coastal and marine natural values of the kimberley - wwf - Australia

COASTAL AND MARINE NATURALVALUES OF THE KIMBERLEYPRODUCED FOR WWF-AUSTRALIASimon Mustoe BSc (Hons) Ecology MEIANZ, MIEEM, MECANSWDr Matt Edmunds BSc (Hons) Marine Biology

© WWF-Australia. All Rights Reserved.Produced for WWF-Australia by:AES Applied Ecology Solutions Pty Ltd.39 The Crescent, Belgrave HeightsMelbourne, Victoria 3160AUSTRALIAT: + 61 (0)3 9752 6398F: +61 (0) 3 9754 6083M: 0405 220830E: simonmustoe@ecology-solutions.com.auABN: 92 099 192 417WWF-AustraliaHead Offi ceGPO Box 528Sydney, NSW, Australia 2001Tel: +612 9281 5515Fax: +612 9281 1060wwf.org.auPublished January 2008 by WWF-Australia. Any reproduction in full orin part of this publication must mention the title and credit the abovementionedpublisher as the copyright owner.The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author and donot necessarily refl ect the views of WWF.ISBN: 1 921031 24 7Cover image: Flatback Turtle Natator Depressus, © LochmanTransparenciesDesign: Three Blocks LeftWorld Wide Fund for Nature ABN: 57 001 594 074

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley1.FOREWORDThe Kimberley coast and offshore marinecommunities and environments arerecognised as some of the world’s mostecologically diverse. Not only is theKimberley of global importance for itslargely intact terrestrial and freshwaterecosystems, it is also undoubtedly oneof the world’s most intact large tropicalmarine ecosystems. WWF has recognisedthe region as having outstanding globalbiodiversity value by including theKimberley marine region in its Global 200inventory of priority places of the Planet.In the past twelve months, the spotlighthas turned towards the Kimberley coastand marine environment, not for itsbiodiversity values but because of thehydrocarbon resources buried offshore.WWF- Australia is keen to ensure thata full and accurate picture of marineand coastal natural values is includedin any planning and assessment efforts,and commissioned this report to reviewexisting ‘Western’ scientific knowledgeof the region’s ecological values.WWF-Australia recognizes thataccording to their traditional laws andcustoms, Kimberley Traditional Ownersare the traditional owners of land withinthe Kimberley region and as such have aresponsibility to speak for and protect thatland. Moreover, we recognize that theenvironment plays a very significant rolein Indigenous culture and that TraditionalOwners are the custodians of traditionalknowledge about country. The hopeis that the scientific work described inthis report can usefully complement thepicture of environmental (and cultural)values held by the Traditional Ownersof the region.We also anticipate that this work willcomplement important descriptionsof broader Kimberley socio-economicvalues that this report does not attemptto present.The aim is to bring together in a singledocument, an overview of relevantpublished biological research, togetherwith some anecdotal reports. It is notexhaustive, but is intended to providea snapshot and context for furtherdiscussions and research efforts. TheKimberley is a vast area, much of whichis inaccessible and where much of thescientific information is not publicallyavailable, therefore WWF-Australia andnot the authors, should be held responsiblefor any omissions in this report.WWF-Australia would like toacknowledge and thank all thoseinvolved in the creation of thisreport, in particular Simon Mustoe andDr Matt Edmunds for their professionalismand diligence in producing the final report.Special mention also goes to SamanthaBridgwood for compiling much of theinformation early in the project and toDr Kelly Waples for her assistance. Wealso acknowledge Kimberley BirdwatchingTours for organising trips to AshmoreReef, the dedication and wisdom of theexpeditions’ birders and ornithologists,without whom much of the informationused in preparation of this report wouldnot be available. Finally, our thanks toDr Andrew Burbidge and Dr Trevor Ward,for their support and guidance throughoutthe project.Dr Gilly Llewellyn 1Paul Gamblin 2January 20081Program Leader, Oceans, Sydney2Senior Policy Advisor, Oceans and Coasts, Perth

2. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleyINDIGENOUSPEOPLES ANDCONSERVATIONWWF-AUSTRALIA PRINCIPLESIn all our policies, programs and projects,WWF-Australia recognises that Australia’sIndigenous peoples have enduring culturalconnections, rights and responsibilitiesto biodiversity and associated culturalvalues throughout Australia, irrespectiveof the current tenure of Indigenouspeoples’ traditional lands and waters.The philosophy guiding our work andour approach with Indigenous peopleis encapsulated in the WWF documentIndigenous People and Conservation:WWF Statement of Principles.These principles, developed in 1996as a first attempt to enunciate a broadpolicy to guide our work in over 50countries, were prepared after extensiveconsultation throughout the WWFnetwork. They set a high standard forWWF’s engagement with Indigenouspeoples, based on just recognition oftheir long-standing relationship with,stewardship of and customary use of theworld’s environmental resources.In line with these principles is therecognition that Indigenous knowledgeand biodiversity are complementaryphenomena, essential to both humandevelopment and the protection ofenvironmental values. WWF recognisesthat the view from the Western scientificparadigm, whilst essential, doesnot necessarily include the equallyrelevant perspective from an Aboriginalunderstanding of Country.“The natural sciences of Aboriginalpeople draw on a wealth of ecologicalknowledge from thousands of generationsof direct experience. Knowledge ofspecies and their relationships is immenseand detailed. Aboriginal histories ofenvironmental change record uniquelylong memories of country. Aboriginal‘baselines’ describe environmentalfeatures over timescales ranging fromdecades to millennia; from the last sealevel rise or volcanic eruption, to therecent invasion of new human societieswith their suite of alien life forms.”(Horstman and Wightman 2001, p. 99 1 )Recognising that there may be morethan one knowledge system and set ofcultural values about a resource is criticalto managing that resource cooperatively.Species and environments are integralto Aboriginal cultures of the Kimberley,and may include spiritual, social andeconomic values that may differ to non-Aboriginal values.Therefore, environmental managementproposals need to accommodate thesesometimes diverse cultural values, andalso acknowledge the different rolethat biodiversity and environmentalprocesses play in maintaining bothcultural and ecological life. Consistentwith our principles, WWF supportsa complementary approach tounderstanding the coastal and marineenvironments. This approach provides abalanced view of management prioritiesthrough a range of consultative forumsbetween Indigenous and non-Indigenouspeoples. This scientific report may beseen as an early step in this approach.1.Horstman, M. & Wightman, G. (2001) Karparti ecology: recognition of Aboriginal ecological knowledgeand its application to management in north-western Australia. Ecological Management & Restoration,2 (2) 99 – 109.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley3.EXECUTIVESUMMARY1. The Kimberley environment,particularly coastal and near-coastal areasare amongst the least disturbed habitatsin Australia with relatively intact coastalprocesses and habitats (McKenzie etal., 2003; Miller & Sweatman, 2004b).The Kimberley also possesses one ofthe most diverse coastlines and range ofgeomorphologies which together createsa fine mosaic of habitats and processes.These factors contribute to exceptionalmarine species richness, reflecting theregion’s high biodiversity value in anAustralian and international context.2. Many marine species remainabundant but distribution is typicallylimited to relatively small areas at criticallife history stages or due to particularhabitat or food preferences determinedfor example by migration, foraging,dispersal or recruitment requirements(e.g. Banana Prawn Staples, 1980),Flatback Turtle (Walker & Parmenter,1990) and Red-footed Booby (Jaquemetet al., 2005). Ecological requirements arein turn coupled to predictable seasonalvariation in physical processes, suchas oceanography, cyclones and wetseason rainfall.3. The marine environment is inherentlypatchy and species rely on areas wherethey can effectively compete for prey andwhere plentiful resources are available(Bernstein et al., 1991; Dunlop et al.,1988; Worm et al., 2005). For specieslike Boobies and Frigatebirds, the sizeof habitat patches tied to particular lifehistory stages, such as breeding grounds,can be surprisingly small, in the orderof tens of kilometres (Jaquemet et al.,2005). Constraints on the availabilityof food, nest sites or roosts greatlydetermine the location where speciesoccur, each being a critical componentto overall distribution and abundance(e.g. Rogers et al., 2006b; Matthiopoulos,2003; Grémillet et al., 2004; Spear, 1988;Phillips et al., 2005). Species interactionsand inter-dependences also exist that caninfluence distributions, such as predatorprey relationships or facultative foragingrelationships (e.g. Sooty Tern, Au &Pitman, 1986; Brooke et al., 2006).4. Areas of high species richness areoften areas of high faunal biomass andreflect the value of the ecosystem ‘itsbiodiversity’ 1 (Ballance et al., 2001).Such areas are usually at importantsources of productivity (e.g. coralreefs, seagrass beds, benthic sedimentand mangroves), or are areas wheretopographic features or oceanographiccurrents concentrate nutrients or otherpotentially important resource, e.g. atthe boundary of different water masses,upwelling zones etc. In the marine realm,the majority of organisms demonstratea larval life history stage and drift intothese locations, where they remain andmature into more mobile juveniles, inturn providing plankton food to supportthe wider pelagic food chain.1Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity provides a short description of the term `biodiversity’,which refers to the diversity of living organisms, the genes they contain, and the communities to whichthey contribute. Chapter 1 of the Convention’s Global Biodiversity Outlook 1 says “in addressing theboundless complexity of biological diversity, it has become conventional to think in hierarchical terms, fromthe genetic material within individual cells, building up through individual organisms, populations, speciesand communities of species, to the biosphere overall...At the same time, in seeking to make managementintervention as effi cient as possible, it is essential to take an holistic view of biodiversity and addressthe interactions that species have with each other and their non-living environment, i.e. to work from anecological perspective.By several of its decisions, the Conference of the Parties has explicitly recognised the need for thisapproach. In particular, decision V/6 and its annex provide a description and discussion of the ecosystemapproach, which in effect becomes the paradigm within which the Convention’s activities are undertaken.”.

4. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleyEXECUTIVESUMMARY CONT.5. The largest aggregations and themost important areas for populationviability generally occur where there ishigh energy to be gained in return forsearch effort (Krebs & Davies, 1993).To maintain species richness and viablepopulations, the location and size of thesefeatures overall needs to be seasonallypredictable (Bernstein et al., 1991).6. Population viability is a function ofthe ability of animals to disperse andrecolonise between habitats of greaterand lesser quality over time. All animalsto some degree exhibit the characteristic,which is known as metapopulationdynamics. In marine species it isparticularly relevant as entire populationsof even the most abundant species movebetween just a few nesting and feedinglocations, and the abundance of food forany given colony will tend to fluctuatesubstantially year to year. Understandingthis process and the theory of source-sinkmodels, is one of the basic fundamentalsof ecology and ecological impactassessment (Hill et al., 2005; Treweek,1999; Tucker et al., 2005).7. For marine species even relativelylocalised impacts e.g. direct impacts ofdisturbance can have wider consequencesthan on a particular colony or site alone.Most marine vertebrates are consideredto be at or near carrying capacitywithin their environment. Hence, whereindividuals are forced to make ‘choices’about where to feed or nest or becomedisplaced, this is expected to result inmortality and a reduction in populationcarrying capacity (Dolman & Sutherland,1995). Not all areas of habitat will beimportant but in general, conservation ofareas that support the largest number ofindividuals and breeding adults from keycolonies, will be critical to ensuring thereis no significant impact on a species’population viability.8. The challenges for ecologicallysustainable development of theKimberley Region are considerable.The prospect of industrial developmentin the heart of the Kimberley coastlineraises concerns at a number of levels.It is highly unlikely that the impact ofdevelopment can be fully mitigated orcompensated, if it occurs in a relativelypristine environment. The effects ofmarine developments are much largerthan their terrestrial equivalents and willultimately be connected by infrastructureover a wide geographic area.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley5.1 Introduction and Context 12CONTENTS1.1 Scope of Report 121.2 Report Structure 121.3 Biodiversity Values 122 The Kimberley 142.1 Overview 142.2 Coastal Marine Habitats 152.3 Continental Shelf Marine Habitats 162.4 Continental Slope and Shoals Marine Habitats 172.5 Wildlife 182.6 Expanding Industry Needs 193 Protected Areas 203.1 Coastal Wetlands 203.2 Parks and Reserves 203.3 Indigenous Tenure 234 Marine and Coastal Fauna and Flora 244.1 Introduction 244.2 Marine Fauna and Flora 244.3 Coastal Fauna and Flora 285 Key Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Drivers 305.1 Ecosystem Processes and Biodiversity 305.2 Primary Production 305.3 Oceanography and Geomorphology 326 Marine and Coastal Communities 366.1 General North-west Shelf Communities 366.2 Sediment Bed Communities 366.3 Shelf ‘Structure’ Communities 376.4 Shelf Slope Communities 376.5 Coral Communities 386.6 Mangroves (locally, Mangal) 396.7 Seagrass and Macroalgae 406.8 Pelagic Fauna Aggregations 406.9 Estuaries and Migratory Birds 446.10 Breeding Islands 456.11 River Mouths and Creeks 457 Conclusion 458 References 469 Appendices 52

6. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleyFIGURESFigure 1: Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisations (IBRA) for Australia (Blue)and Interim Biogeographic Regionalisations for Australia (IBRA) (Orange). Onlymarine regions and those that are within the coastal / hinterland areas are shown. Note,there is some overlap between IMCRAs and IBRAs. IMCRAs include some islandsthat are within coastal IBRAs. p10Figure 2: Concept diagram of marine biodiversity: the relationship between speciesand ecosystem processes. p10Figure 3: Existing petroleum fields, pipelines and built or proposed Liquefied NaturalGas (LNG) plants in north west Australia (data from Geoscience Australia 2007) p19Figure 4: Ramsar Sites in the Northern Kimberley and Dampierland. p20Figure 5: Coastal or near-coastal wetlands from the Directory of Important Wetlandsof Australia (Australia, 2001). p21Figure 6: Parks and reserves including Commonwealth Marine Protected Areas(MPAs). p22Figure 7: Distribution of land described as Aboriginal Leasehold or AboriginalReserve and the boundary of the Northern Kimberley, Central Kimberley andDampierland bioregions. Data is from Australian Land Tenure 1993 (GeoscienceAustralia). p23Figure 8: Dwarf Sperm Whale Kogia simus, recorded over a depth of about 700mbetween Scott Reef and Ashmore Reef in October 2007 (photo, Rohan Clarke). Thisspecies is difficult to observe and often boat shy. Unlike dolphins, including ShortfinnedPilot Whales Globicephala macrorhynchus (Family: Delphinidae), Dwarf SpermWhale and to great extent, beaked whales, are likely to shy away from loud noise.It is highly likely that these species are seriously underestimated by visual observerson oil and gas exploration (seismic) operations. This is a particularly useful exampleof a species for which correlation with areas of higher than normal biodiversity, asindicated by seabird abundance, may be important for risk assessment. p28Figure 9: Simplified seasonal oceanography of northwest Australia showingmajor current systems (top) and productivity (bottom). During the southeasterlymonsoon (winter dry season), productivity is very high, fuelled by upwelling inthe Indonesian archipelago and strong currents. During the northwest monsoon (wetseason), productivity falls and currents abate though productivity remains relativelyhigh at offshore islands due to upwelling, and near the coast as a consequence ofriver plumes. p32Figure 10: Sea Surface Chlorophyll (SSC) Maximum and mean habitat zone,all months. p33Figure 11: Sea Surface Temperature (SST) (top) and Sea Surface Chlorophyll (bottom)medians for each MPA by day of year, together with the climatology (solid line) and±2 SD (dashed line). p34

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley7.Figure 12: Scott Reef atolls and islands showing the steep continental slope to theirwest and numerous deep ocean canyons. p35Figure 13: Coastal Reefs and Islands off North West Australia. Yellow and orangeareas indicate ocean between depths of -5 to -20m. Selected reef and island complexesare labelled. p35Figure 14: Distribution of trapping effort for the Northern Demersal Scalefish Fishery(Department of Fisheries, 2004). p37Figure 15: Seabird biomass in 10-minute intervals recorded in October 2004 ona cruise from Broome to Ashmore Reef via Scott Reef. The left hand map showsall intervals with a recorded biomass exceeding 350g / 10min. The right hand mapshows only intervals with a recorded biomass

8. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleyTABLESTable 1: Location and characteristics of bioregions in the Kimberley region(Commonwealth of Australia, 2006; DEW, 2007a). p13Table 2: Predominant habitat types in the coastal bioregions (Table 1 & 5) p16Table 3: Presence of general geomorphic features in the North West Shelf and OffshoreShoals bioregions (Harris et al., 2005; Commonwealth of Australia, 2006). p18Table 4: Key features of the region’s three Ramsar sites. p21Table 5: Annotated list of key marine fauna of the Northern Kimberley andDampierland. Status is given as WA (Department of Conservation and EnvironmentList January 2007; Mawson, 2007) or Cth (Commonwealth EPBC Act listing). p25Table 6: Selected threatened terrestrial fauna of the Northern Kimberley andDampierland. p29Table 7: Mangrove communities characteristic of the northern Kimberley(Saenger, 1996). p39Table 8: Average counts of waterbirds at Roebuck Bay and Eighty Mile Beach(northern end only) Ramsar sites in 2004 / 2005 (Rogers et al., 2006c). Only the20 most numerically abundant species for each site are shown. The total counts for thetwo sites are given, plus an estimate of the percentage of the East Asian-AustralasianFlyway Population, based on official Wetlands International data (WetlandsInternational, 2006). p44

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley9.APPENDICESAppendix A: Threatened ecological communities.Appendix B: Threatened Kimberley Fauna (adapted Department of Conservation andEnvironment List January 2007; Mawson, 2007).Appendix C: Priority Kimberley Fauna (adapted Department of Conservation andEnvironment List January 2007; Mawson, 2007).Appendix D: Threatened species on the EPBC Act (from the Protected Matters SearchTool, Department of Sustainability and Water Resources website). Note, this databaseprovides only an approximation of what species are likely to occur. Some of thespecies on this list may not be found within the coastal Kimberley. Other species maybe missing.

10. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleyFigure 1: Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisations (IBRA) for Australia (Blue)and Interim Biogeographic Regionalisations for Australia (IBRA) (Orange). Onlymarine regions and those that are within the coastal / hinterland areas are shown.Note, there is some overlap between IMCRAs and IBRAs. IMCRAs include someislands that are within coastal IBRAs.147 9191525 6171413188171011123Figure 2: Concept diagram of marine biodiversity: the relationship between speciesand ecosystem processes.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley11.Figure 2:1. The boundaries between rotating eddies ofwarm and cooler water provide foraging habitat foroceanic species, such as Tahiti Petrels and migrantsfrom Japan such as Matsudaira’s Storm Petrel.They also provide habitat for hatchlings of severalturtle species, and adult turtles of species such asLeatherback Turtle.4. Seabirds such as Brown Booby are relativelyenergy-constrained and seek out species such asSooty Tern, to capitalise on the Tern’s ability to fi ndfood more effi ciently.7. Tern species like Sooty Tern and Common Noddymay forage widely and travel between the coast andoffshore but they are only likely to feed in abundanceat key locations. Despite their apparent abundance,the true extent of their range is restricted.2. Dolphins and tuna seek out areas of higherproductivity and drive small fi sh to the surface,where they are available to Sooty Terns and otherwide-ranging foragers. These conditions are morefavourable during El Niño, when the thermocline(layer of warm surface water) is thinner.5. Upwelling at steep features of the continentalslope provides a concentration of food for seabirdsand turtles. Flying fi sh are an indication of planktonactivity. Marine megafauna like Dwarf Sperm Whalesand Spinner Dolphins concentrate here. Thepresence of these pelagic communities determinesthe value of adjacent island breeding habitat.8. Tidal mixing and upwelling behind reef banks onthe continental shelf is a major source of surfaceproductivity. It is the most important physical processon the continental shelf. This provides some of therichest seabird and turtle habitat. Flatback turtlehatchlings swept here on currents, depend on theseareas. It is also where prawns such as banana prawnspawn, which are in turn food for sharks, turtles,seabirds and sea snakes like Stoke’s sea snake.3. Deep water at or below the thermocline isforaging habitat for specialists like Sperm Whalesthat predate squid. The foraging range of suchspecies is very large.6. Atolls and islands are biogenic structures,created by the action of coral-forming animalsover thousands of years. These islands provideessential breeding habitat for species like RedfootedBooby and Lesser Frigatebird. These areshort-range foragers that specialise in predatingfl ying fi sh on the wing and depend on locally richhabitat, often at spatial scales of just 10s of kms.9. Coastal islands are important refuges forterrestrial species that are in decline on themainland due to human pressures and predation.They are also critical breeding sites for turtlessuch as Flatback Turtle and Green Turtle, as wellas colonial seabirds such as Roseate Tern andLittle Tern.10. Seagrass is a direct food source for Dugongbut also refuge for juvenile fi sh and feeding habitat forterns. It provides a physical structure for breeding andrefuge from predators. It is also one of the importantsources of primary productivity. Loss of seagrass canaffect nutrient cycling processes at other locations,well away from the source effect. The thin layer ofbenthic algae (microphytobenthos) in intertidal andsubtidal areas is likely to be the most importantprimary producer, essential as food for sedimentinfauna and to stabilise sediment for colonisation.11. Estuary mouths provide a locally importantsource of productivity supporting megafauna suchas Australian Snubfi n Dolphin and FreshwaterSawfi sh. Little Terns feed here, which are uniquelysummer breeders, likely to depend on wet seasonrains for a fl ush of nutrients, promoting seagrassgrowth and fi sh breeding.12. Intertidal mudfl ats are critical for internationallysignifi cant numbers of migrant shorebirds. Theavailability of roost sites and rich feeding areas isat a premium in the region. Roebuck Bay is vastlyimportant at an international scale but so too arethe many inlets and estuaries of King Sound.13. The grey arrows indicate the pattern of dispersaland recruitment of prawns, such as Banana Prawnand Tiger Prawn. These species are essential to thefood chain and depend at different stages of their lifecycle on mangroves and offshore areas.14. Many species of fi sh that have juvenile stagesin shallow water, migrate into deeper waters in theiradult stage. Red emperor juveniles are common innearshore turbid waters but subadults and adultsare distributed across the continental shelf to 180 mdepth. Scarlet perch juveniles are solitary in nearshorewaters, often in seagrass. Adults are dispersedacross the continental shelf to 140 m depth.15. The forested catchments and banks of riversand creeks that enter the coast, particularly in theNorthern Kimberley, are essential in controllingsediment levels, and maintaining water quality inthe coastal environment.16. Beaked whales like Cuvier’s beaked whalefeed on benthos at depths of up to 2,000m,usually around steep and varied bathymetric featuressuch as seamounts and deep ocean canyons.Species are likely to occur in localised areas, wherethere is an abundance of food. Such areas alsosupport a high fi sh biomass, often of importantcommercial value.17. Coral reefs are associated with submergedbanks and islands, both nearshore and well offshore.Coral reefs harbour exceptionally high biomassand species richness through substantial primaryproduction and structural diversity.18. Sponge gardens are most abundant in deepcontinental shelf water and grade into muddysubstrata near and on the slope. These areasare particularly rich in infauna, which may be aprimary source of production for upwelling (8).This habitat is patchily distributed throughout theregion but much is likely to have been lost due tobottom trawling in the recent past.19. Mangroves are structurally important as breedinghabitat for a wide range of species from almostall taxonomic groups. Their principle role in theecosystem however, is to stabilise and capturesediment, thus controlling its release into the coastalecosystem; and providing a buffer against coastalerosion, particularly during cyclones.

12. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley1.INTRODUCTIONAND CONTEXT2Conference of Parties 5, Decision V/6, Nairobi,15 - 26 May 2000, sA3: Ecosystem means adynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganismcommunities and their non-livingenvironment interacting as a functional unit. Thisdefi nition does not specify any particular spatial unitor scale, in contrast to the Convention defi nitionof “habitat”. Thus, the term “ecosystem” does not,necessarily, correspond to the terms “biome” or“ecological zone”, but can refer to any functioningunit at any scale. Indeed, the scale of analysis andaction should be determined by the problem beingaddressed. It could, for example, be a grain of soil,a pond, a forest, a biome or the entire biosphere.3Convention on Biological Diversity. GlobalOutLook 1. November 2001.1.1 SCOPE OF REPORTThis report aims to review the coastaland marine biodiversity of the westand north-west Kimberley, includingoffshore marine areas, from south ofBroome to Cape Londonderry. Thestudy area comprises two terrestrialbioregions (DEW, 2007a) and sevenmarine bioregions (Commonwealth ofAustralia, 2006) (Table 1). Five of thesemarine bioregions are coastal and two areoffshore (Figure 1). The whole region isbroadly referred to in this report as“the Kimberley”.The goal of this report is to provide anintroduction to natural ecological valuesof the Kimberley and is intended toinform discussions about strategies forthe sustainable development of northernAustralia. In particular this report istargeted at discussions around currentand future infrastructure applications toservice the developement of the BrowseBasin gas reserves (Figure 3).1.2 REPORT STRUCTURESections 2 and 3 provide an overview ofthe Kimberley marine and coastal naturalenvironments, including their importancein a regional, national and internationalcontext, and highlights areas that aredesignated under international or nationalprotected area mechanisms. In section 4species that best characterise the marineand coastal environment are introduced,including those that are consideredthreatened. The purpose of this reporthowever, is not to provide an exhaustiveand comprehensive overview of everyspecies or repeat the detail coveredin other key policy documents andbiodiversity inventories. For more detail,readers are referred to Graham, 2002aand Mawson, 2007 and to the Departmentof Conservation and Land Management’sThreatened Ecological Community(TEC) Database and the Commonwealthgovernment’s Protected MattersSearch Tool.A brief overview of key ecosystemdrivers in section 5 introduces thestructure of the environment in whichthese species (including some commonspecies) occur and describes howseasonal and spatial patterns create avery patchy and predictable ecology,with areas of relatively high and lowbiodiversity value. In order to ensureeffective planning and management itis considered critically important thatpatterns of marine ecosystem processesare understood at a regional scale andthat the drivers of marine ecosystemprocesses are understood at a communitylevel. Section 6 describes how particularspecies react to physical pressures andhow species have evolved specific rolesin the environment at different spatialscales, including emphasising thecritical associations and interactionsthat exists between many species andtheir environment.1.3 BIODIVERSITY VALUESBiodiversity means the diversity of lifeon earth. Over the years, the Conventionon Biological Diversity has reshaped itsapproach and definition of biodiversity. Ithas this to say about the way biodiversityshould be addressed:“in addressing the boundless complexityof biological diversity, it has becomeconventional to think in hierarchicalterms, from the genetic material withinindividual cells, building up throughindividual organisms, populations,species and communities of species, tothe biosphere overall... . At the sametime, in seeking to make managementintervention as efficient as possible, itis essential to take an holistic view ofbiodiversity and address the interactionsthat species have with each other andtheir non-living environment, i.e. towork from an ecological perspective. Byseveral of its decisions the Conferenceof the Parties has explicitly recognisedthe need for this approach. In particular,decision V/6 and its annex providea description and discussion of theecosystem 2 approach, which in effectbecomes the paradigm within which theConvention’s activities are undertaken”. 3When one refers to biodiversity, anoperational definition is needed;something relatively simple butecologically sound, that that can beunderstood and used in a practical sense.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley13.Bioregion Location Major FeaturesTERRESTRIALDampierland (DL)Northern Kimberley(NK)Coastally from just east of PortHedland in the west, to the StewartRiver just northeast of Derby, includingthe whole Dampier Peninsula. Inlandto just east of Fitzroy crossing andnorth of the Great Sandy Desert.Coastally from the Stewart River justnortheast of Derby, to Wyndham upto about 200km inland.(1) Quaternary sandplain overlying Jurassic and Mesozoic sandstones with Pindan.Hummock grasslands on hills.(2) Quaternary marine deposits on coastal plains, with Mangal, samphire - Sporobolusgrasslands, Melaleuca acacioides low forests, and Spinifex - Crotalaria strand communities.(3) Quaternary alluvial plains associated with the Permian and Mesozoic sediments ofFitzroy Trough support tree savannas of Crysopogon - Dichanthium grasses with scatteredEucalyptus microtheca - Lysiphyllum cunninghamii. Riparian forests of River Gum andCadjeput fringe drainages.(4) Devonian reef limestones in the north and east support sparse tree steppe over Triodiaintermedia and T. wiseana hummock grasses and vine thicket elements. Dry hot tropical,semi-arid summer rainfall.Dissected plateau of Kimberley Basin. Savanna woodland of Woolybutt and Darwin Stringybark over high Sorghum grasses and Plectrachne schinzii hummock grasses on shallowsandy soils on outcropping Proterozoic siliceous sandstone strata. Savanna woodlands onEucalyptus tectifi ca - E. grandifl ora alliance over high Sorghum grasses on red and yellowearths mantling basic Proterozoic volcanics. Riparian closed forests of paperbark trees andPandanus occur along drainage lines. Extensive Mangal occurs in estuaries and shelteredembayments. Numerous small patches of monsoon rainforest are scattered through thedistrict. Dry hot tropical, sub-humid, summer rainfall.COASTALEighty Mile Beach (EMB)NW ProvinceCanning (CAN)NW ProvinceKing Sound (KSD)NW BiotoneKimberley (KIM)NW BiotoneOFFSHORENorth West Shelf (NWS)NW ProvinceOceanic Shoals (OSS)NW BiotoneCape Keraurdren to Cape Missiessy.Cape Missiessy to west of CapeLeveque including Lacapede Islandsand Roebuck Bay.King Sound, south of Point Osbourneand Shenton Bluff.Cape Londonderry to west of CapeLeveque, including BuccaneerArchipelago.North West Shelf off Pilbara coast andouter shelf off Kimberley coast.Area of submerged and emergentreefs and cays along the outer edgeof the continental shelf, from Lyndochand Troubadour Shoals in the ArafuraSea to the Rowley Shoals. Limits are10.5-18º S and 119-131º EAlmost continuous curving beach of siliceous sand, on average 100 m wide. Importantmigratory shorebird habitat and Ramsar wetland.Nothern part of Canning Basin shore. Southern part comprises Eighty Mile Beach.Alternating embayments and headlands with very large tidal range. Little or no fl uvial run-off.Wide, open gulf encompasses the seasonal Fitzroy Estuary and Stokes Bay.Remote and little-studies section of coast. Characterised by rocky shore, mud fl at,mangrove and land-locked marine and estuarine habitats. A broad area of inner shelf isincluded seaward of the many nearshore islands. Rainfall is high in the north but decreasessouth of Walcott Inlet.Diverse benthic invertebrate communities and fi sh fauna.Oceanic reefs and cays, as well as banks and reef systems closer inshore, including SahulShelf (complex of channels, terraces and fl at-toped banks). Active shelf-edge platform reefsystems, submerged and drowned coral reefs. Seringapatam, Scott Reef and RowleyShoals. Browse, Adele and Lynher reefs and islands.Table 1: Location and characteristics of bioregions in the Kimberley region (Commonwealth of Australia, 2006; DEW, 2007a).Hence, this report is about ‘values’, the definition of which includes “ the composition, structure and function of ecosystems”(Redford & Richter, 1999). It is also necessary to refer to more than just biomass or species richness, though these can be aprinciple surrogates. Although components of the ecosystem may well be important (e.g. threatened species and communities),an understanding of how these components fit together in the environment is essential to understanding and therefore managingbiodiversity outcomes. For example, although one may compare the relative importance of habitats such as seagrass beds and coralreefs, some species are dependent on both habitats at different periods of their life history. The function of the two habitats (therebytheir importance) will vary, depending on location and spatial scale. Any local or site assessment of biodiversity value would dependheavily on first identifying the role of habitats, then deciding whether they are particularly important for a notable componentof the ecosystem. This report avoids this type of comparison, taking a necessarily broad and regional-scale view of biodiversitycomposition, structure and function.

14. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley2.THE KIMBERLEY2.1 OVERVIEWThe Kimberley is characterised byextremely low human populationdensity and lack of infrastructure.Dampierland and the Northern Kimberleyare particularly remote with an almostcomplete absence of roads reaching thecoast. Islands are the predominant coastalformation with thousands distributedbetween Broome and Cape Londonderry.There are over 200 islands in theBonaparte and Buccaneer Archipelagosalone. Islands are particularly importantas a microcosm of the Mitchell Plateauenvironment and a refuge for intactecosystems and species otherwisethreatened on the mainland (Burbidge etal., 1991; How et al., 2006). They are alsoimportant breeding grounds for marineturtles and seabirds.The coastal component consists of manyestuaries, inlets and embayments withmangrove, tidal sediment flats, channels,seagrass beds, islands, shoals, rocky reef,coral reef and muddy seabed habitats.The shelf extends approximately 370km offshore (depths of 20-200 m) andhas a high diversity of habitats andgeomorphic features. These includegravel and sandy plains, some withsponge and coral gardens, which gradeinto muddy substrata near and on theslope. Interspersed through the area arelimestone pavements and outcrops, coralreefs and shoals.The continental shelf is linked biologicallyto coastal areas through animal migrations.For example, many species of prawnsand demersal fish have a juvenile phasein coastal and estuarine habitats withsubsequent migration to inner and outershelf habitats. The components are alsolinked physically, with key large scaleprocesses including strong tidal currents,particularly in the coastal and inner shelfregion and cyclones which aid in mixingnutrients and transporting sedimentsacross the shelf.The continental slope and deep waterhabitats are also important, thoughtheir role in ecosystem dynamics is lesswell understood. Nevertheless, there islikely to be a link between upwelling ofnutrients onto the continental shelf andrich soft sediment seabed communitiesthere. The continental slope habitats alsoprovide for a range of relatively uniquedeep water specialists, including fish andmarine mammals such as beaked whales.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley15.2.2 COASTAL MARINEHABITATSThe Kimberly coast is dissected into amosaic of different habitat types, largelydriven by local environmental conditions.Mangroves generally fringe the head ofbays and inlets that are sheltered fromwaves. Mangroves also extend inlandalong the edges of estuary tidal channels.Salt flats and marshes are present insome areas on the landward side ofthe mangrove fringe, particularly areasthat flood during the monsoon season.Seaward of the mangroves, there areoften mud flats, sand flats or sandybanks, depending on the current, waveexposure and sediment regime. Theshores exposed to wave action generallyhave sandy beaches, rocky reef orlimestone platforms.The high tidal range in the Kimberlycauses very strong currents, whichtransport sediments in the coastalregion, forming subtidal habitats suchas channels, harder sand banks andsoft muddy deposits further offshore(to approximately 20 m depth). Thecurrents also scour sediments from reefstructures and supply food to associatedfilter-feeding invertebrates. Seagrassgenerally occurs on sandy banks withits distribution greatly influenced bysubstratum stability and light climate(a function of sedimentation, turbidityand depth).Reefs and coral communities are scatteredthroughout the region, generally on theseaward, exposed coasts of the mainlandand fringing the islands. There are coralreefs present in between the islands. Thedistribution of coral habitat is not wellknown, but there may also be bands ofsubtidal coral communities along thecoast, as mapped for the Pilbara coast(although that region has a much reducedfluvial sediment input; Magvelashviliet al., 2006). Macroalgae communitiesoccur on hard substrata such as limestonereefs and platforms and, like seagrass,tends to occur in areas with a higher lightregime and reduced sedimentation.The coastal waters and associatedhabitats, typified by the high sedimentloadings, transport and mixing from tidalcurrents, generally extend onto the shelfto depths of 15-20 m. The high turbidityof the coastal waters is persistent, butthe suspended sediment concentrationvaries by an order of magnitude betweenspring and neap tides (Magvelashviliet al., 2006).

16. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley© WWF-Canon , Cat HOLLOWAYHumpback whale MegapteraNovaeangliaieHabitatEighty MileBeach (EMB)NW ProvinceTable 2: Predominant habitat types in the coastal bioregions (Table 1 & Figure 1)of the Kimberley.2.3 CONTINENTAL SHELFMARINE HABITATSThe continental shelf in the Kimberleyregion is a complex of many differentgeomorphic features. Large scaleshelf features of the North West Shelfbioregion include (from south to north):• Rowley Shelf, offshore from EightyMile Beach;• Rowley Depression (valley) – offshorefrom Roebuck Bay;• Leveque Rise (bank) – separating theRowley and Sahul Shelfs;• Sahul Shelf (shelf and valleys)- fromKing Sound north into the Timor Sea;• Browse Depression (valley) – offshorefrom the Kimberly bioregion;Canning(CAN)NW ProvinceKing Sound(KSD)NW BiotoneKimberley(KIM)NW BiotoneBeach-Dune Saltmarsh Mangroves Mudflats Embayment Channels Subtidal sands Seagrass beds ? ? Subtidal mud ? ? Nearshore reef ? Islands Offshore reef Coral reefcommunitiesMacroalgalcommunities? ? • Holothuria Banks, Penguin Shoal andWest Londonderry Rise (banks) –offshore from Cape Londonderry; and• Sahul Banks and Sahul Rise (banks) –outer margin of Sahul Shelf and northof Cape Londonderry.Rowley Shelf is a relatively smoothand gentle sediment covered slope.It has reefs, depressions and sandwaves ranging in height from 5-10 min various locales.The Sahul Shelf has complex bathymetry,largely through faulting and folding andreef growth during the Miocene period.The shelf consists of a large bowl withextensive banks on the outer shelf (Sahul

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley17.Banks) and a broad central depressionon the inner to middle shelf regions(Browse Depression). On the inner andmiddle shelf is the Bonapart Depressionwhich forms an epicontinental sea.Smaller scale structures on the SahulShelf include valley sides, stepped levelterraces, steep scarps, pinnacles andbanks (Harris et al., 2005).Localised patches of the shelves havebiogenic accretion with sheets andmounds of corals and calcareous algae.Erosion and dispersion of these accretionshas produced deposits of bioclastic sandand gravel beds. These beds includesediment aprons around outcrops,winnowed sediment veneers on limestonepavements and sediment blankets.The coastal high turbidity zone andinput of fluvial sediments occurs toapproximately 20 m deep. The sedimentsacross the shelf have a marked zonationwith gravel and sand dominating theinner shelf and finer sands, silts and claysdominating the less energetic outer shelf(Magvelashvili et al., 2006). Sediments inthe mid-shelf areas are winnowed of veryfine sand, silts and clays and exported tothe continental slope.The sediment bed habitats aremodified by gardens of sessileinvertebrates (sponges, soft corals andgorgonians). These generally occur inpatches across the shelf on rippled sandbeds, between 50-100 m depth, butextend to 150 m depth.Brown Boobies Sula lecuogaster, Common Noddies Anous stolidus, Crested TernsSterna bergii and Lesser Frigatebirds Fregata ariel at Ashmore Reef NationalNature Reserve.2.4 CONTINENTAL SLOPE ANDSHOALS MARINE HABITATSLarge scale features of the OffshoreShoals bioregion (from south to north)include:• Rowley Shoals (reef);• Rowley Terrace (terrace);• Scott Reef and Seringapatam Reef(reefs);• Ashmore Reef, Hibernia Reef andFantome Shoal (reefs); and• Cartier Trough (canyon).The Rowley Terrace is a dissectedseries of terraces on the upper to middlecontinental slope, offshore from theRowley Shelf and Sahul Shelf. Theterrace is in 2000 to 4000 m depth, risingto approximately 400 m depth. Largereefal accumulations have grown on theterrace, including Ashore, Seringapatanand Scott Reefs. The flanks of theseatolls are steep and almost vertical within200-300 m of the surface. Further to thesouth, the Rowley Shoals, which includeMemaid, Clerke and Imperieuse Reefs,rise from approximately 350 m depth(Harris et al., 2005).Biohermal limestone outcrops aremounds created by the highly productivecalcareous algae Halimeda spp. Thesemounds or banks are typically formedover long periods of time in depths of20-50 m and are present at the edgeof the Sahul Shelf. The formation andproductivity of these banks is relianton considerable nutrient input and aregenerally only present where there isupwellings of nutrient rich deeperoceanic waters.The continental slope, including ScottTerrace and much of Rowley Terraceis only partially encompassed by theOffshore Shoals Bioregion. This regionhas smooth, sediment covered slopes andterraces, but also includes escarpmentsand steep sided canyons (Harris et al.,2005). The sediments are generallymuds with high carbonate content. Thesediment type has a strong relationship tothe benthic activity, bedform morphologyand sediment rippling, correlatingwith different species abundances(McLoughlin et al. 1988).

18. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleyShelfSlopePinnacleReefTerracePlateauValleyCanyonHabitatBank, sandbankDeep, escarpmentCoral ReefSponge gardenNorth West Shelf(NWS)NW Province2.5 WILDLIFEThe Canning region of the Kimberley,which includes Broome, is renowned forRoebuck Bay and the Roebuck Plains.Together, these represent one of themost significant waterbird sites in theworld. Similarly, migratory shorebirdscongregate at other estuaries and islands,including remote offshore territoriessuch as Ashmore Reef and CartierIsland. Ashmore Reef is recognisedas internationally significant for itsdiversity of sea snakes, which includesone endemic species, Aipysurus fuscus(Commonwealth of Australia, 2002).Islands closer inshore are home for therare Australian endemic Flatback TurtleNatator depressus.Seabirds are also a significant componentof the marine ecosystem, which isshared between Western Australia andthe Commonwealth. Migratory seabirdssuch as Matsudaira’s Storm PetrelOceanodroma matsudairae from Japanand Jouanin’s Petrel Bulweria fallaxOceanic Shoals)(OSS)NW BiotoneTable 3: Presence of general geomorphic features in the North West Shelf andOffshore Shoals bioregions (Harris et al., 2005; Commonwealth of Australia, 2006).from the Red Sea regularly forage atthe continental slope. The deep oceancanyons that fringe Scott Reef are likelyto be an important driver for pelagicecosystem processes, supporting primaryproductivity throughout the year. Cuvier’sbeaked whales Ziphius cavirostris,Dwarf Sperm Whales Kogia simusand Rough-toothed Dolphins Stenobredanensis observed here are indicatorsof this richness, along with a hightropical diversity of marine mammalsincluding Blue Whales Balaenopteramusculus, Melon-headed WhalesPeponocephala electra and SpinnerDolphins Stenella longirostris.Between the continental abyss and theNorthern Kimberley coast a series ofraised banks support islands and reefs.Their physical structure helps concentrateupwelling and nutrients gathered fromsediment washed into the region overyears of monsoon rain. These hotspotsof summer upwelling are crucial forbiodiversity, when tropical warm currentsfrom the Pacific sterilises winter algalblooms. The variable nature of thecoastline creates a mosaic of habitatsat various scales, to suit a diversity ofspecies with different needs. Seagrassbeds are amongst the most importantdrivers for primary production. They arefood for iconic mammals such as DugongDugong dugon and breeding / recruitmentareas for a wide variety of fish species.Cuvier’s beaked whales Ziphius cavirostris are a rarely seen species but amongstthe more widespread of the family. They appear to be bottom feeders, predatingfish, squid and crustaceans in the soft sediment of deep ocean canyons to depthsof 2,000m. They are likely to be an important visible indicator of areas of highbiodiversity value on the deep sea bed.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley19.2.6 EXPANDING INDUSTRY NEEDSIn the last decade, minerals and petroleum contributions to the Western Australia haverisen by 10% per year to contribute $48.4 billion in 2006 and 30% of Gross StateProduct. (Department of Industry and Resources, 2007). Petroleum is the largest ofthese resource sectors and supports 50% of Australia’s market (Department of Industryand Resources, 2007). World demand has renewed incentive for upstream seismicexploration off the north west coast of Australia where natural gas resources areabundant (I.M. Longley et al., 2003). According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics,offshore petroleum exploration increased in the June quarter of 2007 by a massive$246.5 million (70.4%), of which Western Australia contributed $205.9 million(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007).Figure 3: Existing petroleum fields, pipelines and built or proposed Liquefied NaturalGas (LNG) plants in north west Australia (data from Geoscience Australia 2007).

20. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley3.PROTECTEDAREAS3.1 COASTAL WETLANDS3.1.1 Ramsar WetlandsThere are three Ramsar wetlands in the Kimberley coastal region: Ashmore Reef,Roebuck Bay and Eighty Mile Beach (Figure 4).Figure 4: Ramsar Sites in the Northern Kimberley and DampierlandEighty Mile Beach and Roebuck Bay are distinct in that they provide habitat quitedifferent from the estuaries further north. With the exception of King Sound, RoebuckBay is the only extensive area of tidal mudflat in the region.The Ramsar Information Sheets provide a limited description of the ecologicalcharacter of these sites (Table 4). With the possible exception of Ashmore Reef, thesites are of particular note for their migratory waterbirds and support internationallysignificant numbers (section 6.9).

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley21.SiteAshmore Reef Ramsardesignation: 2002Area: 58,300 haEighty-mile BeachRamsar designation : 1990Area: 125,000 haRoebuck BayRamsar designation: 1990Area: 55,000 haKey Features (from Ramsar Information Sheet)• Habitat for >40 species listed on JAMBA/CAMBA/ROKAMBA• ~10,000 nesting Green Turtles + 11,000 feeding, including someLoggerhead and Hawksbill Turtles.• Small population of Dugong.• Three species of endemic sea snake.• >50,000 pairs of breeding seabird (notable for Sooty Tern, CrestedTern, Common Noddy).• Regularly supports >1% East Asian-Australasian fl yway population ofRuddy Turnstone, Grey-tailed Tattler).• Most important area for waders in northwest Australia.• Critical landfall for southward-migrating birds.• Numerous species regularly exceed 1% of the East Asian-Australasian fl yway population.• RIS says it regularly supports >100,000 birds – this may be anunderestimate. Recent coordinated counts in excess of 350,000shorebirds.• Fourth most important shorebird site in Australia• Numerous species regularly exceed 1% of the East Asian-Australasian fl yway population.• Under consideration for marine reserve status (CALM, WA)Table 4: Key features of the region’s three Ramsar sites.3.1.2 Nationally Important WetlandsIn addition to Ramsar sites, the Directory of Important Wetlands of Australia(Australia, 2001) lists 13 sites in the Dampierland and Northern Kimberley bioregions.Nine of these are at coastal or near-coastal locations.Figure 5: Coastal or near-coastal wetlands from the Directory of ImportantWetlands of Australia (Australia, 2001).

22. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley3.2 PARKS AND RESERVESThere are several coastal national parks or nature reserves including the Prince RegentNature Reserve and the Drysdale River National Park (Figure 6). There are no marinereserves in the region, although Roebuck Bay has been considered. There are threemarine protected areas; Ashmore Reef, Cartier Island and Mermaid Reef. All aresituated at or near the continental slope.Figure 6: Parks and reserves including Commonwealth Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley23.3.3 INDIGENOUS TENUREA significant proportion of the coastal environment is under aboriginal land tenure.Although this is not a specific focus of this report, the distribution of land identified asAboriginal Reserve, Leasehold or Freehold is shown in Figure 7, from Australian LandTenure data (Geoscience Australia, 1993).Figure 7: Distribution of land described as Aboriginal Leasehold or Aboriginal Reserveand the boundary of the Northern Kimberley, Central Kimberley and Dampierlandbioregions. Data is from Australian Land Tenure 1993 (Geoscience Australia).© Lochman TransparenciesMagnificent Tree Frog Litoria Splendida

24. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley4.MARINE ANDCOASTAL FAUNAAND FLORA4.1 INTRODUCTIONThe environment of the NorthernKimberley and Dampierland is veryspecies diverse but managementrequires more than just knowledge ofindividual species. Understanding theprocesses and interrelationship betweenspecies at the community level is moreappropriate to identifying areas ofhigh and low biodiversity value. Sincebiodiversity conservation is one of theprinciples of ecologically sustainabledevelopment recognised by Australia,this is vitally important (Commonwealthof Australia, 1992).An ecosystem-oriented approach tomanagement recognises that there ismovement of many animals at differentstages of their life history acrossboundaries, such as the State waters.Much of this movement is seasonallypredictable, which is essential to theviability of populations (Bernstein etal., 1991). Further, not only rare andthreatened species are relevant. This reportselects key threatened species plus othersthat characterise the coastal and marineecosystem. Data or research on the ecology,distribution and abundance of commonspecies is more likely to be available andmore readily interpreted. Common speciesalso make up much of the biomass, aremore directly associated with ecosystemprocesses and easier to observe. There willalways be some gaps / uncertainty in thedata for any specific animal (particularlyrare species), so such a holistic approach isdesirable (Treweek, 1999).Details about the variety and status ofterrestrial biodiversity, including thecoastal ecosystem, in Dampierland andthe Northern Kimberley can be found inthe region’s biodiversity audit (Graham,2002a; McKenzie et al., 2003). Thecontent of these reports are not repeatedhere. Neither is it the purpose of thisreport to describe every threatenedspecies and community, though thesewould need to be investigated, forexample, as part of any environmentalimpact assessment in the region. Forinformation, a list of declared ThreatenedEcological Communities under theWildlife Conservation Act 1950 (WA)are given in Appendix A and threatenedfauna (61 species) and priority fauna(41 species) in Appendix B and AppendixC respectively. Appendix D is a listof fauna and flora listed as threatenedunder the Commonwealth EnvironmentProtection and Biodiversity ConservationAct 1999 (Cth) (EPBC Act).4.2 MARINE FAUNA AND FLORAThe following annotated list providesinformation about marine species thatare referred to in subsequent sections ofthis report. This is a select list of speciesthat are most likely to help characterisemarine processes and communities andare also members of groups referred to as‘listed marine species’ under s248 of theEPBC Act. This includes all sea-snakes,seals, crocodiles, dugong, marine turtles,seahorses, sea-dragons and pipefish.Listed marine species are protected frombeing taken, killed or injured.Such species are also considered keycomponents of the Commonwealthmarine area and as components ofthis matter of national environmentalsignificance, can be used to monitorchange in the ecosystem. All marinespecies may be potentially importantto consider in environmental impactassessment or used as biodiversityindicators. The species shown here arechosen to illustrate the Kimberley regionas a whole. At smaller scales, a subset ofthese species or even additional species,may be important or notable.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley25.Group Location Status Species DescriptionMarine Mammals Nearshore Dugong Dugong Dugon Potentially resident populations at Beagle Bay, Roebuck Bay,Montgomery Islands and One Arm Point (Marsh et al., 2001).Likely to be found in any areas with reasonably large areas ofseagrass. Small population on Ashmore Reef. Suggestions thatthese may be genetically distinct (Whiting, 1999) have since beendiscredited (Hobbs et al., 2007).Vulnerable (Cth)Priority 4 (WA)Humpback WhaleMegaptera novaeangliaeAustralian Snubfi n DolphinOrcaella heinsohniContinental Shelf Priority 4 (WA) Indo-pacifi c HumpbackDolphin Sousa chinensisBryde’s WhaleBalaenoptera brydeiMinke Whale sp.Balaenoptera acutorostrata/ bonaerensisOceanic Priority 4 (WA) Spinner DolphinStenella longirostrisRough-toothed DolphinSteno bredanensisDwarf Sperm WhaleKogia simusBeaked Whales FamilyZiphiidae (e.g. Cuvier’sbeaked whale Ziphiuscavirostris)Table 5: Annotated list of key marine fauna of the Northern Kimberley andDampierland. Status is given as WA (Department of Conservation and EnvironmentList January 2007; Mawson, 2007) or Cth (Commonwealth EPBC Act listing).Kimberley region, especially Camden Sound, used as a calvingarea. Twice-annual migration corridor around Cape Leveque andto west of Lacapede Islands, then ~20Nm offshore further south(Jenner et al., 2001).Potential distribution along length of coastline. Known fromRoebuck Bay, Brunswick Bay, the Troughton Passage and CapeLondonderry. Estuarine species, heavily dependent on specifi cnearshore ecology.Found between estuarine and continental shelf waters, usuallywhere there is a high degree of turbidity. Likely to be localised intidal mixing zones offshore and along strong fronts at the boundaryof rivers and sea (Kimberley Orcaella Conservation Project, DeakinUniversity, In litt).Least migratory of the baleen whales and a tropical waterspecialist. Mostly feeds on shoaling fi sh e.g. anchovy (Bannisteret al., 1996). Likely to occur at areas of relatively high productivityover the continental shelf.Winter migrant from the southern ocean. Both Antarctic andDwarf species are possible, but the latter is more likely. Generallyan oceanic species (Bannister et al., 1996) and sightings at thecontinental slope in October 2004 support this (Simon Mustoe,personal observations).Primarily occurs over the continental slope and deep oceanicwater near islands (Bannister et al., 1996). Occasionally closerinshore. The ‘dwarf’ form that occurs off Australia. One of the morecommonly observed dolphins in NW Australian waters.Primarily oceanic species regularly recorded in the vicinity of ScottReef. Often associates with other tropical cetaceans, particularlyFraser’s Dolphins and Melon-headed Whales. Strandingsrecorded on Barrow Island, WA (Bannister et al., 1996).Locally dependent on strong ocean currents and upwelling andoccurring on or near the continental shelf (Caldwell & Caldwell,1989) – see Figure 8. An unusual and rarely seen species, owingto its small size and enigmatic behaviour. Very boat shy andoverlooked in anything but ideal sea state conditions. May belocally common.Deep ocean specialists, probably resident over deep oceancanyons and other steep features. Most likely species areLongman’s Beaked Whale, Cuvier’s Beaked Whale and Blainville’sBeaked Whale, the latter two being locally common. Cuvier’s Mostlikely a benthic feeder (Waring et al., 2001) to depths of up to2,000m (more usually about 1,000m).

26. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleyGroup Location Status Species DescriptionSeabirds Nearshore Little TernSterna albifronsContinental ShelfOceanic Islandsbedouti subsp.(EasternIndian Ocean)Vulnerable (WA)Roseate TernSterna dougalliiLesser-crested TernSterna bengalensisCrested TernSterna bergiiBrown BoobySula leucogasterBridled TernSterna anaethetusSooty TernSterna fuscataRed-footed BoobySula sulaMasked BoobySula dactylatraLesser FrigatebirdFregata arielMost suitable near shore islands, with undisturbed shelteredbeaches, are likely to have this species breeding. Begins to breedin the autumn (Sept/Oct) so possibly dependent on estuarineprocesses in the wet-season. Usually forage close to colony inshallow water of estuaries, coastal lagoons and lakes (Higgins& Davies, 1996). Very sensitive to disturbance during breeding(signifi cant declines throughout Europe).North-east and North-west Twin Islets are the major breedinggrounds, near the entrance of King Sound. Also Low Rocksand Sterna island in Admiralty Gulf. Winter breeder. Majority feedaround the mouth of King Sound (George Swann, KimberleyBirdwatching pers. comm.).Summer and winter coastal breeder. Breeding islands include LowRocks and Adele Island.Widespread and abundant breeding on most suitable islands inthe region (Higgins & Davies, 1996). Forages widely.Breeds on a number of select islands in coastal areas of theNorthern Kimberley including Lacapedes (one of the largestcolonies in the world ~17,000 nests), Adele, Bedout and WhiteIslands. Also on offshore islands such as Ashmore Reef. Groundnesting. More often seen feeding close to shore than otherboobies but widespread throughout the region (Marchant &Higgins, 1990). May depend to some extent on other catalystspecies (Sooty Tern, Common Noddy) to fi nd food.Inshore breeding species widespread on coastal islandsthroughout region. Migratory. Breeds in summer and departscoast of NW Australia ~mid-April and returns to breed in lateSeptember / early October. Apparently leave coastal Australianwaters in winter, though some may occasionally be seen offshore,with passage through the Timor Sea (Higgins & Davies, 1996).Likely to move into the Indonesian Archipelago to forage in winter.Forage offshore over the continental shelf.Offshore breeding species, locally abundant on remote islands.Migratory. Breeds in summer (varies, but mostly Oct / Nov to Jan /Feb) on remote islands, including the Ashmore Reef MPA (Higgins& Davies, 1996). Breeds when oceanographic productivity is low,indicating reliance on areas of relatively high productivity. Mayforage over relatively long distances. Thought to depend on tunaand dolphins to drive prey to surface (Au & Pitman, 1986; Brookeet al., 2006).Exclusively breeds on offshore islands (e.g. Ashmore and CartierIslands). Tree-nesting. Short-range forager, specialising onfl ying fi sh (often caught on wing) and other relatively large prey.Dependent on areas of high productivity for feeding: usually oversteep bathymetric features adjacent to breeding island (Marchant& Higgins, 1990).Breeds on offshore islands, including oceanic islands such asAshmore Reef but also Bedout and Adele Island. Very few coloniesoff east coast. Like other boobies, most likely a relatively short- tomedium-range forager (160-320km) (Marchant & Higgins, 1990).Used to be colony on Swan Island but no longer. Known to breedon Adele, Bedout and West Lacapede (Marchant & Higgins,1990), also Ashmore Reef and Cartier. Tree nesting. Apparentlyrelatively short-range forager from breeding colonies (Jaquemetet al., 2005). Probably rely to some extent on other species(boobies and terns), as kleptoparasitism is common.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley27.Group Location Status Species DescriptionOceanicBulwer’s PetrelBulweria bulweriiMatsudaira’s StormPetrel OceanodromamatsudairaeTahiti PetrelPterodroma rostrataLocally common summer migrant. Breeds May-June off SouthernChina and Japan (Onley & Schofi eld, 2007). Found mostly overwarm saline water (Dunlop et al., 1988) and therefore sensitive torelatively small variations in surface productivity.Locally common summer migrant from Japan, found mostly inwarmer saline water, usually close to the continental slope, wheresurface productivity is relatively high. Breeds Iwo Island and Boningroup, south of Japan (Onley & Schofi eld, 2007). Present atbreeding colonies Jan to early Jun (Harrison, 1985).Only known breeding areas, central Pacifi c from New Caledoniaeastward, where breeds Mar-Oct (Onley & Schofi eld, 2007).Discovered relatively recently to be locally common off NWAustralia, leading some authorities to question whether there is aseparate, unknown breeding area west of Australia. Observationsoff west Australia are mostly in Sep-Nov, but there have been nosurveys outside this time.Shorebirds Nearshore Various Shorebirds feed on benthic invertebrates. As in the oceanenvironment, the availability and accessibility of prey dictatesdistribution and abundance. The presence of communitiescomprising migratory species of conservation signifi cance (seefor example, Table 8) at a local or regional scale would indicatenotable and important habitat.Marine Reptiles Oceanic Vulnerable (WA);Vulnerable (Cth)Continental ShelfNearshoreVulnerable (WA);Vulnerable (Cth)Fish Nearshore Priority 1 (WA);Endangered (Cth)Priority 3 (WA);Vulnerable (Cth)Green TurtleChelonia mydasStoke’s Sea SnakeAstrotia stokesiiFlatback TurtleNatator depressusSaltwater CrocodileCrocodylus porosusNorthern River SharkGlyphis sp.Freshwater Sawfi shPristis microdonNests both close to the Dampier coastline and on offshoreislands. Browse, Cassini, Lacepede and Cartier Islands areknown to be important rookeries (Burbidge et al., 1991;Pendoley, 2005). Also Sandy Islet at Scott Reef. Migrates to feedoff the Kimberley coast and north to Bonparte Gulf.A widespread, robust and conspicuous sea snake that feeds onfi sh over the continental shelf in areas of high turbidity (Wilson &Swann, 2004). Considered likely to have declined due to bycatchfrom trawl fi sheries (David Brewer et al., 2006).Australian endemic turtle and the only species confi ned to thecontinental shelf. Juveniles have no oceanic stage (Walker& Parmenter, 1990). Nesting recorded in the BuccaneerArchipelago (Marine Turtle Interactive Mapping System, (www.ioseaturtles.org). Satellite tracking of animals tagged at BarrowIsland show some move into north west coastal Kimberley tofeed (www.seaturtle.org).Saltwater crocodile populations suffered from uncontrolledhunting until 1970. They appear to be recovering more slowlythan in the Northern Territory as there is limited breeding habitatin the Kimberley. Highest numbers are in river systems withmangrove near their mouths, such as the Glenelg, Prince Regentand Roe (Messel et al., 1987) but can be found as far offshoreas Adele Island.One of the few species of shark known to inhabit the upperreaches of rivers. Known from rivers in King Sound. Little otherdata. 20 years since specimens have been found in Queensland.Surprisingly not protected in WA, despite listing as endangeredFederally (Thornburn et al., 2004).Distribution poorly known. Inhabitant of rivers and estuariesin the Northern Kimberley, including those of King Sound.Considered to be largest known population. Elsewhere in theworld, populations decimated through gill net fi shing (Thornburn &Morgan, 2003).

28. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley4.3 COASTAL FAUNA ANDFLORAWithin the broader coastal environmentof the Northern Kimberley andDampierland there is an importantterrestrial fauna and flora component anda connection between their habitat needsand processes in the coastal and marineenvironment.Figure 8: Dwarf Sperm Whale Kogia simus, recorded over a depth of about 700mbetween Scott Reef and Ashmore Reef in October 2007 (photo, Rohan Clarke). Thisspecies is difficult to observe and often boat shy. Unlike dolphins, including ShortfinnedPilot Whales Globicephala macrorhynchus (Family: Delphinidae), Dwarf SpermWhale and to great extent, beaked whales, are likely to shy away from loud noise. Itis highly likely that these species are seriously underestimated by visual observerson oil and gas exploration (seismic) operations. This is a particularly useful exampleof a species for which correlation with areas of higher than normal biodiversity, asindicated by seabird abundance, may be important for risk assessment.© Lochman TransparenciesMonjon Petrogale burbidgei is confined to King Leopold Sandstone country ofNorthern Kimberley, including coastal areas and some offshore islands.There is a lack of feral animal pests.An absence of rabbits and foxes benefitsspecies such as Bilby Macrotis lagotis,which are in heavy decline in otherparts of Australia. Nonetheless, thereremain some major threats, such asaltered grazing and burning regimes,which also have the potential to affectwater quality in the catchments, andso impact on coastal processes. Theundisturbed offshore islands withrelatively intact terrestrial ecosystems arehence viewed as important biodiversityrefuges (Burbidge et al., 1991; How etal., 2006). Table 6 gives examples ofthreatened species from the region. Anumber of these are declining but occuron offshore islands (e.g. Northern QuollDasyurus hallucatus). Additionally, thereare a range of other threatened and / orendemic vertebrates and flora.The geology of much of Dampierlandoriginates from marine deposits oncoastal plains and supports mangrove,samphire, grasslands, coastal dunecommunities and open-woodlands(Graham, 2002b, c; McKenzie et al.,2003). The predominant vegetationtype is Pindana, which covers most ofthe Dampier Peninsula and the areasinland of eighty mile beach. The blacksoil plains behind Roebuck Bay and theCamballin Floodplain are of particularnote, as they are coupled to coastalprocesses during seasonal indundation.The area is of international significancefor breeding waterbirds, as well asmigratory shorebirds.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley29.Group Species Status DescriptionMammalBirdNorthern QuollDasyurus hallucatusGolden BandicootIsoodon auratusauratusBilbyMacrotis lagotisLittle NorthwesternMastiff BatMormopterus loriaecobourgianaButler’s DunnartSminthopsis butleriLittle Rock WallabyPetrogale burbidgeiScaly-tailedPossum WyuldasquamicaudataGolden-backed TreeRat MesembriomysmacrurusGouldian FinchErythrura gouldiaeCrested ShrikeTit (Northern)Falcunculusfrontatus whiteiChestnut-backedButtonquail TurnixcastanotaEndangered(WA)Vulnerable (WA)Vulnerable (WA)Priority 1 (WA)Vulnerable (WA)Priority 4 (WA)Priority 4 (WA)Endangered(WA);Endangered(Cth)Endangered(WA);Endangered(Cth)Priority 4 (WA)Formerly widespread across N. Australia. Rangehas contracted considerably. The Kimberley is oneof six main strongholds. Absence of Cane Toadfrom the Kimberley region is one reason for this.Also found on Augustus group of islands.Formerly widespread. Now restricted to mainlandNorthern Kimberley, including Augustus andMiddle Islands.Formerly widespread throughout central andsouthern Australia. Now mostly confi ned to NWAustralia, including the Dampier Peninsula.Rare in west Kimberley. Known from islands ofBuccaneer Arch.Known only from a few specimens, includingmainland northern Kimberley.Restricted range. Locally common in King LeopoldSandstone country of Northern Kimberley,including coastal areas. Also on offshore islandsof Bonaparte Archipelago and Augustus group.Patchily distributed and restricted range inNorthern Kimberley. Also known from BoongareeIsland.Formerly found through NT. Now thoughtrestricted to Northern Kimberley, including islandsof Buccaneer Archipelago.A heavily declining endemic species with afragmented range across northern Australia. TheDampier peninsula represents the southern limit ofits range. Inhabit live tropical open woodlands witha grassy understorey, often in hilly areas (Garnett& Crowley, 2000).Scarce endemic of far Northern Kimberley, mostlyoccurring in woodland types dominated by DarwinWoollybutt Eucalyptus miniata, Darwin StringybarkE. tetrodonta or Smooth-stemmed BloodwoodE. bleeseri. Population thought to be highlyfragmented and under threat from changing fi reand grazing regimes (Garnett & Crowley, 2000).A restricted range species of monsoonal forestsand woodlands, endemic to northern andnorthwest Australia. Population in the Kimberely isisolated. Vulnerable to mismanagement of fi re andgrazing; loss from McArthur Ranges thought to befor similar reasons (Garnett & Crowley, 2000).Further north and the geology is a mixof King Leopold sandstone and volcanicrock. Folding and erosion of these rocksresults in differing vegetation from islandto island, and along the coast. Vegetationalong catchments and watercourses of theNorthern Kimberley controls the rate ofsedimentation and the quality of waterentering estuaries and coastal wetlands,particularly during the wet season. Thiscoastal connection is best exemplified inrainforest and vine thicket formations,where these form a succession withmangroves. Vine thickets support anumber of endemic species and specificrainforest communities including birdssuch as Rose-crowned Fruit DovePtilinopus regina, Little Shrike ThrushColluricincla megarhyncha and RainbowPitta Pitta iris.In addition to threatened species, theKimberley is important for a variety ofendemic species. Although presently notthreatened, the restricted global rangeof species such as Black GrasswrenAmytornis housei makes them morevulnerable to local impacts or to macroenvironmentalimpacts such as climatechange (Olsen, 2007). In the Mitchellsubregion of the Northern Kimberley, thereare thought to be 29 endemic vertebrates(McKenzie et al., 2003; Storr, 1983).Remaining consistent with the themeof this report, protection of terrestrialspecies should be at the ecosystemlevel, as a necessary step in managingbiodiversity and ecosystem integrity. Ahealthy ecosystem will ultimately sustaina wider variety of species.Table 6: Selected threatened terrestrial fauna of the Northern Kimberley andDampierland.

30. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley5.KEY COASTALAND MARINEECOSYSTEMDRIVERS5.1 ECOSYSTEM PROCESSESAND BIODIVERSITYThe terrestrial environment of theKimberley is linked to the coastal andmarine environment downstream. Therelatively pristine natural environmentextending along most of the Dampierlandand Northern Kimberley coastline(McKenzie et al., 2003) temperscatchment inflow, particularly during wetseason cyclones. Wetlands, forested riversand mangroves are critical to the steadycontrol of nutrients entering the marinesystem (see section 6.6) and responsiblefor sustaining primary productivity ofseagrass and benthic algae.As with virtually all ecological systems,limited availability of nutrients underpinsdiversity and species richness.Marine species nevertheless dependon local concentration of resources inthe environment, to persist. If availableresources were diluted evenly in seawater,most complex organisms would be unableto meet their energy budget to find foodand reproduce. It is the concentration ofresources and gradients of availability(Ballance et al., 1997) that create mosaicsof high and low value for differentspecies and communities.Primary producers such as seagrass,macroalgae and phytoplankton are thebasis of the food chain for herbivoresand detritivores that in turn feed morecomplex organisms higher up thefood chain. Both primary producersand consumers are dependent on aconcentration of resources, whether it benutrients from catchment run-off (in thecase of seagrass) or plankton prey forflying fish, which in turn feed Boobies.The patchiness of marine ecosystemsis essential for areas of high preyavailability and population regulationeven amongst roaming ocean speciessuch as seabirds, turtles, cetaceans andmarine fish. This mosaic is created by theinfluence of numerous physical processesat different spatial scales. Ultimately, toregulate a population at a given level,a minimum proportion of any species’population needs to find access to enoughfood at critical times of year to produceenough surviving offspring and balanceout annual mortality.Key drivers for the marine ecosystem areboth primary production and the physicalprocesses that concentrate resourcesto become ‘available’ for exploitationby marine biota. The spatial quality,availability and location of resourcepatches is what regulates populations at‘carrying capacity’.It is important to note that the locationwhere food becomes available is moreoften than not, located away fromsources of primary productivity. Twodimensionalmapping of bioregions basedon seabed ecology will overlook this. Itis also important to consider seasonalvariation, as the pressure on species andcommunities alters substantially.5.2 PRIMARY PRODUCTIONAlong the shores of the Kimberley,the predominant primary producersare mangroves, seagrass, macroalgae,sediment microalgae and phytoplanktonand corals. Each of these componentscontribute matter and energy to theecosystem in different ways. Theproductivity and total production ofthese components in the Kimberley isunknown. Mangroves contribute organicmatter to the system through leaf matter,but this input is likely to be very minorcompared to other primary producers,such as seagrass. This is despite the factthat mangroves are very important forcarbon storage.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley31.Seagrass input matter and energy into thesystem through detritus (such as leaves)and exudates of carbohydrates. Both themangrove and seagrass matter is widelydispersed through tidal currents and maybe concentrated in certain areas, butgenerally enters the food webs after ithas been digested by bacteria in the watercolumn and in sediments. An obviousexception is for direct herbivory onseagrass by dugongs.A very important primary producer issediment microalgae (microphytobenthos,MPB). This largely consists of microsopicdiatoms that live in the surface layers ofsediments, particularly in mangrove, sandand muddy intertidal flats and banks andshallow subtidal sediment banks. TheMPB are highly mobile and migrate tothe surface where there is sunlight forphotosynthesis and deeper into sedimentsto sequester nutrients. The acquiredcarbohydrates from photosynthesis andnutrients from the sediments are thenused for cell replication and growth.Over the Kimberley as a whole, intertidaland shallow subtidal sediments for MPBare likely to be much more productivethan other primary-producer habitats(this does not mean that other primaryproducers are not important on a morelocal scale). This is because MPB areless light limited by the turbid watersduring low tide, are situated close tothe sediment nutrient source and havevery fast growth rates. MPB are highlyproductive and are rapidly consumedby sediment infauna such as smallnematodes, crustaceans, mollusc filterfeedersand worm deposit feeders.Suspension of surface microalgae occursduring tidal excursions and this cancontribute substantially to the productionof plankton and benthic filter feeders inother areas.Primary production at coral reefs(symbiotic algae living in corals) is a vitalcomponent of ecosystem function. Coralreefs are among the most productiveand species rich ecosystems on earth(Moberg & Folke, 1999). Coral reefs areresponsible for some export of organiccarbon into the local environment butlike mangroves, this is likely to berelatively small compared to majorexporters of carbon such as seagrassbeds. Nevertheless, primary production atcoral reefs supports a very large biomassand exceptionally high species richnessand biodiversity over relatively smallspatial scales. Coral reefs, mangroves andseagrass beds are connected to each other,in varying degree depending on theirproximity and particular characteristics ofthe local environment. Many species relyon the sustenance and refuge provided bycoral reefs at particular stages of their lifehistory, migrating between reefs andotherhabitats (Moberg & Folke, 1999).For deeper shelf waters, particularlybelow 50 m depth, production is largelydriven by settlement of all types of organicmaterial into the sediments. The originalprimary production for this system isderived from phytoplankton along frontalsystems at the surface, where there is anadequate mixture of light, warmth andnutrients to facilitate plant growth. Muchof the seabed production, particularlyfish, crabs, prawns, octopuses, cuttlefishand squid but also megafauna like beakedwhales, are driven by trophic linkages tosmaller sediment invertebrates, sedimentbacteria and the input of organics from thewaters above.© Lochman TransparenciesMagnificent Dragon DiporiphoraSuperba

32. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley5.3 OCEANOGRAPHY ANDGEOMORPHOLOGY5.3.3 Meta-scale oceanographyThe Indonesian Throughflow (ITF)heavily influences oceanography andclimate in the Kimberley region, as it hasdistinct seasonal variation in strength.When active, it transports a 200-300mthick layer of warm low-density surfacewater from the Timor Sea into the IndianOcean and feeds the South EquatorialCurrent (Figure 9).The ITF is strongest during the southeastmonsoon (Austral winter, approx. Juneto September), and weakest during thenorthwest monsoon (Austral summer,approx. November to March). Duringthe winter dry season when southeasttrade winds blow from the Australianmainland, the ITF empties water from theeastern Indonesian archipelago. Surfacewaters in oceanic areas of northwestAustralia actually cool by several degrees(Hobday, 2001) and overall chlorophyll alevels throughout the region (includingthe Indonesian Archipelago) increasesubstantially 4 . Important mixing andalgal bloom events occur at locationssuch as the Strait of Ombai (Moore &Marra, 2002) and there is evidence oflarge scale upwelling in the EasternBanda Sea south of Java (Moore &Marra, 2000). The ITF also channelswater south along the entire NorthernKimberley and Dampierland coast, andfeeds the Leeuwin Current which mostlyruns south of the northwest Cape.During the summer wet season when thenorthwest monsoon occurs, this patternchanges abruptly. Strong northerlywinds force surface waters into theeastern Indonesian archipelago (Moore& Marra, 2000) and the ITF weakensand in some cases, may even ceasealtogether, especially under the influencesof the easterly flowing Indian OceanCountercurrent that occurs in winter justsouth of the equator.Figure 9: Simplified seasonal oceanography of northwest Australia showingmajor current systems (top) and productivity (bottom). During the southeasterlymonsoon (winter dry season), productivity is very high, fuelled by upwelling in theIndonesian archipelago and strong currents. During the northwest monsoon (wetseason), productivity falls and currents abate though productivity remains relativelyhigh at offshore islands due to upwelling, and near the coast as a consequence ofriver plumes.4DRAFT: SeaWiFS movie of surface Chlorophyll, 1997-2001 in the Australian Region.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley33.These conditions cause the ocean off northwest Australia to stop flowing so sea surfacetemperatures increase by several degrees through solar heating. The lack of tidalmixing and input of surface water from the Indonesian archipelago massively reducessurface productivity and the southern coastal current stops or reverses weakly (Gingeleet al., 2001).In summary, monsoonal activity and productivity in the Indonesian Archipelago arekey drivers for ecosystem processes in the northeast Indian Ocean and the continentalshelf of northwest Australia.5.3.4 Offshore UpwellingEven over abyssal depths, material in the water column rains down and settles onthe sea floor where it supports benthic ecology. Upwelling of nutrients from seafloor processes are caused by ocean currents and seasonally strong winds. This isespecially prominent around islands, deep ocean canyons and steep features such asthe continental slope.Hobday, (2001) shows the role that the Marine Protected Areas of Ashmore Reef,Cartier Island and Mermaid Reef play in these processes. Using remotely sensed seasurface chlorophyll (SSC) data, which is an indicator of primary productivity, a habitatarea index has been developed (Figure 10). What this shows is a rapid decline in SSCaway from the islands, because primary production in tropical open ocean is very low.The habitat area is a function of local upwelling of nutrients – the smaller the area, themore important the MPA is for supporting local biota.Figure 10: Sea Surface Chlorophyll (SSC) Maximum and mean habitat zone,all months.

34. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleyFigure 11 shows that there is a strongnegative correlation between sea surfacetemperature and sea surface chlorophyllwith maximum productivity occurring inwinter when the Indonesian Throughflowis strong and sea surface temperatures arerelatively low. Sea-viewing Wide Fieldof-viewSenor (SeaWIFS) data compiledby the Australian Government 5 shows thisrise in marine chlorophyll concentrationoccurs between about March and August.Nevertheless, the MPAs and Scott Reefmaintain these processes throughout theyear and this is critical for the species thatdepend on the pelagic ecosystem.The strength of oceanographic cycles arealso influenced by the southern oscillation.During El Niño the water temperatureis higher so overall surface productivityis even lower. Nevertheless, this canhave a positive effect on near-shore orcontinental shelf water. Thermocline 6depths are deepest during La Niña, soprey availability around islands and thecoast during El Niño actually increases,along with predator activity (Worm et al.,2005). Thermocline depth is an importantvariable in seabird and marine mammalforaging distribution as subsurface prey ismore potentially available for exploitation(Jaquemet et al., 2005).Although it is not an MPA, Scott Reefappears to be a particularly uniquecomponent of the Commonwealth marinearea. It harbours a very steep continentalslope that drops to a depth of 1,000m just4km offshore and is excised by a numberof deep ocean canyons (Figure 12).Species such as Cuvier’s Beaked Whaleand Dwarf Sperm Whale have beenobserved only here. The latter speciesis very rarely recorded in Australianwaters and is likely to be an importantlocal resident and a key indicator ofcontinental slope upwelling. The formerspecies is more likely to be an indicatorof biodiversity at the seabed. Althoughterrestrial and reef areas of Scott Reefare considered relatively degraded,the wider deep ocean and continentalshelf environment appears to be amajor influence on the ecosystem of theCommonwealth Marine Area.5.3.5 Catchment Inflow and Tidal MixingCoastal processes are driven by rainfalland tides, with spring tidal ranges in theKimberley of about 10m amongst thelargest in the world. The characteristicallyturbid coastal waters result from influxand stirring of sediment-laden catchmentrun-off, which is highest during summermonsoon rains.At the complex of reefs and islands thatmake up Adele Island and Churchill,Albert, Beagle and Mavis reefs (Figure13), it has been shown that these nutrientsare swept up with cooler bottom water ina tidal mixing phenomenon that abatesonly in July-August and at neap tides(Cresswell & Badcock, 2000).Tidal mixing at this location isparticularly strong but weaker systemsare likely to occur at the western edge ofother reefs along the coast. As shown inFigure 15, relatively high seabird biomasshas been observed west of Baleine Bank.Figure 11: Sea Surface Temperature (SST) (top) and Sea Surface Chlorophyll(bottom) medians for each MPA by day of year, together with the climatology (solidline) and ±2 SD (dashed line).5.3.6 Coastal GeomorphologyCoastal geomorphology has asubstantial effect on the pattern ofphysical processes along the coast.Comprising hundreds of islands, baysand inlets, the Kimberley coastline ishighly variable. The mouths of riversand estuaries are typical locations wherehydrodynamics will create predictablefronts, due to variation in salinity andvelocity of different water masses.5Ibid6A thermocline is the boundary between warm and cold water masses. Less dense, warm water currentsfrom the tropical Pacifi c fl ow over the top of the cooler Indian Ocean water. Where these water massesmeet, there is a concentration of resources, as there is where water masses meet in the horizontal plane atthe surface. This is where many marine mammals and predatory fi sh such as tuna feed.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley35.Figure 12: Scott Reef atolls and islands showing the steep continental slope totheir west and numerous deep ocean canyons.Figure 13: Coastal Reefs and Islands off North West Australia. Yellow and orangeareas indicate ocean between depths of -5 to -20m. Selected reef and islandcomplexes are labelled.

36. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley6.MARINE ANDCOASTALCOMMUNITIES6.1 GENERAL NORTH-WESTSHELF COMMUNITIESMuch of what is known about the shelfbiota is from fisheries investigations.Large areas of the shelf have also beeninvestigated by the petroleum industry,however very little of this information isin the public domain.Taiwanese pair-trawl fishing in the early1980s indicated differences in fish faunaacross the shelf between the Broome,Cape Londonderry and shelf break(offshore) sectors. The Broome regionhad higher catch rates of small snappers(Lutjanidae), emporers (Lethrinidae),goatfish (Mullidae), threadfin breams(Nemipteridae), bigeyes (Priacanthidae)and cods (Serranidae). The easternKimberley region had higher catch ratesof large red snappers (Lutjanidae) andsweetlips (Haemulidae). The deep slopebottom near the shelf break had higherabundances of jobfish (Pristipomoides).Inshore of 30 m depth, traps and drop-linesindicate a carnivore dominance of catfishArius spp., black jewfish Protonibeadiacanthus and golden snapper Lutjanusjohnii (Department of Fisheries, 2004).Although many shelf fishes occurthroughout the shelf range, they areusually predominant in particular habitattypes, which may vary between life stages.The red emperor Lutjanus sebae juvenilesare common in the nearshore turbidwaters on coastal and offshore reefs. Thesubadults and adults are distributed acrossthe continental shelf to 180 m depth,associated with coral reefs, epibenthiccommunities, limestone sand flats andgravel patches. Juvenile goldband snapperPristipomoides multidens are found onsedimentary habitats with no relief withadults forming schools in 60-245 mdepth near reefs, shoals and epibenthos.The scarlet perch Lutjanus malagaricusjuveniles are solitary in nearshore waters,often in seagrass. Adults are dispersedacross the continental shelf to 140 mdepth, associated with reefs, shoals,flatbottom with epibenthos and habitatswith vertical relief.Several prawn species have coastaljuvenile phases with wider adult dispersalonto the shelf, including brown tigerprawn Penaeus esculentus (sand andsandy mud seabed) and various coralprawns (soft and hard bottoms).6.2 SEDIMENT BEDCOMMUNITIESAreas of sandy habitat support ‘spongegardens’ of large erect sponges,gorgonian corals and sea whip corals.These communities are prevalent in thesandier mid-shelf 50-100 m habitats. Thediversity of sponges in these communitiesis considered to be high (> 600 species;Wassenberg & Cook, 2002).Considerable portions of this communitywere initially affected by the Taiwanesepair-trail fishing, which involveddemersal (bottom) trawling with heavygear. The catches and catch compositionchanged considerably between 1980and 1990, partially reflecting changesin the sponge habitat and the associatedfish species (Sainsbury et al., 1993).Subsequent Australian otter trawling wasalso considered to impact this habitat. Therecovery rate is thought to be in excessof 20 years, so habitat distribution andspecies composition is only considered toreflect historical disturbances, rather thanactual distribution (Fulton et al., 2006).The sediment sponge communities(large epibenthos) support particularcommunities of fishes, particularlysnappers and emporers (Moran &Stephenson, 2000). Bare sedimentcommunities have a greater dominanceof lizardfish (Synodontidae) andthreadfin bream (Nemipteridae; Moran& Stephenson, 2000). The demersalcrustacean fauna of the Northwest Shelfis particularly species rich, with 308species in 40-80 m depth, including crabs,penaeid prawns and carid shrimps. The

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley37.infauna is also extremely diverse, beingdominated by polychaetes (Poore, 1995).Infaunal species richness is an indicationof important soft sediment processes thatdrive the food chain, even in the pelagicsystem. Banana prawns feed on softsediment invertebrates and where theyform dense aggregations, often visible atthe surface, is indicative of areas of highbiodiversity value at the seabed. Suchareas are of particular importance for theecology of the Kimberley and dependentcommercial fisheries.6.3 SHELF ‘STRUCTURE’COMMUNITIESThe Northern Demersal ScalefishFishery targets species that are widelydistributed across the continental shelfbut concentrated in abundance inspecific habitats. These habitats includeareas with hard bottom, vertical reliefand large epibenthos (Department ofFisheries, 2004). The distribution ofsuch communities, as evidenced bythe distribution of fishing effort, ispredominantly along the old continentalshelf coastline in approximately 100mof water, but also occurs in other areasof the shelf from 60 to 150m depth(Figure 14). Fishes of these ‘structure’communities include families of the reeffish snappers (Lutjanidae), cods andgroupers (Serranidae) and the emperors(Lethrinidae). The predominant fishedspecies are: the goldband snappersPristipomoides multidens, P. typus andP. fi lamentosus; the red emperor snapperLutjanus sebae; cods such as Epinephelusmultinotatus and E. bleekeri; and theemperors, such as the spangled emperorLethrinus nebulosus.Other, non-commercial, carnivorousfishes in these areas include trigger fishspecies (Abalistes stellaris, Sufflamenfraenatus, Abalistes sp), longfinbannerfish Heniochus acuminatus,Myripristis murdjan, red lionfish Pteroisvolitans, red squirrelfish SargocentronFigure 14: Distribution of trapping effort for the Northern Demersal ScalefishFishery (Department of Fisheries, 2004).rubrum (Department of Fisheries, 2004).As discussed above, fisheries data is themain source of knowledge but becausethe fishery uses traps and baited droplines,only generalist carnivores aredocumented. The number of fish familiescharacterising these habitats will begreater than indicated here.6.4 SHELF SLOPECOMMUNITIESThe deeper continental slope habitatsfrom 150 to 400m differ in fish faunafrom the shelf and offshore shoalhabitats. The fauna is diverse but alsoof commercial interest and thereforein considerable abundance. It includesdeepwater snappers Etelis carbunculus,E. coruscans, E. radiosus, Lipocheiluscarnolabrum, Paracaesio kusakarii,Paracaesio stonei, Pristipomoidesargyrogrammicus, P. zonatus, P. auricillaand Aphareus rutilans; the deepwatersparid Dentex tumifrons, the deepwateremperor Wattsia mossambica; and thedeepwater cods Epinephelus morrhua,Epinephelus radiatus and Epinephelusoctofasciatus. The crustacean Australianscampi Metanephrops sp is also presenton the slope.Bioregionalisation of the demersal shelffishes indicated a province from Broometo Melville Island, with indicator speciesbeing Bembrops nelsoni, Bythaelurussp., Halicmetus sp., Malthopsis spp,Neobythites australiensis, Neobythitesbimaculatus, Neobythites macrops,Neobythites soelae, Parapterygotriglasp., Physiculus roseus (Last et al., 2005).This province has 418 known fish specieswith 64 of these being endemic.The value of these ecosystems may beunderestimated. As discussed in section6.8.5, the presence of megafauna such asbeaked whales is an indication of highbiodiversity value. Evidence that theseanimals are benthic feeders (Woodside etal., 2006) is even greater indication thatthe ecosystem processes at the seafloor aresignificant. This is not a reason to suspecthowever, that these areas are equally richthroughout. As discussed in section 5.1,marine ecosystems exhibit a high degreeof variability in terms of the quality ofresources available to marine fauna.

38. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleySooty Terns Sterna fuscata breed insummer on the remote coral islandssuch as Ashmore Reef, when surfaceproductivity is relatively low.6.5 CORAL COMMUNITIESCoral reefs are living carbonate structureswith a sketal framework of coral colonies,able to grow towards and sometimesreach the sea surface. Coral reefs caninfluence ocean hydrodynamics andreduce coastal erosion by dissipatingwave energy. They provide habitat formany important commercial fish species,often at particular stages of their lifecycle.Migration of fish from coral reefs intoadjacent habitats such as seagrass bedsrepresents a net transfer of energyback into the surrounding environment(Moberg & Folke, 1999).The most species rich communities on theNorth-West Shelf are those of the coralreefs (Commonwealth of Australia, 2002).Occurring predominantly in nutrientdeficientand clear offshore waters, theyprovide both structure and habitat forthousands of species (EnvironmentalProtection Authority, 2004). Primaryproduction at coral reefs is very high,and although net transport of organiccarbon beyond these sites is relativelysmall, supports an exceptionally highbiomass and species richness, also due tothe structural complexity of the reef itself(Moberg & Folke, 1999). Six hundredand eighty eight species of fish alone havebeen recorded from the Rowley Shoals(Commonwealth of Australia, 2003),from small colourful reef fishes throughto enormous potato cod, maori wrasseand pelagic predators such as trevally,mackerel, tuna and sharks.Ashmore and Cartier Islands,Seringapatam Reef, Scott Reef and theRowley Shoals are coral islets withlagoons surrounded by barrier and fringingreef. Ashmore Reef, Cartier Island andRowley Shoals are marine protectedareas (Figure 6). These archipelagos, inparticular Ashmore reef, are recognised ashaving the highest richness and diversityof coral species in Western Australia(Commonwealth of Australia, 2002). Atotal of 255 species of reef-building coralsin 56 genera, have been recorded fromAshmore and Cartier Reefs, the highestdiversity in Western Australia (Berry,1993; Veron, 1993) as well as 136 speciesof sponges (Hanley & Russell, 1993).A similar diversity is present at RowleyShoals, where 233 species of coral,including at least 28 species of staghorncoral have been recorded (Commonwealthof Australia, 2003).The assemblages present on the offshorereefs are unique in their species’composition and relative abundance.There are several endemics and manymore are not found on more near shorereefs. The Indonesian Throughflowcurrent carries larvae from reefs in theIndo-pacific that recruit onto the offshorereefs of the northwest shelf. Consequentlythe assemblages present of these offshorereefs have a greater affinity with thoseof Indonesia and the Coastal and MarineNatural Values of the Kimberley 35western pacific than with coastal WesternAustralia (Commonwealth of Australia,2002). These reefs are vital in maintainingthe biodiversity of reefs further to thesouth and are important stepping-stonesfor the recruitment of species from theIndo-pacific to Western Australia.The majority of our knowledge of coralreefs in the northern Kimberley is of thecoral islands, such as the Rowley Shoals.There is comparatively little knowledgeof the overall extent, distribution andfunction of the more unusual nearshorefringing reefs of the remote Kimberleycoastline, deep reef systems and shelfedgeatolls such as Scott Reef.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley39.6.6 MANGROVES(LOCALLY, MANGAL)Mangroves are an important highlyadapted community that stabilisesriparian zones along estuaries andtidal mud flats along the coastline ofthe Kimberley mainland and islands.Mangroves are a group of trees andshrubs adapted to grow in marine andestuarine intertidal habitats. They providenursery grounds for commercial fish andprawns, coastal protection from cyclonicweather and protection of nearby seagrassand reef habitats by trapping sedimentsfrom run off.The many inlets, lagoons and gulfs alongthe Kimberley coast support extensivemangrove communities (over 140,000ha) Pedretti & Paling, 2001. The northernKimberley region has the most diversemangrove flora of Western Australia, with14 out of 17 species occurring in thisarea. There are five distinct mangrovecommunities (Saenger, 1996), based onsubstratum type and the dominant speciespresent (Table 7).CommunityDominantSonnertiaRhizophoraRhizophora-Ceriops-AvicenniaSpecies that mayoccurSonnertia alba; Avicenniamarina; Rhizophora stylosaRhizophora stylosa; Sonneratiaalba; Avicennia marinaRhizophora stylosa; Ceriopstagal; Avicennia marinaSubstratum andHabitatSandy or muddy tidal fl atsSandy or muddy tidal fl ats, occursimmediately inland from SonnertiacommunityTowards the high tide marginsof tidal sand and mud fl ats, canform the margins around high tidalsalt fl atsAvicennia Avicennia marina Rocky-bouldery-shores, occurswidely but in patches on rockyshoresAegialitisAegialitis annulata; RhizophorastylosaRocky-bouldery-shores, appearssporadically on rocky shores andseems to be best developed onshallow sand amongst the rocksTable 7: Mangrove communities characteristic of the northern Kimberley(Saenger, 1996).Height4-6 m4-6 m

40. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley6.7 SEAGRASS ANDMACROALGAESeagrasses, fulfill an important trophicand structural role (EPA, 1988). Theycontribute to total primary productionthrough their own photosynthesis andthat of epiphytic algae (which themselvescontribute a large proportion of plantbiomass). They create and shed leavesthat are taken up into the food chain bybenthic detritivores, stabilise bottomsediment, regulate water flow and providehabitat for many organisms, includingfish for breeding and refuge. They alsoprovide food directly for megafauna suchas Dugong and indirectly for fish-eatingspecies such as Little Tern.Limited studies into seagrass meadowsof the Kimberley have been undertaken.The four main studies were doneby the Western Australian Museumbetween 1991 and 1997 and surveyedthe southern, central and north-easternregions. Eight species of seagrasses werefound, though others are likely (Walker,1992, 1995, 1996, 1997).Overall distribution of seagrass inthe region is poorly documented butextensive seagrass meadows, the largestknown for the Kimberley, are knownfrom around Sunday and Tallon islands(Wells et al., 1995). The WesternAustralian Museum studies noted thatalgal diversity and abundance wasgenerally low, attributing this to extremetidal exposure and high turbidity,reducing light penetration and increasingthe possibility of smothering.The intensity of turbidity effects is areason to suspect that the distribution ofseagrass and macroalgae are somewhatlimited and that increased pressure onhabitat patches could place them outsidelimits of natural variation. Seagrass isknown to be particularly susceptibleto changes in light availability, whicharise as a consequence of increases inbackground turbidity (Burd & Dunton,2001; Zimmerman, 2006).6.8 PELAGIC FAUNAAGGREGATIONSAs discussed in section 5, physicalprocesses in the marine environmentconfound to concentrate resourcesat different spatial scales. Differentorganisms have differing ability to exploitthese resources, depending on theirpopulation dynamics e.g. their capabilityfor dispersal or locomotion and juvenile /adult survival rates.Spatial scale is a critical parameter toconsider when defining the importanceof habitat and its relevance to differentspecies or communities of species in themarine ecosystem. The following sectionsintroduce the role of oceanographyin influencing patterns of primaryproductivity at relatively large scales,then provides some examples at smallerspatial scales with an explanation of whatdistinguishes these communities.6.8.7 Major Oceanographic InfluencesAt relatively large spatial scales, pelagicaggregations occur in areas of higher thannormal productivity. In the Kimberleyregion, this would include:• Upwelling zones over steepbathymetric features such as islands,canyons and the continental slope;• The boundary between differing watermasses, such as currents of differenttemperature / salinity e.g. at theestuarine boundary between freshwaterfrom a river and seawater.• Areas of high sediment productivity;• The boundary between oppositelyrotatingoffshore current eddies; and• The boundary of tidal mixing behindreef banks, such as in the vicinity ofAdele Island.To illustrate the degree of variation, mapsin Figure 15 show biomass of seabirdsrecorded in 10-minute intervals on aseabird survey between Broome andAshmore Reef in October 2004 (AES,Unpublished).The left hand map shows biomass valuesfrom 350-21,000g / 10min. This showsthat feeding productivity to the west ofBaleine Bank was highest, which is likelyto result from tidal mixing and upwelling(section 5.3.3). Species such as BananaPrawn that breed in coastal mangroves,spawn over deeper oceanic waters(Staples, 1980) and typically aggregate,even forming surface boils over someareas of high sediment productivity,where they feed on polychaete worms andbivalves. The same processes that driveaggregation of seabirds also concentratethis and other invertebrates and fish intoparticular areas. The same trade off ineffort versus catch that determines thevalue of these prawns to predatory sharks,finfish and seabirds, also determines theviability of a major prawn fishery. Thisis further evidence for the over-ridingimportance of habitat patches in themarine environment.The area of high biomass over thecontinental shelf (Figure 15) comprisedflocks of migrant Streaked Shearwater,and was likely to result from resourcesprovided by deep water upwelling.Further offshore, high seabird biomasswould also be expected to be associatedwith fronts between water masses(Dunlop et al., 1988). This results fromdifferences in temperature and relativesea surface level, which can vary byabout a metre and a half over distancesof several hundred kilometres (Jaquemetet al., 2005).Primary production in coastal areas of theNorthern Kimberley and Dampierlandis particularly high and in these figures,would mask more subtle variation inoffshore areas where productivity islower. Therefore, in left hand mapbiomass >350g / 10min has beenexcluded. It shows that the areas ofrelatively high seabird biomass offshoreare found to the north and south of ScottReef along the shelf-edge. Notably,three pods of Spinner Dolphin were alsoobserved in the southern shelf-edge area.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley41.Spinner Dolphins Stenella longirostrisin the Indian Ocean. One of the moreregularly observed dolphins on thenorthwest shelf. All cetaceans areprotected from being killed, injuredor interfered with in Commonwealthwaters, without a permit.In the deep ocean, productivity frontsdo not always occur at the surface. Theboundary between warm surface andcooler subsurface layers (the thermocline)may be a couple of hundred metres deep.Sooty Tern (see page 38), a relativelywide-ranging seabird, is considered bysome authors to be dependent on oceanicdolphins and tuna to find and drive prey tothe surface (Au & Pitman, 1986; Brookeet al., 2006). Feeding in this way, it hasbeen estimated that Juan Fernandez Petrel,Wedge-tailed Shearwater, Sooty Tern andRed-footed Booby in the eastern tropicalPacific consume as much fish biomassas the annual catch of the tuna fishery(420,000 tonnes) (Au & Pitman, 1986).Sooty Terns are also visual triggers forother seabirds, who home in on theirflocks. Without Sooty Terns, other speciessuch as Brown Booby would be lesscapable of optimising daily energy intake.Hence, marine predator communities,as opposed to individual seabirds, are adriver for marine processes. Further, thesheer quantity of resources consumedannually by these communities makesthem an integral and major part of theecosystem.Figure 15: Seabird biomass in 10-minute intervals recorded in October 2004 ona cruise from Broome to Ashmore Reef via Scott Reef. The top map shows allintervals with a recorded biomass exceeding 350g / 10min. The bottom mapshows only intervals with a recorded biomass

42. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley6.8.8 Habitat Separation in Three Oceanic SeabirdsAt smaller spatial scales, the patchiness of the ecosystem is further defined byseparation into distinct foraging areas for different species. Figure 16 shows thevariation in the distribution of three migrant (non-breeding) pelagic seabirds overa distance of about 120 nautical miles. Anecdotal evidence from several othertrips to the area support the view that this is a consistent pattern.Figure 16: Habitat separation amongst three migrant (non-breeding) pelagicseabirds off Scott Reef in 2004. This pattern of distribution has been observed in alleight expeditions to the area (Mike Carter, pers comm). Tahiti Petrels Pterodromarostrata are seen most often north of Scott Reef, whilst Matsudaira’s Storm PetrelOceanodroma matsudairae and Swinhoe’s Storm Petrel Oceanodroma monorhis(not pictured) are found to the south. Bulwer’s Petrel Bulweria bulwerii is morelikely in the steep shelf areas around the reef itself.These distributions are the result ofsubtle differences in the feeding ability ofdifferent species. Given the low overalllevel of productivity, if all species fed inthe same place, available resources woulddiminish. The area immediately northwestof Scott Reef appears depauperate withfew bird sightings. Nevertheless, Cuvier’sBeaked Whale and Rough-toothedDolphin have been observed here, thoughthey are likely to feed well below thesurface. Of the oceanic Procellariformeseabirds, Bulwer’s Petrel was relativelyabundant, which suggests this speciesis better adapted to feed in areas ofrelatively low surface productivity. Allthree species occurred at the shelf edge tothe south, where there were also severalsightings of Spinner Dolphins.6.8.9 Link between choice of nest siteand feeding areasA key factor that determines distributionin breeding seabirds is choice of nest site.Whilst on eggs or with chicks, birds arebound to return regularly to the centralcolony. If the availability of food withina certain distance drops below a criticalthreshold, breeding may not occur or islikely to be abandoned / unsuccessful.Red-footed Booby is of particular noteas it is confined to foraging within about100km of breeding sites (Jaquemet etal., 2005; Marchant & Higgins, 1990).Frigatebirds are similarly constrained.At Ashmore Reef, a high density of birdswere feeding in immediately adjacentshelf-edge waters (Figure 15) whereproductivity is notably higher thanthe surrounding ocean, particularly byOctober, when the Leeuwin current isexpected to have subsided (Dunlop etal., 1988). It is no coincidence that RedfootedBooby breeds at these locations.Boobies feed on relatively large prey and

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley43.in zones of higher productivity wherecompetition may be greater (Ballance etal., 1997). The species has a number ofstrategies to overcome this problem:1. It feeds on flying fish, which arepatchily distributed only in areas ofhighest zooplankton concentration(Piontkovski & Williams, 1995). Flyingfish are planktonivorous and a highenergy food source, found at a hightrophic level in the food chain; and2. It specialises by catching flying fish onthe wing (Marchant & Higgins, 1990),where they would be unavailable forother species.6.8.10 Turtle hatchling developmentin ocean currentsDuring juvenile stages, many marineanimals are at the mercy of currents anddo not actively swim or fly to where theyfeed. Despite their relatively large size,this is also true for turtle hatchlings. TheAustralian endemic Flatback Turtle isconfined to the shallow continental shelfand the Kimberley region is identified asone of six major aggregation areas (Limpuset al., 1983). The species lays fewer eggsthan other marine turtles but gives rise tomore fully developed young less prone topredation (Limpus et al., 1984). Like allmarine turtles young are swept in currentsto accumulate in productivity-rich areas(Luschi et al., 2003) but Flatback Turtlesdo not disperse into the ocean (Walker &Parmenter, 1990).It is therefore inherent in the evolution ofa stable breeding population that youngleaving Flatback Turtle nest sites endup in the right locations and do not getswept into currents offshore. As with allmarine species that exist at the populationthreshold of their environment, relativelyfew areas of high productivity are likelyto support a substantial proportion of theregional population.6.8.11 Benthic foraging in beaked whalesAt yet smaller spatial scales, theactivity of pelagic megafauna likeCuvier’s beaked whales is associatedwith undersea features such as deepcanyons (Waring et al., 2001), withrecent evidence that it feeds on benthos(Woodside et al., 2006). This means thatthere may be a direct link to the speciesfrom seabed communities, even in oceanover 1,000m deep (the species has beenrecorded foraging at almost 1,900mdepth) (Peter L. Tyack et al., 2006).Locations with top predators are generallyconsidered to be of high biodiversityvalue (Sergio et al., 2006) and thereis evidence that these habitats supportparticularly abundant aggregations offish (section 6.4)Figure 17 shows a sighting of Cuvier’sbeaked whale at Scott Reef (SimonMustoe, personal observations) situatedabove an area of complex bathymetry,including deep ocean canyons over adepth of about 850m.Figure 17: Location of Cuvier’s beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris sighting inOctober 2004. This species is a characteristic resident of deep ocean canyons.

44. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley6.9 ESTUARIES ANDMIGRATORY BIRDSNorth west Australia is internationallyimportant for a diversity of migrantshorebirds. To place this into perspective,a February 2004 Australian WadersStudy Group expedition to Eighty MileBeach recorded a staggering 2.88 millionOriental Pratincoles Glareola maldivarum.Up until this time, the official East Asian-Australasian flyway population estimatewas 67,000 (Straw, 2004).The region’s Ramsar sites alone supportvery significant proportions of theinternational flyway populations ofseveral species, but particularlyBar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica,Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus,Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes,Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris,Red-necked Stint Calidris rufi collis,Greater Sand Plover Charadriusleschenaultii and Oriental PloverCharadrius veredus (Table 8). Otherspecies also occur in internationallyimportant numbers but may not appearin this table, as they are numericallyless abundant but may nonetheless beimportant.There are also significant numbersof shorebirds distributed throughoutthe estuaries, bays and islands of theKimberley. King Sound is of particularnote as it is the most extensive areaof mudflat in the region. Although thedensity of birds is not as high as inRoebuck Bay (Danny Rogers, AustralianWader study Group pers comm.), itnevertheless supports a very large numberof shorebirds.A gathering of 2.88 million Oriental Pratincoles Glareola maldivarum in the Ramsarsite at Eighty Mile Beach in February 2004. Photo by Chris Hassall.SpeciesRoebuckBayEighty MileBeach (northernend only)Total %flywayBlack-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa 1344 1344 0.9Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica 24245 47179 71424 44.6Little Curlew Numenius minutus 2552 2552 1.4Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus 572 572 1.0Eastern Curlew Numenius madagascariensis 550 550 1.4Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia 2916 2916 2.9Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus 1637 9834 11471 22.9Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes 1947 8396 10343 25.9Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres 893 893 0.9Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris 25325 69210 94535 24.9Red Knot Calidris canutus 2113 9952 12065 5.5Sanderling Calidris alba 1488 632 2120 9.6Red-necked Stint Calidris rufi collis 14051 19685 33736 10.5Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea 1804 4692 6496 3.6Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola 542 681 1223 0.9Red-capped Plover Charadrius rufi capillus 2930 6052 8982 9.5Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii 15131 28467 43597 43.6Oriental Plover Charadrius veredus 1032 49301 50333 71.9Gull-billed Tern Sterna nilotica 815 1877 2692 2.7Crested Tern Sterna bergii 617 617 -Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii 3226 3226 -Common Tern Sterna hirundo 2621 2621 -Little Tern Sterna albifrons 1306 1306 1.3Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus 881 881 0.1White-winged Black TernChlidonias leucopterus727 1247 1974 -Table 8: Average counts of waterbirds at Roebuck Bay and Eighty Mile Beach(northern end only) Ramsar sites in 2004 / 2005 (Rogers et al., 2006c). Only the20 most numerically abundant species for each site are shown. The total countsfor the two sites are given, plus an estimate of the percentage of the East Asian-Australasian Flyway Population, based on official Wetlands International data(Wetlands International, 2006).

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley45.Most of these species are migrants thatmove twice a year to and from breedinglocations throughout Asia and as farnorth as Siberia. The dual availabilityof high quality estuarine feeding habitatand adjacent undisturbed roosts isessential to the viability of populations(Rogers et al., 2006a; Rogers et al.,2006b). Relatively small changes to theviability of either habitat can translateinto shifts in the distribution of birdsand an alteration of carrying capacity(Dolman & Sutherland, 1995).Arctic breeding waders such as GreatKnot, which are a key feature of theRoebuck Bay Ramsar site, stage theirmigration to replenish fat reserves inthe Yellow Sea before continuing their10,000 km flight to breed. In 2006,the completion of a sea wall acrossSaemangeum, at the mouth of theMangyeung and Dongjin Estuaries inSouth Korea meant the immediate andcatastrophic loss of the most importantstaging site in the Yellow Sea (Rogers &van de Kam, 2007). This loss has placedgreater demand on Australia to conservenorth west Australia’s shorebird habitat,since substantial decline in the ability ofbirds to reach migration fitness wouldhave a far greater cumulative impact ontheir ability to maintain this fitness tobreed in the Arctic.This emphasises the need and purpose forinternational agreements, to avoid a greaterthan necessary burden on any particularnation. Nevertheless, the ongoing loss ofstaging areas in central Asia representsan existing condition and one that, due toAustralia’s commitments under a rangeof migratory bird agreements, cannot beignored in managing the ecosystem ofnorth west Australia.6.10 BREEDING ISLANDSBreeding seabirds and turtle rookeries arean exceptional component of the region’scoastal ecosystem, which is relativelyundisturbed. Islands, such as Adele, theLacapedes, Booby Island, Low Rocks,Northeast and Northwest Twin Islands areof national or international significance.Seabirds are unable to breed unless thereis adequate access to feeding resourcesand many species have surprisinglylimited foraging ranges during criticaltimes of the year. Areas such as KingSound are likely to be critical foraginghabitat for Roseate Tern (George Swann,Kimberley Birdwatching pers. comm.),whilst tidal mixing zones with richecological productivity west of AdeleIsland (section 5.3.3) are responsible forthe viability of those seabird colonies.7. CONCLUSION6.11 RIVER MOUTHSAND CREEKSThe mouths of rivers and creeks provideimportant habitat for a range of speciesnot found elsewhere in the region. Theinfluence of the wet season is unknownbut at least one species, Little Tern,appears to depend on this as it is oneof the few seabirds that breeds in midsummer. Geomorphological featuresassociated with sediment, such assand banks, create the environment forseagrass to grow and provide habitatfor summer breeding birds such asLittle Tern. This species is widespreadthroughout the Kimberley but lesscommon in other parts of Australia and isexpected to associate with seagrass bedsand shallow sandy areas.Both Northern River Shark andFreshwater Sawfish are found in theseenvironments. The former specieshas not been seen in Queensland for20 years and the importance of theNorthern Kimberley, which has thelargest remaining populations of both,is put down to the relatively pristineenvironment (Thornburn & Morgan,2003; Thornburn et al., 2004).Biodiversity conservation is one of the pivotal principles of ecologicallysustainable development and is reflected through our laws and policies to protectspecies and their environment.International authorities under the Convention on Biological Diversity agree thatbiodiversity can only be managed from an ecological perspective. Provisionsfor management of the Commonwealth Marine Area and Ramsar sites, NationalOceans Policy, the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment andnumerous Western Australia state policies, reflect Australia’s progressivecommitment to ecologically sustainable development.This report provides an overview of some of the key elements of the Kimberleycoastal and marine ecosystem. Ultimately, it is hoped this will help responsibleauthorities, policy makers and the community identify potentially threateningprocesses and the detail and type of scientific knowledge marine ecologists can useto make a reasoned assessment of biodiversity value and impact significance.

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52. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley9APPENDICESAPPENDIX A: THREATENED ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIESList of Threatened Ecological Communities on the Department of Conservation and Land Management’sThreatened Ecological Community (TEC) Database.WA Threatened Species & Communities Unit, Department of Conservation & Land Management (Correct to January 2004)http://florabase.calm.wa.gov.au/ accessed 30th March 2007Community identifier Community Name General location(IBRA Regions)44. Roebuck Bay mudflats Species-rich faunal community of the intertidalmudfl ats of Roebuck bay67. Monsoon thickets Monsoons (vine) thickets on coastal sand dunesof Dampier PeninsulaCategory of Threatand criteria metunder WA criteriaKimberley VU B)West Kimberley,Dampierland Bioregion80. Theda Soak Assemblages of Theda Soak rainforest swamp North Kimberley VU A), VU B)81. Walcott inlet Assemblages of Walcott Inlet rainforest swamps North Kimberley VU B)82. Roe River Assemblages of Roe River rainforest swamp North Kimberley VU B)84. Dragon Tree Soak Assemblages of Dragon Tree Soak organicmound spring85. Bunda Bunda Assemblages of Bunda Bunda organic moundsprings86. Big Springs Assemblages of Big Springs organic moundsprings89. North KimberleymoundsOrganic mound spring sedgeland community ofthe North Kimberley BioregionKimberley Region,Great Sandy Desert BioregionWest Kimberley,Dampierland BioregionWest Kimberley,Dampierland BioregionVU C)EN B) i)VU A), VU B)VU A), VU B)North Kimberley VU A), VU B)92. Black Spring Black Spring organic mound spring community North Kimberley EN B) i), EN B) ii)95. Mandora Mounds Assemblages of the organic springs and moundsprings of the Madora Marsh areaWest Kimberley, Dampierland andGreat Sandy Desert BioregionsEN B) iii)

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley53.APPENDIX B: THREATENED KIMBERLEY FAUNA (ADAPTEDDEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENT LISTJANUARY 2007; MAWSON, 2007)SpeciesMAMMALIABalaenoptera borealis, Sei WhaleBalaenoptera musculus, Blue WhaleBalaenoptera physalus, Fin WhaleDasycercus cristicauda, Mulgara, MinyiminyiDasyurus hallucatus, Northern QuollIsoodon auratus auratus, Wintarru, Golden BandicootMacrotis lagotis, Bilby, Dalgyte, NinuMegaptera novaeangliae, Humpback WhaleNotoryctes caurinus, Kakarratul, Northern Marsupial-molePetrogale lateralis ssp. (WAM #M15135), West Kimberly ssp.Rhinonicteris aurantius, Orange Leaf-nosed BatSminthopsis butleri, Butler’s DunnartAVESErythrotriorchis radiatus, Red GoshawkErythrura gouldiae, Gouldian FinchFalcunculus frontatus whitei, Crested Shrike-tit (northern)Geophaps smithii blaauwi, Partridge Pigeon (western)Pezoporus occidentalis, Night ParrotRostratula benghalensis australis, Australian Painted SnipeSula dactylatra bedouti, Masked Booby (eastern Indian Ocean)REPTILIACaretta caretta, Loggerhead TurtleChelonia mydas, Green TurtleCtenotus angusticeps, Airlie Island CtenotusDermochelys coriacea, Leatherback TurtleEretmochelys imbricata, Hawksbill TurtleLepidochelys olivacea, Olive Ridley TurtleLerista praefrontalis, Buccaneer Burrowing SkinkNatator depressus, Flatback TurtleACTONOPTERYGII (Bony fish)Pristis zijsron, Green Sawfi shCHONDRICHTHYES (Sharks, rays)Carcharias taurus, Grey Nurse SharkGASTROPODA (Marine, freshwater and terrestrial snails)Amplirhagada astutaCarinotrachia carsonianaCristilabrum bubulumCristilabrum buryillumCristilabrum grossumCristilabrum isolatumCristilabrum monodonCristilabrum primumRankingVUENVUVUENVUVUVUENVUVUVUVUENENVUCRVUVUENVUVUVUVUENVUVUVUVUVUVUENCRCRENCRCR

54. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleySpeciesGASTROPODA (Marine, freshwater and terrestrial snails) CONT.Cristilabrum rectumCristilabrum simplexCristilabrum spectaculumCristilabrum solitudumMouldingia occidentalisMouldingia orientalisNingbingia australis australisNingbingia australis elongataNingbingia bullaNingbinga dentiensNingbingia laurinaNingbingia octavaNingbingia resOrdtrachia elegansTurgenitubulus christenseniTurgenitubulus costusTurgenitubulus depressusTurgenitubulus foramenusTurgenitubulus opiranusTurgenitubulus pagodulaTurgenitubulus tanmurranaWestraltrachia alternaWestraltrachia inopinataRankingCRCRENCRCRVUCRCRCRCRCRCRCRCRENCRCRCRCRVUCRVUVURanking. EX: Extinct, CR: Critically Endangered, EN: Endangered, VU: Vulnerable.Ranking by TSSC, February 2005.

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley55.APPENDIX C: PRIORITY KIMBERLEY FAUNA (ADAPTED DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION ANDENVIRONMENT LIST JANUARY 2007; MAWSON, 2007)SpeciesPriority LevelMAMMALIAHipposideros stenotis, Northern Leaf-nosed Bat 2Hydromys chrysogaster, Rakali or Water Rat 4Lagorchestes conspicillatus leichardti, (mainland) Spectacled Hare-wallaby 3Leggadina lakedownensis, Kerakenga or Lakeland Downs Mouse 4Macroderma gigas, Ghost Bat 4Mesembriomys gouldii gouldii, Djintamoonga, Black-footed Tree-rat 4Mesembriomys macrurus, Golden-backed Tree-rat 4Mormopterus loriae cobourgiana, Little North-western Mastiff Bat 1Orcaella heinsohni, Australian Snubfi n Dolphin 4Petrogale burbidgei, Monjon 4Pseudocheirus dahli, Rock Ringtail 3Sousa chinensis, Indo-Pacifi c Humpback Dolphin 4Stenella longirostris, Spinner Dolphin 4Vespadelus douglasorum, Yellow-lipped Cave Bat 2Wyulda squamicaudata, Ilungnalya, Scaly-tailed Possum 3AVESArdeotis australis, Australian Bustard 4Burhinus grallarius, Bush Stonecurlew 4Falco hypoleucos, Grey Falcon 4Heteromunia pectoralis, Pictorella Mannikin 4Malurus coronatus coronatus Purple-crowned Fairy-wren 4Neochmia rufi cauda subclarescens, Star Finch (western) 4Numenius madagascariensis, Eastern Curlew 4Phaps histrionica, Flock Bronzewing 4Polytelis alexandrae, Princess Parrot 4Turnix castanota, Chestnut-backed Button-quail 4Tyto novaehollandiae kimberli, Masked Owl (northern subspecies) 1Tyto novaehollandiae novaehollandiae, Masked Owl (southern subspecies) 3REPTILIACryptagama aurita 1Ctenotus uber johnstonei 2Ctenotus yampiensis 2Diporiphora convergens 2Lerista bunglebungle 2Lerista kalumburu 2Lerista robusta 1Lerista separanda 2Morelia carinata, Rough-scaled Python 1Ramphotyphlops howi 2Ramphotyphlops micromma 1Ramphotyphlops troglodytes 1Ramphotyphlops yampiensis, Koolan Blind Snake 2Simoselaps minimus 2PRIORITY CODES:Priority One: Taxa with few, poorlyknown populations on threatenedlands. Taxa which are known from fewspecimens or sight records from one or afew localities on lands not managed forconservation, e.g. agricultural or pastorallands, urban areas, active mineral leases.The taxon needs urgent survey andevaluation of conservation status beforeconsideration can be given to declarationas threatened fauna.Priority Two: Taxa with few, poorlyknown populations on conservationlands. Taxa which are known from fewspecimens or sight records from oneor a few localities on lands not underimmediate threat of habitat destructionor degradation, e.g. national parks,conservation parks, nature reserves, Stateforest, vacant Crown land, water reserves,etc. The taxon needs urgent survey andevaluation of conservation status beforeconsideration can be given to declarationas threatened fauna.Priority Three: Taxa with several, poorlyknown populations, some on conservationlands. “Taxa which are known from fewspecimens or sight records from severallocalities, some of which are on landsnot under immediate threat of habitatdestruction or degradation. The taxonneeds urgent survey and evaluation ofconservation status before considerationcan be given to declaration as threatenedfauna.”Priority Four: Taxa in need ofmonitoring. “Taxa which are consideredto have been adequately surveyed, or forwhich sufficient knowledge is available,and which are considered not currentlythreatened or in need of special protection,but could be if present circumstanceschange. These taxa are usuallyrepresented on conservation lands.”

56. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleySpeciesPriority LevelAMPHIBIAUperoleia marmorata, Marbled Toadlet 1Uperoleia minima, Small Toadlet 1CHONDRICHTHYES (Sharks, rays)Glyphis sp. C (WAMP.32597.001), Northern River Shark 1ACTINOPERYGII (Bony fishes)Craterocephalus helenae, Drysdale Hardyhead 2Craterocephalus lentiginosus, Prince Regent Hardyhead 4Hannia greenwayi, Greenway’s Grunter 2Hephaestus epirrhinos, Long-nose Sooty Grunter 2Kimberleyeleotris hutchinsi, Mitchell Gudgeon 4Kimberleyeleotris notata, Drysdale Gudgeon 2Leiopotherapon macrolepis, Large-scale Grunter 2Melanotaenia pygmaea, Pygmy Rainbowfi sh 4Pristis clavata, Dwarf Sawfi sh 1Pristis microdon, Freshwater Sawfi sh 3Syncomistes rastellus, Drysdale Grunter 1GASTROPODA (Marine, freshwater and terrestrial snails)Amplirhagada herbertena 1Amplirhagada montalivetensis 1Amplirhagada novelta 1Amplirhagada questroana 1Baudinella baudinensis 3Damochlora millepunctata 1Damochlora spina 3Hadra wilsoni 2Kimboraga exanimus 3Kimboraga micromphala 2Kimboraga yammerana 1Pilsbrycharopa tumida 1Prymnbriareus nimberlinus 3Rhagada gibbensis 1Rhagada harti 2Torresitrachia thedana 1Westraltrachia lievreana 1Westraltrachia recta 1Westraltrachia subtila 1

Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the KimberleyAPPENDIX D:Threatened species on the EPBC Act (from the Protected Matters Search Tool,Department of Sustainability and Water Resources website). Note, this databaseprovides only an approximation of what species are likely to occur. Some of thespecies on this list may not be found within the coastal Kimberley. Other speciesmay be missing.SpeciesBIRDSRed Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatusGouldian Finch Erythrura gouldiaeCrested Shrike-tit (northern), Northern Shrike-tit Falcunculus frontatus whitePartridge Pigeon (western) Geophaps smithii blaauwiPurple-crowned Fairy-wren (western) Malurus coronatus coronatusAustralian Painted Snipe Rostratula australisMasked Owl (northern) Tyto novaehollandiae kimberliMAMMALSBlue Whale Balaenoptera musculusMulgara Dasycercus cristicaudaNorthern Quoll Dasyurus hallucatusGolden Bandicoot (mainland) Isoodon auratus auratusGreater Bilby Macrotis lagotisHumpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliaeGolden-backed Tree-rat Mesembriomys macrurusBlack-footed Rock-wallaby (West Kimberley race) Petrogale lateralisWest Kimberley raceREPTILESLoggerhead Turtle Caretta carettaGreen Turtle Chelonia mydasAirlie Island Ctenotus Ctenotus angusticepsLeathery Turtle, Leatherback Turtle, Luth Dermochelys coriaceaGreat Desert Skink, Tjakura, Warrarna, Mulyamiji Egernia kintoreiHawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricataFlatback Turtle Natator depressusSHARKSFreshwater Sawfi sh Pristis microdonWhale Shark Rhincodon typusPLANTSEdgar Range Pandanus Pandanus spiralis var. fl ammeusStatusVulnerableEndangeredVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableEndangeredVulnerableEndangeredVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableEndangeredVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableVulnerableEndangered