design considerations for aluminum hull structures - Ship Structure ...

CONTENTSI.. II.III.Iv.v.VI ●VII.INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Scope of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Selection of Bulk Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . .MATERIAL AND DESIGN STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . .Review of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . .Operations of Existing Aluminum Ships . . . . . . . .Design Criteria for Hull Structure . , . . . . . .Fabrication of Large Aluminum Hulls . . . . . . . .Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Installation of Systems and Equipment , . . . . . . .Operational Characteristics of an Aluminum BulkCarrier . . . . . ● . . . . . . . . . . . .COMPARATIVE SHIP DESIGN AND EVALUATION . . . . . . . . .COST STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . .RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDY . . . . . . . . . .CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . .LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . ● . . . . ● *...PAGE11337737425860708586!37109111115APPENDICESABDETERMINATION OF LONG-TERN BENDING MOMENTS FORALUMINUM BULK CARRIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . .EXCERPTS FROM RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR CARGOAND MISCELLANEOUS VESSELS . . . . . . . . . . . . .121124,..c FIRETESTMETHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127iii

297able as interliners for mattresses in the United States [12]. The regulatorsshould be aware that changing the test configuration, i.e. by usingcushions, may influence the result of the test.A significant proportion of upholstery fires are initiated by smallflaming sources, i.e., children playing with matches. In the BritishStandard BS 5438, the simulation of a match type flame by using abutane gas burner seems to be realistic and was adopted by the appropriateTechnical Committee of the International Organization forStandardization. As far as the flame application time is concerned, aunanimous agreement could not be reached by the international experts.The French and German experts demanded the flame applicationtime be reduced from 20s to 15s on the grounds that a 15s steadystate butane flame seems to adequately simulate the moving matchflame as shown in Figures 8 and 9.This 15s flame impingement time is required in the relevant GermanStandard and other draft Standards concerning building products andfurniture [15-17].The harmonization of the large ignition sources is much more contentious.The British philosophy is to provide a range of ignition sources toenable the regulator/specifier to select the appropriate level of performance.However, the French and German experts would prefer alimited number of ignition sources that have been selected and welldefined by the experts.It is intended that the effectiveness of the larger ignition sources willbe examined by an international round robin test programme. As far asthe test philosophy is concerned, it seems to be reasonable that theFigure 8. Movement of the flame frontDownloaded from http://jfs.sagepub.com by naian liu on February 16, 2007© 1989 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.

LIST OF FIGURES(Cent’d)FIGURE NO.PAGE19Required Freight Rate Versus Round Voyage. . . . . . . . . . . 10320212223Required Freight Rate Versus Ship Investmentcost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Required Freight Rate Versus Ship Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . 104Annual Transport Capability Versus RoundVoyage Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104Required Freight Rate Versus Round Voyage -Three Legs - Weight Sensitive Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109*****1ALong Term Distribution of Vertical Bending Moment(For Preliminary Design). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123clStandard Time - Temperature Curve For FireTests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128vii

SHIP STRUCTURECOMMITTEEThe SHIP STRUCTURE COMMITTEE is constituted to prosecute a researchprogram to improve the hull structures of ships by an extension of knowledgepertaining to design, materials and methods of fabrication.RADM W. F. Rea, III, USCG, ChairmanChief, Office of Merchant Marine SafetyU, S. Coast Guard HeadquartersCapt. J. E. Rasmussen, USNHead, Ship Engineering DivisionNaval Ship Engineering CenterCapt. T. J. Banvard, USNMaintenance and Repair OfficerMilitary,Sealift Commandt!;!e:.S. DillonOffice of Ship ConstructionMaritime AdministrationMr. C. J. L. Scho.efer,Vice PresidentAmerican Bureau of ShippingSHIP STRUCTURE SUBCOMMITTEEThe SHIP STRUCTURE SUBCOMMITTEE acts for the Ship Structure Committeeon technical matters by providing technical coordination for the determinationof goals and objectives of the program, and by evaluating and interpreting theresults in terms of ship structural design, construction, and operation.NAVAL SHIP ENGINEERING CENTERU. S, COAST GUARDMr. P, M. Palermo - ChairmanMr, J. B. O’Brien - Contract AdministratorMr. G. Sorkin - MemberMr. H. S. Sayre - AlternateMr. I. Fioriti - AlternateMARITIME ADMINISTRATIONMr. F. Dashnaw - MemberMr. A. Maillar - MemberMr. R. Falls - AlternateMr. Raymond F. Coombs - AlternateAMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPINGMr. S. G. Stiansen - MemberMr. F. J. Crum - MemberOFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCHMr. J. M. Crowley - MemberDr. W. G. Rauch - AlternateLCDR C. S. Loosmore, USCG - SecretaryCDR C. R. Thompson, USCG - MemberCDR J. W. Kime, USCG - AlternateCDR J. L. Coburn - AlternateNATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCESMr. R. W. Rumke, LiaisonProf. R. A. Yagle, LiaisonSOCIETY OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS & MARINEENGINEERSMr. T. M. Buermann, LiaisonAMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTEMr. J. R. Lecron, LiaisonBRITISH NAVY STAFFNAVAL SHIP RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT CENTERMr. A. B. Stavovy - AlternateMILITARY SEALIFT COMMANDMr. R, R. Askren - MemberLt. J. G. Ervin T. Powers. USNR -MemberDr. V. Flint, LiaisonCDR P. H. H. Ablett, RCNC, LiaisonWELDING RESEARCH COUNCILMr. K. H. Koopman, LiaisonMr. C. Larson, Liaisonviii

I. INTRODUCTIONThis report summarizes the results of a study of the present technicalstate of the art to determine the feasibility of economical constructionand operation of a large high density deadweight carrier constructedentirely of aluminum.The present level of technology in the aluminum industry is sufficientlyadvanced to warrant active consideration of the use of aluminumfor a large bulk carrier. This study is given further impetus by therecent emphasis of life cycle cost, which has provided the techniquesnecessary to justify higher initial expenditures where the potential forlong-term economic benefits exist.BackgroundAluminum alloys suitable for use in a marine environment have beenavailable for approximately 30 years, offeri~ significant advantages inreducing structural weight and hull maintenance. However, the unitmaterial cost of aluminum alloys is presently between 5 and 6 times thatof mild steel. The use of aluminum alloys generally reduces hull structuralweight by approximately SO per cent relative to steel, so that the totalmaterial cost of an aluminum hull will be between 2-1/2 and 3 times thatof a comparable steel hull. Since aluminum construct~on does not generallyresult in a significant reduction in the labor costs for hull construction,the higher material cost produces a corresponding increase in overall constructioncost which must be passed on to the purchaser. This factor hasgenerally restricted the use of aluminum to the following marine applications:o High-speed hull forms, particularly planing hulls, where thehigher hull cost can be justified on the basis of superiorperformance.o Special applications where the resistance of aluminum tospecific corrosive environments is required.o Superstructures , where the reduction in topside weight justifiesthe higher material cost.o Applications where light hull weight is essential to suitdraft limitations or lifting requirements.k addition to the foregoing restrictions, the introduction ofaluminum alloys into the marine industry has encountered technical difficultiesin some areas, resulting from either the basic characteristicsof aluminum alloys, or from misuse of these alloys during fabrication.Among lrtheprobl~mslf experienced with aluminum marine applications are:o Early problems with the introduction of aircraft-type alloysand fastening methods which were unsuited for a marineenvironment.o Problems with welding prior to the introduction of the ~000series alloys. Although these problems have been largely

-d-”overcome, careful consideration must still be given to strengthdegradation, locked-in stresses and distortion in way of welds.oFYoblems with isolation of dissimilar metals, particularlyat mechanically-fastened joints between aluminum and steelstructures exposed to salt water. Additional problems occurwith installation of piping and equipment, shafting, propellers~mooring and anchor gearj etc.o LowfizwreSistanc eofalumi,numst?Wcturw. Th3sha9 requiredextensiveinvestigation due to the low melting point of aluminum andgross loss of structural integrity resulting from fire.oooExfoliation of the 5456 alloy in the N&vy patral andassault craft, and crevice corrosion in way of welds anddiscontfiuities.Use of improper primer/paint systems.Improper fabrication of aluminum weldments due to lack ofqualified welders. This problem has largely disappeared atfacilities where a significant quantity of thei~ productionis of aluminum construction.The aforementioned limitations and problem areas have tended torestrict the use of aluminum to smaller hulls and other specializedapplications in the marine field until recent years. However, as thetechnical problems have been overcome and the state of the art in fabricatingaluminum structures has advanced, aluminum has been consideredand used in larger hulk, including:ooU. S. Navy 8)J foot LCM-8 landing craft.U. S. Navy PGM high-speed patrol craft, 154 feet long.o 2440 Thefoot oceanographic vessel SEA PROBE, now under construction.shallow draft tanker ‘;INDEFENDENCE”,118 feet long.oThetrailership IISAC&rjBORINCANOff,306 feet long.ooooCommercial and military hydrofoils.86 foot aluminum purse seiner, presently under construction.223 foot aluminum barge “ALUMINIL”.160 foot ferry GTS ‘TAVALONT’.A major factor affecting the future of aluminum in marine applicationsis the recent trend toward evaluation of life cycle cost, in which allfactors affecting the economics of a specific system are evaluated overthe lifetime of the system to determine total cost throughout its li~e.The use of life cycle cost techniques permits the designer and economistto trade-off higher first cost of an aluminum ship against potential fuelsavings or increased earning capacity resulting from lighter hull weight,as well as economies in hull maintenance and higher scrap or resale value.This factor, in conjunction with the recent advances in the state of the

art in fabricating and maintaining aluminum, justifies consideration ofaluminum in the construction of a large hull such as the bulk carrierpresently under consideration.-3-Scope ofStudyThis program consisted of four phases:-.o Material and Design Studies including a review of alloyproperties, development of criteria, methods of fabrication,fire resistance , effect on systems and effects on operations.0 Comparative Ship Design and Evaluation, including modificationof the selected steel bulk carrier to suit 1969 strengthstandards, and design of an equivalent aluminum bulk carrier:dimensions, midship section, weights, and construction cost.o Cost Studies, wherein equivalent steel and aluminum bulkcarriers are analyzed to determine relative required freightrates over several trade routes and for operating lives offrom 20 to 30 years. These studies are conducted for bothsingle hull and multi-hull procurement.o Recommended Areas for Further Study wherein a research programiS proposed for extending this study in areas requiring furtherinvestigation.The study was originally specified to be based upon comparison to anexisting US-built bulk carrier or a realistic design study reflectingABS requirements. Since few, if any, large ocean going high-densitybulk carriers have been built in this country in the past 20 years,this study is based on a hypothetical ship which is physically identical*O a recent large foreign built bulk carrier approvedby ABS. All costfactors are based upon construction in the United States and operationunder the American Flag. This approach is considered preferable tobasing this work on a design study, since the physical characteristicsof the existing base line ship are well doc~ented and fully proven inservice.Selection of Bulk CarrierThe ship selected as a basis for developing the hypothetical highden.sitybulk carrier is the M.V. CHALLENGER. This ship is an ocesn goingflush deck bulk carrier with raised forecastle and poop, 6 cargo holdsand machinery aft. The characteristics of the CHALLENGER are summarizedin Table 1.

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MONTEROSSO GRANA /17VALGRANA / CARAGLIO[Proposta di itinerario da svolgersi inautonomia]domenica 5 agostoSUGGERIMENTI PER IL MATTINOvisita al Mulino-Segheria 1 in località SanPietro a Monterosso Grana / visita al Museodei Babaciu 2 (in località San Pietro aMonterosso Grana)SUGGERIMENTI PER IL POMERIGGIOtrasferimento in auto per visita alla Cappelladi San Sebastiano 3 a Monterosso Grana /trasferimento in auto per visita alla Chiesa diSanta Maria della Valle 4 a Valgrana /trasferimento in auto per visita alla Chiesa diSan Giovanni Battista 5 a Caraglio28San Sebastiano❸❹Loc. San PietroMonterosso Grana❶ ❷Mulino-Segheria Museo dei Babaciu❶ visitabile in orario 9.30-12.30❷ visitabile tutto l’anno❸❹❺ visite gratuite Mistà in orario 14.30-18.30Santa Maria della ValleSan Giovanni Battista❺Valgrana18 CASTELMAGNO /MONTEROSSO GRANA[Proposta di itinerario con parzialeaccompagnamento]sabato 4, domenica 12 e sabato25 agostoprenotazione obbligatoria per l’escursioneSUGGERIMENTI PER IL MATTINOescursione guidata alla borgata Narbona 1a Castelmagno, con partenza da borgataColletto (Castelmagno)SUGGERIMENTI PER IL POMERIGGIOtrasferimento in auto per visita al Museo deiBabaciu 2 in località San Pietro a MonterossoGrana / visita al Mulino-Segheria 3(in località San Pietro a Monterosso Grana)Caraglio❶ escursione gratuita; prenotazione obbligatoria alloIat Valle Maira tel 0171 917080 entro le ore 16 delvenerdì antecedente l’escursione / max 25partecipanti❷ visitabile tutto l’anno❸ visitabile in orario 14.30-18.30Narbona❶CastelmagnoCollettoPradlevesMulino-SegheriaCoppelle del Monte Ribè❶FriseMONTEROSSO GRANA /19VALGRANA / CARAGLIO[Proposta di itinerario con parzialeaccompagnamento]sabato 21 luglio e domenica 26agostoprenotazione obbligatoria per l’escursioneSUGGERIMENTI PER IL MATTINOescursione guidata alle coppelle del MonteMonterosso Grana❸❷Loc. San PietroMuseo dei BabaciuRibè 1 in località Frise a Monterosso Grana,con partenza alle opre 9.30 da borgata Frise(Monterosso Grana)SUGGERIMENTI PER IL POMERIGGIOtrasferimento in auto per visita alMonumento alla Resistenza - Anticaruota del mulino 2 a Valgrana / trasferimentoin auto per visita al Filatoio e Museo delSetificio Piemontese 3 a CaraglioFilatoio e Museo Setificio Piemontese❸Monumento Resistenza❷CaraglioValgranaMonterosso Grana❶ escursione gratuita; prenotazione obbligatoria alloIat Valle Maira tel 0171 917080 entro le ore 16 delvenerdì antecedente l’escursione / max 25partecipanti❷ visibile tutto l’anno❸ regolarmente aperto sino al mese di dicembre: dagiovedì a sabato in orario 14.30-19, domenica efestivi in orario 10-19 / ingresso a pagamento, intero€ 629

-7-11, MATERIAL AND DESIGN STUDIESIIA . REVIEW OF ALUMINUM ALLOYSThis section includes a comprehensive review of the properties ofweldable aluminum alloys suitable for a marine environment and the selectionof the most appropriate alloy or alloys for the construction of alarge aluminum bulk carrier. In.order to limit the scope of the study,only S000 series alloys are considered for hull structure. Although 6000series alloys, such as 6051, have excellent salt water corrosion resistance,their weldability is not considered suitable for welded structural applications.However, 6000 series alloys could be considered for catwalks, joinerpanels and other similar applications.The areas covered in this review include the following:1. Mechanical Properties (Static and Fatigue)2. Toughness3. Buckling Strength4* Corrosion and Abrasion5. Weldability and Workability6. Alloy Material Cost7* Selection of AlloysMechanical Properties (Static and Fati~e)This phase of the aluminm bulk carrier feasibility study is a reviewof alloy properties including parent and welded static and fatigue strengthsfor 5000 series aluminum alloys.The follotig factors have a primary effect on the static and fatiguestrengths of parent and welded aluminum, and are herein evaluated quantitatively,where possible, or qualitatively: alloy temper, material thickness,weld procedure: filler wire alloy, type of weld - single veg butt,double vee butt, fillet, etc., weld process (MIG, TIG, etc.), weld defects,cold working, surface finish of parent metal and weld, stress concentrationssuch as notches, craters , welds, etc., service environment, differences inlaboratory test specimens and test procedures.Cumulative fatigue, low and elevated temperatures, composition andgrain size are discussed, However, the effects of these latter factors onthe static and fatigue properties of parent and welded aluminum alloys arebeyond the scope of this study. Future required theoretical and experimentalinvestigations, are defined.

-8-Numerous references have been reviewed and those pertinent to thisstudy are References (1) through (36). The tables and curves presentedwere obtained from the references and represent typical or averagevalues. Some of the values are based on little data, while others aretypical of the values obtained from numerous tests. In Ming thesevalues or curves for design purposes, it is recognized that they oftenrepresent relative trends, ard can be used only to compare materials anddefine those variables that affect the material properties evaluated. Amore complete literature survey and evaluation of properties is beingperformed by the American Welding Society, in preparation for a majortest program.StaticPro~ertiesTable 2, obtained from Reference (l), presents minimum, maximum andtypical static strength values for unwelded 5000 series aluminum sheetand plate. The values are obtained from many tests and are accuratelyrepresentative of the material properties. Table 3 presents unweldedstatic strength limits for ~000 series aluminum extrusions. Table 4presents values for the static strength of butt-welded S000 seriesaluminum alloystested in axial tension. The average values are obtainedfrom both field and laboratory welded specimens of various thicknesses anddimensions, References (2) through (17). Values are presented for specimensin the as-welded condition with the bead on and for specimens withthe weld bead machined flush with the parent material or bead off. Whereundefined, the values correspond to specimens in the as-welded condition.Results for specimens with weld defects are not included, and no differentiationis made for filler wire, type of weld, weld process or specimengeomet~ since the effects of these variables are no more significant thannormal test scatter. Several possible inconsistencies are noted inTable 4 relative to the average elongation figures. In some.cases, beadon values are greater than bead off values, which is questionable. Inother cases, the average values are equal to or slightly less than theminimum values of Tables 2 and 3. These inconsistencies reflect therelatively limited data available on average elongations, and the needfor more consistent testing.Comparison of Tables 2, 3 and 4 clearly indicates that, for all ~000series alloys investigated, annealed parent materisls butt-welded annealedmaterial and butt-welded tempered material possess approximately the sameultimate and yield strengths under static load. The elongation of weldedalloys, annealed or tempered, approaches that of tempered parent material,due to stress concentrations, residual stresses in the weld and metallurgicalfac tore. These results establish that the static strength properties ,df~,000 series aluminum welds are approximately equal to the static strengthproperties of annealed (O temper) parent material.

-9-TABLE 2. Mechanical Properties of A-uminum Alloy Sheet and PlatePART A - Property Limitso1ALLOYANDTEMPERTHICKNESS@in.TENSILE STRENGTH–k,i (kg/mm’)ELONGATlONULTIMATEYl~LDpercent minin 2 in.min mnx min mmx or 4D@50505050-00.006-0.0070.008-0.0190.020.0.0310.032-0.1130.114-0.2490.250.3.000T&o (12.7)18.0 (12.7)18.0 (12.7)18.0 (12.7)18.0 (12.7)18.0 (12.7)24.0 (16.9)24.0 (16.9)24.0 (16.9)24.0 (16.9)24.0 (16.9)24.0 (16.9)6.0 (4.2)@)6.0 (4.2)@6.0 (4.2) @6.0 (4.2)@6.0(4.2)@6.0(4.2)@ii1?22205050 -H32@ 0.017-0.0500.051-0.24922.0 (15.5)22.0 (15.5)28.0 (19.7)2s,0 (19.7)16.0(11.2)@16.0 (11.2)@460.009-0.031 25.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8) 20.0 (14.l)@ 35050-H34@ 0.032-0.050 25.0 (17.6) 31,0 (21.8) 20.0 (14.l)@ 40.051.0.249 25.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8) 20.0 (14.l)@ ,. 50.006-0.019 27.0 (19.0) 33.0 (23.2) 22.0 (15.5)@ 25050-l+ 36@ 0.020-0.050 27.0 (19.0) 33,0 (23.2) 22.0(15.5)@ ,: 30.051-0.162 27.0 (19.0) 33,0 (23.2) 22.0 (15.5)@ 40.006-0.007 29.0 (20.4),.5050-H38 0.008-0.03129.0 (20.4) 20.032.0.050 29.0 (20.4)0.051.0.128 29.0 (20.4) ,, ;5050-H 112 0.250-3.000 20.0 (14.1) 8.0 (5.6)@ 1250525052-00.006-0.0070.008-0.0120.013-0.0190.020-0.0310.032-0.0500.051-0.1130.114-0.2490.250-3.00025.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8)25.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8)25.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8)25.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8)25.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8)25.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8)25.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8)25.0 (17.6) 31.0 (21.8)9.5 (6.7)09.5 (6.7)@I9.5 (6.7)@9.5 (6.7)@9.5 (6.7)@9.5 (6.7)@9.5 (6.7)@9.5 (6.7)@5052 -H32@0.017-0.0190.020-0.0500.051-0.1130.114-0.2490.250-0.4990.500.2.00031.0 (21.8) 38.0(26.7) “31.0 (21.8) 38.0 (26.7)31.0 (21.8) 38.0 (26.7)31.0 (21.B) 38.0 (26.7)31.0 (21.8) 38.0 (26.7)31.0 (21.8) 38.0 (26.7)23.0(16.2)@)23.0(16.2)@23.0(16.2)@23.0 (16.2)@23.0(16.2)@ .“23.0 (16.2)@457911125052-H34@0.009-0.0190.020-0.0500.051-0.1130.114.0.2490.250.1.00034.0 (23.9) 41.0 (28.8)34.0 (23.9) 41.0 (28.8)34.0 (23.9) 41.0 (28.8)34.0 (23.9) 41.0 [28.8)34.0 (23.9) 41.0 (28.8)26.0(18.3)(@26.0 (18.3)@26.0(18.3)@26.0 (18.3)(@26.0(18.3)@ :’3467105052-H36@0.006-0.0070.008-0.0310.032-0.16237.0 (26.0) 44.0 (30.9)37.0 (26.0) 44.0 (30.9)37.0 (26.0) 44.0 (30.9)29.0 (20.4)@J29,0(20.4)@ ,.29.0 (20.4)@l2345052-H38@0.006-0.007 —0.008-0.0310.0320.12839.0 (27.4)39.0 (27.4)39.0 (27.4)32.0 (22.5)@32.0 (22.5)@32.0(22.5)@) :’2345052-H 1120.250-0.4990.500.2.0002.001-3.00028.0 (19.7)25.0 (17.6)25.0 (17.6)16.0 (11.2)@)9.5(6.7)@9.5 (6.7)@ .,71216For all numbered Footnotes, see Page 13.

.10.TABLE 2. Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloy Sheet and PlatePART A- Property LimitQ1 (cont.)TENSILE STRENGTH–k$i (kg/mm’) ELONGATIONAL1OY THICKNESS@ ULTIMATE YIELDpmrc*nt minANDin.in 2 in.TEMPERmin mnx min max or 4D@50830.051-1.500 40.0 (28.1 ) 51.0 (35.9) 18.0 (12.7) 29.0 (20.4) 161.501-3.000 39.0 (27.4) 50.0 (35.2) 17.0 (12.0) 29.0 (20.4) 163.001-4.000 3S.0 (267j 16.0 (11.2) 165083-0 4.001-5.000 38.0 (26.7) 16.0 (11 .2) 145.001-7.000 37.0 (26.0) 15.0 (10.5) 1A7.001 -S.000 36.0 (25.3) 14.0 (9.8) 125083-HI 12 0.250-1.500 40.0 (28.1) 18.0 (12.7) ., 121.501.3.000 39.0 (27.4) 17.0 (12.0) ., 125083-H321 0.188-1.500 44.0 (30.9) 5&o (39.4) 31.0 (21 .8) 43.0 (30.2) 121.501-3.000 41.0 (28.8) 56.0 (39.4) 29.0 (20.4) 43.0 (30.2) 1250E3-H323 0.051-0.125 45.0 (31 .6) 54.0 (38.0) 34.0 (23.9) 44.0 (30.9) 80.126-0.249 45.0 (31 .6) 54.0 (38.0) 34.0 (23.9) 44.0 (30.9) 105083 -H343 0.051-0.125 50.0 (35.2) 59.0 (41 .5) 39.0 (27.4) 49

-11-TABLE 2 Mechan”cal Properties of Aluminum Sheet and PlatePART ~ - (cont.)ALLOYANDTEMPERThickness@)in.kTENSILE STRENGTH–ksi (kg/mmc)ELONGATION—.—ULTIMATE YIELD “-— ..”-pcwtent minin 2 in.min max min + max or 4D@525238.0 (26.7)39.0 (27.4)~- ~~:~w5257---E%--’-m-”-”T-”’--’-m54540.020-0.031 ‘“ 31.0 (21.8) 41.0 (28.8) 12.0 (8.4) 125454-o 0.032-0.050 31.0 (21.8) 41.0 (28.8) 12.0 (8.4) 140.051-0.113 31.0 (21 .8) 41,0 (28.8) 12.0 (8.4) 760.114-3.000 31.0 (21.8) 41.0 (28.8) 12.0 (8.4)—.. .,” .——180.020-0.050 ‘ 36.0(25.3) “- 44.0(30.9) 26.0 (18.3) 55454 -H32@0.051-0.249 36.0 (25.3) 44.0 (30.9) 26.0 (18.3) 80.250-2.000 36.0 (25.3)—. .—44.0 (30.9) 26,0 (18.3).—.——.120.020-0.05039.0 (27.4) 47.0 (33.0) 29.0(20.4) “- T5454 -H34@0.051.0.161 39.0 (27.4) 47.0 (33.0) 29.0 (20.4) 60.162-0.249 39.0 (27.4) 47.0 (33.0) 29.0 (20.4) 70.250-1.000 39.0 (27.4) 47.0 (33.0) 29.0 (20.4).— - .—10—..—0.250-0.49932.0 (22.5) 18.0 (12.7) 85454-H 1120.500-2.000 31.0 (21.8) 12.0 (8.4) 112.001 “3.000 31.0 (21.8) 12.0 (8.4) 15.—54560.051-1.500 42.0 (29.5) 53.0 (37.3) 19.0 (13.4) 30.0 (21.1) 161.501-3.000 41.0 (28.8) 52.o (36.6) 18.0 (12.7) 30.0 (21.1) 165456-O 3.001-5.000 40.0 (28.1) 17.0 (12.0) 145.001-7.000 39.0 (27.4) 16.0 (1 1.2) 14.-7.001-8.000. .,38.0 (26.7) 15.0 (10.5) ., 12--.—5456-H 1120.250-1.500 42.0 (29.5) - 19.0 (13.4) 121.501-3.000 41,0 (28.8) 18.0 (12.7),----- .120.188-0.624 46.0 (32.3) 59.0 (41.5) 33.0 (23.2) 46.0 (32.3) 125456-H321 0.625-1.250 46.0 (32.3) 56.0 (39.4) 33.0 (23.2) 45.0 (31 .6) 121.251-1.500 44.0 (30.9) 56.0 (39.4) 31.0 (21.8) 43.0 (30.2) 12.-1.501.3.000 41.0 (28.8) 56.0 (39.4) 29.0 (20.4) 43.0 (30.2)—...125456-H 323 0.051-0.125 48+o(33 .7) ““-- 58,0(40,8) 36.0 (25.3) 46.0 (32.3] 6,..0.126-0.249 48.0 (33.7) 58.0 (40,8) 36.0 (25.3)—,—46.0 (32.3) 85456-H343 0.051.0.125 53.0 (37,3) 63.0 (44.3) 41.0 (28.8) 51.0 (35.9) 60.126-0.249.53.0 (37.3) 63.0 (44.3) 41.0 (28.8) 51.0 (35.9).-85457.. . .——5457-0 0.030-0.090 16.0 (11.2) 22.0 (15.5) 20 ‘“’—I. .—5557-o— ~=’-of’”555713.0 (9.1) 20.0(14,1) ““’]~ 20., . ..—5657-..56~5657-H255657-H265657-H28E; ‘~-..mFor all nwmbered Footnotes, see Page 13,

TABLE 2 Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Sheet and Plate@PART B - Tynical Propertie

-13-FOOTNOTES(Part A - Pages 9-11)Mechanical test specimens are taken as detailed under T%mpling and Testing~l,pages 52-54 of Reference (l).Type of test specimen used depends on thickness of material; see L%mplingand Testingll, pages 52-54 of Reference (1).For the correspofiing H2 temper, limits for maximum ultimate tensile strengthand rninim”umyield strength do not apply.This material is subject to some rec~stallization and the attendant lossof brightness.D represents specimen diameter.These yield strengths not determined unless specifically requested.(Part B - Page 12)These typical properties are average for variousof manufacture, afi may not exactly describe anyforms, sizes and methodsone particular product.Based on$OO,OOO,OOO cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R.Wore type of machine and spec~en.Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is about2% greater than tension modulus.

TABLE 3 Mechanical Property Limits of Aluminum Alloy ExtrusionsPart A - Extruded Rod and BarALLOYAND TEMPER-14-DIAMETERELONGA-OR LEAST TENSILE STRENGTH–ksi (kg/mmg) TIONDISTANCE——— —. .—.—-.———...percentBETWEENULTIMATE YIELD min inPARALLEL FACES AREA 2 in.in. sq in. min mux min mnx or 4D50s3-...-—- ——. . .“” . ..-.. -.—5083-0 Up thru 5.000 Up thru 32 39.0 (27.4) 51.0 (35.9) 16.0(11.2) 145083-Hill Up thru 5.000 Up thru 32 40.0 (28.1) 24.0 (16.9) 125083-H112 Up thru 5.OOO Up thru 32——39.0 (27.4) 16.0 (11.2) 125086——5086-0 Up thru 5.000 Up thru 32 35.0 (24.6) 46,0 (32.3) 14.0 (9.8) 145086-H111 Up thru 5.000 UP thru 32 36.0 (25.3) 21.0 (14.8) 125086-H112.—. -—Upthru5.000 Up thru 32 35.0 (24.6) 14.0 (9.8) 1251545154-0AllAll 30.0 (21,1) 41,0 (28.8) 11.0 (7.7)5154-H112 I .,All All 30+0 (21.1) 11.0 (7.7) .,II54545454-o Upthru5.0005454-H 111 Upthru5.0005454-H 112 Up thru 5.000Up thru 32 31.0 (21.8) 41.0 (28.8) 12.0(8.4) 1.4Up thru 32 33.0 (23.2)Up thru 32 31.0 (21.8) I :;: [/4? ;:54565456-O Up thru 5.0005456-Hi 11 Up thru 5.0005456-Hi 12 Up thru 5.000Up thru 32 41.0 (28.8) 53.0 (37.3) 19.0 (13.4) 14Up thru 32 42.0 (29.5) 26.0 (18.3) 12Upthru32 41.0 (28.8) 19.0 (13.4) 12TABLE 4 Static Properties of Welded Aluminum A1lOYS1 0Matmial5052-0-H3h

-15-Tes’cvalues of static ultimate and yield strengths for the parentmaterial are generally higher than the minimum values in Tables 2 and 3.The following exceptions were noted during the evaluation of the referenceddata. Yield strengths for 10 specimens of ~4~6-H321 alloy are approximately10 per cent below the minimum value, Reference (9). Although significant,this is not critical since aluminum does not have a yield point and theyield strength is arbitrarily defined. Reference (10) lists yield strengthsfor 2 specimens of 5086-H3~l,alloy (0.06L inch thickness) that are approximately3 per cent below the minimum value. The elongation of S083-HI13alloy which is identical to H321 temper, is abou’t’~per cent less than theminimum value, Figure 25 of Reference (13). tie specimen of S086-H32 a~~oYhas a yield strength in the transverse direction 2 per cent below the rninim.mvalue and one specimen of JLL56-H321has yield strengths both longitudinaland transverse about 7 per cent below the minimum value, Reference (21),Th~se limited cases do not modify the conclusion that the propertiespresented in Tables 2 through 4 are considered satisfacto~ for generaldesign purposes.Fatigue StrengthFigures 3 through 9 present typical S-N fatigue curves for 5000 seriesaluminum alloys and structural steel. The curves are based on average datafrom available references. Some of the curves have been verified by mawtests while others were obtained using few specimens. Ranges of testscatter are not presented, and the curves are used to develop relativetrends ofly. Generally, specimens with weld defects are not included inthe development of the curves. Fabrication variables evaluated includebutt-welds and weld bead. Envirormlentalvariables evaluated include stressratio R, test loading procedure, notches and wate~ spray.Figure 3 describes fatigue curves for unweld~d (parent) alloys subjectedto zero and complete stress reversal. The values of endurance limit (EL)are the same, within normal experimental scatter, for all ~000 seriesaluminum alloys evaluated, although the static strengths vary from 33 to51 KST. Complete stress reversal (R = -1) reduces the endurance limit bySO per cent from the value for zero stress reversal (R = O). The endurancelimit (EL) of mild steel is higher than that of ~~oo series aluminum byapproximately the same ratio as that for the average static skre~~ths.Fatigue curves are not presented for anmealed (O temper) alloys. However,the endurance limit of a~ealed alloys is the same as that of temperedalloys, References (4), (5) and (7).Fatigue curves for butt-welded alloys in the as-welded condition arepresented in Figure ~1.for zero and complete stress reversal. As with theunwelded mat.~rial,all butt-welded ~QOO series aluminum alloys approachthe same endurance limit, although the static strengths vary from 29.9 to46.8 lsxc. Complete stress reversal reduces the endurance limit by 40 percent from the value for zero stress reversal. The endurance limit of buttweldedannealed alloys is the same as that of butt-welded tempered alloys,References (6) ati (16). A significant observation from Figure 4 is thatthe fatigue strength of butt-welded S000 series aluminun is less thanhalf that of butt-welded structural steel, whereas the fatigue strength ofunwelded aluminum is 70 to 80 per cent that of unwelded structural steel.Also significant is the magnitude of the fatigue limit of butt-weldedaluminum subjected to complete stress reversal. The value, 6-7 HI,leaves little room for the safety factors that are required because ofenvironmental conditions, water spray, corrosion, notches.

-16-l?igures5, 6, 7 ati 8 present fatigue curves for 5083-H113, 5086-H32and 5456-H321 aluminum as well as structural steel alloys. These curvesevaluate the effects of stress ratio, weld bead removal and s~face notches~to the extent of available test data. The letter M corresponds to theR.R. Moore rotating beam fatigue test, and the letter K refers to the Krousereversed beam bending fatigue test. Axial tension-compression fatigue testsgive results appfioxima.telyequal to reversed beam bending results for completestress reversal. Most complete reversal tests utilize the M30re orKrouse procedure. Where undefined, the curves for complete stress reversalare probably developed from axial.or Krouse bending tests. The factor KTdefines the stress concentration factor at the root of the notch.Equivalent curves of Figures 5, 6 and 7 are nearly coincident, and thefollowing discussion applies to the three aluminum alloys. The endurancelimit fatigue band covers the range from 35 KSI to 6.5 KSI, the upper boundcorresponding to a stress ratio of 0.S and tie lower bound correspondingto as-welded material or sharp-notched material subjected to complete stressreversal. The effect of stress ratio and notches on the fatigue strengthof unwelded material is obvious from the curves. A very significant observationis that the fatigue strength of butt-welded specimens with the weldbead removed is 50 to 80 per cent greater than the fatigue strength ofas-welded specimens, although the static strength of as-welded specimensis slightly higher than that of specimens with the bead removed. Thereasons for this phenomenon and the different values from different testprocedures for complete stress reversal will be discussed later in furtherdetail.The S-N curves for steel, Figure 8, follow the same trends as thealuminum curves. However, the magnitudes of the curves for butt-weldedmild steel and high tensile sfieelare somewhat higher than the equivalentmagnitudes for aluminum, the lower bound for steel being IS KSI. This isto be expected, since welding of structural steel results in a 100 per centefficient joint, wh~reas welded aluminum joints exhibit somewhat less than100 per cent static efficiency. The metallurgical explanation for thedifferent weld strengths is beyond the scope of this study; however, itseffect is clearly described by the fatigue curves. The limited fatiguedata presented for steel is obtained from References (29) and (3o), andis used for comparison purposes only. A complete evaluation of thefatigue strength of structural steel is not intended for this study.Figure 9 indicates the detr~ental effect of fresh or salt waterspray on the fatigue strengths of unwelded mild steel and ~083-Hl13aluminum alloy, Reference (13). Both metals have large reductions infatigue strength from water spray, but the reduction in the endurancelimit of aluminum to 4.5 K51 is a major concern in the application ofaluminum in marine environment. References (14) and (23) indicate thatthe extreme reduction in fatigue strength due to water spray is causedby surface oxidation leading to fine cracks. Some methods for minimizingthe reduction in strength are protective coating, surface compressivestresses, etc., Reference (23). The fatigue limit of butt-welded aluminumalloy with notches, subjected to water spray and slow complete stressreversal in a corrosive atmosphere, is as yet undetermined, but it isexpected that such a value would be very low.The following paragraphs explain the reasons for the trends inFigures 3 through 9, and discuss the maw variables that have not beenevaluated quantitatively. The effects of alloy composition, grain size

\ \\.-.-. 1505? U241T \l“--”-””-”--’-H’y\\YK~~. - . . .. . . . . . . - ,-. .— -\.\—-17-10:’’””””” ““”-l”--”---+-””-”+ -t+----”’-””-*----- 1““-”--–-”~”1+””+-” ““””””+01- I --------~o;. /# i~,03 106 1Oe ELmER OFcYcLES(N)FIG. 3 S-N Fatigue Curves for Unwelded 5000 SeriesAluminum Alloys and Structural Steel50ho30120100,03 , ~4 1$ 106NUM8EFl OF ~CI,ES(N),07 108 SLFIG. 4 S-N Fatigue Curves for Welded 5000 SeriesAluminum Alloys and Structural Steel

-18-ti-’”’-”-””””-L$0‘i“’’”n=11.L__.l..,“,,..u—--....I 1. ~——- .. . . .. . 1103 106 I 07 ,~8 ELNuMBER OFCYCLES (N)FIG. 5 S-N Fatigue Curves for 5083-H113 Aluminum Alloyr---””” -—- ‘-–““-l.,”1/‘+”””” ““‘ ‘“”-”-—..”. -..-— ———. ..-. —-‘~—---- ----T‘1Ilo~—=— RzO BLADOW—’ . .,, -c>l+.Ị , \ \ -PA P.ENT—--— NOICl[Fb— — h!iDE~#—‘“-—-——— -—. ... . ....———-————7--”-R:O BEAD ON--->= \30-— ,.-....— ——. --*OLL—f----—\–-—--,~----”” —\\ \ .R,.IM ‘-’-‘ 7----:’ :! g : ‘20:.—------.--— –—- /-R..-,K‘~.. ““’M’!+5 *>+ ‘h.~_i–- =&!!,’ - –T10;—.— .— — ~,—— .— ..“” __ .— ___.-— -.—...—.—0‘Cl%:... I ~ .,... ..“ ., ‘ ... . ‘:.-....—.‘103 1oh l& ,06NUMSEROF CYCLES(N)1,37 ,08 ELFIG. 6 S-N Fatigue Curves for 5086- 132 Aluminum Alloy

-19-.-“1”._. ...__T-.-_7_7__I---.-4---- !-----------––—-~Ti- +-––—-—–-–——-.-“-”-”---i---+—+---–- --’!’’-----–-L~-t————— PARE MT— - — NOTCHED— WIELDED —I 1r“”’”’E --–—-+ ---------–.I➤✍✍✍✍✍✍✍✍.-T----.-1-1“ -. .--- .—-“-””-”””””7-”””-20r---–4--—-10---——-.–+——-—-——--1- ~~ -“--< ----------------~ ----.-f -------- -R-’K‘LAD ‘“‘0 [“””””..-..-...–1—-........------------- -–-._...__..,03 , OL 1# 106 108mm OFCYCLES(N)FIG. 7 S-N Fatigue Curves for 5456-H321 Aluminum Alloy—--1 F+O BE~b ~N_/e——~MSe .--JT B~A~O~100,03NUMBEROF CYCLES(N)FIG. 8 S-N Fatigue Curves for Structural Steel

-20-60 .r---.— ..,.— -——,L-,.. _..—PARENT——-— SPRAYED PAF&}4T50~~—-—–— —-——. “- R=-IM ‘--...—Ilo‘-— .-—.. J.–.–. “—-— ----––- - ---— ----—-”—3 .z jox?! a “~-—20 .,..—— .-—10Ii ~.. ~ . .___..-__L...—103 10 4 ,~5 106 ,07 1OS ELmm OF CYCLES(N)FIG. 9 S-N Fatigue Curves for 5083-H113 Alloyand Mild Steel Subject to Water Sprayand temper, weld process (including number of passes) and bead configuration,filler wire, specimen finish and thickness have not been analyzedin detail in this study. Although the references indicate variation infatigue strength due to these variables, the magnitudes of variation aresmaller than normal test scatter and are therefore considered negligiblefor this evaluation. It is sufficient to state that metallurgical andfabrication variables should be optimized to obtain maximum strengthproperties. Careful consideration shouldbe given to complete removal ofthe weld bead in order to increase the endurance limit of welded aluminumstructures. Stress concentrations and residuals at the weld bead acceleratefatigue failure of butt-welded specimens. Removal of the weld bead minimizesstress concentrations and residuals and strain hardens the weldregion by the machining process, thus greatly increasing the fatiguestrength of butt-welded aluminum alloys. However, this procedure is ofquestionable value for ship structures, because of the large number offillet welds resulting from attachment of framing members and bulkheads.A significant variable in this study is stress concentration due tofillet-welding structure to alumim plate, Although there is no buttweldingin the parent plaie, the introduction of stress concentrationsand residuals at the fillets reduces the fatigue strength of the parentplate to values as low as or below values for butt-welded plate. Insufficientdata is available for the presentation of curves; however, test resultsare presented in References (6) and (13) that verify the abovestatement. Test results for specimens with longitudinal butt-welds

-21-parallel to the direction of load are presented in References (6), (7)and (13). The fatigue strength of longitudinal weld specimens isapproximately equal to that of specimens with transverse welds. However,the weld region covers the entire width of test specimens, but only anegligible width in full-scale structures. Further investigation isrequired to determine whether fatigue cracks will form at welds parallelto the direction of load in full-scale structures. The effects of temperatureon the fatigue behavior of aluminum alloys are not included in thisStudy. Test resfits at elevated te~pe~atures are presented in References(1) and (5), and results at cryogenic temperatures are presented inReferences (l), (6), (10) and (12).Fabrication, welding and inspection requirements for steel andaluminum ship hulls are defined in References (24) and (25). The criticalvariable relative to inspection is weld defects, which are more criticalfor aluminum than steel due to the inability of aluminwm welds to develop100 per cent efficiency. The effects of weld defects; cracks, incompletepenetration, lack of fusion, slag inclusions, porosi~, etc. on the fatigueproperties of aluminum, as yet undetermined, should be incorporated ininspection specifications. Weld defects relative to acceptance standardsare discussed in References (26), (27) and (28).Figures 3 through 9 present curves corresponding to ratios of minimumto maximum stress that vary from 0.5 to -1. Endurance limits for O.~stress ratio are reasotibly higher than for zero stress ratio, whichachieves higher eudurance limit values than -1 stress ratio (completereversal), as expected. Where available, S-N curves aye presented forcomplete stress reversal obtained by rotating beam and reversed beambending test procedures. The rotating beam test uses specimens withcircular cross-section which subjects several fibers only at the top andbottom of the c,ross-sectionto maximum stress. The reversed beam bendingtest uses specimens with rectangular cross-section which subjects allfibers along the top and bottom edges of the cross-section to maximumstress, thus achieving lower fatigue strength values. The few availabletest results for complete stiressreversal obtained using axial tensioncompressiontests give fatigue strength values approximately equal to thoseobtained from reversed beam bending tests. Since axial tension-compressiontests stress all fibers equally, it is probable that the reversed beambending test specimen has inherent stress concentrations or that incipientfatigue Tailure of beams occurs at the fatigue strength of the outer fibers.The test values reported in the references are obtained from smallspecimens that are fabricated and tested in the laboratory and do notsimulate full-scale structures that are fabricated in shipyards and subjectedto marine environment. Pertinent variables, the evaluation of which isbeyond the scope of this study, include the size, shape and configurationof full-scale structures, shipyard welding procedures, Reference (2),slow surface corrosion together with slow or rapid discontinuous fatigueloading, plate shear fatigue and section-on-plate bsnding fatigue, saltwater and salt air environment such as waves, wake, barnacles, etc.,protective coatings (References (15) and (23)), and cumulative fatigue.The effects of each of these factors on the static and fatigue strengthsof unwelded and welded alloys may be reasonably greater than normal testscatter. Evaluation of these variables is required for accurate predictionof the structural behavior of alloys. References (33), (34), (35) and (36)define procedures for evaluating cumulative fatigue damage. Considerationof varying stress ratios, maximum stress magnitudes, number of cycles at

.22-each stress level, rate of load application and removal, and actualexpected stress-frequency spectra determines the actual fatigue behaviorof materials and structures.The test data produces very wide scatter bands. Much of the scatteris typical for fatigue tests, and much is due to the many variables previouslydiscussed. In cases where the data was considerably higher orlower than the general trends, it was usually possible to at+mibute thisto variations in test procedure, specimen preparation, etc., in which casesthe data was not included. Statistical evaluation of the data is requiredin order to develop design fatigue curves for aluminum alloys. This typeof analysis is very important, since it appears that the scatter of aluminumfatigue data is greater than with steel, which could affect the selection ofsafety factors.It now becomes necessary to reduce the data shown on Figures 3 through9 to a set of design fatigue (S-N) curves for the various aluminum alloysunder consideration, which will be suitable for use in comparing the hullstructure of a large aluminum hull with that of an equivalent mild steelhull. This process involves reduction of the variables presented inFigures 3 through 9 to obtain a single curve for each alloy, for comparisonto an equivalent steel S-N curve. Figure 10 contains such designcurves, which are based upon the welded strength with bead on, using theaverage of R = o (zero to maximum stress) and R =-1 (complete reversa~)~and disregarding notch effects and salt water spray. The rationale forthis approach follows.The choice between welded and unwelded values is fairly straightforward,since the lower welded strengths would govern the design of atypical ship structure for both cyclic and short-term loading. This approachis somewhat conservative, in that the reduction in fatigue strengthfor aluminum due to welding is proportionally greater than that for steel.The fatigue strength of both aluminum and steel is improved by removingthe weld bead of full penetration butt welds. However, this representsan idealized condition which can not be economically achievedin ship construction. Cold working of fillet welds by peening willincrease their fatigue strength, but again this represents an unreasonablefabrication requirement. Therefore it must be assumed that ‘tbeadonJlvalues are more appropriate for typical ship structures.For the idealized shipfs hull girder bending on a trochoidal wave, itwould be expected that fully reversed cyclic stress values (R = -1) wouldapply. However, as shown later, the actual life cycle-stress hi~togram ofa bulk carrier lies between the cases of R = -1 ad R = O (from zero stressto maximum tension or compression) because of the effects of the relativelyhigh still water bending moment. Similarly, local structures seldomexperience fully reversed stresses due to various combined loading conditions;i.e., bending plus compression or tension. Pending a more completeevaluation of this problem, it is proposed to use the average of thevalues for R = O and R = -1.The quantity of data on the effects of notches of various types onfatigue strength is far too limited to derive general design curves atthis time. In addition, it is not possible to relate the stress concentrationfactors prevalent in t~ical ship structures to the test data now‘available. The use of bead-on data reflects the notch problem; thus itis proposed to neglect additioml stress concentration effects.

-23-As noted previously, salt spray significantly reduces the fatiguestrength of steel and, to a greater degree, aluminum. Howe~er~ thiseffect is not being considered in this study for several reasons. First,the highly-stressed portions of the hull girder would be subjected to directsalt spray during relatively small percentage of their operating life. Thebottom, for example, is totally immersed, while the deck wofid experiencespray in the highly stressed midship portion only a small percentage ofthe time. Current salt spray fatigue data is based upon continuousexposure, and it is probable that the effects of salt sPraY are exponential~For a given reduction in exposure time, the reduction in strength degradationwould be far less. Secondly, the relative depth of surface pittingand loss of thickness of thin test samples for a given period of exposurewould be far greater than for the thick plates of a b~k carrier h~l~which may reduce the net section loss in area. In conclusion, itdoes not appear that the salt spray data in Figure 9 is applicable totypical ship structures in a normal life-cycle sea environment. However,it is not intended to minimize the problem. As shown in Figure 9, asufficient concentration of salt spray can effectively destroy the stresscarryingcapabilities of aluminum alloys at a large number of cycles.Thus this problem warrants considerable future attention.Figure 10 indicates that the S-N curves of the various aluminum alloyshave approximately the same shape, with initial strength corresponding tothe bead-on values of welded ultimate tensile strength of Table 4 reducingto between 6 and 9 ILSIat 108 cycles. Based upon the curves of Figure 10,the gross area under the S-N curves of the aluminum alloys relative tothat of mild steel are as follows:6050l,-!;!,,30 ~ ,Ii ...—- -’*-I10II (,,, !1 1 ,,, 11,! 1!’ 1 >,, 1 - ,—–L. .––.1! ‘- - .. . .. ..1’ II.. L-..—L. ...-.1 11, ‘. I l.. 1...-....11 .’..1 ...$. .. ..OJ102II ,, J; I 1,,,, ,,,, ) 1’ 1 ,1! I Ill, 11,.3’ :IOLI ‘ ‘ 105 ‘,“ .~06‘ 10’ 108L ‘,NUhBFEOF CYCLES(N)FIG. 10 Recommended S-N Fatigue Curves for Welded 5000 SeriesAluminum Alloys and Mild Steel forDesign of Ship Structure

-24-!Z456-H321 = 0.485083-H321 = 0.48515~~-H34 = 0.435086+H32 = 0.385052-H34 = 0.33Thus S.4S6-H321and 5083-HI13 are essentially equivalent,with just underone-half the Lotal life-cycle fatigue strength of mild steel, while5154-H34 and5086-H32 are essentially equivalentwith three-eighths thelife cycle fatigue strength of mild steel.The foregoing discussion has been limited to plate and sheet tempers,with no consideration given to correspondingextrusion tempers, Hill orHI12 in most cases, due to lack of data. A review of the data in Tables2 through 4 indicates that the welded ultimate tensile strengths of plateand extrusion tempers are generally identical. Therefore, until furtherdata can be developed, it is proposed to use the fatigue curves ofFigure 10 for both plate and extrusion tempers.ToughnessTest data used to evaluate the toughness of S000 series aluminumalloys was obtained from References (10), (13), (16), (17), (18), (21),(37) and (38). Toughness describes the resistance of a material to fracturewithout reference to the specific conditions or mode of fracture andincludes notch toughness, fracture toughness and tear resistance. Notchtoughness is closely associated with the resistance of a material to theinitiation of fracture, and describes the ability of a material to undergolocal plastic deformation in the presence of stress-raisers,i.e., cracks,flaws”or design discontinuities,without crack initiation; thus distributingloads to adjacent material or components. Fracture toughnessdescribes Lhe resistance of a material to unstable crack propagation atelastic stresses OY ‘GOlow-ductility fracture of any kind and does notgenerally involve resistance to crack initiation but only to the unstablepropagation of an existing crack. The term tear resistance is generallyapplied to data obtained from tea~ tests and is a measure of the relativeresistance of a material to the development of fracture in the presence ofa tear-t~e stress-raiser.Various @ic tests are used to evaluate the topglmess OJ!~000series aluminum alloys. References (10),.(I6)and (Ii’)present testresults from tensile impact specimens; Reference (17) presents testresults from Charpy keyhole impact specimens; Reference (18) gives testresults from bending impact specimens; Reference (21) gives test resultsfrom notch-tensile specimens and tear specimens; Reference (13) givestest values from tear specimens. References (37) and (38) describenumemus theoreticalad experimentalproceduresused to evaluatethetoughnessof aluminumalloys,correlationof the procedures,determinationof relativetoughnesslevelsfor aluminumalloys,arxlquantitativecompari-’son of aluminumand steel fmctun strengthswhich are beyond the scopeof121i stu~.Figure 5 of Refereme (21) presents the relative unit propagationener~, tear-yield ratio ani notch-yield ratios of various ~000 seriesalloys, in both the unwelded and O-temper condition. The quantitativevalues an relatively unimportit for tiis study,siwe they can not bedirectly comparedto equivalent values for steel. However, the qualitativetoughnessis meaningfulin evaluatingthe relativemeritsof the variousalloys. Table 5 presentsthe relativeover-alltear ad retch lmghnesaof tiessalloys,based upon a m=imum of 10.

KLloyad Temper5083-o~083-H321-25-Relative l!ouf$messHAvg = 65086-05066-H32 :; Avg - 75154-0 10 )$15k-H34 ~) Avg-$TABLE 5 Relative Toughness of 5000Series Aluminum Alloys9&4-o%.%-H329+56-o54.56 -H32110 )b)AVg=d;{hg~6The following conclusions summarize the evaluation of toughness ofthe 5000 series aluminum alloys.1.2.3.4*Bucklingme notoh tiu~hness,fracture toughness ad tear r~sist~eare generally acceptable for structural applications,Toughness of aluminum is inversely proportional to the ultimateor yield strengths of the various alloys, and increases withgreater elongation.Relative values of notch toughness, fracture toughness andtear resistance for unwelded and welded aluminum comparefavorably with values for steel for single load applications.Greater number of tests, standardization of theory and tests, andcorrelation of theory with tests are required to evaluate quantitativelythe toughness of aluminum alloys.StrengthThe column and panel buckling strer@hs of aluminum alloys arerecognized as being significant design constraints under some circumstances,due to the lower elastic modulus of the material. However, thebuckling behavior of aluminum is well documented, and can be readilyincorporated into the design of ships structures based upon presenilyavailabledesign procedures. Sources for design data on buckling includethe design handbooks published by the various aluminum manufacturers andU.SJ.Navy Design Data Sheet 9110-4 ‘lStrengthof Structural Members” whichpresents curves of column strength versus slenderness ratio and plate panelbuckling properties as a function of breadth/thicluless ratio.In the design of aluminumcolumns, the following applies:(a) Members welded at the ends and butt-welded outside the middle3A length maybe designedon the basis of the yield strengthof the prime (unwelded) metal.(b) Members with butt-welds within the middle 3/s length should bedesigned on the basis of O temper or annealed yield strength.In this case, the curve of column strength versus slendernessratio has a horizontal cutoff in strength at the annealedyield strength of the material.

-26-(c)Members with partial or continuous longitudinal welds maybedesigned on the basis of an average stress, where the annealedor O temper values apply to material within a 1-1/2 inch radiusof the weld and the prime values apply elsewhere:AannealedFc =Fc-—Fc - Fcavg prime ‘prime prime annealed()where Aamea~ed and Apr~e are the respective cross sectionalareas.Similar considerations could be applied to the design of aluminumplate panels subject to compressive buckling loads. In general, weldingdoes not affect the buckling characteristics of plate panels, since thereis seldom welding in the middle of a panel. However, for welded aluminumbstructure, the cut-off panel strength for low k ~ ratios should be basedupon the ‘JweldediJstrength.One aspect of buckling which is often overlooked in the design ofship structures relates to local instability of fr~ing members. Becauseof the low modulus of elasticity of al~inuj norm~ ProPOr~iO~of beams and flanged plate girders which are commofiy used for steel~shipstructures are unacceptable for aluminum sections, since local instabilityof th~ flange or web may result. In the selection of framing memberscantlingsj the following limitations should be.met if the member is to becapable of resisting stresses approaching the yield strength of thematerial:(a) ~~~~$ness for[ 1(b)Flange widthFlange thickness[1forwhere E is the modulus of elasticity (10 x 106 PSI)I?yis the unwelded yield strength of the alloyFor structural sections meeting themaximum span between supports should notprevent over-all lateral instability:foregoing requirements, theexceed the following limits toT 57.283 ~~1 +0.2 (d/bF) - 0.128 (bF/d)2where bF = flange width for tees;twice the flange width for anglesand flanged platesd = depth of sec”hionThis equation is derived fromDDS 9110-4. If this distance is exshouldbe provided to prevent tripping ofceeded, an intermediate chockthe section..—

-27-Corrosion ResistanceThe S000 series aluminum magnesium alloys are generally considered tohave excellent resistance to corrosion in a salt air~salt water environmentif reasonable precautions are taken tO protect the metq. l’hecharacteristics of aluminum which might lead to corrosion are well documented,References (39) through (45). The following paragraphs brieflysummarize the potential types of corrosion and the conditions leading tothem.Galvanic Corrosion is caused by dissimilar metals in contact in thepresence of an electrolyte such as salt water. Alumirnm is generallyanodic to other materials ad will be the metal to corrode. This corrosionis due to the different potential in electrical contact between the metals,which results in the transfer of ions through the electrolyte. Hullcathodic protection can be provided by sacrificial zinc or “aluminumanodeson the shell, bilge areas, piping systems in,tanks and sea chests or animpressed current system, as discussed later.Deposition Corrosion is a special case of galvanic corrosion whereparticles of the more noble metal are deposited on the aluminum, whichthen pits. Copper and mercury are particularly bad in this respect, andcontact of aluminum with these metals should be avoided.Crevice Corrosion results from trapped water in crevices causingpitting due to the anodic reaction between the o~gen-free water deep inthe crevice ad the oxygen-saturatedwater at the mouth of the crevice.Crevice corrosion canbe avoided by eliminating pockets, crevices, lappedjoints and other similar conditions where water can become trapped. Inareas where such a condition is unavoidable, such as the faying surfacebetween aluminum foundations and eq-uipment,the aluminum sur~ace should beprotected with a suitable paint system.or sealant.Pitting Corrosion occurs in water when only a small area of protectiveoxide or paint is removed from the aluminum surface. Once started, thepitting teds to continue, though at a diminishing rate. The damage to thealuminum oxide film is self-healing, even undezwater~ However, the loss inpaint area might not be repaired for a long period of time. This leads tothe conclusion that painting of the aluminum structure should be avoidedexcept where required, such as anti-fouling paint for the bottom. Asrecommended later, a cathodic protection system is recommended to preventpitting corros~on in way of scratched anti-fouling paint.Stress Corrosion is cracking which occurs over a period of time as aresult of a susceptible metallurgical structure, sustained surface tensilestress and a corrosive environment. The imposed stresses may be residualOY externally applied. In strain-hardenedA1-Mg alloys, precipitationoccurs over the years, and in h~gh-magnesium alloys (over h per cent)}this suscepbibilikymay develop in 5 to 10 years or less. Susceptibilityto stress corrosion cracking (SCC) becomes worse at elevated temperatures.Reference (43) notes the following relative to S000 series alloys: 5052,5252 and ~b~hhave low susceptibility to SCC, and~4~4 (Mg content 2.7per cent) has low susceptibility at temperatures above 1~0 degrees 1?.Alloy ~1~~ (l& content j.~ per cent) is satisfactory at room temperature,but not at temperatures above 150 degrees F. Alloy 5086 (Mg content 4.0per cent} is similar to 5154.

-28-AllOyS 5083 and 54.56(~ contents 4.5 and 5.1 per cent respectively)are somewhat susceptible to SCC, particularly at elevated temperatures. Inthe O temper, thermal treatment for 4 hours at b50 degrees F is suggestedto relieve residual stresses. H321 temper has no tendency toward SCC ifcold formed to a sufficiently large radius. For smaller radii (less thanSt)j hot forming Q.rstress relief in way of cold forming is recommendedfor L hours at 450 degrees F. This method of stress relief is,not recommendedfor welded assemblies inasmuch as it can lead to susceptibility toScc . Temper H311 is only recommended for alloy 5456, subject to the for~iwlimits and stress relieval practices noted for5456-H321. Tempers H32 andH34 are susceptible to SCC with either alloy and are not recommended.Microbiological Corrosion. Corrosion has been observed in aluminumaircraft fuel tanks due to accumulations of microbes found in the fuelresidue at the bottom of the tank. These problems occurred with 7000series alloys, and have been solved with fuel additives. Experience todate indicates no comparable problem with S000 series alloys exposed tomarine grade fuels.Combustion Products. If soot is allowed to stand on the decks of analuminum ship, the soot deposit will act as a cathodic metal and producepittiqg of the aluminum. Experience to date with S000 series alloys indicatesthat the intensity of pitti~ from combustion products is notsevere, though frequent washdown of deck surfaces is recommended.Bfoliation or intergranular corrosion results from excess magnesiumprecipitating into the grain boundaries causing separation of the materialalong grain boundaries. This form of corrosion is most pronounced in highmagnesium alloys, primarily 5M6, and appears to affect plates (temperH321) more than extrusions (temper Hill). The problem was brought to lightrecently due to plating exfoliation in bilges and wet areas of U. S. Navypartrol boat hulls operating in Southeast Asia. The aluminum industwundertook a program to investigate the causes of exfoliation and means ofpreventing or inhibiting it, including the test program discussed inReference (44). This program led to the development of the H116 and H117temper, now available with alloys 5086 and54.~6. These tempering processesare expected to eliminate the exfoliation problem, though service experiencewith the new tempers is very limited at this time.!2WWZZ” In summary, it may be concluded that S000 series alloys havesatisfactory corrosion characteristics in a salt water environment when conventionalprecautions are taken to avoid conditions promoting corrosion. Thelower magnesium content alloys such as 5052, 5454, 5154 and g086 are somewhatless susceptible to stress corrosion and exfoliation than the high magnesiumcontent alloys.Tables 6, 7 and 8, derived from Reference “(45) indicate that exposure ofwelded and non-welded samples of ~083 and 5086 alloys to sea water immersionfor five years produced a maximum depth of attack of only .008 (8 roils) withno significant loss in tensile strength, yield strength or elongation. OtherS000 series alloys would yield results in this same range. Fora ship’s hull,assuming a 20 year life, the average loss in thickness would be between 10and 12 roils,which is considered negligible.

-29-TABLE 6 Sea Water Immersion Tests ~5086.H34)Eiposure Average Depth of Per Cent ChangeTime Attack Inches in Strength2 Years5 Years.001 0.003 0TABLE 7 Corrosion Resistance of Aluroinum Alloys to Tide Range Sea WaterAlloy &Location Tensile= Samples5083-0 Totally ImmersedWater LineSplash Zone5083-H34 Totally ImmersedWater LineSplash Zone5086-0 Totally ImmersedWaker LineSplash Zone~~e~slon - SeYen ~e~~s~ ExposurePer Cent Change in Strength++Tensile Strength Yield Tensile-2 0-3 -2-6 -20 00-? o-2-200-3 05086-H34 Totally Immersed o 0Water Line o 0Splash Zone -1 0(++Percentchange negative (-) indicates apparent loss)TABLE 8 Resistance of Aluminum Alloy Weldmen’cs to CorrosionIn Sea Water - Five Years’ ExposureAlloy &TestPer Cent Change in Strength ++Temper Condition X- Ultimate Tensile Yield Tensile5083-HI13 Beads Intact. -6 0Beads Removed o -2Non-Welded -2 -145086-H32 Beads Intact -2 0Beads Removed -8 0Non-Welded -2 0~154-H34 Beads Intact oBeads Removed -2 -;Non-Welded -2 0S3S6-HI12 Beads Intact -2 0Beads Removed -1 0Non-Welded -2 -1++ MIG Welded vrithS3S6 filler alloy.Y&c Per cent change negative (-) indicates apparent loss.

-30-The previous paragraphs have dealt with the reaction of aluminum alloysto a salt water/salt air environment. It is also necessary to consider thecorrosive effects of potential bulk cargoes on aluminum as well as the possibilityof contamination of the cargo by the aluminum. Reference (~t.6)review”sthe compatibility of alumirnunwith a wide range of foods and chemicals, andReference (47) summarizes extensive tests of the corrosion resistance andpotential product contamination of S000 series alloys.In general, aluminum is superior to mild steel in resisting the corrosiveeffects of potential bulk cargoes, and in all cases would present lessdanger of product contamination. This results from the tenacity of the oxidefilm which forms on aluminum, which is extr~mely thin and self-healing whenscratched or abraded. This film is attacked by some fluorides and chlorides,and heavy metals (tin, mercury and copper) are unusually harmful.Table 9 indicates the corrosion resistance of ~000 series aluminumalloys relative to steel. The 11A”rating indicates equal to or better thansteel, while an AA rati~ indicates superior performance with no significantcorrosion. A rati~ of U indicates that aluminm is unsatisfactov for thisservice.In summary, aluminum is compatible with all potential dry bulk cargoeswith the exception of copper, tin or mercury ores, potassium carbonate,potassium hydroxide and trisodium phosphate. Precautions should be takenwith cargoes of aluminum fluoride, aluminum sulphate, lime and ferrous oresto minimize moisture within the hold, and the holds should be cleanedregularly to minimize build-ups of cargo residue.Abrasion ResistanceExperience with bulk carriers indicates that abrasion can present asignificant problem in several areas:(a) The flat of bottom when the ship is engaged ina trade requiringnavigation in shallow waters or across sand bars. An example ofthis is the bauxite trade in Surinam, where bulk carriers mustcross a sand bar at the mouth of the Orinoco River and thennavigate the shallow river. In this serVice, weardown of bottomplates occurs at an accelerated rate, generally resulting inrenewal of bottom plates several times during the vessel’s life.(b) The bottom and sloping bulkheads in the cargo holds. Bulldozersa~d front end loaders are often used to consolidate and move thelast of the cargo toward the center of the hatch to facilitateunloading by the grabs. In this process, the bottom and sidebulkhead plating is subjected to severe abrasion, in addition tothe impact loads resulting from unloading grabs and fallingrock cargo.The problem of bottom weardown due to abrasion is not recurrent exceptin a few specialized trades~ such as the @inoco River trade. Thereforethis problem should not influence the design of a general service bulkcam-ier such as that presently being considered. For an aluminum bulkcarrier in such a specialized trade, detailed studies of relative bottomweardown rates of aluminum and steel would be required, in conjunctionwith studies to determine the optimm balance between initial thicknessand replacement costs.

-31-TABLE 9 Relative Corrosion Resistance of Aluminum Alloys to Bulk CargoesProductAluminumFluorideCorrosionResistanceACommentThe presenceof moisturecan causerandomattackwhen in contactoverlongperiods(inexcessof2 weeks)AluminumSulphaLeAmmoniWnNitrateBorax,BoricAcidCementCoal,CoksAAAAAAGenerallythereis no problemsincethereis no free sulphuricacidprefient.Freeacidwouldresultin seriousattackifmoisturewas present.Aluminumhas a 2 or 3 to I advantageoversteel,evenwith high sulphurcontent.FlyAshl?orest ProductsGrainsGwsumLimeLimestoneIJitrogen Fer’MXEersOil (Crud@andRefined)OresPhosphateFertilizersPotashsaltSand,GravelSodaAshSodiumChlorateSodiumNitrateSodiumSulphaLe‘SugarSulphurl’risodium PhosphateAAAAAAAAA.&lAA ‘touAkolJAAAAAAAAAAAuSuperficialsurfaceattackonly.Rice,wheat,corn,etc. causeno problem.Slightlocalizedattackif wet.No problemwith dry lime. wet limeformshighlyrssistambpro”kective filmonaluminum Ṣhouldbe satisfacko~Torintermittentserviceii?the cargoiskept dry.It may be necessaryto rinseresiduefrom structure.Copper,tin and mercuryoresshouldnotbe carried. In moistconditions,builtupresiduesof ferrousorescouldca~ecorrosion.Bauxite,lead,phosphate,zincaridnickelorespresentno problems.Phosphatefertilizerscausemild etching.Potassiumchlorideis similarto salt,causingno pz-obleme.Potassiumcarbonateand potassiumhydroxideare highlycorrosiveandshouldnot be carried.Highlyconcentratedsaltwatersuchas“thatfoundin bulk shippingcauselesspittingthandilutesolutions- noproblem.Initialattackon surfacebecomesarr~fited,and continueduse in thisservicecausesno majorproblems.3 to 1 advantageover steel.Not compatible.

-32-The problem of cargo hold abrasion is by no means limited, and must beconsidered carefully in the design of gem~al service bulk carriers. Dataon the relative weardown of aluminum and steel when abraded by sliding rockhas been derived from References (48) through (51). These studies presentweardown rates in heavy-duty aluminum dump truck bodies and compare theperformance of aluminum and steel wear bars attached to tihebottom of thetruck body. This data is somewhat limited and must be extended to bulkcarrier plating design with discretion. However, Tt serves as a basis fordetermining the ability of aluminum to resist abrasion from sliding rockcargoes relative to steel.A typical heavy-duty aluminum truck body consists of aluminum platingbetween 3/4 and 1-1/4 inch thick. The bottoms are protected by a combinationof steel plates and/or wear bars of steel or aluminum, on about 8 inchcenters. The extent of protection is proportional to the hardness of therock being handled. Actual truck body weardown rakes are of questionablevalue due to the dMferent nature of the services; however, relativeweardown rates are meaningful in designing bulk carrier cargo areas.The limited data presently available on the abrasion resistance ofaluminum and steel indicates a relationship between increasing hardnessand decreasing weardown rate. The trends are not yet well established,but it appears that the S000 series alloys will abrade at approximately 4 to~ times the rate of mild steel. There appears to be little differencebetween the abrasion resistance of the various 5000 series alloys, sincetheir hardness values, noted in the following tabulation are not significantlydifferent:Brinell Hardness, ~00-KG Load, lo-mm Ball= Unwelded (Hard) O TemperS083 80 675086 725454 81 25456 90 70AS an indication of the relative abrasion allowance requirements of thesevarious alloys, the equivalent of a .0S inch weardown in steel would varyfrom approximately .23 to .29 inches in aluminum depending on the hardnessand chemistry of the alloy. The potential savings in thickness affordedby high-hardness S000 series alloys does not appear to be sufficientlysignificant to warrant the use of one alloy in lieu of another solely onthe basis of abrasion resistance.The lower hardness in the O temper would imply that greater weardownwould occur in way of welds, though no data has been found to confirm this.Several of the 2000 series alloys having high unwelded harnesses haveproven to be about twice as abrasion resistant as the S000 series alloys intruck body service. However, these alloys are not satisfactory in amarine environment and are much softer than 5000 series alloys in the heataffected zone.Weldability and WorkabilitiyThe welding of 5000 series alloys is accomplishedwith either the metalinert-gas (iWIG)and turgsten inert-gas (TIG) process, both of which meltthe aluminum at the weld line by heat from an arc struck between the

-33-electrode in the welding tool ati the aluminum being welded. The weld areais protected from oxidation by a shield of inert gas such as argon, heliumor a mixture of the two. Neither method requires flux, thus minimizing thepossibility of porosity or corrosive residue. The methods are applicableto flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead welding, though downhand weldingis fastest ati of highest quality, as with steel. The fundamental differencesbetween MIG and TIG welding is that with llIGwelding, the aluminum fillerwire serves as the electrode and is consumed, whereas the TIG process usesa non-consumable tungsten electrode, with filler metal provided in rod form,either manually or automatically. The MIG process is somewhat faster andmore economical, but the TIG process produces a smoother beady which isvery important in maintaining high fatigue strengths.Based upon discussions with aluminum fabricator and review of availablelitera:ttie, it appears that the weldability of JOOO series alloysimproves as alloy magnesium content is reduced. The shipbuilding and boatbuildingindustg presemtlyfavor S086 alloys in preference to S083 and5456alloys, which have approximately one-half and one per cent higher magnesiumcontents respectively.Aluminum is somewhat more susceptible to weld distortion than steel,due to greater thermal conductivity. Heat fairing can be used to eliminatethis distortion. However, when ~000 series aluminum alloys are heat treatedto 150 to 200 degrees F for a sufficiently long period to allow heat fairing,the magnesium in the alloy migrates within the metal, which becomessusceptible to exfoliation. Heat Tairing at higher temperatwes for morelimited periods may be used, providing the critical range is passed throughquicldy for both heatiingand cooling. However, this will result in thealuminum’s properties being reduced to those of the annealed material,which may not be acceptable. Proper weld techniques (speed, heat input,number of passes, edge preparation, etc.) can mitimize distortion problems=It is generally preferable to use continuous welding for aluminumstructures, even if strength considerations would permit the use of intermittent’welding.Although intermittent welding reduces the quantity ofelectrode used and minimizes heat distortion, it can lead to crater crackingat the ends of beads ard crevice corrosion if moisture is present. Thereforeintermittent welding should be used only for secondary structures whichare reasonably free from wetness, and are lightly loaded.The problem of shrinkage in way of aluminum welds requires particularattention, since improper welding techniques can produce high residualstresses. These high stresses can lead to cracking, particular~y when theYoccur in way of a poorly designed structural detiails. ThTs is perhaps themost serious production problem to be overcome in the fabrication of largealuminum hulls, because experience in fabricating large aluminum weldmentswith thick plates is relatively limited. In nearly all cases of residualstress cracking of aluminum weldments, solutions can be found throughimproved design, testing and personnel training. Even with these precautions,however, it is vitally important that all structural details be verycarefully designed and fabricated to eliminate sources of stress concentration.Among other things, this would require careful development of cuts inthe hull girder, proper stiffener endings> elimination of excessive concentrationof welding, including triaxial welds at intersections of threemutually perpendicular surfaces, avoidance of details which are difficult toproperly fabricate, elimination of notches and hard sPots~ and location ‘fwelds away from highly stressed areas.

-34-The question of residual stresses due to welding and fabricationpresents a major problem area, in that they are difficult to predict andcontrol. In the design of steel ship structures the presently-accepteddesign loads and safety factors have provided a sufficient margin to accountfor most unknown factors in design, construction and life-cycle operation,including residual stresses resulting from welding. Unfortunately, there isno precedent to indicate that the relationship between residual and materialyield stress will be comparable for steel and.aluminum structures. In fact,the past experience with large alrminum weldments tends to indicate that theeffects of residual stresses may be more severe with aluminum than withsteel, because of the cracking that has been observed in way of improperlydesigned welded connections.Proper cleating of aluminum in way of welds is very important, toprevent porosity or contamination of the weld. The area must be cleanedjust prior to welding, preferably by wire brushing or equal, to preventreformation of the aluminum oxide film.Most manufacturers of aluminum boats and,structures find it desirableto accomplish welding in a protected environment, since moisture is detrimentalto proper welding of aluminum and wind tends to disturb the shield ofgas around the arc. Further investigation must be undertaken to determinethe extent of environmental protection required for a large aluminum hull,since data is presently too limited to draw firm conclusions. These factorscan not be overemphasized since nearly all cases of structural cracking ofaluminum which have been observed have been the result of improper design orfabrication rather than an inherent weakness in the material. Consequently,it will be necessa~ to achieve a high level of quality control in designingand building a large aluminum hull.Aluminum alloys of the S000 series possess good workability characterstics, and can be easily formed, punched, cut, flanged, ground, andothemise processed. In general, the ease with which alloys may be coldformed decreases with higher magnesium content. h cold bending aluminum,it is very important to maintain minimum bend radii in accordance withmanufactuxerls recommendations, to prevent cracking of the cold-worked area.In summa~, the weldability and workability of S000 series aluminumalloys are considered satisfactory for large aluminum hulls subject to thefollowing limitations:(a)(b)(c)Additional investigation will be required to develop properwelding procedures to minimize residual stresses.Structural details must be very carefully designed and fabricated,as discussed previously, to eliminate hard spots, sbress concentrationsand other deleterious factors.The necessary environment for ProPer Production of a largealuminum hull must be established. Pending proof to thecontrary, it must be ass~ed mat khe enviro~ent in which analuminum hull is fabricated must be more carefully controlledthan with steel const?mction. However, the extent tO which itmust be controlled, including temperature and humidity limits,are not known at this time.

-35-(d)Quality assurance procedures, particularly for checking welds,must be developed. It will be necessa~ to determine the levelof weld porosity which can be accepted as degrading the strengthof the weldment to a lesser degree than would a repair.Alloy Material CostThe final factor which must be considered in selecting an alloy is theraw material cost. A survey of aluminum manufacturers indicates that thebase price of all common ~000 series plate or sheet alloys in largequantities will vary from about $o.~0 to $0.~~ per pound, depending uponwidth, length, thickness and manufacturer. However, all manufacturersquestioned indicated that their individual base prices for ~000 seriesplates are identical.The base price of all S000 series extrusions except SLS6-HIII willvary from about $0.62 to $0.66 per pound, with SlLS6-Hill costing about@.04 per pound or about 6 per cent more. Since extrusions generallyrepresent less than Is per cent of the weight of an aluminum hull, this6 per cent differential-for S4S6-HIII allo~ has a negligible effect on theselection of alloys.In conclusion, alloy material costs do not have a measurable effect onselection of alloys for the construction of a large bulk carrier. It isnoted that specific instances will arise in which a fabricator can obtainlow-priced plates or shapes of a particular alloy from a specific manufacturerswarehouse, ba~ed upon ~tilizing currekt invento”~ rather thanplacing a special order. This showld not be a factor in this study,however, since the quantities, thicknesses, widths and lengths requiredfor constructing a bulk carrier womd warrant a direct shipment from themill to the fabricator.Selection of AlloysThe selection of an alloy or series of alloys for use in designing analuminum bulk carrier, or, for that matter, aqy aluminum hill, is a verydifficult process, particularly if the availability and basic cost per poundof the alloys is identical. This is due primarily to the fact that eachalloy’s advantages in a particular area are usually balanced by disadvantagesOr some type. For example, the alloys with high magnesium content such as5083 amlS4S6 have high strength and would thus produce a lighter hull withlower material procurement cost and life cycle operating cost. However,-these alloys-present more problems.in.weldi~, cold working and corrosionthan do the..low-rnagnesi@alloys such”as 5052 and 5086. -Achieving a properbalance between these factors is difficfit, since it depends upon theindividual designers assessment of their relative importance.In the process of selecti~ an alloy or series of alloys for the designof a bulk carrier hull, an ass~ed relative importance has been establishedfor each of the factors considered in evaluating the alloys: staticstrength, including buckling, fatigue strength, corrosion and abrasionresistance, toughness, weldability and workability. Alloy costs were notincluded because of their similarity, and weight was not included directlysince this factor is directly related to material strength, and is thusimplicitly incorporated in the evaluation.

.36-Each alloy was given a relative quantitative rating against thesefactors, based upon an evaluation of its relative merits, and a total ratingwas derived as shmwn in Table 10. Because of the necessarily arbitraryselection of weighting factors and relative ratings, a brief sensitivitystudy was conducted in which these factors were varied within reasonablelimits. Although quantitative ratings did change, the qualitative resultsremain relatively consistent.The values in Table 10 indicate that all of the alloys investigated areremarkably close in over-all scoring, which is consistent with the foregoingobservation about the advantages of an alloy in one area being offset by itsdisadvantages in another. Based upon this, the selection of an optimum alloybecomes somewhat arbitrary. As a result of this study, the following alloyshave been selected YOY plates and shapes respectively:o S083-H321 ands083-Hill for all material in the prima~ hullstructure. This is based upon its high ranking and the relativelylow hull weight and material cost resulting from its’relativelyhigh stirength. It is this materially properties which willdetermine required hull girder section modulus.o S086-H32 and!71086-Hillmaybe substituted for S083 a~~oyforlocal structures if desired based upon its ease of fabrication,good corrosion resistance and good toughness characteristics.o s4sb-H34 andSLS4-Hill forcasingsj stack and otherareas subjectedto high temperature (in excess of 1S0 degrees) unless thesesurfaces can be thermally insulated, in which case S086 alloy canbe used.It should be noted that most of the JOOO series alloys considered couldbe satisfactorily used for the construction of the hull of an aluminum bulkcari-ier,though the a~oys at the extreme emds Of the sPectm (~0~2 and ~~~~6)would not be recommended for use in the primary girder. The low weldedstrength of sOS2-is not considered adequate for this application and thehigh magnesium con”~entof 5456 d-10Y creates potential p~o~~ernssuch aSsusceptibility to stress corrosion cracking, potential corrosionproblems, greater difficulty in welding and working, etc.TABLE 10 EYa” udtion of Aluminum Alloy CharacteristicsFactorm.% 5052 5083 5086 5154 5454 ~—— — — —Static Strength (Welded) 25 14 24 21 19 18 25Fatigue Strength (Welded) 20 20 16 18 14 20Weldability and Workability 25 ~i 17 21 22 24 16Corrosion Resistance 15 15 10 12 12 15 10Impact,Strength and 10 !7 8 10 9 8 6Fracture ToughnessAbrasion Resistance >~~J22 2Total 100 78 8L 83 83 82 82

-37-U13• OPERATIONS OF EHf3TING.AL~SHIPSAt this times there are inany vessels of variuus types h semricewhich are constructed either partially or wholly of aluminum alloys.The service experience gahed with these vessels ~ extrem@lY h~pfilin predicting the long-tern performance of an aluminum hull bulk carrier,and ih avoiding problems which were incorporated in early designs.On& of the fbndarm%ltal chall~es in such a study is to separateprbble~ Which ars inhdrent to the material from thdse which result fromlack of ~perience, improper design or pdor worlunanship, and then to‘predict which are readily solved and which might reasonably be e=ectedto occur under n@mal ship buildimg or operational environments.k conducting this phase of the study, the followiug primary souraesof information were considered:(a){b)(c)(d)(s)(f)(E)U. S. Navy experience with deckhouses on destroyer typevessels.U. S, Navy e~erience with alumipum p~~gunboais, landtigcraft, “SWIFT” patrol boats and hydrofoils.~. % Goast”duard experimce with aluminum decldlouses onHAMILTON class cutters and others.Alumimm deckhouses on odean liners and cargo ships.The aluminl-lmcargo vessel INDEFIEliDENCE,operated in the-bbean S&a.The aluminum trailership SACAL BORINGANO operated between‘Caribbean ports and Ilortda.Altiminu~ cmtw boats andiishing craft.(h)Specializedap’plica’tiofisr suoh as barges, lNG tanks, etc~.In evaluating the performance of these Vwselsj all available publishedreports were reviewed and in-depth discussions were held with owners,operators snd builders,to determine the perfomace of aluminum alloystructures in a marine environment. Since much of the data derived inthese discussions is consider~d proprietary, it will be necessary to presentgeneral comments and conclusions , without citing spectiic examples. Howevergwhere a speaific obsemation appears to be unique to a patiicularservice pr set of circumstances, it will be so presented.In general,this review has been limited to applications in which ~000 series alloysand state-of-the-art design and fabrication techniques have been incorporated.Thus, for example, early problems with welded 6061-T6 deckhouseson Navy dstroyers have not been specifically considered. The problemsassociated with these deckhouses have been well documented and have beenavoided in subsequent designs. They.n~ad no% be rei:te~ated as part ofthis study.

-38-GENERAL OBSERVATIONSFYior to a detailed review of the performance of existing aluminumstructures in a marine environment, it is appropriate to make a fewgeneral remarks.The basic metallurgy appears to be quite compatible with the saltwater/salt spray environment when compared to competitive metals. Todate, the problems which have occurred which relate to the basic metallurgyof the material are in three basic areas: corrosion, impact andabrasion, and localized cracking in way of structural hati spots or poorlydeveloped details. Each of these areas is discussed in some detail below+In gener~, all problemswhich have been encountered in the past havebeen or could be improved upon or solved by modifications.to alloy properties,design or construction techniques. Unfortunately, it is not possible -tofilly extrapolate these observations to ships as large as the bulk carrierdesign presently being considered based solely upon the performance ofpast designs. However, these observations will prove to be essential toolsin deriving overall conclusions as to the feasibility of such a design.CORROSIONAs expected, a number of problems have occurred in existing aluminumvessels or steel ships with aluminum deckhouses, related to corrosion,particularly where the aluminum is in contact with a dissimilar metal.In general, these problems have occurred as a result of improper isolationof aluminum structures from either steel strucfiuresor non-alumtiurnpipingor equipment, and/or inadequateeathadicprotection,~llof which have beenor could be solved. The principal exception ‘Gothis was the exfoliationproblem experienced with the Navy’s “SWIFT” boats.The most prevalent corrosion problem to date has been in way of theconnection between aluminum deckhouses and steel hulls. This joint isgenerally made quite close to the steel deck, so that it is nften subjectedto salt water spray. As the joint works due to relative hull-deckhousemotion, the fasteners lomsen, allowing salt water to enter and corrosion toinitiate. This problem was greatly reduced when the isolating material atthe interface was changed from zinc chromate impregnated burlap cloth toneoprene or equal.A further potential improvement is afforded by the bimetallic stripswhich are presently becoming available. These strips consist of layersof aluminum and steel which are explosively or chemically bonded together,to which the respective aluminum and steel ship structures can be welded.These strips offer a number of advantages:(a) Joint efficiencies of 100 per cent basedan the O-temperproperties of the aluminum.(b)Minimum joint slippage.(c) Comosion characteristicswhich have “been shown experimentallyto bevery good, evenat the interface of the steel and aluminum.The use of these bimetallic connection strips tiotid be given verycareful consideration in future designs involving permanent connectionsto steel and aluminum. Present indications are that the initial cost of

-39-such a connection is sommhat higher than a conventional mechanicallyfastened joint, but life-cycle cost consideration may favor bimetallicstrip comections ifstificiently large quantitiesoftiaterialare involved.The exfoliation problem was discussed previously, and is well documentedin numerous reports. At this time, it can be ~oncluded that thisproblem has been solved by the introduction of new tempers for the highmagnesiumalloys which exhibited the problem. The survey conducted inconjunction with this study found no significant evidence of exfoliationin commercial alumirmn hulls. All of the known hulls which have experiencedexfolia-bion were of g4S6-H321 alloy, while W cmme~cia~ hnl~shave generally been constructed of S083, S086 or alloys with lowermagnesium content. Crew boats which were fabricated with ~086-H32 platingand were subjected to a relatively rugged operating environment and highpanel stress levels have reportedly stood up very well, with no apparentevidence of exfoliation. This would lead to the tentative conclusion that5086-H32 alloy is superior tO 5456-H321 alloywi~h rega~d to exf’olia~ionresistance, which is consistent with the higher magnesiun content of thelatter alloy. Fortunately, the foregoing discussion is now of academicinterest only, since the recent introduction of the HI16 and HI17 tempersfor both alloys has apparently solved the exfoliation problem.Obher areas Tnwhich corrosion has occurred as a result of improperisolation of aluminum from other metals include the following:(a)(b)(c)(d)Black iron piping systems in ballast tanks connected toaluminum bulkhead spools via rubber lined stainless steelsleeves. If the rubber lining is not p~operly installed,severe corrosion can be expected on the aluminum sleeves.Adequate cathodic protection is required within the ballast tankto protect the hull structure.Steel deck machine~ must be well isolated from aluminum foundations,using butyl rubber, neoprene gaskets, plastic chocking,or equal. Painting both surfaces with red lead is notrecommended.Miscellaneous minor details are often developed without coneiderabionof isolation requirements. Minor piping pystems, connectionsof hose racks ard other miscellaneous outfit, etc., must considerthese requirements, since minor details often create problems withcritical structures.Corrosion and pitting has been observed in way of overboati discharges,indicating the need for local inserts. Other instancesof localized pittiing”havegenerally been rest~icted to areas inwhich known galvanic couples have existed,ABRASION AND IKFACTSeveral instances have been noted in which steel mooring cables andanchor chains have caused moderate to severe abrasion of aluminum hullstructures. Minor abrasion has also resulted from contact with wharvesand pilings. This appears to be an inherent desi,gnproblem with aluminumhulls which must be overcome by the proper location of mooring gear andground ‘tackle,as well as pro-visionof expendable chafing strips whe?erequired; Abrasion of cargo decks has been a concern o,ncrew boats, wherehea~ equipment and pipe is being handled. This is generally solved byfastening wooden protection strips to the aluminum deck.

-40-The question of comparative impact resistance of steel and aluminumhulls is difficult to evaluate because there are relatively few cases inwhich a direct comparison is possible. However, the general opinion ofcrew boat operators and Navy personnel involved with equivalent aluminumand steel landing craft is that steel hulls possess somewhat greater resistanceto impact loads than aluminum hulls. It is very difficult toevaluate such qualitative opinions. However, the lower modulus ofelasticity of aluminum will result in greater apparent damage in aluminumthan with steel, i.e., deeper dents am more gouging for similar impactloads. Since these factors do not necessarily relate to the residualstrength of the structure after damage, it is very difficult to comparealuminum and steel in this regard. However, it can,be concluded thatsufficient impact resistance can be designed into an aluminum hull fora normal life cycle environment without an unacceptable penalty onweight or cost.IOCALIZED CRACKING OF STRUCTUREA number of instances of cracking of aluminum ship structures havebeen observed, both h deckhouses and hulls of various sizes. In allcases which could be studied in details these cracks could be attributedto poorly designed or fabricated structural details rather,than a fundamentalweahess in the material. Among the cracking problems obsermd,the following examples are of particular interest.(a) Hate cracks originating i.nthe radius corners of uptake,vmt and door cuts in aluminum deckhouses on destroyertype hulls.(b) Weld cracking at the connection of highly loaded framingmembers where conventional merchant ship type details havebeen used, such as flamged plates lapped back to back. Inmany cases, the crack originated at the end of the weld beadswhere such beads could not be carried up into the intersectionQf the two mtiers, as shown in Figure 11,It is noted that such details can lead to cracking of steel structures also.‘riinofw-cA-ACra;kLapped Joint BetweenFlanged Plates(c)Plate cracking at the end of stiffners wherewas not relieved.the hard spot(d)Plate cracking in bulkheads where intercostal longitudinalgirders were not aligned fore and aft o.fthe bulkhead.(e) Weld crackimg at the ends of stanchions in the heat affectedzone where the load transfer into the stanchion was not fullydeveloped.

-41-(f) Weld and plate cracking in way of impact d~age on bottom orside shell.(g)cra~kfig in the welds attachfig highly loaded fittings, - . i.e.,bitts, chocks, etc. to the hull. -These instances of structural cracking ondeckhouses lead to the following conclusions:existing aluminum ships or(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)Aluminum is more susceptible to such moblerns than steel. sincethe hamspots, discont~nuities and po~r welding details firoducingthe stress concentrations invariably occur in either the weldof lower strength heat affected zone.Proper attention to the design of aluminum structural detailsis of paramount importance, particularly if the structure isto be highly stressed. Details should be designed so thataccess for welding is adequate all around. Continuous weldingshould be used in way of all connections of framing members,stanchions, etc. to avoid, or at least minimize, undercuttingand radial shrinkage stresses at the end of the bead.Conventional merchant ship details for frame and beam connectionsshould be avoided in aluminum construction since lapped bracketsor overlapped framing members are hard ‘Goweld properly, andhigh stress concentrations can result at the discontinuity ofthese members. Navy-type details, though more expensive initially,should be less expensive in the long run, since failures are lesslikely to occur.Careful attention must be paid to the stress flow in aluminumdeckhouses. lliscontinuitiessuch as large openings and inadequateattachment to the steel hull will result in stressconcentrations which will produce structural failure even whenthe theoretical stress levels sre relatively low. The transferof loads between deckhouse and hull must receive special attention,particularly at the fore and aft ends of long deckhouses.All longitudinally effective structure in am aluminw hull ordeckhouse must be continuous through transverse structure.REPAIRSSeveral owners or operators have noted the dfificulty in obtaininghigh quality repairs of aluminum structures. In many cases, the repairwork does more harm than good, since bad welding applied to a crackedor highly stressed structure seldom remains sourd. The basic problemsseem to relate to the following factors:(a) Unqualified welders working in a bad environment.“(b) Lack of proper surface or edge preparation in way of welds.(c)Insufficient access for the welding gun.

-42-(d)(e)Poor quality welds due to moisture inclusion or porosity,often resulting from wind disturbing the shielding envelopeof gas around the weld arc.Improper weld sequence resulting in high residual stress.MAINTENANCEGeneral maintenance of aluminum hulls has reportedly been excellent.h many cases, the aluminum above the water line is unpainted, and onlyrequires an occasional washdown with fresh water. The tendency of unpaintedaluminum to streak and spot often leads to painting for aesthetic reasons,which can lead to problems if the coating breaks dowm locally, therebytending to concentrate any corrosive or electrolytic attack. Hulls aregenerally painted with antifouling paint below the water line. Primerand tributyl tin oxide AF paint or other paints not containing cuprousoxide are generally used. These paint systems have stood up well, andwhen repainting is required, a careful sand washing is employed to removeold paint and barnicles.The operational experience with existing aluminum vessels and deckhouseshas generally been satisfactory. All problems encountered in design~construction and operation to date have been or can he satisfactorilysolved, and the practical experience gained cam be applied to large aluminumhulls such as the bulk carrier under consideration. Undoubtedly, the mostserious challenge to be faced in designing large aluminum ships is to avoidconditions which might lead to stress concentrations and subsequent cracking,since larger hulls will be more highly stressed than those now in operation.IIC.DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HUL~ STRUCTUREThe development of acceptable design criteria for the hull girder andlocal structure of an aluminum bulk carrier represents one of the mostchallenging and important considerations in this study. These criteria arefundamental in developing a technically.feasibledesign, and require athorough evaluation of the empirical and theoretical considerations leadingto the steel scantlings presently required by regulatory bodies.Design criteri’ahave been developed for the primary hull girder structureand secondary structure to the extent necessary to fully demonstrate technicalfeasibility, including the following:1. Hull girder section modulus at midships.2. Hull girder moment of inertia at midships.3* Prhmry hull structure: deck, tank top, shell plating andframing, longitutial floors and girders, center vertical, keel and web frames.h. Secondary hull structure: bulkhead plating and framing,deep tank structure, deckhouses, etc.Additional consideration is given to crack arresting and thermal stresses.

-43-EXISTING CRITERIAAs a prelude to developingan extensive review was made ofaluminum structure for merchantthe American Bureau of Shipping,design criteria for an aluminum bulk carrier,existing acceptable procedures for developingand Naval vessels, including discussions withIiloydsRegister of shippin~, ~t NorskeTeritas,Bureau Veritas, Regis~ro Italiano Navale and the United States Navy.In general, these criteria are based upon conversion of proven steel scantlingsto aluminum on the basis of relative strength or stiffness, particularly wheresteel scantlings are based upon emperical considerations. In the follotingparagraphs, these existing criteria are briefly presented and evaluated. It isnoted that the Regulatory Body cormnentsare very preliminary and subject tofurther review, and thus do not necessarily represent official policy.American Bureau of Shipping - The firs% large aluminum vessel designed toABS criteria was the trailership SACAL BORINCANO, completed in 1967. Thedesign criteria used in converting steel scantlings to aluminum were published .in the July 1967 issue of Marine Engineering/Log magazine. These criteriahave been extended to the design of the ALCOA SEAPROBE, and are as follows:(a)FOR PLATING:60,000‘alum = ‘steel x “80 x Ult Str of Alum● .(unwelded)(b)FDR BEAMS:Emalm =60,000SMsteel x .80 XUlt. Str of Alum. (unwelded)AAlum w 1.5 ASteel(c)FOR HULL GIRDER (Ii/Ds 1S):T alum = 0.9 X SM~teel X Y x 2.0where ~ = ‘UL1 ‘epth2.03ISMalm = _ = 0.9 x SM~teelYx 2.0The factor of 0.80 is apparently a steel corrosion allowance which is notrequired for aluminum. The relationships for hull girder inertia are intendedto limit the deflection of the aluminum hull to approximately 1.7times that of the steel hull.These criteria were developed by ABS for relatively small hulls, andwould be subject to reconsideration for larger hulls in the area of lowcycle fatigue, welding degradation, corrosion allowances and hull stiffnessrequirements. During discussions with ABS, they indicated that the limitationon hull girder stiffness is somewhat empirical, and that greater deflectionswould be considered, though the effects on shafting, piping anddraft/freeboard relationships must be evaluated.

-44-The ABS criteria noted above were used in the preparation of a preliminarymidship section for an aluminum bulk carrier. The resultant weightper foot was approfiately!% per cent of that of an equivalent steel hull,while huu gtider deflections would be,increased by a factor of 1.75.l)urln~the desi~n of the Fast Jkplqyment Logistic (FDL} GhLpS, one ofthe criteria developed and approved by ABS for aluminum deckhouceo wag a~follow~:(a) For plating designed primarily for lateral loading fromwave slap, deck loads, etc.:‘alum =.9 TsteelII/‘TssteelUTSalum(b)For plating designed primarily for edge loading as mightbe induced by longitudinal bending or axial loads:Talm = ●9 ‘steel(UTS)steelUTSalum(c)Framiti

-45-These criteria with some modifications have been adopted into Lloyd’slatest Rules for AluminumYachts, Reference (52), which require a Is per centincrease in plate thickness and a 70 per cent increase in stiffener sectionmodulus when substituting aluminum alloy for steel. These rules apply toaluminum alloys with a 0.1 per cent proof stress of 8 tons/in.2, an ultimatetensile strength of 17 tons/in.2 and an elongation in a 2 inch and 8 inchgage length of 12 and 10 per cent respectively.The Lloyd’s Rules relative to aluminum deckhouses require the followingincreases in scantlings:Fronts, sides, aft ends and unsheathed decksSheathed deckBeams and stiffenersScantlings of small isolated houses20 per cent10 per cent70 per centO per centThese requirements are consistent with those discussed previously, and reflecta consideration of ratios of ultimate strength.Recent discussions with Lloydls relating specifically to the AluminumBulk Carrier project resulted in the following observations:(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)A reduction in steel section modulus of ~ per cent should beaccepted as a basis for converting to aluminum.Consideration must be given to low-cycle fatigue properties inrelation to the hull’s life cycle stress spectrum.Extensive radiographing of welds will be required to ensureproper reliability. Butts should be staggered as much aspossible.Notch toughness is not considered a problem, and no crackarresting riveted seams are required.Hull girder deflection should generally not exceed that of asteel hull of equal length but with an L/D ratio of 16, i.e.,r = SMsteelalumx .95 x 3 x half-depth of ship. This requirementmight be modified for this speciffc case, though both wave andstill mater deflection must be considered.Deflection of local aluminum beams may be SO per cent greaterthan that of equivalent steel section.Det Norske Veritas - DNV has no rules ralating diractly to aluminumstructure at this time. However, they indicate that the procedures usedin selecting high strength steel scantlings would be applicable to aluminum.These requirements’convertmild steel scantlings to high strength steel bya factor which is based upon the ratio of yield strengths. Ultimate tensilestrengths do not enter into the conversion directly, though lower limits areplaced on the ratio of ultimate tensile strength to yield strength. Foraluminum alloys, they would consider both ultimate and yield tensile strengthratios, assuming welded strengths of aluminum alloys, and the entire areaunder the stress-strain cuwe. They would deduct an appropriate corrosionallowance frcm the steel scantlings before converting, and would not requirea corrosion allowance for aluminum. They would also not require rivetedcrack arresting seams for an aluminum hull.

-46-DNV would consider fatigue in establishing hull girder section modulusby comparing the life cycle histogram of the stress level for combined waveand still water bending versus the number of cycles, with the fatigue strength(S-N) curve of the material. The relative areas under these curves wouldestablish a safety factor which would be the same for both steel and aluminum.Relative to hull deflection, DNV noted the possibility of resonance betweenthe natural frequency of a flexible hull and period of wave-inducedforces. They also noted the possibility of problems with flexibility of thedouble bottom, particularly if its frequencies are in resonance with thoseof the hull. The effects of cargo mass and antrained water must be consideredwhen determtiing these frequencies.Registro Italiano Navale - RIN experience relating to aluminum is presenti~ylimited to deckhouses and large LNG tanks. Eoweve~, they indicated that thefollowing considerationswould apply todesigfing alarge aluminumbulk carrier:(Ei)(b)(c)(d)(e)Deduct a 10 per cent corrosion allowance from the steel hullgirder section modulus before converting to aluminum.For the hull girder, fatigue would be considered b compartigrelative strength of steel and aluminum at 702, 1& and 106cycles. The combined wave and still water bending stressesover the life of the hull would be compared to the fatiguecharacteristics for both materials. Both ultimate tensilestreng%h and welded yield strength should be considered.Unstable propagation of a fatigue crack in aluminum shouldnot occur. Therefore, crack arresting should not be required.Limitations on hull girder deflection for an aluminum shipmay not be necessary though greater permissible deflectionsrequire more careful consideration of low-cycle fatiguebehavior.Pa~tTcular attention is requtred to ensure proper welding, - .with no undercutting, and to prevent excessive weld distortion.Bureau Veritas - The Bureau Veritas suggests a 10 per cent reduction insteel thicknesses for corrosion, and conversion of effective steel scantlingsto aluminum on the basis of yield strength ratios unless the field strengthexceeds 0.6 tines the ultimate strength, in which case ultimate strength mustalso be considered. Unwelded characteristics of aluminum alloys should beconsidered as long as the welded connections are well checked, and butts inthe sheer strake, bottom and deck plate are staggered.Bureau Veritas recommends that the deflection of the aluminum not exceedthat of a steel hull with a length-depth ratio of 16.1, which is the maximumthey permit.U.S. Navy - The Navyrs general specifications.proviclea working stressbased upon the following equation for design of secondaxy structures su~jecttO normal loading such as wave slap, deck loads,-etc. on al~inum deckhouses:lfa~m= :Welded Y.S. of Aluminum ~ Welded UTS of Aluminum[F.S. on Y.S. of Steel F.S. on UTS of Steel 1

-47’-No direct credit is given for the corrosion resistance of aluminum, sincereliance is placed on maintenance or protective coatings to mintiize corrosionin.steel.Recent Navy studies of aluminum destroyers have been based upon anallowable hull girder stress of 4.5 tons/in.2 for 5086 alloy when the shipis balanced on a wave equal to the ship in length and equal to 1.l~lengthfor its height. This provides equivalent margins for secondary stress foraluminum and steel. No consideration is given directly to fatigue althoughthis matter is presently under investigation. The deflection of an aluminumdestroyer hull designed for the above criteria was limited tO 1.5 kties thatof an equivalent high strength steel hull. This is not expected to producebinding at shaft bearings or problems with piping or other systems.‘TheNavyls design criteria for small, high performance craft includea requirement that hull bottom structure be designed for the welded yieldstrength at 107 cycles when considering wave impact loading.PRoposmICRITERIA - mL GI~ER sEcTIoNMoD~usThe required section modulus of the hull girder at midships for steelmerchant vessels has traditionally been determined on the basis of balancingthe vessel statically on a trochoidal wave and equating the resultant wavebending moment to an allowable stress. This stress, generally around8 tons per square inch, was arrived at empirically, based upon thesuccessful performance of many previous designs. During the last decade,rapid growth in the size and number of super tankers and large bulkcarriers has prompted the regulatory agencies to reconsider their requirementsfor hull girder strength. This has been possible because of recentdevelopments in the science of oceanography and sea spectrum analysis,which have made it possible to predict life-cycle hull girder stresspatterns with acceptable accuracy, and to relate these to the fatiguecharacteristics of the material.The state of the art in hull girder stress analysis has not yetadvanced to the point where a truly classical structural design ispossible. At this time, the process of hull design is essentially oneof working backwards, comparing proven, acceptable scantlings with moresophisticated load inputs and resulting moments and shears to determine%he range of safety factors which have provided satisfactory designs inthe past.Based upon the above limitations, it will be necessary to determimethe aluminum hull section modulus on thebasisof converting acceptablesteel scantlings, maintaining equivalent safety factors. In this process,the following factors apply:Steel I-Iu1l s.11. - For this study, the base line steel hull girder sectionmodulus will be based upon the latest requirements of the American Bureauof Shipping.Corrosion Allowance - Present data indicates that the loss in aluminumshell and deck thickness due to salt water corrosion will be negligible overa 20 year lifetime if the selection of alloys, cathodic protection andisolation of dissimilar metals are suitable. For the equivalent steel hull,the corrosion anticipated by ABS can be derived from the allowance which theypermit for steel protected by an approved corrosion control system,,such asinorganic coatings. This allowance is 10 per cent or I/8 inch, whichever

-48-is less, for the exposed side shell and deck plating. It is noted that theABS equations for converting mild steel to HTS steel consider corrosionallowances .of .12 inch for tank top, deep tank and double bottom girderplating, and .17 inch for exposed shell and deck plating. Since theselatter ~lue-s--are--deductefromrom *he mild steel scantlings prior to conversionand are then added back to the HTS, it is slightly conservative to apply thehigher allowances in converting fromMS to HTS. However, where an allowanceis being deducted from steel which will not be added back to the aluminumscantlings, the I/8 inch or 10 per cent allowance is more appropriate. Therefore,in converting from steel to aluminum, an “effective” steel midshipsection will be derived by deducting 1/8 inch or 10 per cent from bottom andside shell and exposed deck plate. A lesser allowance of I/16 inch will bededucted from all other longitudinally effective structure.Short-Term Loading - In considering short-term loading, it isdesirable that the aluminum and steel hulls have the same safety factorwhen experiencing the maximum combination of wave and still water bendingmoments. For a constant hull girder bending moment, this can beexpressed by the relationship in Equation (l):Equation (1): 1+.111SMalum = SMsteel (effective) x ~7;0~Where Y is the minimum welded tensile yield strengthat 0.2 per cent offset with 10 inch gagelength of the aluminum alloy, in FSI, withbead on, from Table 3.U is the welded ultiflatetensile strength ofthe aluminum alloy plus one-half the specifiedrange, in PSI, or the average ultimatetensile strength from Table ~.For alloy g083-H321 plate the minimum welded yield and average ultimatetensile strengths with bead on are 24 and h~ KST respectively. Correspondingvalues for S083-HII1 extrusions are 21 and 4S KSI respectively. Using thesevalues in the above equation results in the following relationship:Hull S.M. for S083-H321 = 1.40x effective Steel Hull S.M.Hull S.M. for ~083-Hill = 1.47 x effective Steel Hull S.M,The above equation gives equal ranking to yield and ultimate strengths,and is based upon minimum values of Y and U of321JO0PSI (minimum) and 65000PSI respectively for strllcturalsteel meeting ASTM A131-61. The relativeimportance of yield and ultimate strengths has been the subject of wide debate,and a review of the previous discussion on existing criteria indicates thatthere still are differences ti opinions. Therefore, the equal ranking proposedabove, which is consistent with present ABS criteria in converting mild steelscantlings to HTS, is considered appropriate at this time, but requires furtherStudy.‘Theone factor which has not been addressed in the above equation isthe relative elongations of the two materials. For hull-grade steel, theminimum specified elongation in 2 inches is 24 per cent, while that of the~000 series alloys is 12 per cent for the unwelded metal and 1$-20 percentfor the welded condition. By inspection, therefore, the unwelded case would

-49-be more critical if elonga%fon were to be considered as a limiting factor.Referring to the typical stress-strain curve in Figure 12 below~ two areasaxe considered: The area under the curve in the elastic r~ge~ and the area-betweenthe yield and ultimate strengths, designated Al and A2 resPective~Y:UltimateTensileStrength ~ Rupture-7FIG. 12 Stress-Strain Relationshipsfor AluminumStressElongationThe areas AI and AP are both important in studying the overall responseof a material to loading, even though Al is far smaller than AP. These areasrepresent the quantity stress times elongation, which is proportional toforce times distsmce, or work. Axes Al therefore represents the work requiredto exceed the elastic limit of the material, and falls within the area inwhich structures are normally loaded. Within this area, at any given stresslevel, aluminum has a 3 to 1 advantage over steel because of its lower modulusof elasticity.The area A2 represents the work associated with the plastic strain energyof_,t&he material, between the elastic range and rupture. Tn this area, due toitsgreater eio~atio~ steel has an approximate 2 to 1 advantage over aluminum.If it is assumed that the importance ofareas A1 amd A2 is identical, whichis implicit in the Equation 1, it is apparent that aluminum’s advantage in theelastic zone more than offsets its lower total elongation. Thus, differencesin material elongation do not directly affect Equation 1.Long-Term Loading - Long-term loading implies consideration of the anticipatedstress levels which the hull will experience throughout its life, inconjunction with the low cycle fatigue strength of the hull material. For thisspecific study, the following proce~ure has ~een adopted:(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)Estimate the life cycle histogram, bending moment versus numberof cycles, for the steel bulk carrier, and convert th~s to equivalentbending st~ess, based on the steel hull girder section modulusas built.Develop a fatigue (S-N) curve for hull steel, ASTM A131-61.Determine the ratio of fatigue strength to hullstress throughout the life of the vessel. Thissidered a safety factor on fatigue failure.girder bendingcan be con-Apply these same ratios to the S-N curve of the selected aluminumalloy, thus establishing a curve of allowable life cycle bendingstress for the aluminum hull girder.Determine the area (A) under the two life-cycle bending stresscurves. The required hull girder section modulus to satisfyfati~ue requirements is then as follows:

Equation (2):-50-Hu1l SMa~um = Hull SMsteel (as built) x‘steel‘aluminumIt is noted that the actual S.M. of the steel hull : s used rather than the“effectiveT’S.M., reduced for corrosion allowance, since the conversion oflife-cycle moment to stress was based upon the actual S.M.Considerable investigation is required to establish a general lifecycle histogram of hull girder stresses for a bulk carrier, consideringcombinations of still water and wave bending moments, anticipated servicejNorth Atlantic versus Pacific, etc., loading conditions, including per centof time in ballast, operational profile and others. The scope of this studyis not sufficient to investigate this problem in detail, although a generalapproach has been established which is sufficiently accurate to demonstratefeasibility. The results of this study are summarized in Appendix A.Figure 13 illustrates the application of the foregoing criterion to theM/V CHALLENGER, where S083 alloy is being used in lieu of mild steel. Thisfigure indicates that the allowable stress for the aluminum hull would varyfrom 2.1 KSI (still water bending stress) at 108 cycles to 13.s KSI (extrapolated)at 10° cycles. The corresponding values for the steel hull areS KSIand 19 KSI. The area under the steel and aluminum life-cycle stresscurves between 10° and 108 cycles are 6.7S x 108 KSI and 3.S6 x 108 KSI respectively,resulting in a required ratio of hull girder section moduli of1,90,,0~.”.– ;; :: . 0 ; : : m : . ~\..-. —1 ...... ,.~.~—.. .’—1.. I xl’~- ..~l~.~-~.-j–”lo~:–_::- ‘:-T i iJ~[~ l=”;;:;-”% ili~ ---! ---+~NoTES: S-N CURVES OF STEELANDAL131!INUM13ASED 1 :..; .,::+,.:-,. . ~ .1‘,1 ONWELDEDIIATERIAL, WITH13ElD ON,USINGi r—.$‘, .,. –.- AVG.OFR=Ofl“:=::.. -.”/-.”’ ”;l::!: ”:””.’~’1-”’ IILNDR‘-l,FROMFIGURE8.LIFECYCLE BENDING STRESS FORSTEtLHULL ~IS FIASEOJON IDMENTS FROM APPENDIX A ANDA HULL GIRBER S.M. OF 67IIB 1N2 FT.30,!p.”:. w—.. . —. .... .,,.,~,,,, ,,.’.~-~-~dd,.~-l–.l..~d, },l.l.l..—;—l-;..l ,,,;1---------- J ..11I,—,—–,—L.. 1-1 --; -—:--,-!-, :l---,--F? ,,”.,102,03 , ~4 1$ 106NU!DJ!EOF CYCLES,07 1OaFIG. 13 Relationship Between 5-N Curves and Life Cycle HullBending Stress for steel and Aluminum Bulk Carrier

-51-PROPOSED CRITERIA - HULL GIRDER MOMENT.OF INERTIAlt appears obvious that the hull girder stiffness of an aluminum bulkcarrier must be less than that of its steel counterpart if it is to be economicallyfeasible. It now becomes necessary ‘coestablish the extent to whichthe hull girder deflection can be increased over that of a steel ship. ASnoted earlier, the only guidance in this area at p~esent is the ABS requirementthat the hull girder deflection of an aluminum ship shall not be morethan SO per cent greater than that of a !!Rulesllsteel vessel while Lloyd’sand Wreau Veritas suggest no increase. In justifying these recommendationsor deviating from them, the following factors must be considered:(a)Response to sea-induced forces.(b) Wll girder vibrations, and possible resonances between%hehull girder and other major structural components.(c)(d)(e)Effects of deflection on draft.Effects of deflection on shafting, piping systems, etc.Stress-strain relationships of the material.Sea-hduced Forces - Reference (53) indicates that reduced hull girderstiffness is beneficial in reducing dynamic bending moments associated withsea-induced forces. At the bow and midships, the reduction in maximum bendingmoment was approximately proportional to the square root of the ratio of hullrigidities, considering reductions in stiffness of as much as ~0 per cent,though at the quarter points, the reduction was less. Although the studiesdiscussed in Reference (53) were relatively limited and subject to furtherrefinement, it appears that reduced hull sttifness will improve rather thandegrade the hull’s ability to withstand wave-induced forces.Hull Vibrations - The hull girder frequency spectrum of a bulk carrierfor vertical, lateral and to~sional vibrations can be readily p~edicted eitherby empirical formulae or direct computation. Assuming that the overall weightdistribution along the hull girder is identical for the aluminum and steelship (i.e., reduced hull weight is fully compensated for by increased cargodeadweight), the variation in hull girder vibratory response will be approximatelyproportional to the square root of EI ratios, i.e.:/IOX106 TalumF ‘aluminum= F‘steel i 30x106 IsteelThe ratio under the square root sign is the deflection ratio. Thus, if anincrease of SO per cent were accepted for the aluminum hull, its lower modefrequencies would be reduced by a factor of about 0,82. For a typical steelbulk carrier, the lowest hull frequency (Ist mode vertical) is about 70 Cm,with the second mode vertical being at approximately 1~0 c.W. l?oran equivalentaluminum hull with a ~0 per cent allowable increase in deflection, thecorresponding values would be 60 and 120 CPM. ‘Thelower frequency spectrumof an aluminum hulled bulk carrier would have to be given consideration inselecting cruise and full speed shaft RPM and number of propeller blades toavoid resonances between either the shaft or blade forcing frequencies. However,this is nat considered a design constraint since similar.comments apply tosteel hulls.

-52-Another aspect of vibrations which must be given consideration indesigning an aluminum bulk carrier is the possibility of resonance betweenthe hull girder and major structural components such as the double bottomor deckhouse. The possibility of such resonances exists with steel hullsas well, so that similar design considerationsapply in both cases. 11all hull girder scantlingswere to be converted to aluminum on the basisof the previous discussions, the relationshipbetween frequency spectraof the hull and major structural componentswould remain essentially thesame. Although this matter must be given consideration in selecting hullgirder scantlings, it is not considered a design constraint for either asteel or aluminum hull.Effects on .llrafk- The effects of hull girder deflections instillwater on full load draft involves both technical and economic considerations.I?xcessivedeflection can limit cargo carrying capacity both for freeboardrequirements and fox limiting drafts requirements entertng harbors or crossingsandbars. The MJV CFI./iL~ENG~R presently has still water bending stressesas high as 2.s tons.per square inch which may result in differences in draftbetween midships and the ends of approximately1.9 inches (sag). However,these values correspond to conditions of partial loads. The maximum stillwater bending stress and corresponding sag for full load conditions are 1.7tons per square inch and 1.4 inches respectively. For a similar, but 2,900tons heavier, non-homogeneouscargo distribution the aluminum ship is expectedto have a sag deflection of 3.1 inches. Such deflections correspond to lossesof caxgo carrying capacity due to freeboard requirements of 1.00tons in bhecase of the steel ship and 220 tons in the case of the aluminum ship.IIowever,with homogeneous cargo distributions in full load conditions, thesag deflectionsmay be ~educed to 0.7 and 1.7 inches respectivelyfor steeland aluminum ships, with corresponding losses of cargo capabili”~ of SOtons and 120 tons respectively.Loss of cargo carrying capability due to effects of sagging OE freeboardis expected to be a relatively rare occurrence in tramp operations. Whenpicking up cargoes which are volume limited, a ship is not down to her marksand freeboard reductions due to sag are of no consequence. When picking upcargoes which are weight limited, in whtch case holds are only partially full,sagging stressesand deflections may be reduced by distributing cargo away fromamidships. On few occasions when taking on cargoes of such densities tosimultaneouslyfill the holds and load the ship to her marks, a loss ofdeadweight capacity would be experienced.It is noted that when loading heavy cargoes partly at one port, and completingloading at another, it may not be feasible to limit the vessells sagin full load and avoid loss of deadweight capacity.Concerning navigational limitations on drafts to values less than fullload draft, it is considered that the inch or so extra sag of an aluminum shipis not significant in the face of the inherent greater trim aft of an aluminum,machine~ aft ship, as compared to a steel ship at a reduced draft.ln view of both the small percentage of cargo lift capacity that maybe lost and the low frequency with which such losses may occur in trampoperations, it is not expected that reductions in cargo carrying capacityresulting from hull deflections can have measurable influence on the economicfeasibility of an aluminum ship.Effects orIShaftti and System Runs - Greaker hull girder deflectionwill have no effect on the design of the shafting of an aluminum bulk carrier,since the machinery is located aft, and the relative angular deflection alongthe length of the shafting is far less than with machinery amidships. For a

-53-hull with machinery amidships, the shaft bending stresses and bearing reactionswould increase roughly in proportion to the hull girder deflection ratio, sothat the question of shafting and bearing reactions would require seriousconsideration in this case.The effects of greater hull girder deflection on longitudinally orientedbilge and ballast systems shouldbe negligible, since the materials recommendedfor these systems have greatly reduced elastic modulus compared to conventionalsteel piping. Aluminum piping wouldbe stressed to only 1/s the level ofequivalent steel piping for equal hull deflection, while the stress ratio forfiberglass piping would be only 1/10 to 1/1S that of steel. Thus an increasein hull girder deflection could be accepted without overstressing the pipe.Again, this presents a relatively simple design consideration which canbereadily incorporated in the design of the piping system.For longitudinal runs of steel piping, such as fuel oil piping, an expansionloop cm be incorporated to absorb the additional deflection of the hull girder.Stless-Strain Ilelationship- Consideration of design stresses, includingfatigue, have been dealt with previously in detail, and it is these considerationswhich affect deflections rather than deflection considerations affecting stresses.Therefore, if previously established strength relationships have been satisfied,there is no apparent reason to impose a limit on hull girder deflection basedupon consideration of material properties. Tt is noted, however, that increasedhull deflection increases the strain energy in the post yield (plastic) range inway of stress concentrations.The only area in which excessive deflection would affect structural designis in the design of hull longitudinal, where the secondary bending due to hydrostaticor deadweight loading should be augmented by the moment resulting fromend loading being applied along an axis which is not in line with the neutralaxis of the deflected beam, i.e.:Additional secondary bending . ~[ 1Primary ‘%eamxAbeammoment at midspam‘ere Cprimar is the hull girder primary bending stress~eam =x the area of the beam, including hull plate supported‘beamiS the midsPan deflection of the beamThe stresses resulting from such secondary moments are usually negligible,but for an aluminum hull, where Abeam will be greater than with steel,this additional bending should be considered.Conclusion - It is concluded that no limits should be placed on thehull girder deflection of an aluminum bulk carrier, but that the affectsof the deflection resulting from normal structural design should be consideredin the areas”noted above.PROPOSED CRITERIA - PRIMARY HULL STRUCTUREIn this section, criteria are proposed for converting ABS steelscantlings to aluminum for application to the design of the primary hullstructure of an aluminum bulk carrier. The following structural elementsare considered:

-54-000000000Bottom Shell PlateSide Shell PlateDeck PlateTank Top PlateWing Bulkhead Plate (Upper and Lower)Inner Bottom Floor and Girder PlatesBottom LongitudinalDeck LongitudinalTank Top Longitudinal00Other Hull FramingStanchionsMembersIn general, — these criteria will establish minimum scantlings to resist combinationsof primary and secondary stresses, local loads, impact, abrasion, slamming, etc.,with consideration given to vibration and buckling problems. Tt will often benecessary to increase these minimum scantlings to suit hull section modulusrequirements.Design Criteria for Plates - In gene~al, the approach to converting steelplate thicknesses to equivalent aluminum thicknesses requires the derivationof an “effective” steel thickness by deducting all corrosion or abrasion allowances,then increasing this thickness by a function of the relative strengthratios, and adding back any required corrosion or abrasion allowances.The corrosion allowance to be deducted from steel will depend upon itsanticipated exposure to salt water. An allowance of I/8 inch or 10 per centof the thickness, whichever is less, is proposed for the hull envelope (deck,side and bottom plate) with a 1/16 inch allowance for the internal plates.If the owner or Regulatory Bodies have added an additional margin for abrasion,such as on the flat of bottom or on the bottom of the hold, this should alsobe deducted.The factor by which the “effectivelythickness is to be modified is basedupon the ratio of the sum of the welded yield and ultimate tensile strengthsof the materials as in.Equation (1) previously. For plates loaded primarilyin shea~, tension or compression, the full ~atio should be used. However, forplates which are loaded primarily in tertiary bending (bending betweer stiffnersdue to applied normal load) the square root of this ratio should be used, sincethe section modulus of an element.of plate is a function of (thickness)2. Forplates subjected to a combination of tertiary bendfng and tension, compressionor shears an average factor should be used.The allowance for abrasion to be added back to the resultant aluminumthiclmess is somewhat arbitrary. Howeverj the previous discussion of aluminumalloy abrasion resistance indicates that aluminum will abraid about 4 timesas fast as steel in a similar environment. Thus, for equal life, the steelallowance should be multiplied by four, unless a detailed economic analysis

-55-indicates that it is less expensive to renew the Platep~ovide steel chafing bars. However, neither o? theseeconomically or technically attractive at this time.periodically or toapproaches is consideredSummarizing the foregoing cliscussion,the conversion of mild steel pla’:ethicknesses to .&minum would be as shown in Equation (3):m97,000 n +~cEquation (3): talum ‘ ‘steel“cl “2 y+u 2(Where talum = minimum required aluminum thicknesststeel = steel thiclmess required by MS fileswithout correction for corrosion controlor increases for hull girder sectionmodulus requirementsc1 = corrosion allowance for mild steelC2 = additional allowance for abrasionY, U are as defined fo~Equa%ion (1)n is an exponent based on type of stress such asbending, shear or axialValues of Cl, C2, and n are as follows:Itemc1’32 nMinimum bottom thicl-mess I/81’or .lOt As required by Owner 1Side Plate I/8’!or .lOt o 1Deck Plate (exposed)Determined primarily by hull girder S.M.requirements. Equation (3) not applicable.Tank Top Plate “1/16“ As required by Owner 3/4or AmUpper Wing Bulkhead Plate. 1/16!1 o 3/4Lower Wing Bulkhead Plate 1/16“ As required by Owner 3/nor AMFloors and Girders 1/16!! o 1Shell Plates at Ends I/8° or .lOt o 1/2In addition ‘cothe foregoing, a safe-tyfactor of 1.2g on the critical panelbuckling strength is recommended. The panel buckling analysis can be based uponthe primary hull bend~ng stress without considering the additional stress fromsecondary bending of the plate-s-tiffenercombination, since the la%ter isgenerally,quite small. For an aluminum hull equivalent to the M/V CHALLENGER,fabricated with 5083 alloy, this maximum hull bending stress willbe 13.~ KSI

-56-at the deck and keel. This stress should be assumed to taper to 6.7J KSI atthe neutral axis for the hull envelope and its framing, and tO ze~o foT O~h@rinternal structure to account for stresses at an angle of heel.Limitations on -platepanel deflections are no% considered necessary, sincethe increase in plate thickness in converting from mild steel to aluminum willgenerally provide a sufficient increase in inertia to offset the effects ofdifferences in elastic moduli.Design Criteria for Stiffeners - The design procedu~e for converting mildsteel stiffener scantlings to aluminum consists of increasing the sectionmodulus of the steel mem~er by the relative strength ratio noted previouslyfor plahes:Equation (4): Malum .WIteel 97,000( )Y+u/Where Y and U are asnoted previously for Equation (1).Corrosion allowances arebut are neglected to providedtechnically applicable to the above equation,an additional margin for member stiffness andhigh residual stresses in way of end connections. The additional weightresulting from this simplification is negligible, since the added areagenerally contributes to hull girder section modulus for longitudinallyframed ships.It is noted that longitudinal stiffeners on the shell and deck aresubjected to a combination of axial load from hull girder bending andsecondary bending from normal loads. Fortunately, however, the ratio ofhull girder primary design stress to the quantity (Y + U) of steel andaluminum bulk carriers are essentially identical at about 0.20, so thatthis combined loading condition affects both materials similarly, andEquation (4) remains valid.In addition to the foregoing, stiffeners should be checked for columnbuckling strength under the effects of longitudinal bending loads, andagainst local instability of flange and web as discussed in the previoussection. Ii is suggested that the L/r ratio of the plate-stiffener combinationbe sufficiently low that the safety fackoT on column buckling failurewould be 1 .67, and that the web and flange proportions would permit developmentof full welded yield stresses in the member without local instability.The deflection of aluminum stiffeners should be kept within reasonablelimits, so that vibration problems and secondary bending effects are minimized.However, it is difficult to establish a specific deflection limitation, sincethis is a somewhat arbitrary decision, with little technical justification.Until a valid technical foundation for such a limitation can be developed,it is proposed to limit deflections of Primarv framinp members (girders. webframes, ~tch end beams, etc.) to l-1/2-times-’thatof-the equiva~ent st~elsection, with no limits on the deflection of secondary stiffening. Equation(s) specifies the inertia required for primary hull framing members:Equation (~): Ialum = 2 Isieel (primary members only)

-57-Stanchions - Aluminum stanchions should have the same sSfety factor onThe end connections,column buckling as the equivalent Rules steel stanchion.considered.which will be at O temper, should be speciallyPROPOSEO CRIT~IA- SECONDARY HULL STRUCTUREh designing suck secondary structures asdeckhouses, structural bulkproposed,which are essentiallyheads, tanks, etc., the following criteria arethe same as those far primary hull structures:For Plates:Equation (6): talum = tsteel 97,000 ny+u‘( )Where n = 1 for plates loaded primarily on the edges(tension, compression or shear)For Stiffeners:n = 1/2 for plates loaded laterallyEquations (~) and(5)apply.Crack Arresting - The various Regulatory Bodies and design activities withwhom crack arresting requirements were discussed, indicated t~at aluminum alloysappear to possess sufficient fracture toughness, ductility and tear resistancethat mechanically fastened crack arrestor seams may not be required for analuminum hull. The investigation of fracture toughness and tear resistanceof aluminum which was conducted for this study did not provide sufficient datato justify such a conclusion for a large, highly stressed hull subjected tocyclic loading. The data is particularly sparse in the area of crack propagationin way of the heat affected zone when subjected to high intensity cyclic loading.Therefore, it is concluded that a minimum number of mechanically fastenedseams should be incorporated in the design of large aluminum hulls.For this study, it is proposed to incorporate a single mechanically fastenedseam at the lower edge of the shear strake port and starboard. This locationreflects the fact that the deck is more highly stressed than the bottom, andsubject to high stress concentrations at hatch corners. Mechanically fastenedseams are not desirable below the water line due to possible stress corrosionproblems at the faying surface.Thermal Stresses - The thermal stresses induced h the hull of an aluminumship with S083 alloys will be no more critical than with an equivalent steelhull, based upon the following logic:Thermal elongationEthe length of the memberthe coefficient of linear.00128 for aluminum—- .00065 for mild steelexpansion per IOO”F

-58-AT is the change inUT= Thermal Str@SStemperatureE = Elastic modulusThus, ‘T= EQATWhere Ecl = 12,800 for aluminum= 19,500 for steelFor equal AT, the thermal str~sses for a steel tnemberwill be 1.s2 times thatof an aluminum member. Thus for any aluminum alloy with a welded yield strengthin excess of 21 KSI, the safety factor on thermal stresses will be equal to orbetter than that of the equivalent steel structure. Since the welded yieldstrength of S083 plate and shapes are 24 and 21 KSI respectively, thermalstresses are not considered as a design constraint. However, the effectsof thermal expansion on hull deflection should be investigated, since limitingdrafts might he affected.IID.FABRICATION OF LARGE ALUMINUM HULLSThe investigation of the effects of large scale aluminum constructionon presently employed fabricating techniques and shipyard operations consistedof a series of discussions with representatives of four large U.S.shipyards with extensive experience in fabricating aluminum structures.The following paragraphs smarize these discussions.MATERTAL HANDLINGThe material itself poses no particular storage problems. Handlinghowever, requires greater care since the aluminum is more prone to damagethan steel. Plates are handled with suction cups or vacuum lifts. Thisprocess requires additional labor. Aluminum requires no sand blasting orpriming such as steel, but is washed with solvent to remove the oxide filmor other contaminants. Since most yards presently do relatively small amountsof aluminum work per hull, this is generally done by hand. Present techniquescould be updated for a large aluminum hull and mechanically controlled cleaningcould be employed for plates and dipping for all shapes. Larger subassembliescan be handled in aluminum, due to lighter weight, which resultsin a cost savings.ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLSIn general, most yards have no special enviro~ental controls for temperatureor humidity in the fabrication areas. To minimize thermal effects of thesun, it was generally felt that a shed type covering should be erected over theways. This covering, in conjunction with other protective shielding, would alsodecrease welding time lost due to high winds and inclement weather.WELDING AND CUTTINGGeneral yard experience with aluminum covers thicknesses up to and includingone tich. The present techniques for handling and fabricating are generally basedon material one-half inch thick and below. No special problems are envisonedin fabricating large quantities of thicker material.

-59-Presentlyj sawing is the most common way of cutting aluminum since thefinished edges need the least amount of dressing-up. Some amount of re-toolingfor large quantities of thicker material would be necesssry. Where modulesof the hull are to be butted together, an allowance would be left to establishthe “final cut” which couldbe done by a power saw mounted on a trackway.Another common method of cutting, generally used for preparing access orlightening holes, is by plasma arc. ThLs does not leave as smooth a finish assawing and sometimes requires dressing.MIG seems tobe the preferred choice for welding, with a mixture of 75per cent Argon and 2S per cent Helium. Small quantities of aluminum ship constructiondo not necessitate extensive use of automatic welding but it wasfelt that more automatic welding, perhaps as high as 70 per cent, would be inorder for a large aluminum hull. A higher content helium-gas mixture was alsoproposed as a means of speeding up the welding process, but this would have iObe evaluated against the additional cost of the helium.A training program to qualify additional aluminum welders would benecessary for any shipyard undertaking the project, but no major problemswere foreseen by any of the yards in either upgrading steel welders or intraining new welders for this particular skill.The general consensus of opinion seemed to dictate flat panel corlstructioninitially rather than three dimensional assemblies. The heavyscantlings proposed would in part minimize distortion problems and curvedshapes would tend to remain as rolled. When fabricating aluminum, morecare must be exercised since it has a shrinkage rate of two to three timesthat of steel. This is an area where a careful study should be made in thedesign stage to minimize any problem areas, particularly in way of shafting.&pansion tables could be developed for various combinations of plate thicknessesand weld sizes which would be an invaluable tool during construction.Heavy stress should be placed on the development of the minimal weldingsizes required. This will not only minimize distortion and expansion butreduce the total overall cost of welding. The sizes of aluminum fillet weldspresently required by Navy welding specifications are considered excessive bythe shipyards, and result in excessive distortion.htermittent welding is not reco~ended. Continuous welding is pre.ferred since it results in smaller, better quality welds and hence lowerrates of rejection, and minimizes cratering at the end of beads.Experience has shown it is very difficult to meet an acceptable weldquality X-Ray standard when welding outside with high humidity. Furtherexamination of possibly reducing this standard was proposed. Possible reductionsin porosity standards were also viewed as another cost saving item.ATTACHMENTSAttachment of ferrous materials was another area which it was feltdeserved special attention. Presently utilized methods Yor installingdeck fittings and other hardware in the weather do not provide a completelysatisfacto~ installation. It was proposed that flexible plastic sealerSbe used to cover all of these exposed joints over and above the normaltape and paint methods presently employed.

-60-SUl@!ARYAll parties contacted foresaw no insurmountable construction orfabrication problems and agreed that a satisfacto~ hull could be deliveredby implementing three basic tools:(1) Establishmentof a,ndrigid adherence toapmper welding sequence.(2) Use of good welding equipment, continuouslyma intained,(3) Use of properly trained and qualified welders with good on-linesupervision.IIE.FIRE PROTECTIONDEFINITION OF REQUIREMENTSThis phase of the stu~ evaluates the problem of providing a satisfactorylevel of fire protection for a large aluminum bulk carriers giving consideraforsteel ships, means of maintaining structuraltion to present requirementsintegri~ in the face of a fire, and methods of detecting and extinguishinga shipboard fire. References (~b) through (68),form the basis of &is stu@.Present Coast Guard Requirements - The basic document applicable to thisstudy is the U. S. Coast Guard “Rules and Regulations for Cargo and WscellaneousVesselsIJ,Subchapter 1, Part 92.07, Structural Fire Protection,excerpts of which appear in Appendix B.It must be assumed that at present, compliance with the intent of theRules is essential for certification of a U. S. Flag aluminum bulk orecarrier.The standard fire test defined in paragraph 92.07-~(a) of the Rties, isessential in the development of a fire protection system. Appendix C containsa brief history of maritime fire testing and the reasons for adoptingthe standard fire test as a means of evaluating fire resistant constructionsand materials.The hull, superstructure, structural bulkheads, decks and deckhousesare specified by the U. S. Coast Guard to be of steel construction Orjalternately, in special cases other equivalent materials. Metal equivalentto steel is defined as one which, by itself or due to insulation provided,has structural and _integri@ qualibies equivalent to steel at the end of theapplicable fire exposure. These composite structures are required to be ofllAll_oco~truction, which, when subjected to the standard fire test~ arecapable of preventing the passage of smoke and flame for one hour. Foraluminum structural equivalence to steel, it is required that the temperature oftlm aluminum shall not rise 200 degrees C abmre,ambient in the presence of ftie.In addition to the structure stated above, certain other structures arerequired to be of IIAII-OconstructiO~:(a) The bounda~ bulkheads and decks separating the accommodationsand control stations from the cargo and machinew spaceslgalleys, main pantries and storerooms> other than small servicelockers.

-61-(b)(c)Bulkheads of galleys, paint and lamp lockers and EmergencyGenerator Room.Stair towers, elevator, dumbwaiter and other trunks.In summary, it must be concluded that all aluminum structures, specifiedto be of ‘]AII-Oconstruction, must be capable of withstanding the passage ofsmoke ard flame for a period of one hour while restricting the maximumtemperahre of the aluminum to 400 degrees F.Fire Test of Aluminum Construction - An extensive test program of representativeinsulated aluminum bulkhead and deck assemblies is presently beingconducted under the auspices of the Fire Test Ad Hoc Subgroup of Task GroupHS-6-1 (Aluminum) of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers(SNAME). Reference (67) is a test report on the first bulkhead test by theNational Bureau of Standards dated June 1~, 1967. Ten additional bulkheadand ceiling configurations are now in the process of fabrication for testingduring 1970. From these tests it will be possible to establish factualcriteria for the protection of aluminum structures within the living, workingand stores spaces.In addition to the SNAME test maw smaller tests have been conductedby materials manufacturers. Unfortunately, the results of these tests areof a proprieta~ nature. However, while these smaller tests lack officialGovernment approval they do nevertheless contribute valuable informationtowar~ eventual solution of the problem of fire protective aluminumconstruction.AREAS REQUIRING PROTECTIONLiving, Working and Stores Spaces - A study has been made of the living,working and stores spaces of a steel and equivalent aluminum bulk cargo ship,similar to the MV CHALLENGER, and built in strict accordance with currentU.S. Coast Guard rules. The study included the complete after deckhousedown to and including the underside of the Upper Deck.The construction utilized to afford the required protection is basedupon tests, where available, or the construction considered most suitable atthis time, based upon past experience, pending confirmation by testmethods. In most cases, a conservative approach has been taken in order torealistically approximate the maximum additional cost and weight that mightbe required.For both steel and aluminum ships, the stateroom and living spacedivisional bulkheads and the house side lining will be identical, i.e., 7/8inch thick free standing marinite with steel “H” posts and joiner shapes withinsulation if necessary. The normal application of thermal insulation on thesurfaces of air-conditioned spaces results in an added degree of protection.ID general, the aluminum bulkheads requiring additional protection canbe grouped in the following categories:(a)(b)The exposed surfaces within stair-towers.The engine room side of the machinery casing.

-62-(c)(d)(e)(f)T~e exterior side of the machinery casing, where this surface isnormally exposed bare metal as in the crew sto~es and servicea~eas.Bulkheads separating stores and se~vice spacesexposed bare metal.Galley and pantry bulkheads require additionalthat normally fitted for thermal conditions.Other minor cases.which are normallyprotection overWith regard to the lower suxface of the decks, it is apparent that witha maximum allowable aluminum temperature of 400 degrees F, and a requiredtest of 1700 degrees F, an insulated construction is mandatory.For the upper surface of aluminum decks in the presence of a fire withinquarters, equivalent to the Standard Time Curve, the following observationsare noted: The “Nantasketfltests, Reference (s4) indicated that the deckcovering restricted the downward propagation of flame, provided the coveringwas of an incombustible nature. This was largely due to the lack of oxygenat floor level, the products of combustion at this level, and the rising ofheated air. This point was also illustrated by the Stateroom Fire TestReport, Reference (58). In this case with bare aluminum deck, the aluminumreached a temperature of 400 degrees F within 18 to 2S minutes. The maximumtemperature reached was only approximately 675 degrees F at 3S minutes,afber which the temperature declined. The British Test, “Fire Protectionin Passenger Ships~l,Reference (~~), with a 3/16 inch sand filled latexunderlay and I/8 inch thermoplastic resin bonded tiles, resulted in a maximumaluminum temperature of 425 degrees and 2g0 degrees on two isolatedthermocouples at the end of SO minutes.From the above, it can be assumed that a lesser degree of protectioncanbepermitted within the quarters to protect the upper surface of the decks thanis required on the underside.Therefore, the decks requiring additional probectiioncan be groupedunder the following categories:(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)Above the ~ormal stateroom ceilings, insulation must be added.ksulation protection must be added in those spaces exposed tothe weather, in addition to that normally fitted with thermalinsulation.insulation must be fitted to the overhead of nonair-conditionedspaces when located under air-conditioned spaces in addition tothe thermal insulation normally provided.Insulation is required in the overhead of stores and servicespaces located under similar spaces.All topside surfaces must be protected.The required protection resulting from the application of thesecriteria to the MV CHALLENGER of steel and aluminum construction aresmarized in Tables 11 and 12. These tables indicate that the additionalinsulation required for the aluminum deckhouse would be about 110,000pounds if tie present U. S. Coast Guard requirements are fully satisfied.

TABLE 11 Aluminum Bulk Carrier - Summarv of Joiner Bulkheads.Linin! ; and Insulation in Living, blorkin~ and Stores SDaces “THISSPACEDK.HSESIDEDK FiSE SIDEPASSAGEWAYs/RMSTAIRTOJERA.C.ROOMMACHYMACHYMACHY!4ACWCASINGCASINGCASINGADJACENTTOWEATHERWEATHERS/RF4Y-ETGs/RMPASSAGETOILETWEATHERPASSAGE,S/PJ4S, ETC.STAIR TOWER,TOILET, PASSAGEINSUL .2“/1 “-T#2“/! “-1#NONENONENONE2;(;;-1#STL2“/1 “-3#2 “/1“ -3#2:fR;-3#STLSTEELSHIPSHEATHG7/8” MAR 36#SHT.MET.7/8” MAR 36#7/8” MAR 36#7/8” MAR 36#SINGLEFACEDSHT.SHT,MET,MET.SHT. MET.7/8” MAR 36#SHT.MET.LB./SQ.FT.4.312.144.004.004.002.142.606.602.60! NSUL ,2“/1 “-1#2“/1’’-6#NONENONENONE2“/1’’-l#—21!/4fn_6#2“/4n-6#2“/4’’-6#ALUM.SHIPSHEATHG7/8” MAR 36#SHT,MET.7/8” MAR 36#7/8” MAR 36#7/8” MAR 36#00U13LEFACEOSHT, MET.7/8” MAR 36#SHT.MET.SHT. MET.7/8” MAR 36#SHT, MET.7/8” MAR 36#LB./SQ.FT.4.313.254.004,008.006.144.608.608,60SQ.FT.7,6002555,0405,9251,2651361611,1302,370ADDLWGTALUM-LBSNONE283NONENONE5,0605443222,26014,220A.C. MACHY RMA.C, MACHYROO-1STORERO@lA.G. MACHYROOM!4ACHYCASINGSTORES~ESSRMS5TORESWEATHERFANSTOREROOMROOM14AGli’tCASINGGALLEYGALLEYGALLEYREFRIG.STORES2“/1’’-l#2“\l’’-l#2“/1’’-T#BARESTEEL2“/1 “-1#2“/? “-3#2“/1“-1#2“/1’’-3#4“-1#BARES TL4“-T#12’’-l#BARESTLSHT.StiT.WT.SHT.SHT.SHT.SHT.SWT.MET.MET.MET.i.IET.MET.MET.MET.—MET,SHT. MET.7/8” MAR 36#REEFERITE2.144.300.04.704.702.296.299.202 “/1 “ -6#2“/1 “-6#2“/1’’-6#2“/1 “-6#2“/1 “-6#2“/T’’-l#2“/4’’-6#2“/7 “-T#2’r/4’’-6#4“ -6#2“/1 “-6#4“-6#12’’-l#2“/1 “-6#SHT.SHT,SHT.SHT.SHT.SHT.SHT.MET,MET.MET.MET.MET.MET.MET.SHT. MET.SFIT. MET.SHT.SHT.MET.MET.SHT. MET.7/8” MAR 36#REEFERITESHT. MET.3.256.506.506.706.707.207.9012.501611327656121613231538001782904,9731,2243221>5832602,640&LdPANTRYPANTRY2ASSAGE.AUNDRYk STORESLOUNGEWEATHEREMER.PASSAGEGEN.2“/1 “-1#?l~/1 11-1#21t/lllq#711/~ llq#—SHT. MET.7/8” MAR 36#SH7.MET,SHT, MET,7/8” MAR 36#SIIT.4.312.144.312“/1’’-6#2“/1 “-6#2“/1 “-6#SHT. MET.7/0” MAR 36#5HT.3HT.MET.MET.7/8” MAR 36#MET. 2.142“/1 “-6# 5HT. MET.7/8” MAR 36#1-TOTAL - JOINER BULKHEAOS Ah INSULATION7.253.257.257.252722,1301871,25030,8288162,365?5596,45044>349

TABLE 12 Aluminum Bulk Carrier - Summary of Ceilings, Insulation andDeck Covering in Living, Ilorking and S~o~es SpacesSteel ShipAlum. ShipUpper Lower Lb/ Lb/ Sq ● AddlSpace Space Insul. Sheathg Sq.Ft. Iklsul. Sheathg Sq.Ft. Ft. AlumOpen Air Cond. 2rf\~ff-1# 3/16” 2.6 2!1/~f!-6# 3/16J’ 3*7 6,188 6,Deck Spaces Mar.Ven Mar.VenOpen Refrig. 8J)/12Jl-1# 1/4JJ 8.9 811\1211-~# 1/~II 8.9 5’32Deck Spaces Reeferite ReeferiteOpen Machy 21i/111-3# Sht. 2.6 2t!\4fI-6# Shb. 4.6 685 1,Deck Casing wt. Met.Air Cond. Galley ~11 - 1# Sht. 2.2 411 - 6# Sht. 3.92 368Spaces Met. Met.Air Cond. Air Cond. None 3/161’ 2.3 2’1\I’1-6# 3/16“ 3.7 7,6f5h 10,Spaces Spaces MarVen I%r.VenAir Cond. Non-Air 211/lIl_l# Sht . 2.14 2f1/~!l-6# 3/16“ 3*7 2,190 3,Spaces Cond.Spaces Met. Mar.VenAir Cond. Pantry 411-1# Sht. 2.2 41! - 6# Sht . 3.92 785paces Met. Met.Cpen Emer. 21t/lIl_~# Sht . 2.I4 2!I\-l If-6# Sht . 3.25 190Deck Gen. Rm. Met. Met.Stores Steering None None 0.0 2JI/lH-6# Sht. 3.25 I,240 4,Spaces E@. Rm. Met.3tores,AC Machy 6N - 1# Sht . 2.42 6I! - 6# Sht* 4.92 4,253 10,% Service Casing Met. Met.3pacesTotals - Ceiling and Insulation 23,388 37,Total - Deck Covering 26,

.65-Machineq Spaces - Reference (68) lists 24s fire casualties on allclasses of ships, of which only four were on bulk carriers. Three of thefour fires originated in themachineryspaces and one in the accommodationspaces. Of those occurring in the machinery spaces, two were the resultof fuel oil fires while combustible materials restite’din the accommodationspace fire. This agrees with the expected assumption that these two t~esof combustibles are the primary sources of incipient fires, and that theselocations must therefore be provided with the maximum protection againstfires.Within the machine~ space, the most serious problem is the protectionof the exposed aluminum structure to prevent the passage of smoke and flameand to restrict the maximum temperature of the aluminum to 400 degrees Ffor the required one hour time interval. The overriding requirement is themaximum temperature restriction in the presence of fire, since if this canbe accomplished, the structure will prevent the passage of smoke and flame.One potential solution might be the use of sprinklers to form water wallson the vertical surfaces and the underside of the flats. However, thismethod is incompatiblewith an oil fire. A fixed fog system might be consideredbut to date there have been no physical tests to evaluate the timetemperatureresults of either of these proposals. A simple solution wouldbe to constmct the machinew space enclosing structure of stieel. This,however, poses additional problems of added weight, connection of incompatiblemetals, and differential coefficients of expansion. For many localstructures, such as machinery flats and small tanks, the use of steel inlieu of protected aluminum would appear to offer significant cost savingswithout a major weight penalty. Various types of fire-retardant intumescentpaints are available, but these are p~imarily used to retard the sPread offire rather tha to restrict the temperature rise on the surface to whichthey are applied for any appreciable time duration.Of all the methods considered, the one chosen to best provide thedesired protection to vertical surfaces and the crown of the machinery boxis the application of a suitable thickness of insulation, sheathed with metalto protect the insulation against injury and abrasion.The surface of tank top, while still requiring the same degree of protection,presents a rather different problem due to personnel access and abrasionfrom the movement of equipment. Of all the available materials considered, acomposite construction consisting of an approved cellular glass incombustiblematerial, expanded metal, .%bkote No. 1 and a magnesia aggregate topping similarto MIG-11-2313Lhas been selected as the optimum after due consideration ofweight, cost. abrasion, resistance, oil spillage, good housekeep~ng and otherconstraints.Table 13 gives the approximate areas in each category together withthe anticipated approximate added weight to protect the aluminum.While not considered in detail at this time, other items that must bedealt with are structural stanchions and webs in the machine~ spaces,together with exposed areas of main and auxilia~ machine~ foundations.It is also necessa~ to offset the deleterious effects of heat tramfer,

.66-INSUT.ATION AND SHEATHINGShell8,000Sq.Ft.ForwardBulkhead3,6ooAfterBulkhead 1,600Underside- UpperFlat 3,720Underside- LowerFlat3,31JoTotal 20,260sq. m.With2“~fl-6#/Ft3Insul.and Sh@etMetalSheathingat5.1#/sq.Ft.= 106,000poundsadditionalweightDECKCOVERINGTop Surface - Upper Flat 3,730 Sq. Ft.Top Surface - LowerFlat 3,3110!COpSurface- TankTop 2,930Total 10,000Sq.Ft.TABLE 13 Aluminum BulkCarrier Additional Insulationand Deck Covering in MachinerySpaceWith 1“ Cellular Glass)Expanded Metal 1/h” Subkote ) = h.2#/Sq.Ft. = h2,000 pounds3/811 Magnebond )additional weightpreferable to utilize steel stanchions in lieu of inetiateclaluminumstanchions because of the disastrous results of stanchion failure.-o Spaces - Within the cargo spaces, fire protection depends uponmany variables, including the relative flammability of the anticipated cargo.If the cargo to be carried can be guaranteed to be non-flammable, therequirements for protection could ostensibly be reduced. However, in thecourse of’the shipls general service it must be assumed that a flammablecargo will be carried. It is then necessary to either prevent a fire fromstarting, or to maintain the surface temperature of the aluminum structureat an acceptable level, by fighting the fire and/or protecting the surfaces.The most promising method of preventing the start of a fire within thecargo spaces would be to fit a closed, pressurized nitrogen or carbondioxide inerting system, although the effects of this on edible cargoesand means of exhausting the hold must be studied. This system will be discussedin further detail later.Restricting the maximum temperature of the aluminum structure to 400degrees F in the presence of a fire within the cargo spaces presents manyproblems. Of the maw potential solutions considered, none have beenactually tested. All methods are subject to the following constraints:(a)(b)The intensity ofCompatibility ofthe fire for different type cargoes.the extinguishing agent with the type of cargo.(c)Effectiveness oftypes of cargo.the extinguishi~agent on fires of varying(d)System weight.(e)(f)Potenti~ damage to and loss of protection of the system, due tocargo handling whether by grab bucket, mechanized vehicles, conveyorsystem, or others.Additional cost.

-67-One method considered for maintaining strength & the alumimun strutturewas the concept ot a heat sink. A recent shore-side instal.latimutilizes a water wall column system, with circulating pumps and expansiontanks to reduce tkm amount of insulation protection required fpr steeicolqponents(Refereme (66)). Similar cowepts might be utilifiedin corlstu.mtingthe wing tanks and innerbottom within the cargo holds. Thismethod is not considered practical, however, sime it is not desirable tocar~ water ballast in these tanks when cargo is carried. This systemwould require some type of double wall transverse bulkhead construction,with consequent lOSS of cargo chic, or imreased length of cargo holdsfor equivalent ca~o cubic. An alternative method which reduaes th~ quantityof water to be circulated would utilize double wall extrusions for wingtanka, bulkheads and tank top. While this is within the state-of-the-art,it must satisfy the constraints outlined above, and would present significantfabrication problems.Conetruoting the inner surfaces of the wing and inner bottom tanksjand tranwerse bulkheads of aluminum clad with stainless steal might resultin raising the adlowable msxhum temperature of the metal befpr~ structuraltstrengthis impaired. However, this would result in high cost and wouldpresent additional fabrication constraints. .Furthertesting would beraquired.There are several proprieta~ brands of intumescent paint that retardthe spread of fire. However, it is ~tremely doubtful that these couldeffectively maintain the reqtired ~imm temperature of the structure inthe face of cargo space fire. Within the current aerospace programs, manyexotic ablative material constructionshave been developed. The totaleffectiveness of these matefials in maintaining required the-temperaturerelationshipsmust be tested am studied b determine weight and cost constraints.At this time, it appears that ablatives would be relativelyexpensive to i~til and maintain, but w~rant ~rther consideration.There is no doubt that suitable cargo hold insulation with some type ofprotective sheathing could be designed to meet the requiranents. However,whatever components are selected, it appea~ that the added cost ani weightwould retier this method unacceptable. Therefore, it is concluded Mat thecargo hold structure should not be protected. Rather, an inerting systemshould be installed which is compatible with the anticipated flsmmablecargoes, including coal anl grain. This system, in conjumtion with aproper detecting and exti~ishing system, is tinmsideredto be the bestsolution to the somewhat low risk fire problem in the cargo holds of abulk carrier.DETECTION AND EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMSThe Fhles and Regulations of the U.S. Coast Guard, for Cargo andMiscellaneous Vessels, subchapter I, Part 955 sets fOrth various requtiementsregarding fire detection and extinction which are summarized asfollows:(a)Fire detecting, manual alarm and supervised patrol systems arenot required, except in special cases.

-68-(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)(g)(h)(i)(j)At least two fire pumps are required, located in separate spaces,each capable of delivering water at the two highest points in theship at SO pounds per square inch.Hose and hydrant sizes shall be 2-1/2 inches, with 7/8 inch nozzleand SO foot length of hose,or, a 1-1/2 inch siamese hydrant withsingle hose, 7S feet long with 5/8 inch nozzle.Fire hydrants shall be of sufficient number and so located thatany part of the vessel, other than the machinery spaces, accessibleto persons on board while the vessel is being navigated, andall cargo holds may be reached with at least two streams of waterfrom separate outlets, at least one of which shall be from asingle length of hose. In main machinery spaces, all portionsof such spaces shall be capable of being reached by at least twostreams of water, each of which shall be Trom a single lengtlnofhose from separate outlets.Vessels engaged exclusively in the carriage of grain or coal inbulk, need not be fitted with a fixed carbon dioxide system inthe cargo h~s.A fixed carbon.dioxide or other approved system shall be installedin all lamp and paint lockers.A fixed carbon dioxide system shall be installed in all spacescontaining internal combustion main propulsion machinery andauxiliaries of 1,000 ~HT or greater or their fuel oil units,including purifiers, valves and manifolds.If an enclosed ventilating system is installed for electricgenerators, a fixed carbon dioxide system shall be installedin such system.Spaces which are protected by a carbon dioxide system and arenormally accessible to persons on board when the vessel is beingnavigated, other than paint and lamp lockers, shall be fittedwith an approved audible alarm in such spaces which will beautomatically sounded when the carbon dioxide is admitted tothe space.Hand portable and semi-portable fire extinguishers shall befitted of the type and number and in the locations specified.Livirw and Working Areas and Stores Spaces - It is considered that therequirements outlined above are sufficient for the aluminum ship in theseWeas.Mach.nery Spaces - Within the machinery spaces, consistent with theprotection for the aluminum structure outlined previously, the requirementsnoted above are considered the minimum necessary to afford protection.Additional &tection devices together with a fixed foam system would providea greater margin, provided that it can be reconciled against the additionalqost involved.Cargo Spaces - For steel bulk carriers engaged in grain or coal trade,no detection or fixed extinguishing system is presently required in the

-69-cargo holds. This is assumed to be based on the premise that if a fire didstart the provision of two fire hoses would permit sufficient fire control,together with the fact that steel does not lose its inherent strength inthe face of an average fire. For some cargoes and arrangements, these fixedsystems may not be effective.The ignition temperatures of the dusts of the various types of bulkcargo vary approximately between 6S0 degrees F to 9000 degrees F. Thus apotential fire in the cargo spaces can not be disregarded. In view of themaximum temperature restriction of aluminum, this warrants the installationof a detection system within the cargo holds. A temperature rise sensingsystem would probably prove to be the most satisfactory.In addition to the conventional cargo hold fire extinguishing system,an inerting system is recommended for all cargo spaces. This system couldutilize either nitrogen or carbon dioxide, and would be activated whenpotentially dangerous cargoes are carried. such systems are presentlyincorporated in a number of oil tankers to reduce the risk of explosion.The cargo holds must be gas-freed prior to unloading cargo, so that menmay safely enter the hold, thereby requiring the installation of largesuction fans serving the holds. In this regard, nitrogen offers an advantagein that it is slightly lighter than air and would tend to risenaturally from the hold when the hatch covers are open. However, thistendency of gas to rise would necessitate special techniques to maintain asatisfactory dist~ibution of nitrogen throughout the cargo, such as circulatingfans or continual bleeding of additional nitrogen at the lowestlevel of the hold. Carbon dioxide, being heavier than air, would be moredifficult with regard to gas-freeing the hold, but would satisfactorilydistribute itself throughout the cargo without resupply or recirculation.Neither gas would appear to be harmful to the range of cargoes beingconsidered.There are a number of umknowns concerning an inerting system such asthat proposed~ which preclude an evaluation of its cost. These include suchfactors as the required concentration of inerting gas to maintain a satisfacto~level of fire protection, the residual coricentration which couldremain after gas-freeing the hold, recirculation requirements and so forth.The solution to these problems is beyond the scope of the present study, butwarrants further consideration.An alternative which might be preferable to an inerting system wouldinclude a high-capacity carbon dioxide smothering system in conjunction withfire detecting equ!cpment of improved sensitivity. This system would incorporatethe following features:o Sufficient quantities of carbon dioxide to selectively flood a~hold, or the engine room, with a high concentration of gas.o A gas delive~ system which would insure rapid flooding of thespaces and even distribution throughout the space.o A detection system sensitive to rate of temperature rise and toultra-violet emissions from open flame.

-70-IIF.INSTALLATION OF SYSTEMS AND FQUIPMENTMATERIALShavePropellers - For cormnercialship application the majority of propellersbeen of the following materials:Material-AlloyManganese BronzeNickel Manganese BronzeNickel Aluminum BronzeManganese Nickel Aluminum BronzeTrade NameTurbine MetalNialite awl NikaliumSuperstonWhen these materials are coupled to aluminum in sea water a galvaticcell is created and the aluminum hull platim, rudder. etc. will be anodicto the bronze and will act as an anode-to pr~~ect thi~ vexy large area ofbronze cathode and the ahmin-mnwill corrode vexy rapidly. A cathodicprotection system can be installed to protect the aluminum underwater structure.Another material which is more compatible with aluminum in sea watershould be considered. Such a material is 18 per cent chrome - 8 per centnickel stainless steel alloy, similar in composition to the Alloy CastingInstitute Specification CF-8 (corresponding wrought alloy type is AISI 304).This alloy has been used successfully for many years on the 29 ships builtbetween 1962 and 1968 for Lykes Bros. and Gulf & South American Ships.These propellers vary from ~2,000 to 76,000 pounds in weight and are about21 feet in diameter.The chemical, mechanical and physical properties of this CF8 materialare as follows. (CF8 alloyis also similar to ASTM Specification A296-GradeCF8).(a)(b)(c)ChemicalCarbonM@aneseSiPsChromeNiMechanicalTensile StrengthYield StrengthElongation in 2 InchesBrinell HardnessCharpy ImpactPhysical ConstantsDsnsitySpecific HeatPer Cent0.08 w.1.50 Max.2.00 k.0.04 k.0.04 Max.18 to 218 to 1165,000 PSI Min.30,000 PsT Mill.~~oPer Cent75 Ft-Lbs0.280 Lbs/Cu.In.0.12

-71”(d)Welding ProceduresPreheatPostheatNoneNone - if area is smallThese propellers are of the built-up type with the blade palms boltedto the cast hub. The propeller blades and hub are cast stainless steel CF8alloy, while the studs for attaching the “bladesto the hub are monel 1%00(Kmonel) and the nuts for studs are Armco 17-@Hcondition H-11~0.The CHALLENGER propeller is presently a solid five-bladed of bronzematerial ad is 18 feet b-1/2 inches in diameter. An est~ated weight andcost comparison is shown in the following table:MaterialmFinishedWeight - Lbs. Cost Per ‘TotalApproximate Pound, $ cost, $Ni Al Bronze Solid 37,500 1.50 56,2S0CF8 - Cast Built-up L8,000 1.25 60,000Stainless SteelThe cast stainless steel propeller will weigh more since the hub has to belarger in diameter to accommodate the palms of the blades.13asedupon the foregoing, cast staitiess steel, CF8 alloy is recommendedfor the propeller of a large aluminum-hulledvessel.Shafting - The shafting for the CJIHJXNGER is presently made of AmericanBureau of Shipping Grade 2 steel and the diameters were based on the AmericanBureau of Shipping rules that were in existence at the time the vessel wasconstructed in 1965. ‘Thisship has an engine with a metric BHP of 9600 anda propeller RPM of 119. The diameter of the shafts are 16-3/4 inches (lineshaft) and 19-1/2 inches (tailshaft). The tailshaft has no liner since anoil lubricated stern tube bearing was installed.In this application it is suggested that the American WreauShipping Grade 2 steel material be retained for the shafting.ofStern Tube, Beari~ s and Seals - The existing steel hulled ship, hasa cast steel stern tube welded into the stern frame casting at the aft endand into the engine room aft watertight bulkhead at the forward end. Thearrangement is generally as shown on Figure 14.There are two stern tube bearings of the oil lubricated type (Waukeshatype), one long bearing 43-1/2 inches long at the aft end of the tube anda shorter one, 17-3/4 inches long, at the fcrward end of the tube.The materials of the existing assembly as installed in the steel hullship and the suggested materials for the aluminum hull ship are shown inthe table in Figure 14.All bolts, nuts and studs for the seals and glands exposed to seawater should be made of a combination of 304 or 316 stainless steels, inother words, if the studs or bolts are 304 then the nuts should be 316,or vice versa, to prevent galling.

Rudder Assembly -carrier should be madethe following reasons:-72-The rudder and rudder stock of the aluminum bulkof steel, similar to that of the steel ship, for(a)(b)(c)An alwminum stock would have an excessively large diameter, tosuit torsional and bending loads, which wo-dd r=sult in anunfavorable aspect ratio for the rudder. In addition, steelsleeves would be required in way of the bearings to resistabrasion. Therefore a high-strength steel stock is consideredmore practical.The use of a steel stock dictates that the remainder of therudder be steel, to avoid problems of attachments of dissimilarmetals.The use of a steel rudder minimizes abrasion and vibrationproblems.The rudder stock should be isolated from the hull by the use of micarta orphenolic stave bearings. A cathodic protection system is also required,as discussed later. Details of the rudder bearing attachment to the hullwill be similar to Figure 14.//’ /“ /J1‘\ ‘\ \ \\’\ \‘~///“ ‘///////5I“I.=”:” .II!1—-..,— _~—-l 1 —.—FIG. 14 Stern Tube & Propeller Details M. V. C7mZZmgw

-73-Sea Valves - The selection of aluminum alloys for the sea valves andshell connections is subject to specific approval by the American Bureauof Shipping and U. S. Coast Guard.hAmAmerican Bureau of Shippi~follows:Rules - Article 36.2S.S on Page 249 of the- 1969 Rules is quoted for ready reference as1136.25.5 Materials for Shell Valves and Shell Fittings - All shellvalves and shell fittings required by this Subsection are to be ofsteel, bronze or other approved ductile material. Valves ofordina~ cast iron or similar material are not acceptable. Allpipes to which this subsection refers are to be of stieelor otherequivalent material, subject to special approval.”.— U. S. Coast Guard - Marine Engineering Regulatio~ am Material Specifications,Subchapter F, CG-11~, Part ~6.~0-9~ Overboard Discharges andShell Connections, Subchapter F is quoted for ready reference:II(-f) Valves required by this section and piping system componentsoutboard of such required valves on new vessel installations orreplacements in vessels of 1~0 gross tons and over shall be of asteel, bronze, or nodular cast iron specification listed in Tables6.60-a(a). Lead or other heat sensitive materials having amelting point of l,700°F, or less shall not be used in suchservice, or in a~ other application where the deterioration ofthe piping system in the event of fire would give rise to dangerof flooding. Brittle materials such as cast iron shall not beused in such service.Where non-metallic materials are used ina piping system, and shell closures are required by this section,a positive closure metallic valve is required (see also Para.S6.60-2S) .11In addition to cast aluminum alloys, other materials such as cast 25per cent nickel - 20 per cent chrome and AISI 304 or 316 stainless steelcould be considered for the sea valves. This 2S nickel - 20 chrome alloyis marketed under several trade names, Craneloy 20, Walworth Aloyco A-20.25 Per Cent Nickel - 20 Per Cent Chrome alloy . has been used formany years on the Lykes Eros. Gulf-Pride and Clipper Class freighters forsea valve suction and discharge services with good success. These staintrim.less steel valves were fitted with monelproperties of this alloy:The following lists the(a) ChemicalCarbonManganeseSiliconPhosphorusSulphurNickelChromiumMolybdenumCopperPer Cent0.070.7 w.1.5 Max.0.04 IJ&x.0.04 k.28 tO 3019 to 212t033.5 to4.5

-74-(b)MechanicalTensile Strength 65,000 to 75,000 PSI(As C~St)Yield Strength 28,000 to 38,000(c)PhysicalElongation 35 to 50(per cent in 2 inches)Reduction in Area 50 toboBrinnell Hardness 120 to 150AIST 30L,and 316 stainless steels could be used but are not consideredto be as good for this service as the 2S per cent nickel - 20 per centchrome stainless steel.Aluminum Alloy 3S6-T6 has been used with apparently excellent resultson the hydrofoil DENISON. This material has excellent corrosion resistance,good machinability and excellent pressure tightness. This alloy has thelollowing properties:(a)ChemicalSiliconIronCopperManganeseMagnesiumZincTitaniumAluminumPer Cent6.5 tO 7.10.5 Max.0.2 Max.0.10 Max.0.2 to 0.40.20 Max.0.20 Max.Remainder(b)MechanicalUlti3nateStrengthYield Strength33,000 PSI22,000 PSIThis alloy has one disadvantage incent for sand castings and perhapsmaterial would have to be approvedU.S. Coast Guard, since it=use onthat the elongation is only about 6 per12 per cent for permanent molds. Thisby the American Bureau of Shipping and theDENISON was approved only for that specific case.The trim material will have to be carefully selected, depending onthe material used for the valve body. H aluminum valves are used, then304 or 316 stainless steel can be considered. If the staimess steelvalves are used then monel 400 could be considered as the trim material.Valves of al~inw alloys suitable for use in sea water are notreadily available and are very difficult to obtain.Cbst data is based on the actual aluminum alloy used, size and quantity.Valves of 2!JNickel - 20 Chrome, and 304 or 316 stainless steel are morereadily available in sizes 1/2 inch to 6 inches. A cost comparison ofaluminum alloy versus stainless steel valves is as follows:

-75-SizeIFSPressureServiceLbs304, 316 and2S Nickel - 20 ChromeStainless Steel$/Each3S6-T6Alum~ruunAlloy$/Each3ItFlgd4“ Flgd6“ Flgd81’Flgd3“ Flgd4“ Flgd6“ Flgd1so150150150150150150GateGateGateGateGlobeGlobeGlobe263.00376.00610.0040; .00h78 .00809.00268.00389.00622.00809.00273.00512.00891.00Cast stainless steel, 25 Nickel, 20 Chrome valves are recommended.However, as stated above, special approval to use materials other thanthose listed in the Regulations will have to be obtained from the AmericanBureau of Shipping and the U.S. Coast Guard.- The ballast system for the steel CHAIJXNGER consistsof fcRw- mch reams through the tanks, one each in the port and starboardupper wing tanks and double-bottom tanks, with 8 inch branches to eachtank. The necessary piping connections are provided in the engine room tofill and empty the tanks. In addition, the upper wing tanks are fittedwith 6 inch shell valves to permit rapid deballasting directly overboard bygravity. All pipe within the tanks is Schedule 80 galvanized steel.Several different materials may be used in the ballast system forthe aluminum hull ship, with the ultimate choice being based on the balanceof installed cost versus compatibility with aluminum and reliability andmaintenance cost. The different piping materials considered are aluminum,black steel, galvanized steel, fiberglass reinforced plastic, PVC coatedsbeel pipe, 90-10 copper nickel alloy and stainless steel pipe. Each ofthese materials have advantages and disadvantages which will be discussed.An aluminum pipe system with aluminum valves has the basic advantageof being completely compatible with the surrounding hull structure. IL isweldable and bendable and there is extensive experience in its use andinstallation. Because of its corrosion resistance Schedule 40 thicknesscan be used for ballast piping service. Its major disadvantage is its highinitial cost.A black steel pipe system with black steel or nodular iron valves hasthe advantages of low material cost and is easily fabricated, bent andwelded. However, it is not compatible with the aluminum hull structure,therefore, many measures have to be taken to protect the structure asfollows:(a)(b)(c)(d)Each bulkhead penetration has to be a thick aluminum spool piece.On each side of this bulkhead spool piece another thick aluminumspool piece has to be fitted to act as a waster piece to protectthe bulkhead fitting.Cathodic protection using expendable aluminum anodes must befitted within the tanks to protect the aluminum structure.Pipe supports must be carefully insulated.

-76-(e)The steel piping must be of Schedule 80 thickness to providereasonably long life in the sea water environment.A galvanized steel pipe system with galvanized steel or galvanizednodular iron valves has the advantage of being more compatiblewith thealuminum structure and reduces the corrosion effect of galvanic couple.However, this protection may last only a year since the zinc will wasteaway. Therefore, the protection of the aluminum structure suggested forthe black steel system is also necessary for the galvanized steel system.The installed cost of this system will be somewhat higher than for theblack steel system.A fiberglass reinforcedplastic pipe system has the advantage of thematerial being inert. IhiLkheadpenetrationswould be with flanged aluminumspools. Valves could be either aluminum or 304 or 316 stainless steel. Thefiberglass pipe can not be bent.and only a few shipboard installationswithU. S. Coast Guard approval have been made. U. S. Coast Guard approvalwould have to be obtained.A PVC coated steel pipe system requires both the inside and outside ofthe pipe to be coated in order to provide full protection to the aluminumstructure. Steel pipe systems with inner PVC lining only are used quiteextensively on shore installationswhere contaminationof the productibeinghandled must be prevented, or where the product is quite active in attackingmetals. It has the disadvantageof being costly, must be purchased in fixedlengths, can not be bent, and the coating is subject to mechanical damage.AqY break in the coating will cause rapid corrosion of the steel.An 18-8 stainless steel pipe system has the advantage of beingcompatiblewith the aluminum structure, can be readily bent and welded andis acceptable to the U. S. Coast Guard. It has the disadvantage of h~ghinitial cost.A 90-10 copper nickel alloy is excellent for use in sea water applicationsbut has the basic disadvantage that it is not compatiblewithaluminum and must be insulated and protected similar to the steel systemsand, in addition, maw heavy wall waster pieces are required.An estimate of piping materials, quantities and costs has been madeof the ballast system within the ballast tanks, Table 14. Certain itemswhich are common to all systems such as bulkhead penetration spools, pipehangers and valve reach rods have not been included. Installationcostsare not included.The welding, fabrication and assembly costs of the aluminum, carbonsteel, 90-10 copper nickel alloy and 18-8 stainless steel piping systemsare assumed to be approximatelyequal and the assembly costs of the plasticand PVC lined steel systems should be somewhat less.As indicated in Table lb it can be seen that the fiberglass reinforcedplastic pipe system is the lowest in material costs as well as having theadvantage of being compatiblewith the aluminum hull structure. Maintenanceof this plastic material for the life of the ship should be very low in cost.It is recommended that this plastic material be used for ballast service inthe ballast tank provided it is acceptable to the American Bureau of Shippingand U. S. Coast Guard. Nodular iron or bronze valves insulated from thehull can be used. If this plastic material is not acceptable to the AmericanFiureauof Shipping and U. S. Coast Guard then considerationshould begiven to the use of an all aluminum ballast system.

TABLE 14 Material Cost - Ballast System (Dollars U.S.)Steel PipeFiberglass PvcBlack Galvanized Reinforced Coated Stainless S*ainlesMaterial Aluminum Steel Steel. Plastic and Lined Steel SteelSpec. 6061 T6 A~3 AS3 AISI 30h AISI 304Schedule 40 80 80 10 40Type Seamless Butt hltt lbBondstrandJl Flesisto- Seamless SeamlessWeld Weld or equal flex PP400 Ft 8“ IPS Tipe 2,940 2,962 3,554 3,180 7,900 4,744 12,7322000 Ft 12’tIPS Pipe 31,S8S 22,893 27,442 29,oOO 59,5’00 41,740 124,600Bhd PenetrationCorms. 31,585’ 22,893 27,4112 2,9,000 59,500 41,740 124,6008“ Alum Spool(Was%erPiece) - 3,000 3,00012’1Alum Spool(l$asterPiece) - 12,600 12,6008“ Flanges (92) 4,048 3,220 3,X3 1,509 Included 5,300 5,300in Pipe12° Flanges (38) 5,168 2,280 2,55’7 1,638 Included 6,2s0 6,2s0in Pipe8“ Valve (23)12” Valve (1)8’JElls (37) 3,330 1,338 1,769 2,s66 6,384 2,295 4,1011211E1ls (82) 21,320 8,282 10,783 8,930 28,700 22,796 3S,42412” Tees (20) 20,320 3,380 4,28o 7,2)J8 9,200 15,000 18,180CathodicProtection 3,400 3,4008“ Couplings(4) .58 -12~1Couplings(18) 445 -Total Cost 88,7I1 63,405 72,936 5’4,57L 111,684 98,12s 207,!5’8

-78-Other Piping Systems and Valves - The bilge system for the proposedship would consist of a bilge main within the machinery space having theusual bilge suctions in the machinery space and two manifolds for the cargohold suctions. The cargo hold bilge suctions go forward through the innerbotiomsea water ballast tanks and enter the bilge wells placed at theafter eni of the holds.The selection of piping materials for bilge service within the seawater ballast tanks would be subject to the same restrictions as tieballast piping.An estimate of the material cost exclusive of the check valves requiredfor this service is shown in Table 1S. This estimate shows that the rnat.erialcost of Schedule ~~0aluminum pipe system is almost the same as the low-costSchedule 8(Iblack steel system.It is the~efore recommended that this portion of bhe bilge system bemade of aluminum provided it meets U. S. Coast Guard requirements.Thickness2440 Ft 11~]PipeAlum. Bhd Pen (S0)Alum. spoolsTABLE 15 Material Costs - Bilge SystemIn Ballast Tanks (Dollars U.S.)(Llo)Flanges (70)Ku (150)couplings(36)ScheduleScheduh40 805,967 5,6305,967 5,6301,8001,376 5063,i.120 1,014Galv.SteelAS3Schedul~806,7s06,7~o1,8007601,402Valves (10) ~ Not IncludeiCathodicProtec- I,720 I,720tiionITotalcost ]10,763 110,670/12,432FiberglassReinforcedPlastic PVC Lined%ondstrandttResistofIexor Equal+10,24810,2485392,52019413,68116,104Includ~d—8,29524,399Firemain - The steel hull ore carrier has a firemain system composedof 90-10 copper nickel alloy piping with bronze valves and fittings. Sincethe U. S. Coast (hard probably would not approve the use of aluminum alloysor reinforced plastic piping for fire service, it is recommended that the90-10 copper nickel alloy system be retained for the aluminum hulled orecarrier. Special precautions are necessary to insulate this material forthe aluminum structure. The detail of bulkhead and deck penetrationsthrough aluminum structure must be developed. However, there is goodexperiencewith this type of installation on the SS UNITED STATES.Oil Systems - Black steel is usually used in the construction of oilpiping systems. The U. S. Coast Guard will not approve the use of aluminumfor these systems because of ik low melting point. In addition, becauseof the non-conductivecharacteristicsof fuel oil and the need for the fireprotection provided by steel, it is considered that the fuel oil transferand service systems, both heavy oil and diesel oil should be of all steelconstruction. Since lubricating oil has similar characteristicsandrequirements as fuel oils, it is considered that the lubricating oil

-79-service, transfer and purifying systems should also be of all steel construetion.Special precautions are necessary where the steel piping penetratesthe aluminum structure.. .Diesel Engine Fresh Water Systems - The steel hull ore carrier hasthe diesel engine fresh water systems made of Schedule LO galvanized steelpipe. For the aluminum hull ship it is recommended that the same materialbe used for these systems, with special precaution to insulate the systemfrom the aluminum hull structure.Sea Water Systems Within the Machineq Spaces - The systems under considerationare sea water cooling service systems for all heat exchangers,clean ballast system, oily ballast system and bilge system.The steel hull ore carrier has the sea mater service systems withinthe machine~ spaces composed of 90-10 copper nickel alloy with bronzevalves and fittings. Because of U. S. Coast Guard Regulations, it isrecommended that these materials be retained for the sea -waterservicesystems in the aluminum hull ship. However, insulation of the entiresystem is required, particularly at the connections between the piping andthe sea valves. If the U. S. Coast Guard would approve the use ofaluminum for this service, it should be considered. However, it will bevery costly in comparison to the 90-10 copper nickel alloy system, primarilydue to the high cost of valves and fittings.The steel hull ore carrier ballast system within the machineqy spacesis of Schedule 80 galvanized steel pipe. For the aluminum hull ship it isrecommended that the ballast system within the sea water ballast tanks be offiberglass reinforced plastic. However, there is some question as towhether the U. S. Coast Guard will accept this material within themachine~ spaces. If the U. S. Coast Guard accepts the use of fiberglassreinforced plastic, tihiswill permit the use of standard materials forp~s and valves ard reduce maintenance costs. The second choice wouldbe aluminum pipe and valves. Since large capacity centrifugal pumps ofaluminum are not available, special pump connections with replaceablewaster pieces must be provided.The steel hull ore carrier bilge system within the machineqy spacesis of Schedule LO galvanized steel pipe. For the aluminum hull ship it isrecommended that the bilge system in the machinery spaces be of aluminum.This presents the same problem as noted above, namely, the requirement ofheavy waster pieces at the pump connections. However, in this case theywill be comparatively small (~ inch or 6 inch IPS) and their replacementis not too expensive. For this reason an all aluminum Schedule 40 pipingsystem is recommefied.The weather deck ard sanita~ drainage systems for the steel hull orecarrier are all made of galvanized steel Schedule 80 pipe. It is recommendedthat all aluminum construction be used for these systems in thealuminum hull ship, using Schedule LO aluminum piping to simplify the maqycorulectionsati structural penetrations.The tank venting system and sounding tubes for the steel hull orecarrier are all made of galvanized steel, Schedule 80 in way of the upperwing ballast tanks and Schedule LO for the remainder of the piping.Beciuse of the maw connections to structure and structure penetrationsof these s~stems, it is recommended that they be made of all aluminum con-

-80-struetion for the aluminum hull ship.be used.Schedule 40 aluminum piping shouldThe steel hull ore carrier was fitted with independent potable waterand sanitary water systems. The potable water system was made of coppertubing with bronze valves and fittings. The sanitary water system wasmade of 90-10 copper nickel alloy tubing with bronze valves and fittings.For the aluminum ship it is recommended that freshwater be used forflushing and the sanitary supply system be combined with the potable watersystems. Although this would require an increase in the capacity of thedistilling plant, the total cost would be reduced. In addition, the pipingsystem should be made of PVC or aluminum, Schedule 40, whichever is themore economical.The ship will be fitted with two compressed air systems, a 4,00PSIsystem for diesel engine starting and a 100 PST system for ship service.The diesel engine starting air system should be of all steel construction,to suit the high operating pressures. The low pressure ship service airsystem should be of all aluminum construction, because of exposure to saltladen air and multitude of contacts with the aluminum structure. Schedule40 aluminwn piping probably will be satisfacto~ for this 100 PSI airsystem.pumps - Pumps will be required to handle heavy fuel oil (Eunker C),diesel oil, lubricating oil, fresh water and seawater.Steel is recommended for oil pumps, in order to meet U. S. Coast GuardRegulations, and because the piping systems are steel. Nodular iron maybe used for the pump casings.Casings - Steel or Nodular IronRotow - Steelshafts - SteelFreshwater piping systems are to be either steel or PVC. Standardmaterials should be used for the fresh water pumps. The materials are:Casings - Bronze - Composition GImpellers - Bronze - Composition G,Shafts - Steel with K Monel SleevesFor the sea water pumps, bhe liquid handled is a good electrolyte,and aluminum should be preferably used. However, aluminum pumps are notreadily available and, if used, the metal does not have adequate erosionresistant properties for this service. Also, for the seawater serviceand fire service the piping materials are not compatible. Therefore, forthese pumps and the ballast pumps the recommended materials are:Casings - Bronze - Composition GImpelleH - MonelShafts - I%nel with K Plmel SleevesFor the bilge pumps, the liquids handled include seawater and thepiping material recommended is aluminum. As noted above, aluminum pumpsare not considered practical. The Pws cotid be made of a suitablestainless steel. However, it would appear to be more economically feasibleto use pumps made of the same materials as recommended for the sea waterpumps ad provide extra heavy waster pieces at the piping suction anddischarge connections.

LSEA CHESTS-81-Sea chests and overboard discharge connections should be made of castor fabricated aluminum of the same composition as the hull material. Aluminumpipe of heavy wall construction may be used for overboard dischargeshell connections.Cuts in the shell plating in way of the sea chests and overboarddischarges should be compensated for by the use of heavy insert plates,since pitting has been obse~ed in way of overboard discharges on someexisting aluminum hulls.Suction sea chests should be fitted with portable 304 or 316 stainlesssteel or approved type reinforced plastic strainer plates with 1/2 inch x3 inch or 4 inch long slots placed in a fore and aft direction. All strainerplates must be recessed in such away as to be removable with no part of theplate or securing studs and nuts projecti~ beyond the shell. All strainerplates should be secured in place with 304 or 316 stainless steel studsand nuts. All sea suctions should be fitted with the usual venting and airand steaming out connections.If 2S nickel - 20 chrome sea valves are used, aluinum waster insertpieces should be i~talled in each sea chest and overboard discharge connection.If aluminum alloy sea valves are used then aluminum insert wasterpieces am not required.SUPPORTS FOR PIPING AND MACHINERYPiping Supports - All dissimilar metal piping systems supports connectedto the alwninum hull st~cture sho~d be insulated from same. Non-absorbenttype insulating materials such as plastic electric tapes, butyl rubber tapes,strips and sheets, and neoprene strips or sheet should be used as a liningbetween the pipe and the aluminum hanger.Deck Mounted Machinery Supports - Most of the deck mounted machinerysuch as winches, anchor windlass, etc. are made of cast or fabricationsteel parts, including the subbase which is normally bolted to a steelfoundation. On the aluminum hull ship these foundations will be made ofaluminum. Since it is not economically feasible to provide deck machinerywith aluminum base plates, the joint must be insulated.For light weight machine~ or fittings, all Taying surfaces should becleaned and primed with zinc chromate. A butyl rubber type compoundcoating should be applied tO the underside of the machine~ or fitting baseplates and allowed to dry. When the machinery or fitting is about to beinstalled, a second coat of such a compound should be applied. When themachinery or fitti~ is bolted down, a quantity of this coating will besqueezed out around the periphery of the base plate, and this excessmaterial should be worked and formed into a large fillet thereby providingan effective seal. The bolting must be carefully considered and for deckservice the use of 304 or 316 staifless steel bolting can be justified. I-fcarbon steel bolting is used, it should be aluminized, galvanized orcadm.i~ plated and plastic or neoprene bushings and washers should be used.AS long as sea water spray can be kept out of the joint, no corrosion willoccur. For this reason absorbent type materials should never be used andextreme care shofid be t~en to m~e we bolted connection weathertight.

-82-Large heavy type machine~ must be handled in a different manner. Allfaying surfaces should be cleaned and primed with zinc chromate and coatedwith a good paint system. If metallic chocks are used they can be treatedon both sides with a butyl rubber type compound as described above forlight weight equipment, lined up and then bolted down. Bolting should behandled in a similar manner. Cast-in-place plastic chocks can also beused, together with special bolting arrangement and materials. The foundationmust be designed so that the under portion of the steel based machine~and the top plate of the foundation can be inspected and maintained.Enclosed Space Wachinev Supports - Machinery installed in the EngineRoom can be supported in a manner similar to that described previously fordeck mounted machine~. In some instances non-metallic chocking materialssuch as plastic cast-in-place, can be used to insulate the engines,turbines, gears or other equipment from the aluminum foundation. Ingeneral, main machinery alignment requirements such as those for propulsionmachinery and bearings limit the type of insulation to some of the moreeffective protective coatings, particularly along the faying surfaces of theconnection. For this reason, it appears that the cast-in-place plastic typematerials would be practical and beneficial. There has been extensiveservice experience with this type cast-in-place chocking material. Onlight weight equipment flexible type shock mounts could be used for insulatingthe machine~ from the aluminum hull.HULL com~IoNCONTROLThe aluminum alloys under consideration are highly resistant tioseawater and a marine environment. From a corrosion standpoint it is desirablenot to paint the aluminum. However, an anti-fouling paint system will beapplied and abrasions and scratches in the paint system will concentratethe corrosion attack in these relatively small localized areas. Thus, thecorrosion which would have occurred over a very large area when the hullis not painted is now directed to these isolated spots. In addition, whenaluminum alloys are combined with other metals normally used in shipbuildingand are in the presence of an electrolyte, such as sea water, galvanicaction will result and the aluminum alloy will be subject to attack winlessit is effectively protected.‘Thenecessity of protecting a ship built of aluminum has thereforebeen investigated and evaluated. Since the underwater portion of the hullwill be painted with an anti-fouling paint system and the rudder andpropeller will be made of a material other than aluminum, it is consideredessential that a hull corrosion control system should be installed toprotect the underwater hull surface. Experience over many years durationhas shown excellent results in protecting steel hull ships by use of controlledsystems.It is, therefore, recommended that an impressed current cathodic protectionsystem be installed. The installation of a reliable automaticallycontrolled, impressed current cathodic protection system will provide along service life of aluminum hull ships even when the paint system hasbeen broken. Service experience has proven an economic advantage forthese systems.The purpose of such a system is to eliminate the corrosion of metalsand also to prevent the galvanic corrosion of dissimilar metals when theyare immersed in sea water.

-83-The system proposed herein is based on the protection of the exteriorwetted hull surface of approximate@ 80,000 square feet. When properlyinstalled, operated and monitored such a system will minimize the corrosionof the aluminum hull ad rudder and the propeller. The interiors of seachests, other intakes and discharges are only protected to a ltiited degreeby the impressed current system. If it is necessary to probect these areas,then other special installation arrangements or coatings must be considered.The system under consideration has little effect on marine growth on thehull. However, the chlorine generated at the anodes acts as an effectivesterilizing agent and it is quite normal for the hull areas in the immediatevicitity of the anodes h be completely free of marine growth.The current necessa~ to protect the aluminum hull system is estimatedto be approximately the same as that required for a steel hull system ofthe same amount of wetted surface and is estimated to be about 6~0 amps.The following basic components are required for such a system:(a)(b)(c)(d)Reference Cells - These unibs are mounted through the aluminumhull, below the light load or ballast waterline and are insulatedfrom the hull and do not receive aqr anode current. Theserefe~ence cells or electrodes are used to create a pobentialbetiweenthemselves and the hull which prevents corrosion of theshipls hull.Anodes - The anodes are also mounted through the aluminum hulland are electrically insulated from the hull. Each anode isconnected to a power supply and a current flows from the anodeto the hull. This current suppresses the current flow from allthe small anodic areas and puts the entire hull in a ‘Jcathodic”condition which stops the corrosion of the hull material.Controller - A controller is needed to control the power supplyand consequently the anode output. This controller measureshull potential relative to the reference cells and adjusts thepower supply as necessary to maintain the hull at some predetermined‘~corrosionfreeflpotential.Power Supplies - The power supply converts the shipls AC powerto low voltage - high ~erage direct current which is deliveredto the anodes and the hull and also provides means for automaticallyadjusting the direct current output as directed by thecontroller.At least six anodes are required to protect the entire wetted surfaceof this aluminum hull. Each anode would be 4 feet long, and is a flushmounted strip tme platinum anode molded in a rectangular glass reinforcedpolyester holde~~ ~he anode holder is approximately L-3/8 inches wide andprotrudes from the hull only one inch. The hull surface are@ @ach a~deis covered with an insulating shield to prevent “short-circuitingy’of tieimpressed current to o~y the i~ediate area of the hull.‘Thecurrent required tO protect the aluminum hull is about the same asthat required for a steel hull of tie same wetted surface. However, theshields that must be installed around the anodes for the aluminum hullapplication must be larger in area and must be very carefullY i~t~led inorder tioprovide i~ulation to the aluminum plates in the immediate vicini~of the anodes. The shields must be applied without a~ gaps. This precautionis extremely necessav since alumin~ is an amphoteric metal which

suffers attack in an alkaline environment. Six epoxy shields would berequired, one fo~ each anode. An area of approximately 8 x 12 feet iscoated with the epoxy after the anode is installed. Basically the shieldmaterial is built up of successive coats of a coal tar epoxy or tarset.Three to 4 layers are troweled on the cleaned aluminum surface. The finalthickness of the shield film is about 12 roilsminimum.-84-Shaft Ground Assembly - In addition to the hull protection system, thepropeller shafting system must be provided with a grounding assembly, whichis used to electrically connect the rotating shafting system to the h~l.‘Thepropulsion shafting system is effectively insulated from the hull andthis shaft grounding assembly is necessary to permit the anode currentwhich flows through the water to enter the propeller blades and return tothe hull. If the propulsion shafting system is not properly grounded, theprotective current flow which enters the propeller must flow through theshafting system bearings to the hull ad the current is greatly reduceddue to the high resistance of the path that the current must follow. Theproposed system consists of a silver alloy band strapped to the shaft,cast bronze brush holdor and two brushes made of a silver graphitm alloy(;)d],,,ro(,]ltI,llv[,~*- 10~,orcOnL Hrn~,l,ltn).A cathodic protection system suitable for the aluminum ship was discussedwith Engelhard Industries. This Compa~has provided hundreds ofsuch systems for protection of steel hull ships and has considerableknowledge in this area. Engelhard Industries believes that the aluminumhull tier consideration can be effectively protected and recommended asystem using the following equipment to protect a ship hating a wettedsurface of about 80YO00 square feet:Description of 4 uipmentNumberofTransistorized Twin Controller 1Saturable Reactor Power Supply - b5cJAmps 1Saturable Reactor Power Supply - 200 Amps 1Anode Assemblies - Each 4 Feet Long (2 Anodes will be 6located forward, 2 Midship and 2 Aft)Reference Cell Assemblies 2Propeller Shaft Groud Assembly 1Remote Ammeter Station 1Shaft Hull Millivolt Meter 1The estimated cost of this equipment is $10,28~.Shore Power Transformer - Many partially immersed shoreskde structuressuch as piers, retaining walk, pilings, etc. are of steel construction,and when an aluminum hull is brought into proximi~ with them, astrong galvanic couple exists, with the aluminum being anodic (or!lsacrifi,cialfJ) to the steel. Actual corrosion of the aluminum requiresa return path for corrosion currents, i.e.j another conductive path fromthe steel back to the aluminum hull. Unfortunately, since most shore power

-85-systems are grotie~a and shipboard Power SYS~emS us~auy ‘avea~ati‘0the ships hull through ground detection equipment, the shore power cables)when brought aboard provide this return path, and the aluminum hull corrodesrapidly and severely. In order to avoid this problem, aluminum-hulledvessels are usually provided with one-to-one isolating transformers at theshore powe~ connection to effectively avoid creating a return path fo~galvanic corrosion current. It is also important to avoid providing metallicpaths from the hull to ground at pierside by means of accommodation ladders,loading conveyom, etc. Auxiliary anodes may be dropped over the side whenmoored to provide added protection.IIG. OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ALUMINUM BULK CARRIERThe operational characteristics of a bulk carrier will be profoundlyaffected by the substitution of aluminum for steel as the hull material,particularly in the areas of hull maintenance, repairs~ special surveys and~suranc e. In the following paragraphs, each of these factors will bebriefly discussed.MAINTENANCEPast experience with aluminum hulls and deckhouses indicates that itis feasible and desirable to keep the topsides and all internal surfacesunpainted~ although antifouling paint will be required below the deep loadline. The unpainted aluminum surfaces mhy eventually develop streaks andblotches and will become progressively darker. “However,for a bulk carrierthis consideration will be of secondary Importance. Topslae ~d internalpainting or coating is not recommended, since any local “breakdownin thesurface of the paint will tend to localize corrosive attack.In general~ it appears that normal topside maintenance will be limitedto an occasional water wash and scrubbing. However, the renew~ of antifoulingpaint will be required periodically, as will bottom scraping. This,coupled with requirements for maintaining equipment, appendages and outfit,will result in essentially the same drydocking cycle for aluminum and steelhulls. It is noted that the removal of paint and marine growth from aluminumsurfaces requires greater care than with steel. Conventional scraping andsandblasting methods must be modified to suit the lower abrasion resistanceof aluminum. Sand washtig has proven successful in removing old paint fromaluminum surfaces.During drydocking~ special attention should be paid to the sacrificialanodes or components of impressed current systems, as well as to the conditionof propellers snd other appendages, sea chestsg overboard discharges, etc.where corrosion could be present. Anodes or waster pieces installed in fueland ballast tanks should be reviewed perfodically~ and all piping and structurein the vicinity of bimetallic joints should be carefully checked for signs ofCorrosianbThe interface between all steel equipment (winches,windlass, etc.) andaluminum foundations should be checked periodically to ensure *hat the isolationmaterial at the faying surfaces is intact and that no corrosion is taking place.Areas subject to chafing, such as in way of chocks and bitts, anchors and hatchcomings, should also be checked and renewed as required.

-86-REPAIRSObtaining proper repairs to hull damage, or minor structural modificationsto an aluminum ship will be more difficult than with a steel ships since thenumber of repair yards with qualified aluminum welders is relatively limitedyas is availability of required materials in the alloys, tempers and thichessesrequired. The lack of qualified welders is a particularly important factor,since the use of improperly trained welders can lead to significant problems.Downtime while awaiting arrival of necessa~ materials and skilled personnelto effect repairs could be a significant economic factor, though the effectsof this factor will diminish as aluminum gains wider acceptance.SPECIAL SURVEYSAt this time, the Regulatory Bodies have no special policy relative toadditional surveys for aluminum hulled vessels. However, based upon thelarge size of the aluminum bulk carrier being considered, as well as theproblems with cracking of aluminum ship structures in the past, it wouldappear advisable to schedule additional structural surveys, at least forthe prototype vessels. In order to be effective, these surveys shouldinclude close examination of internal structures, particularly in way ofwelded connections. Since this would entail gas freeing tanks and cleaningof all surfaces, it would be advisable to spot check in a limited numberof tanks, and check others only if problems are uncovered. Additional itemsto be checked would include those noted in the previous discussion of hullmaintenance, as well as a careful examination of shell and deck plates forsigns of cracking or corrosion. It would be desirable to periodically re-Xray selected plate seams and butts in critical locations to ensure thatinternal fatigue cracks are not developing. It wouldalsobe desirableto remove selected pieces of equipment from their foundations to check thecondition of the interface, the insulating material and the bolts.HULL INSURANCEThe cost of hull insurance for an aluminum bulk carrier will undoubtedlybe higher than that of an equivalent steel hull, due to its higher replacementand repair cost and the greater risk of loss by fire. ‘Therelativeincrease is difficult to predict, since it is dependent upon the degree offire protection provided, types of cargo to be carried, risk of fire asaffected by type of machinexy and equipment installed and other factors.III.COMPARATIVE SHIP DESIGN AND EVALUATIONIn this Phase of the study, equivalent hypothetical aluminum and steelbulk carriers-are developed wh~;h are essentially identical to the M.V.CHALLENGER. This includes the following tasks:oSelection of principal dimensions.ooDesign ofDesign ofmidship section.typical bulkhead.ooLight Ship Weight Estimate.Stability and Trim.

-87-SEI13CTIONOF PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONSThe principal dimensions of the steel bulk carrier will be identical to‘choseof the M.V. CWALIENGER, as delineated in Table 1. The aluminum bulkcarrier is assumed to be identical in full load displacement, with the reductionin light ship weight used to increase the cargo deadweight, and thusthe earning capacity. The anticipated increase in available cargo deadweightis about !?,700tons or 7-1/2 per cent, which means that the existing cargohold dimensions would be satisfactory for all but the most volume-criticalcargo~s such as grain. For a new design, the hold volume could be increasedaccordingly. However, for this study, the volume of the cargo holds for thesteel and aluminum ships will be kept identical to permit direct comparison.All hull dimensions ad form coefficients of the two ships are to beidentical~ so that speed-power relationships at full load displacement aresimilar. This means that the power plants of the two ships will be identical,thereby eliminating costs associated with the machinery system as variables.It is recognized that this approach, although satisfactory for a feasibilitystudy, will not necessarily result in an optimum aluminum hull. For example,the reduction in hull weight without a corz-espondingreduction in the machineryweights will result in greater trim by the stern in some conditions. It mightalso be desirable to increase the hull and double bottom depth to increasestiffness. However, these are the type of refinements which can easily beincorporated in the design if desired, but which should be excluded from thisfeasibility study if a direct basis is to be maintained for comparing the twodesigns.Another feature of the M.V. CHALLENGER which bears consideration is theselection of propulsive power. The ship, as built, is powered by a 9,600 SHPdiesel engine, which is questionable for U. S. Flag operation. A brief investigationwas made of the feasibility of installing a steam plant within thepresent hull. This study indicated that the following changes would be requiredto facilitate installation of a steam plant:(a)(b)(c)Increase the height and/or length of the machinery box.Modify the weight of the propulsive system.Increase the fuel capacity to maintain the present ramge, dueto the higher specific fuel consumption of the steam system.Thethemagnitude of the above changes would necessitate a complete redesign ofship, even for this prelimina~ feasibility study.Since the machinery systems of both the steel and aluminum ships are tobe identical, and thus do not directly affect the relative economic tradeoffsbetween the two designs, it appears p~eferable to retain diesel propulsionfor this study in order to preserve the integrity of the existing design.DESIGN OF MIDSHIP SECTION‘Themidship section of a steel bulk carrier equivalent to the M.V.CHALLENGER, designed to suit 1969 ABS Rules, is shown in Figure Is. Thissection differs slightly from that of the M.V. C~LLENG~ shown in Figure2, to reflect upgradtig of scantlings to suit the latest Rules, and eliminationof the additional bottom plate thiclmess requested by the owner asan abrasion allowance.

-88-The design of the midship s~ction of the aluminum bulk carrier has beencarried out h two steps. The first design was developed h accordance withthe criteria developed previously with the hull girder section modulus basedupon the relative short-term or static strengths per Equation (l). The deckand bottom scantlings were then upgraded to suit the fatigue strength criteria(See Figure 13) to determine the relative effects of this more severe requirement.The resultant midship sections are shown in Figures 16 and 17.These midship sections are based upon the welded properties of 5083 alloyas delineated im Table 4. Built-up sections have been used for the stiffenersat the extreme fibers of the hull girder so that the somewhat higher strengthof the plate temper, H321, would govern the design- Btrusions have beenspecified for stiffeners in portions of the hull closer to the neutral axis.The tank top and lower wing bulkhead plating reflect an allowance of about0.80 inch for impact and abrasion in the hold. This is an increase of about4 times the 0.20 inch allowances applied by ABS for steel bulk carriers, inaccordance with Equation (3). As noted previously, this approach is considerdto be more desirable and less costly than installing mechanically fastenedsteel chafing strips or steel doubler plates. In deriving the hull girdersection modulus of the aluminum ships, a somewhat thinner “effective” thictiesswas used for this plating, based upon increasing the minimum required aluminumplating thiclmess by a factor equivalent to the addition of 0.20 inches to theminimum steel thiclumss for abrasion.Throughout the design of the aluminum midship sections, the maximumplating thickness has been restricted to 1-1/2 inches, since the propetiiesof thicker plate am less. This has created some difficulty in obtainingsufficient deck area for the midship section in Figure 17. For this study,the additional area has been included in the deck longit,udtials,sheer strakeand hatchside girder. Several alternatives are available:(a) Use aCelkkT deck structure, with two skins about 1-1/4 inchesthick separated by about 3-1/2 feet, tied together with longitudinalwebs, about 3 feet apart. This structure might be more difficultto fabricate, but would provide a safety factor on cracktig in thata crack initiating in the upper skin would probably not extend downto the lower skin except under extreme circumstances.(b)The deck and longitudinal stiffener thicknesses could be reducedby installing a doubler on the deck. However, this could lead topossible crevice corrosion problems.In accordance with the discussion of crack arresting in Section IIC.,a mechanically fastened sesm has been indicated at the lower edge of the sheerstrake. However, the two additional seams per side incorporated at the deckand bilge of the steel ship have been omitted.Several additional Iongitudimal stiffene~s have been added to the bottomshell outboard and lower wing bulkhead to increase buckling strength.Table 16 presents a comparison of the three midship sections shown inFigure Is through 17. As indicated therein, the use of static strength designcriteria results in a weight pe~ foot ratio of approximately 0.47, while themore stringent fatigue strength criteria increases this factor to 0.62. hterms of overall hull structural weight, this fatigue strength criteria isexpected to add about 43s,tons or 15 per cent to the hull structural weight,

uL.&UJIA.-.—-~

-90-assuming the increase is applicable throughout the midship 0.6 length. Aswill be noted later, the overall ~eduction factor for the primary aluminumhull structural weigh% is 0.~7, comesponding to a weight.savings of &3 percent.TABLE 16 Comparison of Aluminum and SteelBulk Carrier Midship SectionsAluminumSteel ‘Static Strength Fatigue StrengthItem Figure Is Figure 16 Figure 17Weight per foot++,tons 7.99 3.718 4.930Weight/foot relative to steel 0.46s 0.617Section Modulus (Deck) in2ft 67,090 88,7s7 13S,890Section Modulus (Bottom) in2ft 89,40s 117,196 171,969Minimum S.M. relative to steel 1.323 2.025Moment of Inertia, in2ft2 2,042,914 2,691,992 4,048,1~4EI, in2ft2 6.129x1013 2.692xIO 13 4.048x1013EI, relative to steel 0.439 0.6607

1, ,,.uEMMILD STEFIALW!NLMPLATE = 5083+321EXTRUSiC+i= 5D83WIl!l!IIIIIIIABcD,G, NEF,HJKL,M1●82*3*4,5*6.?9,10/11,12,1314,15,1617,1819,2021,2223/24,25,2627,322BJ29J~,310.280.320.350.390.410.450.610.750.5727.2 X 9.EIX 0.43 X 0,50 T2?.2 X 7.1 X 0.43 x 0.50 T19.7 x 10.6 x 0.39 x 0.50 T19.7 X 7.1 X 0.39 X 0.50 T15.B X 3.9 X 0.51 X:,O.71L7.9 X 3.5 X 0.35 X 0.55 L11.E X 3.5X 0.43 X 0.62.L9.8 X 3.5 X 0.39 X 0.59 L7.9 X 3.5 X 0.35 X 0.55 L5.9 x 3.5 X 0.35 x 0.35 L0.380.380.440.5Wo.5m0.560.851.m0.6930.0 X 12.0 X 0.8S X 1.03T30.0 X 8.5 X 0.88 X 1.03 T &22.0 X 13.3 X 0.63 X 1.03 T ~22.0 X E+.5X 0.63 X 1.03 T18.0 X 8.0 X 0.50 X 0.75 T10.0 X 4.0 X 0.30 X 0.50 T13.5 X 5.B.X 0.50 X 0.63 T11.5 X 5.8 X 0.44 X 0.56 T10.0 X 5.0 X 0.38 X 0.50 TS 8X5 X5.07#L*● sTANOARO SNAME ALUN I NUM ANGLE(ALL 0114ENSIW4S IN INCHES]FIG. 18 Typical Bulkhead .s~eel and Aluminum Bulk Carriers

LIGHT SHIP WEIGHT ESTIMATE-92-In order to develop comparative light ship weights for the steel andaluminum ships the weight estimate and inclining experiment for the steel!TCHAL~NG~l?were first combined and analyzed resulting h an “as inclined”light ship weight, as shown in Table 17.Weight VCG Vert.Nomt., ICG Lak:rl Momt.,~onzhn~ FOC* Ft.~on~ Feet W.Tonssteel 5,9202P.9 177,008 l(.OIA 23,660.! TABLE 17 Light Ship WeightEquip.& Outfit 1,I9o 53.4 63,5116 12h.O,A 1.h7,560A Estimate - Steel ConstructionMathinc?y 752 29.11 22,109 200.0tA 150,1JoohLightShip 7,862 33.4 262,E&3 h0.9rA 321,640ASubsequent to the inclining, an additional margin of 30 tons wasto light ship in the Booklet of Loading Conditions.arbitrarily addedCoefficients for converting the weight of the steel ship toaluminum ship are shown in Tables 19, 20 and 21- Light ship forequivalent to the CHALLENG~ is summarized in ‘Table18.an equivalentthe aluminumWel~htVCG Vd. MomL., 1,m IOng]lMom+.,LongT0n8 >e.t II.Tons Feet Fk.TonsHuIJStructure 3,375 27.82 100,638 2,41A 8,12FJlEquip,L Outfit 1,027 53.90 55,365 I 66.7oA 170,55’o11Machinery 7?0 29.60 21,312 2LJ3.00A 144, 000A 1 TABLE 18 Light Ship WeightTotalWiLh.ntMargin 5,122 3h.62 177,315 63.00A 322,675A Estimate - Aluminum ConstructionMargin 78 , .38Total w,thMI+II 5,200 35.00 182,000 63. 00A 327, 600AIt should be noted that some of the conversion factors (C‘l”/Stl) reflecten~ineerti~ .Iudgementsbased on previous studies and assumptions as to thepercentage-o~ i;ems included h ~he original group weight breakdown which wouldbe affected by the converz%on between steel and aluminum.“.The steel-to-aluminumweight conversion factors for hull structure, Table19, are based upon the following considerations:(a)(b)(c)(d)Comparison of typical midship section in steel and aluminum,Figures 15 and 17. For hull framing, shell and decks; CA~./Steel= 0.465 for mainstmcture (Table 16) with a SO per cent increasefor fatigue in the midbody.Comparison of typical bulkheads in steel and aluminum, for whichC~*/Steel = 0S46 for bulkheads and similar major structures.Comparison of less significant items, based on samplings fromprevious studies, indicates that C~*/Steel = OSS for castfigs,forgings, miscellaneous weldments amd minor structures.The allowmce for welding was increased from 1.1S per cent for thesteel CHALLENGER to 3 per cent for the aluminum ship based on theadditional welding required for aluminum and the complications ofdissimilar metals attachment.

-93-TABLE 19 Aluminum Bulk CarrierHull Structure Weight EstimateItemWeightSteel(IongTons)Weight Basic Weightsub- Steel Weight Alum.division (IangTons] Coef.f.(Long Tons)Fa%- Weightigue Alum.Coeff. (LongTons)ShellP1.atingFramingInterbottomBulkheadsDeckWalls &CasingEngine SeatForging&CastingsMiscellaneous1,5653251,5509251,03523S5050115l“f~dbdy(6QZ)Ends(40%)Midbody(6@)Etlds~$@ )AllMidbody(70%)Ends(30%)AllAllFwd (RemainsSteal)Mt (UseAlum.)9396261951301,55’092S72S310235502525115.465.b65.465.465.465’S46.h65.b65.546.551.00●55●55L36.6291.090.760.5720.7505.0337.1IM.3128.327.525.013.863.31.50 6552911.50 136617215051.50 S06f?mbTotals 5,850 5,850 2,844 3,277Rivet&g & 70 (I*15Z) 70 85 (3%) g8WeldingStructuralWeight ~,920 ~,920 2,929 3,375OverallWeight Ratio for Hull Structure= 3,37~/~,920= 0.~7014L12828251463Significant moment shifts due to aluminum construction:Castings Fwd = IOT x 200’ = 2~000 Ft. Tons Fwd MomentNeutral Axis for Midship Section (1,687 tons) shifts 0,2 feet up(say 400 ft.tons)Wt. with Original Centers = 3,375 29.7 100,238 3.OA 10,125Adjusted Moments + hoo -2,000AluminumHull Structure 3,375 29.82 106,638 2.41 8,12S

-94-TABLE 20 Aluminum Bulk Carrier - Equipmentand Outfit Weight EstimateItemWeight Weight WeightSteel Weight Alum● DHf.(Long Tons) Coefficient (LJriETons) (lon~ Tons)hplanationWeightdCoefficientHatch Covers 23S .% 130 -105Woodwork 20 20Joiner Work 8S 85Deck Cover- 80 Add 31 Tons 111 + 31Insulation 20 Add 93 Tons 113 + 93Painting 60 .30 -42Hull Attachments+ 150;; -45II (jyxxl ::: 50 -Ventilation1!60(:: ; ;%1140 - -9Deck Machinery 100 1.01 101 + 1Piping 19060 - 62II (l;: ; :%) 68Misc. Equip. 130 .8o 104 - 26Elec. Plant 60 1.02 61 + 1Sire.to bhd. studyNo changeNo changeAdded fire projectionAdded fire protectionNo topside paintingChanged to alum.No changeChange to alum.No changeDissimilar metalsisolationChange to aluminumOptimizedmetalsEstimatedDissimilar metalsisolationTotal 1,190 1,027Overall Weight Ratio for Equipment and Outfit = 1,027/1,190 = 0.86SHIFT IN V.C.G. AND L.C.G.Item WT VCG Mv LC~ICGA MA‘F—Origll Wt. F&O 1790 X4 6~1156 — mo IG,560fki,~ch CoverReduction -105 55.0 +l;;; 28.o -2,940Dk Covlg Incr + 31 60.0 210.0 +6,51OInsulln lhcr + 93 38.0 3,534 210.0 +19,530fiintReduction -42 SO.O 2,100 150.0 - 6,3oOHull AttachReduction -45 :;.; -2,700 200 -9,000Vat Reduction - 9 -540 210 - 1,890Dk Machy hCr + 1 60:0 +60-Piping Reduction - 62 15.0 - 930 5; 3,100Mist Eq. Reduction - 26 60.0 -1,560 150 3,900Elec Plant Incr + 1 60.0 + 60 200 + 200Total - E&O 1,027 53.90 55,365 166.07 I70,550+ Assumed to include Masts, Sparsj Rudder~ etc.

.95_TABLE 21 Aluminum Bulk Carrier - Machinery Weight Estimate—ItemWeightWekhti Weipht I?eiPht Differ.S*.;I Coei Nui. ewe kplanationof(LonK‘la.. ) - (LongTons)- weightCocfficientMainkgine 372.8 372.8 0 No ChangeShaft& Fropcller 115.11 - 115.4 0 No changeAwilim”yM=mhinery 51.9 - 51.9 0 No ChanEeAuxiliaryBoiler 8.8 0.0 0 No ChmgaUptake,& Funnel 18.0 0.75 13.5 -lb.5 someAlum,UnedPiping,Valves ll~.o 0.95 109.3 -5.7 SomeNum. usedMachinery%aCtiEquip. 71.1 .6 h2.7 -28JI Alum. Gr.tinp, EL..RefrigcrathgIl=mL 11.0 11.0 0 NO ChanEeFireExtinguishing 1,6 5.0 8.0 +6.6 fldditional FireEquip.MarginandMizcellaiwous56.0 - 56.0 - No Ch~eTOTALMACIU3J?FY 752.h 720,2GwraLlWeightRatioforMachticry- 7?0/752 = 0.96Changes toVcrti.alMomentUptakes,Punmel -~.~x~O = -225Piping,Valv@S -5.7X1O = -57!k.chinery SpaceEqbipmcnt -26.4~ 26 v -738FireExtin~iBhing +6.6x 35 = +23Il’~dL -32.2 = -709STABILITY ~TRIMA check of stability and trim was made for the full load (36’-11-3/8”draft) and the ballast condition. In the fill Imad Homogeneous Cargo Condition,Table 22, stability of the aluminum ship was similar to the steelship. Although trim was reasonable in the departure condition, the shipwill trim further by the bow as fuel is consumed. This condition can becorrected by a slight change in underwater form to move the L.C.B. forwardabout 1 .5 feet.In the Ballast Condition, Table 23, drafts, trim and stability areequal to the steel ship. It is noted, however, that the design ballastcapacity available in the steel CHALLENGER was marginal and is inadequatefor the aluminum equivalent, where slammihg or propeller racing might beexpected even in relatively mild seas due to insufficient draft. To increasethe ballast capacity in an economical manner, No. 4 Hold was usedas a ballast tank. The increased ballast capacity permits the aluminumship to equal or exceed the ballast drafts of the steel ship. Bendingmoments for the ship with ballast in No. b Hold were checked and found tobe acceptable.From Table 17, it is noted that the V.C.G. of the light ship for thealuminum bulk carrier is over a foot higher than that of the steel ship.This results from the weight savings in the hull being of a lower centerof gravity than that of the ship as a whole. This has a negligible effecton stability in the loaded or “ballastconditions, due to the relativelysmall ratio of light ship to displacement, and the low center of gravity ofthe added cargo or ballast. However, this higher light ship V.C.G. couldbe s problem in ships where the ratio of light ship to displacement is higher,such as cargo “andnaval ships.

TABLE 22 Trim and StabilityFull Load Departure Condition (Homogeneous Cargo)TABLE 23 Trim andBallast - ArrivalSTEEL SHIP ALUIIINUI[SHIPm. — _ VCG _ ICG iiT. — VCG — ~Light Ship 7,892 33.4 hO.9A .5’,20035.00 63.OACrew& Misc.Mt. 200 36.o I89.3A 202 36.0 189.3AFuel 1,029 6.8 159.5A 1,029 6.8o 159.5AFreshWater 282 h4.7 ‘257.1A 282 44.70 257.1ACargo 35,849 28.8 31.OF 38,!li 28,80 31.m?FULL IfJIDCONDITIONDraft at TXFKHKGGM Uncorrect~F.S. CorrectionG.1,1.Correcte5LCBICGLVR~q 11lkrimDraft FudDraft Aft45,252 29.2 llJ!F361-11 -~/81136.10929.2’6.90~O,)lo!6,50’12.71 l%dll.b I fi~d1.3’ Aft4,5041Tons13” By Stern36r-S-I/8r’371-6-J/811IJ5,25229.14361-11 -5/8”36.10’29.lh’6.961O.bor6.56112.71Fwd13.11FwdO.hnFM4,50b’Tonsbr’By Bow37I-1-5/81’361-9-5{8”13.IFItemSTEELSHIPWT. —. V02 — LCGLight Ship 7,892 33.4 lJO.9Crew & Mist, Dwt 200 36.0 189.3AMel 80 12.85’ 190.OAFresh Water 30 b6.70 2116.7S.W. Ballast 11,369 29.Oh 23.6BALMST CONDITION 19,571 30.8 5.9Draft At LCFKMKGGM UncorrectedFS CorrectionGM CorrectedLOBJIGLTCRMT1 “TrimDraft WdDraft Aft~bf-~olt4h.7’30.8713.92.311.6’19.21F5.91A25.1‘A3,628’Tons111-3-1/2” By Ste1 ~ 1-5-3/~112zr-9-I/~11++ Used No. 4 Hold for additional ballast ca+$+$includes Full F.S. for No. 4 Hold (4.41),

.97-Iv.COST STUDIESOBJECTIVESThe objective of these studiesan existing steel bulk carrier withover-all dimensions to determine ifwas to compare the life cycle costs ofan aluminum hulled ship of the samethe higher first cost of the aluminumhull can be justified on the basis of long-term economics, including extendedship life.METHOD OF ANALYSISThe initial step was to prepare single ship price estimates using anexisting computer model based upon a vessel life of 20 years. The pricefor a steel bulk carrier tifthe CHALLENGERIS characteristicswas determinedfor construction in a U.S. shipyard in 1970. The steel ship price was thenused as a reference in determining a price for the aluminum ship. Copiesof the ship price breakdowns are included as Tables 24 and 2?J,which includenotes to explain the de~ivation of cost details. The aluminum ship costs arenot applicable to a prototype ship, but assume a state-of-the art equivalentto steel. A single prototype would undoubtedly cost far more, due to requirementsfo~ personnel training, contingencies,greater testing and development,and other factors beyond the scope of this study.Next, data was gathered on fixed and variable operating and maintenancecosts applicable to the two ships and the compvter model was modified accordingly.This data appears as the Assumptions on Table 26.Computationswere made to determine the required freight rate (RFTljthestandard economic measure of merit used) on realistic voyages fox fifty-fourseparate c~ses, using the model. The RFR is based upon present values ofvessel life cycle costs and includeg a 10 per cent after tax return on investmentto the Owner. The first thirty-si’xcases were based upon two of thefour leg dry bulk carrier voyages which were represented in the previous drybulk carrier study for the Maritime A~inistration, Reference (70). Resultsof these computations appear on Table 27. The cases which were studied includedconstruction of steel and aluminum ships in flights of 1, ~ and 10and ship life of 20, 2S and 30 years.The procurement costs for aluminum and steel vessels with lives in excessof 20 years were increased from the baseline figuresin Tables 24 and 25as follows:(1) The aluminum hull structure was assumed tobe satisfactory fora 30 year life without modification.(2) The steel hull struct~e was assued tobe satisfactory fora life of 2S years without plate renewal, based upon discussionswith American Bureau of Shipping. Two methods are thereforeopen to extend the hull life to 30 years: provide greater platethickness initially so that the net plate thickness at 30 years5s marginally satisfactory, or renew excessively corroded plateat 2S years. ‘Thefirst approach was chosen, and one-sixteenthinch was added to the immersed sh~l plating throughout, whichwould extend the shell life ~ years, based on an average corrosionrate of .01 inches per year. This increases the light ship weight90 tons, with a corresponding increase in cost and reduction in

-98-TABLE 24 Price of Steel Bulk CarrierMaterial.Cost(1) Steel(2) Outfit(3) l@ch(4) Total$1,629,0002,805,000l++%%Erect Labor(5) Steel(6) Outfit(?) Mach(B) TotalGos+$1,302,0001,110,000)L23,000$ 2,81J0,00U(9) Indirect & Engr.MatsrialCost $ 250,500(10) Indirect & Engr.LaborCost $7.,210,000(11) ToLalDirect& Indirsct LaborCost $4,050,000(12) Overhsad $2,430,000(13) Profit $1,302,900(U) TO*=Iconsti-uc%ion Price- 1 ship $111,332 ,LOONo”be(a)Steel salvagevalue = 5943 x .025 x 2240 = $332,500 (For hull materialwhenvessel is scrapped)+ 5943 x .025 x .12 x 2240 = $40,000 (Wasteproducedduring construction)Total 2alvage ‘Value = $372,500 Not@ (b)Notes for Table 2b(a) Lhi’t costs, labor raLes, etc. based upon ReTerence (69)(b) Scrap value of steel = 2-1/2 cents per poundTABLE 25 Price of Aluminum Bulk CarrierMahrial Cost(1) Alum . (3426 L. T.) ($1230/L.T.)(1.o$ = $ A,425,000(2) Outfit 2,805,000 + 210,000 3,015,000(3) Mach. 1,86

-99-TABLE 26 Operating and Maintenance Cost Assumptions1.2.All costs for U, S. flag operation.Steel ship price based upon dry bulk carriermodsl 1968 prices(Reference(69)) escalatedby 20 per .enb to suit 1970 .oBke.3.b.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.Crew size = 3b men. Wage rates estimatedby escalating1969 Atlanticrates. Wage rates for both ships = $7L0,391 per year includingvacation, ovmtime, pension and welfare, social security,training,etc.Subsistencecost = $30,600 per year.Ovarhead = $50,000 per year.Hull and Machinery Tnsurance. UsEd Benford%s formula (Refezwnce(71))for both ships. IHM = 10,000+ (.oo7)’ (hial cons~~c~io~ co~~).$110,327per year for stied ship.$142,402 Pw Yew?ror~~~i~~ship.(lhr.islgle shipTOcmem@n~)Pi-oteCtiion andindemni%y insmmme= $Ls,367paxYwr forboti~ Ships.Warres-eLnsuranee = (.001)~(cons~ruction cosi).Fuelcost= X30.00perko~~ormarinetie=sl!l@ fordie9elgeneraiorandxlh.00PertionforBunkerC ~o~diesel ~rqmlsiop wit.Irydock cost based upon an average of $.30 per gross ton per hanlday .r lay &y. (Reference(69))Dmtimesms~ed wui~ale~t forsteel and aluminumhulls, though the aluminumhull might Tequiremore special surreys.$enswal of 12,000 squa~e feet (totalarea under hatiches)tank top andbulkhead wary 7 years exproasedas average cost added directlytoannual maintenancecost. Sti”?agevalues accountedfor. Weight ors+xucturerenewed = 120 tons and 220 +ons YOP aluminu and steel hullsrespectively. This area suffers cumulativedamago from abrasionandimpact during cargo loading and unloadingand requirespmriodicrenswal.Painting cost . Added $9500 per ear for cost of steel ship ($30,332)over that of alumin!m ship ($20, ~ 3.2)per discussion tith tiitimeAdministration officials. ‘l’hisia baaed on the as~umpkionthat bottompainting Xequirwmenksfor steel and aluminum ships are identicalbutthe aluminun shipIs topside and interiorare unpaintedand requireonly occasionalwashdown and scrubbing. The ship!s crmi is assumedto perform sandblastingand painting on the S’Cesl ship!s topaides.Maintenanceand Rapaiza (otherthan hull) - Steel ship = $1S6,257per year. Aluminum ship = $179,787per year. This assumes thatmaintenancm costs for machineryand equipmentare identicalforsteel and aluminum ships but uninsuredrepair costs of alnminmm shipsaxe highar. in addition $?00,000has been allocatedfor a major overhaulof main and auxiliarydiessl enginesand hull for ships with alife in excess of 20 years. Miscellaneouscostis= $20,000; stores andsupplies= $38,22h. (Reference (69))Financialassumpt,ians- Ownerls investment of 2S per cent of initialship cost; remaindexborrowed from bank at 7 per cent interestrate;after tax return to Owner of 10 per cent on total investment; SO percent tax rate; accelerated method of depreciation;loan period equalto ship life; no investmenttax cr,edit;inflationnot considered.Voyage assumptionsas follows:0 No limiting draftso lhel carriedbased upon (1.10) (leg distance)o Cargo greater than ship capacityie always availableo No csna.1costs or canal dolavso No cargo handling costs. FT@tO Other voyage data as follows:rate for transportationcost onlyVoyage Length, NauticalMile~ -mmCargo Loading Rate . TOIIper Hr.Cargo UnloadingRate . Tonper Rr.Port Delay Loading - DaysPort ~lay Unloading - DaysPort Costs Loading - $Port COSTA Unloading . $Othmr Costs . $600016oo.25.252000250006000 60001600 1600.25 .2s.25’ .252000 20002500 25000 014300 25 10Le 1 e3Lel -1700 3000 2000500 1Soo Soo1 1 512000 800:58000S000 2000 8000T2000 I0[200060001600.25.25?00025000

GaseNumber. . . -.,- .TABLE 27 Comparison of Steel and Hlwm!.m Bulk LarrlersShip Life(Years)No. of ShipsPurchasedS%ruckure~faterialRoumd VoyageDistance( Cti2tanCQP ClasAnnual GargoCarried-L.T.1)2)3)4)5)6)7)8)9)1o)11)12)13)14)15)16)17)18)19)20)21)22)23)24)25)26)27)28)29)30)31)32)33)34)35)%)202020202020252525.252525’30303030303020202020202025’2525252525;:3030303015’1015’105’10;105105107.5105101510510SteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminum14,30014,30014,3002~,3;O25’,3Io2~,31014,30014,30014,30025,3102s,3102S,31o14,30014,30014,30025’,3102s,31025’,3I0!4,30014,30014,3002s,31o2s531o2g,31014,30014,300IL,3002S,3102S,31o2s,310lh,30014,300lh,30Q2s,3702s,31o2s,31o514,1015!14,1015’14,101309,646309,6116309,61J6.5’12,816572,816.5’12,816308,872308,872308,872512,8165’12,816512,816308,872308,872308,872533,759533;759533,759325;688325,688325,688533,759533,7595’33,759325,688325,688325,688533,759533,759533,759325,688325,688325,688+ ShipTrice + Ownerls Invest. Costs - Salvage Value

Fromavailable deadweight for weight critical cargoes. It is assumedthat the use of inorganic zincs or equal in conjunction with areasonable maintenance program will prevent excessive corrosionof the topside plating.(3) Procwement costs for machinery and outfit were assumed identiaalfor 20, 2S and 30 year lives, since they do not directly affectthe qualitative results of the study. In reality however, i% isobvious, that the cost of equipment with a 30 year life will behigher than for a 20 year life, in most cases.The first voyage of I,!I,300miles consisted of the following legs:%0—DistanceSeattle Yokohama 4,280 WheatYokohama Gladstone, Australia 3,600 BallastGladstone Tacoma 6,400 AluminaTacoma Seattle 20 BallastThe second voyage of 2S,310 miles included these legs:From To Distance— -New Orleans Bohbay 11,890 WheatBombay Port Buchanan, Liberia 7,~20 BallastPort Buchanan Baltimore 4,2oo Iron OreBaltimore New Orleans 1,700 BallastAn additional eighteen cases were computed on the basis of threedifferent two-leg voyages of 4,000, 8,4oo and 12,000 miles round trip.These cases represent better opportunities than do the four-leg voyagesfor the aluminum bulk carrier to benefit from its g~eater deadweightcapacity over that of the steel ship. These voyages contained one legwith a dense cargo, iron ore, as the cargo while the other leg was inballast. Computations were made for single ship procurement with shiplife varied at 20, 25 and 30 years. Results of the two-leg voyages appearon Table 28.Many of the operating and maintenancecost assumptions were basedupon data which appears in the working papers on the dry bulk carrierevaluation model, Reference (69).RESULTS-1o1-Four graphs were plotted to illustrate the results of the computations.Figure 3.9compares RFR versus round voyage distance for the steel andaluminum ships on both the two-leg and four-leg voyages. This figureclearly shows that the two-leg voyages provide the better competitiveopportuni~ for the aluminum ship because on these voyages with dense cargo,the full weight savings advantage of the aluminum ship is reflected. However,even with a 30-year life, the aluminum ship requires a higher RFRthan the steel ship for the voyages examined. Fi~re 20 is a plot of RFRversus ship investment cost for the 14,300 mile, four-leg voyage. It ispossible to estimate the reduced price which would be required for thealuminum ship, to provide an.RFR equal to the steel ship, by projecting

-1o2-TABLE 28CarriersComparison of Steel and Aluminum Bulk(challenger Class) Two-Leg VoyagesCaseNumb erShipLife(Years)NO. of ShipsPurchasedStructureMaterialRoundVoyageDistanceAnnualCargoCarried-L. T.RequiredFreight Rate++Ship NetInvestment37)38)3?)iJo)41j42)43)44)u)46)l!7)48)49)50)51)52)53)5L)20 120 120 125 125 125 130 130 130 120 120 120 125 125 125 130 130 130 1SteelSteelSteelste@lSteel.steelSteelS* eelSteelAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminwAluminumAluminumAluminumA,ooo8,40012,0004,0008,40012,0004,0008,40012,000j,~;;12;000j,oo;12;0004,000$,40012,0001,006,361511,839>63,6101,003, 8L5~10,558362,7001,003,84s~1o,~58362,7001,071,9895’47,313389,3661,071,9895b7,313389,3661,071,989547,313389,366$ :.;;per ton9.563.426.669.323.326.1169.olJ3.8I7.3810.343.747.2S10.1

-i n.. ,,, .-lu.2--~-”’”1‘ ! I 1 I,—.—I I 11>111032Y IALUhllNA. BALUHm’-’;I I I Ifl I I I I,’ 1,,,I,’.,I1 II‘ :,~ 1 I I INote: Distance for Aluminum (AL) and Steen~T) Dry Bulk Carri~~sSimilar to CHAI,LENGER-Based on Single Ship Procurement ,IiI }!,II I I I I I Io 24 6 E !0 12 14 16 18 m 22 24 26 28ROUND VOYAGE DISTANCE -1 WO MILESFIG. 19 Required Freight Rate Versus Round Vo.yaqe .-NUM BER OF IDENTICA L $.H,m, +~--”-‘L i i ,:~~.—10 12 14 16 Is mSHIP lNVE~MENT COET MILLIONS $FIG. 20Required Freight Rate Versus Ship Investment Cost

12 ---n..T.[T7%l,=LEGS IU ORF=ErY”’LE”OyAGE’--—W!M-.---.-T-.—--4----- (.-. -,,--..1. .]... .“,;.,—~ 1.—..~— ~ L..–- f -—..J-l!030 MILE VOYAGETWO LEGS1RQN ORE-BALI ASTI+d-”STEEL— l——., l.. ..—I- L1--LIt–.+--. ..–-““’””t--”-‘“-”r‘t—,- . .. —...—..—. .—.—.—III---t—No\e: 13ased o; SinEle Shiu ProcurementJI .–-.L-.:I.. . .... . ------- ——iW .- --4 J...---\----m 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Z330 31 32 33 M 35SHIP LIFEYEARSFIG. 21 Required Freight Rate Versus Ship LifeI“1.—I.,. . .. ..“:+-- ‘F-’—...... ..–~.._J___~..--,..,—-. —fl,, . . ... .—.2__N.Q& Two LeE Vo%agas h’on @’e-EallastIIo Zmlo 4mxl m ScW icma 12ocaROUND VOYAGE DISTANCENAUTICAL MILESFIG. 22Annual Transport Capability vs. Round Voyage Distance

-1o5-SENSITIVITY STUDIESThe basic economic studies recently completed were based upon afixed set of criteria, both in terms of ship cost and operational considera%iorm.It is of in%erest to investigate the possible effects onlife cycle economics of varying these factors, to determine which hasthe greatest effect on p~ofitability and thus deserves greatest attentionin future studies of this nature.1. Direct Labor Cost - Aluminum Hull - If it is assumed that the25 per cent differential in labor between aluminum and steel can beeliminated, the potential reduction in direct labor, overhead and profitwould be approximately $580,000 for single ship procurement, with correspondinglylower reductions for larger procurements. This is about 3 pe~cent of procurement cost.2* Profit - Aluminum Hull - If it is assumed that the shipbuilderwill accept the same profit for building an aluminum or steel ship, thepotential savings is about $400,000. However, this is unlikely, since thebuilder would desire to show at least an identical return on his investmentand might even prefer a higher return on the aluminum hull due to thegreater risks involved.3. Hull Girder Fatigue Allowance - If the 43S ton increase in hullgirder weight for fatigue could be completely eliminated, the first costof the aluminum bulk carrier would be reduced by about $1,160,000 or 6 psa’cent and the available deadweight would be increased accordingly. However,there is presently no technical justification for such a reduction, thoughfurther study might lead to the conclusion that a portion of this allowancecould be eliminated.4* Tank Top Abrasion/ImpactAllowance - If bhe 0.80 inch allowancefor impact and abrasion on the aluminum shipls tank top and wing bulkheadscould be reduced to 0.2~ inches (the American Bureau of Shipping required0.20 inches for steel times the factor for relative yield and ultimatestrength differences), the potential weight savings would be about 100 tonsor a cost savings of $270,000, with a corresponding increase in deadweightcapaci%y.5+ Fire Protection - The additional cost associated with fire protectionof the aluminum bulk carrier, including insulation and sheathing isabout $260,000 greater than that of the steel ship, based upon full compliancewith the intent of the present U.S. Coast Guard fire protection rules. About$160,000 of this is associated with deckhouse protection. If the requirementsfor deckhouse protection were waived except in stair towers, uptakes andhigher fire risk areas (the galley for example), it would be possible toreduce the shipls first cost by about $1~0,000 and its weight by about 40tons. Although this involves greater risk to the crew, it would not havea major effect on hull girder strength,since a fire in the deckhousecould be isolated from the main hull by proper deck covering. Such aproposal would, of course, require intensive investigation and approvalby the U. S. Coast Guard.6. Voyages - The voyages investigated for this study are consideredgeneralmesentative of the spectrum of tramp operations duringthe next 20 years, and result in a number of ballast or volume-sensitivelegs which do not afford any advantage to the aluminum bulk carrier. Ifsuch a ship were to be engaged in a trade with weight-sensitive cargoes,

-106-such as iron ore, on two of the three legs, the spread between the RFR of’the steel and aluminum ships would be reduced.In an effort to evaluate these factors, an optimistic aluminum shipmodel has been established incorporating the following changes:(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)The 2S per cent labor differential has been eliminated.One-half of the 43s ton fatigue allowance has been eliminated.The 100 ton abrasion.allowance on the tank top and wing bulkheadshas been eliminated.Fire protection for the deckhouse has been modified per ItemS previously discussed.A three leg voyage with weight-sensitive cargoes carried on.two legs over distamces of 4000, 84OO and 12,000 miles havebeen assumed, with ship life of 20, 25 and 30 years, to beconsistent with previous studies (Table 28).The reduction in first cost of the ship is $1,600,000 for singleship procurement, and the available deadwight has been increased by 360tons ● Thus the 7-1/2 per cent increase in available deadweight of the baselineship increases to about 8-1/2 per cent.The three-leg voyages were considered with the following assumptions:oRound voyage distances, ship life and number of shipspurchased are identical to the figures of Table 28.0 Average Annual Costs for all items which do not vary withacquisition cost are identical to the two-leg voyage.This may not be entirely accurate with regard to such itemsas fuel costs but it is felt that this discrepancy will notmaterially affect the final results.oSince cargo is carried on two of three legs instead of one oftwo legs, annual cargo carried will increase by 33 per centover the values listed in Table’28.0 An additional increase of 1 per cent for cargo carried overthe two leg voyage as listed in Table 28 was assigned to thealuminum vessel because of increased cargo deadweight due tothe reductions in lightship.ooSalvage value of the aluminum vessel was reduced directly inproportion to changes in material weight of the vessel asoriginally conceived+Owners Investment costs, i.e., non-depreciable costs in.curred during construction, were assumed independent ofacquisition costs.As indicated in Table 29 and Figure 23, the steel bulk carrier haslower RFR’s than,the aluminum ship for equal life spans, even for thishighly optimistic case.

TABLE 29 Comparison of Steel and Aluminum BulkCarriers ( C?za2Zenger Class) Three-Leg VoyagesCaseNumberShip Life(Years)No. of ShipsPurchasedStrictureMaterialRound VoyageDistanceAnnual cargo&rried-L.T.RequiredF&eight RateWhip NetInvestment55)56)57)58)59)60)61)6z}63)64)65)66)67)68)69j70)71)72)20202025252530;;2020202525253030301steelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelSteelAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminumAluminum4,0008,40012,0004,goo8,&0012,0004,0008,40012,000:,;:12;9004,0008,40012,0004,0008,40012,0001,338,460690,981483,6011,254,806679,0h2482,3911,?54,806679,042b82, 3911,447,155738,87352S,6U~,447,765738,873525,6hb1,447,?85738,873525,644$2.63 per ton5.127.172●434.746.6b2.3I4.486.272.68;.;:2:63;.;;2:625.067.10$14,520,406$14,520,4c6$14,520,1K36$14,745,466$!4,745,466$14,7M,466$14,745,466$14,745,466$111,745,466$16,1J67,612$16,467,612$16,467,612$?6,667,612$16,667,612$16,667,612$16,667,612$16,667,612$16,667,6?2* ship price + merfs Invest. Costs - Salvage Value

-108-7)is,zg~ gg~5e mzz~E’4E!~K2j,— — — — —NOTE: Gmrves based on single shipPrucuremont,P@duced .Wui -sition Price for AluninumACONCLUSIONS)2 —$ I01 231J 5678 91011 12 13 1ARoUiTC VOYAGEDISTANCE- 1000 MILESFIG, 23 Required Freight Rate Versus RoundYoyage ~ 3 Legs Weight Sensitive CargoThe following conclusions may be drawn from this study:oFor the realistic cases examined, an aluminwm dry bulk carriersimilar to CHALLENGER always produced,a higher RFR than thatof a steel ship with the same life.This unfavorable economic potential of the aluminum ship resultedeven though factors favorable to the higher priceddaluminum ship wereconsidered including:oAluminum ship cargo deadweight capacity was increased becauseof reduced structure weightoAluminum ship life was extended from 20 toincrease in scantlings30 years with noo Aluminum ship salvage value was $1,089,500of the steel shipmore than thato After tax return on investment of IO per cent and 7 per centinterest on borrowed capital, both relatively low at present,were assumed.The foregoing sensitivity studies indicate that there are severalareas in which the acquisition cost of an aluminum bulk carrier mightbe reduced. However, these studies also clearly indicate that at thistime even with these reductions, it is unlikely that an aluminum b~kcarrier will be directly competitive with an equivalent steel vessel onthe basis of Required Freight Rate.

-1o9-7. REcoMMENDEDAREAS FoR FURTHER STUDY. .One of the results of a limited feasibility study such as this, isthat numerous quesbions are raised wh~ch can not be satisfactorilyanswered within the time or cost allocated to the study. The aluminumbulk carrier study is no exception, and in the following pa~agraphs, themajor areas requiring further sbudy are delineated. These areas arelisted approximately in omier of priority, based upon their relativeimportance in establishing feasibility of using aluminum for the hullstructure of large ships.CONSTRUCTION COSTSThe cost of fabricati~ large aluminw ship structures must be morefully defined to permit more accurate construction cost estimates andtrade-offs of alternative construction techniques. At present, it isnecessary to use approximate over-all manhours-per-poundvalues to estimatelabor costs and associated overhead, which do not permit the type of relativelysophisticated trade-offs required to optimize structural design. Forexample, it is difficult to choose between various potential methods ofp~oviding ~equired deck area, such as thick plates, thinner plates withdoublers OF double wall cellular construction. Several qualified shipyardsshould be authorized to evaluate the construction costs of large aluminumhulls in greater detail.MAINTENANCE COSTSEkduced hull maintenance costs are a key selling point of aluminum,and data is required to more accurately evaluate the life cycle hull maintenancecost of an aluminum,hull for comparison to the equivalent steelhtil. This is particularly important as the ships get older, since thecosts of steel hull repairs begin to increase rapidly as plate replacementbecomes necessary. The best potential source of long-term hull maintenancedata on large aluminum hulls would be Navy records on the hull maintenanceof the PGM gunboat. ‘Thisdata should be closely monitored and periodicallyevaluated by the Ship Structures Committee and applicable Navy activities.WELDINGThe technology of welding thick.aluminum plates to form subassembliesunder shipyard conditions as well as the erection of subassemblies requiresconsiderable investigation. Areas of particular concern are weld sequence,heat input, edge preparation, speed of welding, required level of cleanlinessand enviro~ent control and quality control required to affect soundwelds with minimum cracking, porosity, inclusions, residual stresses anddistortion. An area of major concern is the possible need to accomplishwelding in a protected environment to maintain adequate control on moistureand cleanliness.FIRE RESISTANCEThe analysis of the fire problem which was conducted for this study wasof necessity somewhat limited, and should be extended to include the resultsof the SNAME fire ‘testprogram. Additional economic trade-offs are requiredto optimize the protection of alumin~ structures as well as means ofdetecting, extinguishing and preventing fires. Proposed areas to be investigatedin further detail are as follows:

-11o-(a)(b)(c)(d)Inerting system for cargo holds and other unmanned spaces asrequired, including type of gas, dispersion of gas throughout thecargo, methods of gas-freeing the spaces and extent to which gasfreeingis required for human safety.Optimum insulation system(s) for vertical and horizontal surfacesin the Engine Room, accommodations and other working or livingspace.Composition of deck covering to limit surface temperature to therequired 400 degrees F.Discussions with U. S. Coast Guard to determine the extent offire protection required in the deckhouse. The present study isbased upon full compliance with the intent of current U. S.Coast Guard requirements. However, a lesser degree of protectionhas been accepted in previous aluminum deckhouses, though thesewere installed on steel hulls.DESIGN CRITERIASeveral factors entering into the establishment of design criteriarequire further clarification, including the following:(a)(b)(c)The question of design stresses for welded structures is notfully clarified. At present, a ‘Iwelded’lyield based upon the0.2 per cent offset in a 10 inch gage length is proposed,rather than the prime or O-temper values. However, thisaverage design stress may not adequately account for thestructural response in way of the heat-affected zone, whichis the weak link in the structural system, since the use of a10 inch gage length in lieu of a 2 inch gage length tends todiminish the apparent effects of this degradation.The relative importance of yield and ultimate strengths in convertingfrom steel to aluminum requires further consideration.In specific cases, the equal ranking used in this study may notbe optimum.The question of safety factors should be considered when thevariability in structural performance due to the human elementin fabrication is better understood. The use of identical safetyfactors for aluminum and steel designs implies that the conversionof raw materials into a fabricated product produces identicalstress concentration and residual stress effects which may not betrue. The entire question of residual stress levels must beinvestigated.DEFLECTIONSThese studies indicate that hull deflection should not be a limitingfactor in itself as long as the hull length/depth ratio conforms to ~reseutstandards, and stresses are kept reasonable low. However, the quest>on ofallowableextensiveshould behull girder deflecti~ns deserves” further study-in via of thebody of opinion among Regulato~ Agencies that such limitationsestablished.

111-FATIGUE STRXNGTHAs noted earlier in this report, there are a number of factors relatingto alloy fatigue strengths which require further clarification and testing.Foremost among these is the question of fatigue strength in the presence ofsalt spray. This requires an extensive test program, incorporating thefollowing variables: intensity of salt spray, effect of fillet and buttwelds, alloys (plate and extrusion tempm) bead-on versus bead-off. Additionaltesting of extrusion tempers would also be advisable, in both thewelded and unwelded condition.FRACTURE TOUGHNESSFurther testing is required to determine the relative quantitativefracture toughness of aluminum and steel for comparison with anticipatedstress levels. These tests should evaluate the following variables:directionality (transverseversus longitudinal), welding and other fabricationprocedures, environment (sea water versus salt spray), effects ofrepeated.loads, and alloys (plate and extrusion tempers).CORROSION AND ABRASIONThe etioliation resistance of ~083 alloy should be tested to determineif an HI17 temper is required. I?wcthertesting on the relative abrasionresistance of aluminum and mild steel is also required.DESIGN DETAILSA study should be initiated to standardize design details for aluminumship structures, both to facilitate fabrication and to prevent excessiveresidual stress build-up and subsequent cracking. This is a vital stepwhich must be taken before a large aluminum hull can be built, if structuralfailur@s are to be avoided. Specific areas to be detailed would ii-icludeend connections of intercostal stiffeners, connection of continuousstiffeners to web frames or other supports, stanchion endings, proportionsof stiffeners, relief of hard spots and other stress raisers, requiredclearances for proper welding. The required size and continuity of filletwelds requires further study, as there is presem~ly a significant di~ferencebetween Navy and commercial requirements.VI.CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSCONCLUSIONSThe conclusions to be de~ived from this Feasibility Study for anAluminum Bulk Carrier are summarized below:1. General - The construction of a bulk carrier utilizing aluminumalloy for the hull structure is technically feasible witiin the presentstate-of-the-artin shipbuilding, but is not economically justified indirect competition with a steel vessel of equivalent capabilities.2. Review of Aluminum Alloys - The present S000 series aluminumalloys being considered (s0s2, 5083, 5086, 5154, 5454 and 5456) havesufficiently high welded mechanical and physical properties for the proposedapplication, though additional research is required in the area of

-112-fatigue, particularly in the presence of salt spray, as well as fracturetoughness and abrasion resistance relative to mild steel. Limited testdata indicates a significant reduction in the endurance limit of aluminumalloys when subjected to salt spray.3. The area under the S-N fatigue curve of welded higher strengthS000 series alloys (5083 or S4!56)is about 0.48 times that of mild steel,while the corresponding value for lower strength S086 alloy is about 0.38.This is indicative of the relative required section moduli of the hullgirders of an aluminum and steel bulk carrier for equivalent fatigue life..4* The notch and fracture toughness of aluminum alloys appearacceptable for hull structural applications. However, stress levels,including effects of stress concentrations, should be kept below theyield stress.5. The corrosion resistance of SOOO series aluminum alloys isacceptable for a marine environment if proper precautions are taken. Therecent introduction of the IH16 and 1311’7temper has apparently solved theexfoliation problem, and suitable gasketing and isolation procedures areavailable to minimize problems with dissimilar metals. Higher magnesiumalloys are somewhak susceptible to stress corrosion problems which mustbe considered in selection of tempers and operating temperatures. Lossof strength and thickness of aluminum alloys in a salt water environmentover a 20 year vessel life will riotbe significant.6. The corrosion resistance of S000 series alloys is acceptable forthe range of bulk cargoes and liquids which might be carried, with theexception of copper, tin or mercury ores, potassium hydroxide and carbonateand trisodium phosphate. Precautions are required for a limited number ofother potential cargoes.7* The abrasion resistance of aluminum when subjected to the loadingand unloading of bulk cargoes will be significantly less than that of sbeel,necessitating additional margins in tank top and lower bulkhead thicknesses.8. The weldability and workability of ~000 series aluminum alloysare very good, and the state-of-the-art in welding technology is presentlyadequate for the thicknesses of material being considered. Potentialproblem areas such as control of shrinkage, weld sequence, structuraldetails, residual stresses ad environmental protection require furtherStudy.7. The cost of the ~000 series alloys being considered is relativelyindependent of alloy and temper, and has little effect upon the selectionof alloys.10. Alloy S083 was selected for all material in the primary hullstructure of the bulk carrier, based upon its high strength and goodworkability. Alloy 5086 may be subskihuked for S083 for seconda~ structures,and alloy s~~sbis ‘Lobe used in areas of high temperature. Therelative over-all ranking of the JOOO series alloys considered was veryclose, so thak alternative selecti-ons can be juskified.11. Operationswith Existing Aluminum Ships - Experience to date withlarge aluminum ships is limited, but considerable data is available on theperformance of aluminum deckhouses, patrol craft, crew boats and pleasurecraft. This data indicates that the performance of recently-built aluminum

-113-vessels and marine structures has been good, though problems have beenexperienced in the areas of corrosion (particularly at hi-metallic joints),exfoliation, abrasion and localized cracking of structures, particularly atimproperly designed or fabricated structural connections. Field repairshave been somewhat difficult due to lack of trained personnel.12. The problems encountered to date in the operation of aluminumships either have been or can be solved, and should not affect the feasibilityof building and operating an aluminum bulk carrier.13. General maintenance of aluminum hulls has been excellent, andpainting is not considered necessa~ above the waterline.14. DesiSn Criteria for Hull Structure - A review of design requirementsof v~ous regulatory “bodiesand the Navy relative to large aluminumhulls indicates no consistent body of opinion. These existing criteriarequire improvement for application to the design of an aluminum bulkcarrier.lg. Rational, justifiable design criteria can be established for thestrength requirements of the hull girder and local structures of an aluminumbulk carrier. In general these criteria are based upon modification ofproven steel scantlings to alwminmn, on the basis of relative yield andultimate strength ratios, as well as relative fatigue stre~ths of the twomaterials. Relative corrosion rates must also be considered.16. Restrictions on hull girder deflection are unnecessary for largehulls, since strength considerations lead to the selection of scantlingswith sufficient rigidity.17. Thermal stresses are not a constraint in the design of an aluminumbulk carrier.18. Fabrication of Large Aluminum Hulls - Discussions with shipyardpersonnel indicate that the fabrication of a large aluminum hull, such asa bulk carrier, is entirely feasible.19. State-of-the-art welding, cutting and materials handling conceptsare considered adaptable to the construction of an aluminum bulk carrier.20. Major areas requiring more detailed study include weldingtechniques and sequence qualification of welders, environmental control.21. Fire Protection. A satisfactory level of fire protection, i.e.detection, extinguishing am protective shieldiw, can be achieved forlarge aluminum ships.22. Living, working and stores spaces should be protected by conventionaldeck covering, imula’cion and sheathing. Surfaces in machine~spaces should be similarly protected, and steel sho~d be utilized for loc~structures such as machine~ flats and small tanks. fitinguishing equipmentwithin these spaces should conform to present U. S. Coast Guard standards.23. Protection of aluminum surfaces in the cargo hold is consideredimpractical. As an alternative, a CQ and N2 inerting system is recommended,in conjunction with improved detection and extinguishing equipment.

-114-2k* Installation of Systems and Equipment. Selection of materialsfor propeller, shafting, rudder, piping eysbems, sea valves, etc. whichare compatible with aluminum construction is feasible, though isolation andprotection with anodes or waster pieces is required in many cases.25. The faying surfaces between steel equipment and aluminum foundationsmust be properly gasketed. The use of cast epoxy at the interfaceor butyl rubber coating is recommended. Access to inspect this interface isvery important.26. An impressed current cathodic protection system is recommendedfor hull corrosion control.27. operational Characteristics OT an Aluminum Budk Carrier - l%intenancecosts for the hull of an aluminum bulk carrier will be somewhat lowerthan those of an equivalent steel vessel, since the topsfdes require nopaint. However, drydocking cycles will be essentially similar to the steelvessel for renewal of bottom paint and maintenance of equipment.28. Repairs to the aluminum hull will be more expensive than for asteel hull due to higher material cost and lack of trained welders in manya~eas of the world,29. Special surveys are recommended of the hull structure of a largealuminum bulk carrier to check structural connections, corrosion, welds, etc.30• Comparative Ship Desire and Evaluation - The principal dimensionsof the aluminum bulk carrier selected for this study are essentially similarto the baseline steel ship, although a deeper double bottom and g~eaterhull girder depth might be desirable for an independent design to increasestiffness.31. ,Theweight per foot amidsh~ps for the S083 aluminum alloy bulkcarrier will be about .62 times that of the mild steel ship, while thestiffness will be about 0.66 times that of the steel. The use of fatiguestrength rather than static strength in designing the hull girder addsabout 435 tons or Is per cent to the hull structural weight. For atypical bulkhead, the weight reduchion facbor is O.~~.32. The total weight of hull structure was reduced from ~920 to 33?slong tons, a savings of h3 per cent. The corresponding reduction inmachinery and outfit weight was 4 and IL per cent respectively.33. Greater ballast capacity is required for an aluminum bulk carrierto provide suitable propeller and bow immersion in the ballast condition.The stability of the ahunin~ and steel designs are essentially identical.34. Cost Studies. An.aluminum bulk carrier similar to the MV CHALLENGERproduces a higher required freight rate (RFR) than an equivalent steel ship,regardless of the level of procurement, voyage type or lengthJ potentialhull life or the higher salvage value of an aluminum ship. Thus thegreater earning capability of the aluminum hull is not sufficient to offsetits higher capital cost.35• The aluminum shipls RFR is lowest for high-density cargoes wherethe full weight savings can be considered (i.e. not volume limited). Thetransport capability of the aluminum ship is about 7 per cent greater thanthat of the steel ship.

-115-36. Recommended Areas for Further Study. Further ~esea~ch is requiredin the areas of construction and maintenance costs, welding, fire resistance,design criteria, deflections, fatigue strength and fracture toughness,corrosion, abrasion and design details.RECOMMENDATIONSOn the basis of the foregoing conclusions, the following recommendationsare offered:1. Further efforts toward the development of an aluminum bulkcarrier should be terminated.2. Since aluminum construction for large hulls appears technicallyfeasible, similar studies should be made of the use of alwin~ co~t~uctionin a design where weight-savings in hull structure are of greater importance.High-speed destroyers, small containerships, trailerships and shallow draftlanding craft are examples of such vessels. In view of aluminums excellentcryogenic properties, future studies should also be directed toward LNGcarrie~s.3. Research into the areas previously delineated for furthe~ sbudyshould be initiated, sponsored jointly by the Government and the aluminumindustry.4. Existing large aluminum ships such as the SACAL BORINCANO, SEAPROBE and the Navy’s PGM gunboats should be carefully monitored to fullydocument their performance.5. The future development of a prototype large aluminmbe encouraged.hull shouldLIsT OF REFERENCES(1)Aluminum Standards and Data.April ‘1968.The Aluminum Association,(2)(3)(b)(5)(6)Report of Aluminw Weld Test Program. SNAME. Technical andResearch Bulletin No. 2-1s, January 196S.Fatigue Resistance of Aluminum and Its Products, by G.A. Rutzand G.E. Nordmark. Society of Automotive Engineers, NationalFarm, Construction and Industrial Machinery Meeting, Milwaukee,Wisconsin, September 1964.Alcoa Aluminum - Magnesium Alloys, by K.F. Thornton, Alcoa,Novembe~ 19~7.Fatigue Properties of ~000 Series Alloys at Room and ElevatedTemperatures, by J.O. Lyst. Alcoa Research LaboratoriesReport NO. 9-64-I3, April 1964.Fatigue Properties of Aluminum Welds - A Review of the Literatureand Compilation of Data on goS6, J0833 ~086~ 5’4J6and 6061 ~oYssby G.C. Wolfer and N.L. Person. Wiser Aluminum Interim Project%port No. ~ PR 66-20, mrch 1966.

-116-LIST OF REFERENCES(7)Fatigue Properties of ~083, ~086 andand Plate, by H. MYndlin and C.E. Jaske.Cktober 1968.Reynolds Metals Co.,(8)(9)(lo)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)Axial-Stress Fatigue Strengths of As-Welded Aluminum Alloy ButtJoints, by I.D. Eaton. Alcoa Research Laboratories, EngineeringDesign Division Report 12-62-11, Nkrch 1962.Axial-Stress Fatigue Test Results for Transverse Butt Welds inAluminum-MagnesiumAlloys, by G.E. Nordmark. Alcoa ResearchLaboratories, Engineering Design Division Report 12-60-17,MY 1960.Fatigue Properties of S083 and S086 Sheet-and Plate ProductsbyF.W. Debwy. Kaiser Aluminum Interim Froject Report No.MS PRs8-b8, June 19s8.Axial-Stress Fatigue Properties of Aluminum Alloy Plate ButtWelds, by N.L. Person. Kaiser Aluminum Project Report No.M13PR 67-110, November 1967.Axial-Stress Fatigue Prope~ties of Plain and Welded sb.~b,~086,S083 ands4s6 Plate at Room Temperature and -320 degrees F, byJ.Cl.Kaufman and F.G. Nelson. Alcoa Research LaboratoriesReport No. 9-60-24, June 1960.Swary of Notch Toughness and Fatigue Data for A1-Mg Alloysby B.D. l!kLaughlan. Alcan Research and Development LimitedReport IL%78-69-1~-4,April 1969.The Corrosion Fatigue Behavior of A1-Mg Alloys, by C. Panseri,L. Mori and P. Dettin. British Corrosion Journal, July 1966.Altinum in Shipbuilding, by A. Brinck. A/S Nordic Alu.minwIndustry, @~O, Norway, Translated July 19~7Rotating-Beam Fatigue Properties of g183 I!UGButt Welds in 5’083-oand S086-HI12 Plate, by N.L. Person. Kaiser Aluminum InterimProject Report No. LE PR 64-86, November 196~.Swary of Cryogenic Data on Aluminum Alloys ~083 and ~086.Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corp.j June 1960.Residual Welding Stresses in Aluminum Alloys, by H.N. Hill.Alcoa Research Laboratories, Engineering Design Division Report12-60-43, 1960.Shipbuilding Guide to Aluminum Construction, by C.H. Holtyn.Reynolds Metals Co., October 1963.Alcoa News Release, February 1969.High Toughness Al-% Alloys for Mkrine Application, by J.G.Kaufman. Alcoa Research Laboratories Report No. 9-69-4,March 1969.

-117-LIST OF REFERENCES(Cent’d)(22)Welding Alcoa Aluminum, Aluminum Co.. of America.(23)Corrosion-Fatigue,by P.T. Gilbert.Metallurgical Reviews, 1?S6.(24)Fabrication, Welding and Inspection of Ship Hulls.the Navy, NAVSHIFS 0900-000-1000, @tober 1968.Department of(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)Radiographic Standards for Pro&ction and Repair welds.Department of the Navy, NAVSHIPS 0?00-003-9000, March 1967.The Effect of lieldllefectswith Special Reference to BWRAResearch, by F.M. Burdekin, J.D. Harrison and J-G. YOW.Conference on the Significance of Defects in Welds, Instituteof Welding, London, Februa~ 1967.A Proposed Acceptance Standard for Welded Defects Based UponSuitability for Service by J.D. Harrison, F.M. Burd~kin andJ.G. young. Conference on the Significance of Defects inWelds, Institute of Welding, London, May 1968.Influence of Weld Defects on Performance, by D.V. Lindh andG.M. Peshak. Welding Journal, l?ebrua~ 1969.Fatigue Strength of Butt Welds in Structural Steels, by L.A.Harris, G.E. Nordmark and N.M. Newmark. Welding ResearchCouncil Research Reports, Februaw l?~~.Fatigue Strength of Welds in Low-Alloy Structural Steels, byJ.E. StXLlmeyer, etc. Welding Research Council ResearchReports, June 19S6.(31)Fatigue of Welded Steel Structures, by W.H. Munse.Research Council, 1964.Welding(32)(33)(34)(35)(36)(37)Control of Steel Construction to Avoid Brittle Failure, Editedby M.E. Shark. Welding Research Council, 1%7.The Fatigue of Metals and Structures, by H. Grover, S.A. Gordonand L.R. Jackson. Department of the Navyj NAVW?J?500-2~-~34,19S4 (Revised 1960).Cumulative Fatigue Damage, by H..T.Corten and T.J. Dolan.International Cotierence on Fatigue of Metals, September 19s6(2277-S).Fatigue of Metals Under Combinations of Stresses, by W.N.Findley. ASME Transactions, August 19~7.EffecLs of Complex Stress-Time Cycles on the Fatigue Propertiesof Metals, by W.L. Starkey and S.M. Marco. ASME Transactions,August 1%7.Fracture Behavior of Aluminum Alloys, by R.E. Zinkham andJ.H. lled~ick. Chapter 6, Fracture. Academic Press, 1969.

-11.8-LLST OF REFERENCES(Cent’d)(38)(39)(40)(41).EYaclmreToughness CharacterizationProcedures and Interpretationsto Fracture-Safe Design for Structural Aluminum Alloys by R.W.Judy Jr., R.J, Goode and C.N. Freed. Naval Research Laboratory,NRL Report 6871, March 1,969.Aluminum - The Age of Ships, by C. Hoylton. Transactions of theSociety of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1966.Deterioration of Metals in An Ocean Environment, by l?.LaQue.@can Engineering Vol. 1 No. 3, February 1969.Small Craft Desip@3tmctures, by K.B. Spaulding, Jr. LectureNotes for Small Boat Design Course Presented at the Universityof fichigan, 1967.(42)Aluminum in Shipbuilding,by A. Brinck.Industry, Oslo, Norway, 19s7.A/S Nordic Aluminum(43)(4.4)Alcoa Aluminum-MagnesiumAlloys Suitable for Structural WeldingApplications, by K.F. Thornton, November 1, 19s7.The Aluminum Association Tentative Exfoliation Test for Al-wAlloys for Boat and Ship Hull Comtruction by D. Sprowls, et al.(45)Comparative Engineering Data on Alloys ~083 and~086.Technical Bulletin DC-62-l.Kaiser(M)(h.7)(48)(49)(50)(51)(5’2)(53)(54)(55)Aluminum with Food and Chemicals, 2nd Edition, The AluminumAssociation, February 1969.Railroad Compatibility Study, Kaiser Technical Bulletin R-6L-2.The Economics of Operating Aluminum Hopper Wagons by W.F.Campbell. Ra>lway Gazette, September 13, IP63.Counteracting Abrasion of Aluminum Rock Bodies, Alcan$eportdated January 1965.A Technical Report on Off-Highway Rock Bodies, byW.C.Alcoa Report dated April 19~9..Weltman.Aluminum Dump Truck and Trailer Design and Construction. Alcoa,AU~St 1966.Aluminum Alloy Construction. Lloyds Register of Shippiw(Yachting Section), Supplement No. 9 dated 3 September 1964.The Effects of Ship Stiffness Upon the Structural Response ofa Cargo Ship to an lnpulsive Load by M. St. Denis, S. Fersht.SSC Report No. 186 dated Sep~ember 1968.Fire Tests on the Steamship NANTASKET - Vol. 4s, 1937 Transactionsof the Socie@ of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.Fire Protection Handbook, National Fire Protection Association

LIST OF REFERENCES(Cent’d)(56)(57)(58)(59)(60)(61)(62)(63)(64)(65)(66)(67)(68)(6g)(70)(71)Handbook of Industrial Loss Prevention, Factory Mutual System.Fire Resistance of Steel Deck Floor Assembliesj U.S. Departmentof Commerce, National Bureau of Standardsstateroom I?ireTest, Vol. 5B, 19S0 Transactions Of the SocietYof Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.Fire Protection in Passenger Ships, with Partic~ar Reference toUuminum Structures, 19$2 Institution of Naval Architects.~ical Class A-60, A-39, A-1~ and A-O Steel Bulkheads and Decks,Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular No. IO-63, April 1,1963, Treasury Department, U. S. Coast Guard.Standard Materials, American Society for Testing of Materials -ASTM-E-119-67.Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies - AmericanSociety fo~ Testing of Materials - ASTM-E-1~2-66.Standard Method of Test for Surface Burning CharacteristicsofBuilding Materials - American Society for Testing of Materials -ASTM-E-8L-67.Tentative Method of Test for Surface Flammability of BuildingMkterials Using an 8 Foot Tunnel Furnace - American SocietyTor Testing of ~teria~s - AsTM-E-286-6~TFire Control for Passenger Vessels, Vol. 4~~ 1937 Transactio~of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.Circulating Water Wall Constriction for Fire Protection -Progressive Architecture, October 1969.Report of Fire Endurance Test of Insulated Aluminum MarineBulkhead, SNAME Technical and Research Report, dated JflY 1967.IMCO Listing of Fire Casualties 17PlX~~.~.Working Papers on Ship Evaluation Model for Competitive MerchantShip Project. Prepared for U.S. Department of Commerce,Maritime Administration,Washington, D.C. by Boozj AllenApplied Research, Inc., April I?69.-119-!l’radi~Cpportumitiesfor U.S. Flag Dry Bulk Carriers. preparedfor U.S. Department of Commerce, Marittie AdministrationjWashington, D,C. by Booz, AllenApplied Research, Inc.August 1969.Analysis and Statistics of Large Tankers. The Un.iversi~ ofMichigan, College of Engineering, Department of Naval Architectureand Marine Engineering, October 1968.

-120-ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATIONAlcoa Structural Handbook, Aluminum Company of AmericaAlcoa Aluminum Handbookj Aluminum Company of AmericaWelding Alcoa Aluminum, Aluminum Company of AmericaStructural Aluminum Design, Reynolds Aluminum CompanyAluminum Construction Manual - Specifications for AluminumStructuresj The Aluminum Association

-121-APPENDIXAReferences:(Al)DETERMINATIoN OF LONG-TERM BENDING MOMENTS FORALUMINUM BULK CARRIERLewis, E.V. llpredi~tingLong Term Distribution ofWave-Induced Bending Moments on Ships Hulls”, SNAITE,196T(A2) fiA~lysis and Interpretationof Full Scale Data onMidship Bending Stresses of Dry Cargo Ships” ShipStructure Committee Report SSC-196, June 19691. The stresses occurring in a critical po~tion of the shipshull girder, such as the deck edge, are function of the basic still waterbending moment and randomly varying wave-induced vertical and horizontalbending moments and similar~ varying inclinations of the shipls principalaxes. The still water bending moment is easily established. Statisticalanalysis methods can be used to predict long term distribution trends ofrandom variables, yielding expected stress or bending moment levels versusnumber of encounters at such levels during a shipls lifetime. This is alengthy p~ocess when considering a single variable, and would be prohibitiveati without proven precedent for phase-combined effects of’severalrandom variables. Accordingly, since vertical bending moments account forthe major portions of actual stresses, and have been the most thoroughlyresearched, the bulk carrier design will be based upon expected stillwater bending moments and predicted long-term distribution of waveinducedvertical bending moments and resulting stresses.2. The dimensions of the bulk carrier CHALLENGER fit wellwith those for a Se~ieg 60 tanker for which long-term probability data isreported in Reference (Al). Figure 17 of Reference (Al) gives Xj vsQ kg 10 (X~Xj) Plots of bendi~ moment coefficients in head seas ofvarious sigmif~cant heights for a 600 foot ship with L/B = 7.0, L/d = ly.~CB = .8 andV/m= .3b. Probabilities of occurrence of such seas inthe designls intended service may be combined with Figure 17 values toproduce a single curve of expected bending moment coefficient for theanticipated distribution of weather according toNQ(X~Xj) z piQi(x>xj) ~.i=lMinor adjustment of this curve to account for a V/m of the design,higher than 0.34, may be based upon proportiofi~ the ordinates accordingto variations in bending moment with ship speed for the 600 feet,CB = .8o ship shown inFigwe 12 Of Reference (Al). ‘TheXj vs Q log 10(X~Xj) (and corresponding Xj swN) plot will indicate the steepness ofstatic trochoidalwaves which would produce bending moments equivalent tothe levels of dynamic bending moments expected to be induced by perturbationfrom the static condition. These moments are superimposed on thestill water bending moment.3* A standard bending moment calculation for a wave of agiven height combines the bending moment due to the differing weight andbuoyancy distribution at the still waterline with the moment due to

-122-redistribution of the still water buoyancy to reflect the wave. Therefore,such a calculation maybe used to evaluate the levels of totalbending moments (static plus dynamic) to be expected. Accordingly, standardbending moment calculations for several waveheights and for still watermay be made to produce an Mj vs Q log (M>Mj) plot by plotti~ ~he obtained( hebending moments at the probabilities corresponding to the X ~ values at)which the bending moments have been calculated. The sense (hog or sag) ofthis curve of expected moments will be the same as that of the still waterbending moment. By subtracting 2 times the still water bending from itsordinates a curve of expected moments of the opposite sense may be obtained.The foregoing procedure should be based upon the load condition of thedesign yielding the highest still water bendi~ moment, since the effectof load distribution is more significant to the calculated wave bendingmoment than is the draft at which it occurs. Finally, if the base scaleof probability is multiplied by the expected number of oscillations in theintended life of the ship, the resultant log 10 base scale will indicatethe numbers of oscillations during the life of the ship in which it shouldbe expected the Mj lev-elsof bending moments are reached.4. In applyi~ the foregoing proceduz-es to the subject designit was considered that probabilities based on average North Atlanticweather would be realistic yet not overly conservative, in view of contemplatedtramp operations in the various seas of the world. Accordingly,the values given by Figure 18 of Refereme (Al) for a 600 foot ship areconsidered valid for this application, subject to minor correction forFroude number. Based on Figure 12 of Reference (Al), increasing theFreud rnunberfrom 0.1 to about 0.2hwould increase the ~ value atLQ = lo-lofrom about .0485 shown on Figure 18 of Reference (Al) to .O~.5. Bending moment estimates for the various loadings of theMV CHALLENGER were reviewed. Noti,ngthat the subject design will have adeeper load line than the loadings reviewed, and further that light shipweight is expected to be about 2900 tons less than that used in the estimates,Mandelli methods were used to correct for the effects of these.Accordingly, the design bending moment was estimated to vary from 1S0,000foot tons (sagging) in still water to 67~,ooo foot tons for anhe— = .O.!J wave. The resulting Mj vs Q log 10 (M>Mj) plot is shown onLFigure Al. Based upon an expectancy of 1.26 x 108 cycles in as computedthereon for the designis lifetime, it may be expected that once in itslifetime the bending moment will exceed S7S,2~0 foot tons. Also in itslifetime, -thereis a 99 per cent probability that the bending moment willnot exceed 680,2s0 foot tons. This is obtained by a statistical methodgiven in Appendix A of Reference (A2) and is recommended as the bendingmoment to be used in yield stress considerations. However, for fatigueconsiderations the values in the probability range from 1 to 1.26 x 10-8are considered appropriate.

FIG. 1A Long Term Distribution ofVertical Bending Moment (For Preliminary Design)16 “ “ //Q(M>Mj) —5 ““-” ‘“”-” ““--”7 “-~”Lj ____w-{-I2 ‘“I1 .—-..--—-——--.—~ s1 tI# q1o-1o 10-810 -6 ~o-b 10-2 1 s: .tn.--MN(M >Mj)— I I I 1 !1 I02 104 ~’06 108+N(M>Mj)is probablenumberof Wnes Mj will-be exceededby shipsbendingmomentin its lifettieof n cycles.(n=20 Yrsx 200 Sea Days/Yr x 864oo Sec/Dayx-123-w+-.3666 cm = 1.26x 108 Cyc.)M-%Average North AtlanticNote:Fatigue Factor R Value Z(2 ~~.Wa~. - ~)‘j

-124-APPENDIX BEXCERPTS FROMRULES AID REGULATIONSFoRCARGO AND MISCELLANEOUS VESSELSSubchapter ICG-257PART 92 - CONSTRUCTION AND AR.RJINGE.MENTP2.OTSTRUCTURAL FIRE PROTECTION92.0’7-1 Application(a) The provisions of tkIis subpart,with the exceptionof Section.92*OT-p0,-shallapply to all vessels of 4,000 ~ross tons and overcontracted for on or after January 1, 1962. Such vessels contractedfor prior to January 1, 1962, shall meet the requirements of Section92.Oi’-9O(a).(b) The provisions of this subpart, with the exceptionof Section92.07-09, shall apply to all industrial vessels of 300 gross tons andover but less than 4,000 gross tons, contracted for on or after July 1,1968, which carry in-excescontract.edfor prior to July 1, 1968, shallmeet the requirementsofof 12 industrial personnel. Such vesselsSection 92.07-90(b).92-07-sDefinitions92,.07-~(a) Standarddevelops in the testships as follows:S minutes - 1,000 degrees F10 minutes - 1,300 degrees F30 minutes - I,SSO degrees F60 minutes - 1,700 degrees 1?fire test. A “standard fire test” is one whichfurnace a series of time temperature relation-92.07-s(b) 11A!!Class divisions. Bulkheads or decks of the “A” Classshall be composed of steel or equivalent metal construction, suitablystiffened and made intact with the main structure of the vessel, suchas shell, structural bulkheads, and decks. They shall be so constructed,that if subjected to the standard fire test, they would be capable ofpreventi~ the passaEe of flame and smoke for one hour.92.07-~(c) l!B1lClass bulkheads. Bulkheads of the ‘W1’Class shall beconstructed with approved incombustible materials and made intact fromdeck to deck and to shell or obhe~ bounda~ies. They shall be so constructedthat, if subjected to the standard fire test, they would becapable of preventing the passage of flame and smoke for one-half hour.92.07-J(d) ‘ICI!Class divisions. Bulkheads or decks of the llCtrClassshall be constructed of approved incombustible materials, but needmeet no requirements relative to the passage of flame.

-125-92.07-5(e) Steel or other equivalentmetal. Where the term ITsteelorother equivalentmetal” is used in this subpart,it is intendedtorequirea materialwhich, by itselfor due to insulationprovided,hasstructuraland integrityqualitiesequivalentto steel at the end ofthe applicablefire exposure.9’2.07-5(f) Approvedmaterial. Where in this subpart approvedmaterials are required, they refer to materials approved under theapplicable subparts of Subchapter Q (Specifications)of this chapter,as follows:Deck Coverings 164.006Struc”buralInsulations 16L.007Bulkhead Panels 16L.008Incombustible Materials 16h.oo9InteriorFinishes 164.01292.07-5(g) Stairtower. A stairtoweris a stairwaywhich penetratesmore than a Singledeck within the same enclosure.92.07-10 Constructiong2.OT-10(a) The hull, superstructure, structural buikheads, decks, anddeckhouses shall be constructed of steel. Alternately, the Commandantmay permit the use of other suitable material in special cases, havingin mind the risk of fire.92.07-10(b) Eulkheads of galleys, paint and lamp lockers, andemergency generator rooms shall be of “A” Class construction.The boundarybulkheadsand decks separatingthe accom-92.07-IO(C)modatiotisand controlstationsfrom cargo and machineryspaces,galleys,main pantriesand storerooms,other than small servicelockers,shallbe of ‘lA~lClass construction.92.07-10(d) Within the accommodation and service areas the followingconditions shall apply:92.07-10(d)(l) Corridor bulkheads in accommodation spaces shall beof the lIAIIor IIB”Class intact from deck to deck. Stateroom doorsin such bulkheads may have a louver in the lower half.92.07-10(d)(2) Stairtowers, elevator, dumbwaiter and other trunksshall be of “A]t Class construction.92.07-10(d)(3)Bulkheadsnot alreadyspecifiedto be of “A” or W“Class constructionmay be of IIAII, ‘IBII,or llCllClass construction.92.07-10(d)(h)The integrityof any deck in way of a stairwayopening,other than a stairtower,shall be maintainedby means of11A!! or l!B~! Classbfikheadsand doors at one level. The integrityof a stairtowershallbe maintainedby llA~lClass doom at everylevel. The doors shall be of self-closing type. Holdback hooks,or other means of permanently holding the door open will not bepermitted. However, magnetic holdbacks operated from the bridgeor from other suitable remote control positions are acceptable.

-126-92.07-10(d)(~) Interior stairsj iml~ding stringers and treads~shall be of steel.92.07-10(d)(6) Except for washrooms and toilet spaces, deck coveringswithin accommodation spaces shall be of an approved type.However, overlays for leveling or finishing purposes which do notmeet the requirements for an approved deck covering may be used inthicknesses not exceeding 3/8 of an inch.92.07-lo(d)(7) Ceilings, linings, and i~~ation, including PiPeand duct laggings, shall be of approved incombustible materials.92.07-10(d)(8) Amy sheathing, furring orholdi~ pieces incidentalto th~ securing of any bulkhead, ceiling, lining, or insulationshall be of approved incombustible materials.92.07-lo(d)(9) Bulkheads, linings, and ceilings may have a combustibleveneer within a room not to exceed 2/28 of an inch in thickness.However, combustible veneers, trim, decorations, etc., shall not beused in corridors or hidden spaces. This is not intended to precludethe use of an approved interior finish or a reasonable number ofcoats of paint.92.07-10(e) Wood hatch covers may be used between cargo spaces orbetween stores spaces. Hatch covers in other locations shall be ofsteel or equivalent metal construction. Tonnage openings shall beclosed by means of steel plates.92.07-10(f) Nitrocellulose or other highly flammable or noxious fumeproducingpaints or lacquers shall not be used.92.07-90 Vessels contracted for prior to July 1, 1968.(a) For all vessels of 4,000 gross tons and over contracted forprior to January 1, 1962, existing structure arrangements andmate~ials previously approved will be considered satisfactory solong as they are maintained in good condition to the satisfactionof the Officer in Charge, Marine Inspection. Minor repairs andalterations may be made to the same standard as the original construction.Major alterations and conversions shall be in compliancewith the provisions of this subpart’to the satisfaction of theOfficer in Charge, Marine Inspection.(b) For industrial vessels of 300 gross tons and over but less than4,OOO gross tons,,contracted for prior to July 1, 1968, which carryin excess of 12 industrial personnel, existing structure arrangementsand materials previously approved will be considered satisfactory solong as they are maintained in good condition to the satisfaction ofthe Officer in Charge, Marine Inspection. Minor repairs and alterationsmay be made to the same standard as the original construction.Major alterations and conversions shall be in compliance with thissubpart to the satisfaction of the Officer in Charge, MarineInspection.

-127-APPENTmcFIRE TEST METHODSReferem es:(cl) lls~andard MaterialsJ’ - ASTM-E-1 19-67(C2) ‘lFireTests on Steamship NANTASKET” Vol. 4S, 1937Transactions of SNAME(C3) ~ical Class A-60, A-39, A-is andA-O Steel 13ulkheadsand Decks, Navigation and Vessel hspeciionCircular No. 10-63, April 1, IP63, Treas~ Department,U. S. Coast Guard(C4) Stateroom Fire Test, VO1. ~B, 19~0 Transactions ofthe Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers(C5)Fire Protection in Passenger Ships, with ParticularReference to Aluminum Structures, 19s2 Institutionof Naval Architects1, Test methodshave been developedto determine,insofaraspracticable,the various effectsof fires of controlledintensityon suchcomponentsas columns,decks,bulkheadsand other members,(Reference(Cl)).The resultisof such tests are recordedas the period or fire resistanceexpressed in minutesor hours. They signifythat the componenttestedresists,to the requireddegree,the effectsof the controlledfir~ underspecificconditionsof restraintor loadj or both restraintand load, forthe period and are reportedto the nearestintegralminute. The ratingsso developedare tie acceptedcriteriaof the fire resistanceof thevariousmaterialsand typesof construction.2. The control for the intensity of the fire for tests of componentsis based on the Standard Time-Temperature Curve (FiCure C-1). Thiscurve was prepared in 1918 throuEh conferences among represent,~tives ofeleven technicel societies or organizations tailed jointly by tiilc ASTMCommittee~n fireproofingand the NFPA Committee on Fire-ResistiveConstruction.3* me test exposure to b~ evaluated is plotted on Jw ~imetemperaturegraph together with the standard curve. The area unticrth~ testcurve and above a baseline taken as th~ maximum temperature to which +&cexposed materials under consideration may be subjected witihoutdama

-128-~gE1+0102030- .. ..—405060 —2 1TIII1-+———“.,—-.—6—.-. .—..——1——1—— —\—— . ..——,5.--— —— —..— ..-———\---—.. -iJL1 1TEMPERATURE(DEG~SFAHRENHEIT)- HUNDmOSFIG. C-1 Standard Time - TemperatureCurve for Fire Testsboard tests in 1936 (Reference (c2)). A stateroom was loaded with 5 poundsof combustibles per square foot of area. The resulting fire was found to beof a severity equal to that represented by the standard curve. All thelater tests conducted at this time were compared to the standard curve andthe comparative value of the exposure approximated. Thus, the comparativefire resistance of the various materials and constructionswere evaluated.5* ~ this method the U. S. Coast Guard, in conjunction with theNational Eureau of Standards have developed constructions utilizing approvedmaterials for steel ships based on a time-temperaturerating, Reference (C3).Some subsequent tests for aluminum have been conducted, again using thismethod of evaluation, (References (C4) and (CS)). This is also the basisof the tests being conducted under the auspices of the Society of NavalArchitects and Marine Engineers and the U. S. Coast Guard.

ulltil-ndd~lLLwSecurityClassificationDOCUMENT CONTROL DATA - R & D,S~.Cu~jlyClas.rfrration of tj[Ie, body of ab.?tracf and irjdcxjr,k~ annotation .?u,.1 be entered when !IIC .vdr~ll ~epor( is cla~sif; cd)ORIGINATING ACTIVITY (Corpora tew[hor) 2a. REP OR T5Ccu RlTY CLASSIFICATIONbb~ & c~~, Inc.!W York, New YorkIlnrla

ectintyclassification4KEYWORDSROLELINKAWT?OLELINKBWTROLELlhWTFinal Technical ReportAluminumBulk CarriersStudy - Aluminum Bulk CarriersMaterial Studies - Aluminum Bulk CarriersFabrication - Aluminum Bulk CarriersDesign Studies - Aluminum Bulk CarriersShip Design - Aluminum Bulk CarriersCost Studies - Aluminum Bulk Carriers)DIFrR.,1473(PAGF 2)(BACK)GPO 915-616UNCLASSIFIEDSecurityClassification

SHIP RESEARCHCOMMITTEEMaritimeTransportationResearchBoard.NationalAcademy of Sciences-Nat~OriqlResearchCouncilThe Ship Research Committee has technical cognizance of the inter-agency ShipStructure Committee’s research program:PROF. R. A. YAGLE, CHAIRMAN;Prof. ofi’iaval Arwhiteetie, University of Michigan-. DR. 1+.N. ABRAMSON, Director Department ofMechanicaZ $ciewee, Southeet W6earch Imt.-~: MR. W. H. BUCKLEY, Chief Stru&ural Criter

SHIP STRUCTURE COMMITTEE PUBLICATIONSThese dmwnents me distributed by the National Technical Information .Service, Springf