and SECAM are partiallycompatible. [See NTSC, PAL.]SEG (special effects generator) Permitsvideo signal mixing from two or moresources—cameras, time-base correctorsand character generators—for dissolves,wipes and other transitioneffects.selective focus Adjusting focus toemphasize desired subject(s) in a shot.Selected area maintains clarity, imagesharpness while remainder of imageblurs. Useful for directing viewer’sattention.sepia Brassy antique color effect characteristicof old photographs.shooting ratio Amount of raw footagerecorded relative to the amount usedin edited, finished program.shot Intentional, isolated camera views,which collectively comprise a scene.[See scene.]shotgun A highly-directional microphoneused for picking up soundsfrom a distance.signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) Relationshipbetween signal strength and amedium’s inherent noise. Video S/Nindicates how grainy or snowy a picturewill be, plus its color accuracy;audio S/N specifies amount of backgroundtape hiss present with low- orno-volume recordings. Higher figuresrepresent a cleaner signal. Usuallycited in decibels (dB).Skylight (1A) or haze (UV) filterMounted at front of camcorder lens,virtually clear glass absorbs ultravioletlight. Also excellent as constant lensprotector. [See filter.]SMPTE Time-code standard whichaddresses every frame on a videotapewith a unique number (in hours,minutes, seconds, frames) to aid loggingand editing. Format used for film,video and audio. Named forthe Society of Motion Picture andTelevision Engineers, which sanctionsstandards for recording systems inNorth America.snake A connector box that contains alarge number of microphone inputreceptacles.snoot Open-ended cylindrical funnelmounted on a light source to projecta narrow, concentrated circle ofillumination.snow Electronic picture interference;resembles scattered snow on the televisionscreen. Synonymous withchroma and luma noise.solarization Electronic special effectdistorting a video image’s original colors,emphasizing some and de-emphasizingothers for a “paint brush” effect.[See DVE.]sound bite Any short recorded audiosegment for use in an edited program—usuallya highlight taken froman interview.

Glossary 415sound effects Contrived audio, usuallyprerecorded, incorporated with avideo soundtrack to resemble a realoccurrence. Blowing on a microphone,for example, might simulate wind toaccompany hurricane images.soundtrack The audio portion of a videorecording, often multifaceted with naturalsound, voiceovers, backgroundmusic, sound effects, etc.SP (standard play) Fastest tape speed ofa VHS VCR, accommodating two-hourrecordings. [See EP, LP.]special effects F/X. Tricks and illusions—electronicor on camera—employed in film and video to define,distort, or defy reality.special effects generator (SEG) Videosignal processor with vast, but varying,image manipulation capabilitiesinvolving patterns and placement aswell as color and texture: mixing, multiplying,shrinking, strobing, wiping,dissolving, flipping, colorizing, etc.spotlight Radiates a well-defined directionalbeam of light, casting hard, distinctshadows. Best used to focusillumination on individual subjects,whereas floodlights blanket broaderareas.stabilizer Video signal processor usedprimarily for tape dubbing to eliminatepicture jump and jitter, maintainstability.star Filter Mounted at front of camcorderlens, gives videotaped lightsources a starburst effect. Generallyavailable in four-, six-, and eight-pointpatterns. [See filter.]stereo Sound emanating from two isolatedsources, intended to simulatepattern of natural human hearing.stock shot Common footage—city traffic,a rainbow—conveniently accessed asneeded. Similar to a “photo file” in thephotography profession.storyboard Series of cartoon-likesketches illustrating key visual stages(shots, scenes) of planned production,accompanied by corresponding audioinformation. [See script.]Streaming Playing sound or video inreal time as it is downloaded over theinternet as opposed to storing it in alocal file first. Avoids download delay.strobe Digital variation of fixed-speedslow motion, with image action brokendown into a series of still framesupdated and replaced with new onesat rapid speed.Super VHS (S-VHS, S-VHS-C) Improvedversion of VHS and VHS-C videotapeformats, characterized by separate carriersof chrominance and luminanceinformation, yielding a sharper picture.[See VHS, VHS-C.]superimposition (super) Titles, video orgraphics appearing over an existingvideo picture, partially or completelyhiding areas they cover.sweetening Post-production process ofadding music and sound effects or otherwiseenhancing the existing audiowith filters and effects.swish pan Extremely rapid camera movementfrom left to right or right to left,appearing as image blur. Two such pansin the same direction—one movingfrom, the other moving to a stationaryshot—edited together can effectivelyconvey passage of time or change oflocation.switcher Simplified SEG, permits videosignal mixing from two or moresources—cameras, time base correctors,character generators—for dissolves,wipes, and other cleantransition effects.sync (synchronization) Horizontal andvertical timing signals or electronicpulses—component of composite signal,supplied separately in RGB systems.Aligns video origination (livecamera, videotape) and reproduction(monitor or receiver) sources.synchronous sound Audio recordedwith images. When the mouth moves,the words come out.talent Generic term for the people assumingon-screen roles in a videotaping.tally light Automatic indicators (usuallyred)on a camera’s front and within its

416 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD Productionviewfinder that signal recording inprogress—seen by both camera subject(s)and operator.telecine converter Imaging device usedin conjunction with a movie projectorand camcorder to transfer film imagesto videotape.telephoto Camera lens with long focallength and narrow horizontal field ofview. Opposite of wide-angle, capturesmagnified, close-up images from considerabledistance.teleprompter (prompter) Mechanicaldevice that projects and advances texton mirror directly in front of camera’slens, allowing talent to read their lineswhile appearing to maintain eye contactwith viewers.test pattern Any of various combinationsof converging lines, alignmentmarks, and gray scales appearing onscreen to aid in video equipmentadjustment for picture alignment, registration,and contrast. Often viewedon broadcast television in off-airhours. [See color bars.]three-point lighting Basic lightingapproach employing key, fill and backlights to illuminate subject with senseof depth and texture. Strategic placementimitates natural outdoor lightingenvironment, avoids flat lighting. (Seeback light, fill light, key light.)three-quarter-inch (U-matic) An analogvideo format utilizing 3/4 tape. Verypopular in professional, industrial andbroadcast environments in the past,though beginning to be supplanted bydigital formats.three-shot Camera view including threesubjects, generally applicable to interviewsituations.three-to-one rule A microphone placementprinciple that states if two mikesmust be side by side, there should bethree times the distance between themthat there is between the mikes andthe people using them.tilt Vertical camcorder rotation (upand down) from a single axis, as on atripod.time base corrector (TBC) Electronicdevice that corrects timing inconsistenciesin a videotape recorder’splayback, stabilizing the image foroptimum quality. Also synchronizesvideo sources, allowing image mixing.[See sync.]time code Synchronization system, likea clock recorded on your videotape,assigning a corresponding hours,minutes, seconds, and frame-numberdesignation to each frame. Expeditesindexing convenience and editing precision.[See SMPTE.]time-lapse recording Periodically videotapinga minimal number of framesover long durations of actual time.Upon playback, slow processes such asa flower blooming may be viewed inrapid motion.timeline editing A computer-basedmethod of editing, in which bars proportionalto the length of the clip representvideo and audio clips arerepresented on a computer screen.titlingProcess or result of incorporatingon-screen text as credits, captions orany other alphanumeric communicationto video viewers.trackingLateral camcorder movementthat travels with a moving subject. Thecamcorder should maintain a regulateddistance from the subject.transcode To convert analog video to adigital format, or vice-versa.tripod Three-legged camera mountoffering stability and camera placement/movementconsistency. Most arelightweight, used for remote recording.[See monopod.]turnkey DVD authoring system Anycomputer system designed to author(and usually burn) DVDs right out ofthe box, needing only trivial changesin its configuration.turnkey nonlinear editing system Anycomputer system designed to edit videoright out of the box, needing only trivialchanges in its configuration.turnkey system Any computer systemwhich is considered ready-to-use

Glossary 417right out of the box, needing only trivialchanges in its configuration.two-shot A camera view including twosubjects, generally applicable to interviewsituations.U-matic An analog video format utilizing3/4 tape. Very popular in professional,industrial and broadcast environmentsin the past, though beginning to besupplanted by digital formats.umbrella Lighting accessory availablein various sizes usually made of texturedgold or silver fabric. Facilitatessoft, shadowless illumination byreflecting light onto a scene.unbalanced line Audio cables that havetwo wires: one for positive and one forboth negative and ground.unidirectional Highly selective microphonepickup pattern, rejects soundcoming from behind while absorbingthat from in front. [See bidirectional,omnidirectional.]variable bit rate (VBR) A way of codingvideo to maximize image quality overa connection’s available bandwidth,usually provided by more recentcodecs.VCR (videocassette recorder) Multifunctionmachine intended primarilyfor recording and playback of videotapestored in cassettes.vectorscope Electronic testing devicethat measures a video signal’s chrominanceperformance, plotting qualitiesin a compass-like graphic display.vertical interval time code (VITC)Synchronization signals recorded asan invisible component of the videosignal, accessed for editing precision.[See time code.]VHS (video home system) Predominanthalf-inch videotape format developedby Matsushita and licensed by JVC.VHS-C (VHS compact) Scaled-downversion of VHS using miniature cassettescompatible with full-size VHSequipment through use of adapter.[See Super VHS.]video card The PC card that controlsthe computer’s monitor display. Don’tconfuse the computer’s video (VGA,SVGA, Mac monitor and so on) whichis non-interlaced, with NTSC video. PCcards for DTV are also called capture,overlay or compression cards. Most donot generate NTSC video output.video prompter A mechanical devicethat projects and advances text on amirror directly in front of a cameralens, allowing talent to read lineswhile appearing to maintain eye contactwith viewers.videocassette recorder (VCR) Multifunctionmachine intended primarilyfor recording and playback of videotapestored in cassettes.vignette Visual special effect wherebyviewers see images through a perceivedkeyhole, heart shape, diamond,etc. In low-budget form,vignettes are achieved by aiming camerathrough a cutout of a desiredvignette.vignetting Undesirable darkening at thecorners of a picture, as if viewer’s peeringthrough a telescope, due toimproper matching of lens to camera—pickup’s scope exceeds lens size.VITC (vertical interval time code)Synchronization signal recorded as aninvisible component of the video signal,accessed for editing precision.[See LTC.]VOD Abbreviation for Video onDemand. Usually only heard in thecontext of delivering full-frame, fullmotionvideo to a television; sincemost video on the Internet is providedon-demand.voiceover (VO) Audio from an unseennarrator accompanying video, heardabove background sound or music.Typically applied to edited visualsduring post-production.waveform monitor Specialized oscilloscopetesting device providing agraphic display of a video signal’sstrength. Plus, like a sophisticatedlight meter, aids in precise setting ofpicture’s maximum brightness levelfor optimum contrast.

418 The Videomaker Guide to Digital Video and DVD ProductionWebCam Abbreviation for Web Camera.A small camera connected to a computer,usually through a USB port.Webcams usually produce small,progressive-scanned images.whip pan (swish pan) Extremely rapidcamera movement from left to right orright to left, appearing as an imageblur. Two such pans in the same direction,edited together—one movingfrom, the other moving to a stationaryshot—can effectively convey the passageof time or a change of location.white balance Electronic adjustment ofcamcorder to retain truest colors ofrecorded image. Activated in camcorderprior to recording, proper settingestablished by aiming at whiteobject.wide-angle Camcorder lens with shortfocal length and broad horizontal fieldof view. Opposite of telephoto, supportsviewer perspective and tends toreinforce perception of depth.wild sound Nonsynchronous audiorecorded independent of picture ie.rain on roof, five o’clock whistle—often captured with separate audiorecorder. [See nonsynchronous sound.]windscreen Sponge-like microphoneshield, thwarts undesirable noise fromwind and rapid mike movement.wipe Transition from one shot toanother, where a moving line or patternreveals the new shot. In it’s simplestform it simulates a windowshade being drawn.wireless mike A microphone with aself-contained, built-in miniature FMtransmitter that can send the audio signalseveral hundred feet, eliminatingthe need for mike cables.workprint Copy of a master videotapeused for edit planning and rough cutwithout excessively wearing or otherwisejeopardizing safekeeping of originalmaterial. Also called “workingmaster.”wow and flutter Sound distortions consistingof a slow rise and fall of pitch,caused by speed variations inaudio/video playback system.XLR (ground-left-right) Three-pin plugfor three-conductor “balanced” audiocable, employed with high-qualitymicrophones, mixers and other audioequipment.Y Symbol for luminance, or brightness,portion of a video signal; the completecolor video signal consists of R,G,Band Y.Y/C Video signal type (also known asS-video) employed with Hi8 and S-VHSvideo formats and analog output -on digitalcamcorders. Transmits luminance(Y) and chrominance (C) portions separatelyvia multiple wires, thereby avoidingpicture quality degradation.YUV (y luminance, u B-Y or blue andv R-Y or red) Video signal used tocompose a component NTSC or PALsignal. [See RGB.]zoom Variance of focal length, bringingsubject into and out of close-up range.Lens capability permits change fromwide-angle to telephoto, or vice versa,in one continuous move. “Zoom in”and “zoom out” are common terms.zoom ratio Range of a lens’ focal length,from most “zoomed in” field of viewto most “zoomed out.” Expressed asratio: 6:1, for example, implies that thesame lens from the same distance canmake the same image appear six-timescloser. [See focal length, zoom.]

List of ContributorsDr. Robert G. NulphDr. Robert G. Nulph is an AssociateProfessor of Communication Studies and anindependent video/film producer/director.Larry LemmLarry Lemm is a freelance writer.Scott AndersonScott Anderson is the author of animationsoftware and a book about digital specialeffects.Jim StinsonJim Stinson is the author of the book VideoCommunication and Production.Robert J. KerrRobert J. Kerr is a consultant, teacher andwriter in the video industry.Loren AlldrinLoren Alldrin is a freelance video andmusic producer.Michael RabigerMichael Rabiger teaches filmmaking atColumbia College, Chicago. He is theauthor of Directing the Documentary.Joe McCleskeyJoe McCleskey is an instructional mediaspecialistCharles BloodworthCharles Bloodworth is a video hobbyistand DV enthusiast.Bill RoodBill Rood is an engineer at KTXL Channel40 in Sacramento, CA.William RonatWilliam Ronat is the owner of a video productioncompany.Stray Wynn PonderStray Wynn Ponder is a writer and producerof television commercials andindustrial training videos.Stephen JacobsStephen Jacobs is an English and data processinginstructor at National TechnicalInstitute for the Deaf at RIT.419

420 List of ContributorsJohn K. WatersJohn K. Waters is a freelance writer.Mark Steven BoskoMark Steven Bosko is a freelance writer andan independent video and film producer.Randal K. WestRandal K. West is an award winning directorof Broadcast television and is a CreativeDirector with Hawthorne Direct, Inc.Bill FisherBill Fisher is a documentary video producerbased in Portland, Oregon.Mark LevyMark Levy specializes in patent, trademark& copyright law and has won numerousawards in film and video festivals.Brian PogueBrian Pogue is a news videographer/editorat KTXL-TV in Sacramento, CA.Michael HammondMichael Hammond is a twenty-year communicationsveteran, teaching electronicmedia and producing independent video.Michael LoehrMichael Loehr is a foreign documentarian.Hal RobertsonHal Robertson is a 20-year audio/videoproduction veteran and owns SoundFoundation - a consulting firm specializingin media production.Michael J. KelleyMichael J. Kelley is a freelance media productionconsultant in Kenwood, CA.Carolyn MillerCarolyn Miller is a Hollywood-basedscriptwriter and journalist who specializesin New Media projects.Tim CowanTim Cowan is a freelance writer specializingin video and computer subjects.Norm MedoffNorm Medoff is a university professor,author, and video workshop instructor.Bernard WilkieBernard Wilkie designed special effects forthe BBC for over 25 years.Don CollinsDon Collins is a freelance writer and videoproducer.Bill DavisBill Davis writes, shoots, edits, and doesvoiceover work for a variety of corporateand industrial clients.Janis LonnquistJanis Lonnquist is a writer and producerwith clients including Intel and America’sFunding Source.Bill HarringtonBill Harrington has been a professionalvideo producer for over ten years.Armand EnsanianArmand Ensanian is a professional videographer,photographer, and former columnistfor Video Review.Sofia DavisSofia Davis has been a leased access andpublic access producer for 18 years.Sheldon I. AltfeldSheldon I. Altfeld is a freelance writer specializingin leased access.Alessia CoweeAlessia Cowee is a freelance writer, editorand mother of three.Charles MohnikeCharles Mohnike is a technology writerand co-owner of a web development firm.John DavisJohn Davis is a writer and video producer.Matthew YorkMatthew York is the Publisher-Editor ofVideomaker and Smart TV magazines.D. Eric FranksD. Eric Franks is Videomaker’s TechnicalEditor.Charles FultonCharles Fulton is Videomaker’s AssociateEditor.Dr. Roger B. WyattDr. Roger B. Wyatt is a partner in McLellanWyatt Digital, a new media company, andon the board of directors of the SaratogaMedia Arts Institute.

IndexAA/B roll, 257advertising, 133, 284, 294aperture, 4, 23, 44, 278arc, 165, 169,artifact, 10, 330, 386ASCAP, 149, 217, 269audio, 189, 194, 243, 263audio mixer, 67, 257, 267audio/video mixers, 69BBMI, 149boom, 60, 68, 127, 190broadcast television, 217, 294,304budget, 124, 308burning (disc), 363, 366, 385, 391buttons (DVD), 384Ccables, 81, 192, 245, 265character generator (CG), 257, 259charge coupled device (CCD), 13,17, 24, 36chrominance, 8, 14, 40, 82, 83, 245commercials, 135, 136, 283community access (see publicaccess)compact disc, (CD), 361, 390, 395composition, 155, 167, 255compression, 51, 330, 333, 396,397copyright, 147, 268costume, 208, 210cut, 219, 253DDVD, 359, 361, 366, 373, 378,383, 386depth of field, 24, 39, 44, 278desktop video (DTV), 53, 269dialogue, 108, 111digital versatile disc, 363, 378digital video disc, 359, 361, 366,373, 378, 383, 386diffuser, 182directing, 142, 198dissolve, 238, 250, 257, 258distribution, 283, 306, 359dolly, 32, 88, 165, 217dub, 7, 284, 317Eedit controller, 214, 275edit decision list, 257electronic image stabilization, 33,35, 40, 161, 162encoding, 330, 338, 362, 366Ff-stop, 4filter, 42, 187FireWire, 16, 48, 84, 374fluorescent lights, 43Ggeneration loss, 7, 20, 82gaffer, 127, 278grip, 126, 218HHDTV, 18, 41headroom, 156Iindoor lighting, 39, 177, 187Internet video, 147, 341, 348interview, 102, 114, 137, 173, 309iris, 3, 34, 39, 182LLCD, 20, 159, 163leadroom, 156, 164, 256leased access, 288, 293lens, 17, 22, 43, 275lighting, 43, 173, 177, 181, 277lighting effects, 177, 178lip sync, 217, 266location, 97, 143, 203, 218low-power television, 289, 305,306luminance, 77, 82, 245421

422 IndexMmedium shot, 118, 206menus (DVD), 360, 366metal oxide semiconductors(MOS), 38microlens (CCD), 40microphone, 21, 57, 63, 189, 195mixer, 67, 264monitor, 80, 247, 264, 271MPEGs, 353, 361, 379, 386music, 67, 148, 216, 265, 268, 367Nneutral density (ND) filter, 44, 45,173noise, 189, 196, 198, 266noseroom, 256Ooptical image stabilization, 34outdoor lighting, 144, 181Ppan, 87, 257pedestal, 193permits, 127, 145pixels, 18, 33, 37post-production, 125, 236public access television, 290,293pre-production, 91, 143, 217promotion, 290proposal, 129, 300props, 95, 122, 125public domain, 147Rreflector, 168, 182resolution, 7, 77rule of thirds, 155, 255Sscheduling, 97, 126script, 97, 107, 111sets, 202shutter speed, 5, 38sound effects, 268soundtrack, 224, 268special effects, 222sponsor, 133storyboard, 118, 217streaming video, 327, 333Ttalent, 137, 198tape, 7, 14, 19, 71telephoto, 26, 32tilt, 87time code, 9, 14titles, 103, 259transcoding, 384treatment (script), 91, 130, 218tripod, 86, 160, 163truck, 164Vviewfinder, 20voice over, 103, 117Wweddings, 202, 254wide angle, 26, 31, 46wipes, 69, 248, 257YY/C, 8, 83Zzoom, 4, 23, 159, 165