13.1 through 13.5, 13.10 and 13.11

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498 Chapter 13 Disk Storage, Basic File Structures, and HashingTable 13.3Trends in Disk TechnologyAreal densityLinear densityInter-track densityCapacity(3.5-inch form factor)Transfer rateSeek time1993 Parameter Values*50-150 Mb/sq. inch40,000-60,000 bits/inch1500-3000 tracks/inch100-2000 MB3-4 MB/s7-20 msHistorical Rate oflmprovement perYear (o/o)*27t3l0272282003 Values.-36 Gb/sq. inch570 Kb/inch64,000 tracks/inch146 GB43-78 MB/sec3.5-6 ms*Source:Fronr Chen, Lee, Gibson, Katz, and Patterson (1994), ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 26, No. 2 ( June 1994).Reprinted by permission.**Sorrrcc:IBM Ultrastar 36XP and lSZX hard disk drives.Disk 0 Disk 1 Disk 2 Disk 3Figure 13.12Data striping. File A isctrincd enrncc {n"rdisks.13.10.1 lmproving Reliability with raidFor an array of n disks, the likelihood of failure is n times as much as that for onedisk. Hence, if the MTTF (Mean Time To Failure) of a disk drive is assumed ro be200,000 hours or about 22.8 years (typical times range up to I million hours), thatof a bank of 100 disk drives becomes only 2000 hours or 83.3 days. Keeping a singlecopy of data in such an array of disks will cause a significant loss of reliability. Anobvious solution is to employ redundancy of data so that disk failures can be tolerated.The disadvantages are many: additional I/o operations for write, extra computationto maintain redundancy and to do recovery from errors, and additionaldisk capacity to store redundant information.one technique for introducing redundancy is called mirroring or shadowing. Datais written redundantly to two identical physical disks that are treated as one logicaldisk. \44-ren data is read, it can be retrieved from the disk with shorter queuing, seek,and rotational delays. If a disk fails, the other disk is used until the first is repaired.Suppose the mean time to repair is 24 hours, then the mean time to data klss of a
13. 10 Parallelizing Disk Access Using RAID Technology499mirrored disk system using 100 disks with MTTF of 200,000 hours each is(200,000)r/(2 x 24) = 8.33 * 108 hours, which is 95,028 years.rs Disk mirroring alsodoubles the rate at which read requests are handled, since a read can go to either disk.The transfer rate of each read, however, remains the same as that for a single disk.:h;/inchAnother solution to the problem of reiiability is to store extra information that is notnormally needed but that can be used to reconstruct the lost information in case ofdisk failure. The incorporation of redundancy must consider two problems: selectinga technique for computing the redundant information, and selecting a method ofdistributing the redundant information across the disk array. The first problen-r isaddressed by using error correcting codes involving parity bits, or specialized codessuch as Hamming codes. Under the parity scheme, a redundant disk may be consideredas having the sum of all the data in the other disks. When a disk fails, the n-rissinginformation can be constructed by a proces similar to subtraction.For the second problem, the two major approaches are either to store the redundantinformation on a small number of disks or to distribute it uniformly across all disks.The latter results in better load balancing. The different levels of RAID choose acombination of these options to implement redundancy and improve reliability.--\-lI)or oneItobe;), that. singlerty. Anr toler-I COmitionalg. Datalogical{, seek,raired.ss of a13.10.2 lmproving Performance with raidThe disk arrays employ the technique of data striping to achieve higher transferrates. Note that data can be read or written only one block at a time, so a typicaltransfer contains 512 to 8\92 bytes. Disk striping may be applied at a finer granularityby breaking up a byte of data into bits and spreading the bits to different disks.Thus, bit-level data striping consists of splitting a byte of data and writing bit j tothe jth disk. With 8-bit bytes, eight physical disks may be considered as one logicaldisk with an eightfold increase in the data transfer rate. Each disk participates ineach I/O request and the total amount of data read per request is eight times asmuch. Bit-level striping can be generalized to a number of disks that is either a multipleor a factor of eight. Thus, in a four-disk array, bit n goes to the disk which is (irmod 4).The granularity of data interleaving can be higher than a bit; for example, biocks ofa file can be striped across disks, giving rise to block-level striping. Figure 13.12shows block-level data striping assuming the data file contained four blocks. Withblock-level striping, multiple independent requests that accessingle blocks (smailrequests) can be serviced in parallel by separate disks, thus decreasing the queuingtime of I/O requests. Requests that access multiple blocks (large requests) can beparallelized, thus reducing their response time. In general, the more the nuntber ofdisks in an array, the larger the potential performance benefit. However, assumingindependent failures, the disk array of 100 disks collectively has a 1/100th the reliabilityof a single disk. Thus, redundancy via error-correcting codes and disk mirroringis necessary to provide reliability along with high performance.13, The formulas for MTTF ca culations appear in Chen et al, (1994).
Page 1 and 2: -\,--{+.nupt",. 1 3Disk StoragG, Ba
Page 3 and 4: 13.1 Introduction!( ) frl \.i()tl t
Page 5 and 6: 13.2 Secondarv Storaoe Devices467to
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Page 17 and 18: engtht."IIInumber of records per bl
Page 19 and 20: 13.5 Ooerations on Files481artment.
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13.1 through 13.5, 13.10 and 13.11

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