entire document here - The Victorian Women's Trust

Published and distributed by:The Victorian Women’s TrustLevel 1, 388 Bourke StMelbourne VIC 3000 AustraliaTelephone: (03) 9642 0422Outside Melbourne: 1300 739 756Facsimile: (03) 9642 0016Email: enquiries@watermark.org.auwww.vwt.org.auwww.watermarkaustralia.org.au© Victorian Women’s Trust 200710 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1This document has been produced asa not-for-profit community resource.Reproduction for the purposes of studyand discussion is permitted, howeverthe source must be acknowledged.No financial gain should be made fromthe distribution of this document byany individual or organisation.ISBN 978-0-646-47561-5Graphic Design:Jacquie Moonjacq_moon@yahoo.com.auPrinted by:Print Boundinfo@printbound.com.auThis document has been printed by Print Bound, a commercial printing companybased in Blackburn, Victoria. Company Director Mark Tomasini and Managing DirectorMauro Mattarucco embarked on a significant project to improve the environmentalsustainability of their printing business. Their aim was to create a culture ofenvironmental awareness amongst employees, clients and suppliers, to improve thereputation of the print industry for poor environmental practices by educating andsupporting all consumers of paper and print, and to aim to be a leader in the printindustry by ensuring all staff adopted 100 per cent commitment to this project.The business uses the most modern and effective technology available to reducecarbon emissions, eliminate the release of toxins and pollutants, significantly reducewater and energy usage and use sustainable energy sources. Since developing thisprogramme, dedicated to reducing its environmental impact, Print Bound has cut itsenergy consumption by 40 per cent, replaced 80 per cent of ink tins with recyclablecartons, and cut the use of air pollutants from 12 per cent to five per cent.

Three human lifetimes – about 214 years – is simply not long enough tobecome truly adapted to Australia’s unique conditions, for the process ofco-evolving with the land is slow and uncertain. Yet it has begun, and thetransformation must be completed, for if we continue to live as strangersin this land – failing to understand it or live by its ecological dictums – wewill forfeit our long-term future here by destroying the ability of Australia tosupport us.Tim Flannery, 2002 Australia Day AddressIn this document, many of the illustrationsand examples depict the situation in Victoria.However, most of the data are national and all ofthe proposed actions have national relevance andfocus on national opportunities.Web research played an important role in compilingthis document. We have cited the addresses asaccurately as possible. We recognise, however, thatinformation may be removed as these websites arerevised and updated. If this is the case, we suggestthat readers contact the relevant organisation.While many individuals and organisations havesupported the inception and progress of theWatermark Australia Project, the responsibility forthe contents and conclusions of this documentrests entirely with the Victorian Women’s Trust.

water:our wake-up callWhen water’s in trouble, we all are.We should be worried. The water crisis we now faceis deeper and more profound than the current drought.It is accentuated when we factor in climate change and itspotentially significant impacts, particularly on the easternpart of Australia where most of us live.We are one of the highest per-capita users of water on Earth. Yetmany of our provincial towns are running out of water. Despitemassive storage capacity, most of our capital cities face dwindlingsupplies of stored water. Our surface and groundwater resourcesare substantially over-allocated, and many of our freshwaterecosystems are in urgent need of repair. Farming communities,who put much of the food on our tables, are being squeezed byprolonged drought and are now having to compete with othersin the trade of water. Inexplicably complacent, we have been slowto realise the need for efficiency in the way we use, and reuse,water across all sectors: agriculture, industry and households.This water crisis has been in the making for decades. It hasgrown under the watch of numerous state, territory and federalgovernments. Its complex genesis has not been grasped bybusiness and the marketplace. All the while, we have rampedup our levels of consumerism, seemingly oblivious to the impactson our water resources.A crisis represents a turning point, in which decisive change isneeded. This is now the case with water. What are we to do inthis vast, fragile and ancient continent?Invariably, solutions are only as good as the analysis of theproblem. The first part of this document, the Big Picture,brings together the information people need to understand thedimensions of this water crisis and to help determine what weshould do about it.We propose a goal that focuses on water efficiency across allsectors of society. This is not only a timely commitment, but alsoan infinitely better option than the quick-fix mentality that seeksto augment water supplies without seriously addressing thepresent unsustainably high levels of water use.The second part of the document outlines a set of guidingprinciples and the range of actions we can take to conserve thisprecious resource, wherever we live, and whatever we do – onfarms, in businesses, organisations and in households. Importantly,as citizens, we will need to work with one another, talk with ourpolitical representatives at every tier of government and decidehow to make best use of our vote.Previous generations faced and overcame major challenges,such as economic depression and war. Finding solutions toour water problems now, and into the future, is a challengeof a similarly high order. There are few opportunities for usto grasp the nature and extent of the crisis we now face.However, this document represents an important opportunityto do so. So, when you come into possession of Our WaterMark, take the time over the next two to three weeks toread it – from cover to cover. Yes, it is a lengthy document,but there are many interlocking parts to the water storyand they are all important! Urge your friends, familymembers and workmates to obtain a copy and read it, too.And talk with one another about it over the coming months.A crisis as deep and threatening as this presents us all withchoices and opportunities. We can cross our fingers, leave itto others, and hope it will all work out for the best. Or we canbe active agents in our social, economic and environmental world,choosing to become informed and increasingly water literate,seeking out the truth of the matter, taking responsibility, and beingprepared to act, together where possible, for the common good.We can all make our mark in water reform. There are all sorts ofpossibilities. But we need to get going. We don’t have the luxuryof lots of time.Mary CrooksExecutive DirectorVictorian Women’s TrustJune 2007Project DirectorWatermark AustraliaVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 5

2 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

INTRODUCTIONour water markUnderstanding this bigger picture better places us toscope the things we can all do. It helps us to identifythe important principles we ought to work by and ithelps us find points of entry into debates about water.It prompts us to initiate actions to make a real differencein our households, local communities and institutions,and on our farms. On another level, we can play astronger role in shaping how our political institutionsrespond to this crisis.OF PEOPLE, BY PEOPLE, FOR PEOPLEOver a decade ago, the 1992 Dublin Water and the EnvironmentConference identified four principles that have became knownas the Dublin Principles. The first states that ‘water is a finite,vulnerable and essential resource that should be managed inan integrated manner.’ The third states that ‘women play a centralrole in the provision, management and safeguarding of water.’ 1In 2000, the Victorian Women’s Trust, intuitively recognisingthis third principle, designed a community-based initiative togive people a greater knowledge of water issues and a strongerfoothold in debates and discussions about water. The initiativefollowed in the footsteps of an earlier project, the Purple SageProject. We named it the Watermark Australia Project.We put our faith in the leadership capacity of women to helpmake this project a reality. This faith was rewarded in spades.Aside from The Myer Foundation, the private donors who madethe whole thing possible were mainly women. Most of the groupleaders who brought together the discussion groups acrossVictoria and interstate were also women, and the project teamwithin the office of the Women’s Trust was comprised largelyof women.Through 2004 and 2006, the Trust developed a set of innovativelearning materials about water and a Watermark website. We setup a simple process whereby ordinary men and women, fromall over Australia, could come together in small groups to discussthese materials and determine what they might do in response.Twice in this process, these volunteer Watermark groups(representing several thousand people) gave us reports thatsummarised their valuable conversations, their questions andtheir independent ideas about water. Many other people contactedus by phone and email to share their thoughts and experienceswith water. At key points, we merged these reports and otherinputs with our own thinking and with the experiences and thetechnical knowledge of a group of eminent scientists who gaveus their time because they, too, saw an urgent need to mobilisethe community around the water issue.This document, Our Water Mark: Australians makinga difference in water reform, is the culmination of allthis labour.It respects and builds on the wisdom and experience of thepeople who came together in Watermark groups, it draws outthe consensus that emerged across these groups, and it combinesthis with scientific knowledge and technical data to providea constructive framework for people everywhere to think about,and act on, water reform.ABOUT THIS DOCUMENTEverything in this document, has been compiled with one aim inmind: to provide people in the broader community with a credibleand accessible source of information about water. We hope thatit will be read by all and sundry, talked about around the kitchentable and used as a spur for bringing about positive change in theway our society uses and manages water.In compiling this document we have striven to use key reports andinformation that have been in the public domain for some time.However, while we all rely on these sources, the overall picture ofwater in Australia remains patchy because we still lack systematic,national data on key aspects of water measurement and use.For practical purposes, every section of this document is writtenand formatted as a stand-alone piece. This is to allow individuals,families or other groups who want to read and talk aboutparticular issues (e.g. surface water or groundwater) to selectthe relevant part in ‘The Big Picture’. The particular section canthen be photocopied, read and talked about.Similarly, people who want to focus on the goal and principlesor a relevant action section (such as what people in householdsor on the land can do), can select the relevant sections andreproduce these as a basis for discussion or action.All text references are supplied so that you can access thesources used if you want to do further reading. We also includesome additional references to encourage you to explore areasof interest further. A glossary is provided at the back of thedocument to help explain unfamiliar terms.Towards the end of the document we outline a process wherebyyou can endorse Our Water Mark and sign on as a public gestureof your commitment to take action, share your experiences andhasten the necessary community momentum around water.If you want to assess the credentials and bona fides of theoriginating project, Watermark Australia, and access any ofthe supporting documentation, this information can be foundon the project website:.REFERENCEsP van der Zaag & HHG Savenije,1. Water as an economic good:the value of pricing and the failure of markets, UNESCO-IHEInstitute for Water Education, Value of Water Research ReportSeries No. 19, Delft, The Netherlands, 2006, p. 14.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 9

PART ONEthebig pictureNo problem can be solved from thesame consciousness that created it.Albert EinsteinMany people have opinions on the water issue, but uninformedopinions are not a good basis for action. Actions should stemfrom real knowledge of the state of our water resources. Suchknowledge helps make sense of many of the things we mayhave noticed or heard about water, and it provides a strongerframework for thinking about the issues and deciding whatwe might do in response.We can glean some of this knowledge from our daily sources ofnews and information. But accessing key sources of informationis problematic because key reports and data remain scatteredand unintegrated. We are unlikely to have the time to huntthese down – let alone pore over them in our spare time.Our first task in creating this document has been to assemblea coherent and integrated account of what has been happeningto our water resources. Clearly, however, much more could be saidabout the issues touched on here.We have tried to present a workable essence rather thana complete picture. Each of the 20 or so parts of the ‘Big Picture’is identified with a single jigsaw piece. They are a part of a largerpicture – part of the water puzzle.In each of these parts, you will notice in the banner at the topof the page an introductory comment within inverted commas.This is us – the authors – talking. It’s our way of presentinga thematic commentary on the section as a whole.We have arranged the parts in a logical sequence. Eachtreatment follows a formula of insightful quotes, key text,important diagrams and tables, text references and suggestedfurther reading. Although we have deliberately refrained frominterspersing the text with diagrams and tables, we do presentkey statistics within the body of the text.We believe that educating at a grass-roots level,to give everybody an understanding of the water crisis, is essential ifwe are to change attitudes to individual, family, community, industrialand agricultural water use.East Melbourne Watermark Australia groupVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 11

the big picturethe water cycleThe water cycle is an essential backdropto all life. It nourishes the land, sustains flora and fauna,allows food to grow and carries away wastes …Would it surprise you to discoverthat the ice in your glass oflemonade was once a snowflake?How about if the tears in your eyes,were, long ago, drops in a poolwhere dinosaurs came to drink?Well, both are possible. Nearly allof the water on Earth is the samewater that has been here sinceour oceans formed nearly fourbillion years ago. Each raindropand snowflake that falls is on anendless path from the sky to theground (or ocean) and back to thesky again. This loop is called thehydrologic cycle, or water cycle.Each drop of water takes a uniquepath on its quest. For instance, ifa drop falls into a river it mightstay there for three weeks. Ifit touches down in a glacier, itcould remain frozen for hundredsof years. If it sinks into thesoil, the drop could be trappedunderground for as long as fortythousand years. Eventually,though, all water that falls findsits way back up into the air tokeep the cycle going.T Strain Trueit, The water cycle, Franklin Watts,USA, 2002, pp. 7–8.We can’t create new water – we can only usewhat already exists. Day after day, year afteryear, millennium after millennium, MotherNature has moved vast quantities of wateraround the planet. This movement of wateris the essential backdrop to all life, includinghuman existence. However, we humans tendto notice only the more obvious signs of thisongoing exchange, such as clouds and rain.This is an awe-inspiring cycle. Chances are,however, that you learned little about it inyour school days, or if you did, you may bea bit rusty on it! It’s worth remindingourselves of its fundamentals.All life functions against the backdrop ofa continuous water cycle. The evaporationof water is the central feature of this cycle.Without evaporation there would be no rain.Water is continuously evaporating from allsurfaces – from oceans, rivers and lakes, andfrom the land, vegetation and every breaththat every animal expires. This evaporated waterpasses into the atmosphere and forms moisturein the cooler layers of air. The moisture gathersto form clouds which are carried around theEarth by wind currents.Under the right conditions these clouds releasetheir moisture as rain, hail or snow. When thisfalls onto the land, much of it seeps into thesoil. Some of it is taken up again by vegetation,some filters down into underground aquifersand the surplus flows as surface water intorivers, lakes and streams.The seemingly endless quality of this cycleis deceptive. Superficially, it looks as thoughthe supply of fresh water should be abundant.The reality is very different, however. Risingaverage temperatures mean that, in manyplaces, less water vapour forms into rain.At the same time, the burgeoning globalpopulation is placing ever-increasing demandson the planet’s reserves of fresh water.12 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturethe water cycleCloudssUNSNOWSURFACE WATERRIVEREVAPORATIONWATERFALLEVAPORATIONThe biggest learning for me, arisingfrom the first few sessions, is that the supply ofwater is based upon a closed system. No matterhow much we try to do things differently – buildnew reservoirs, recycle water, desalinate – wecannot expand that closed system. The people inour Watermark group, and most of the people Ihave spoken to about this since, had (like me) neverreally thought about the implications of this truth.Peter, Wet Williams Melbourne CBD Watermark group, May 2006MOUNTAINSGROUNDWATEROCEANFigure 1. The basic water cycleThis diagram neatly illustrates the idea of the water cycle as a closed system, i.e. the total amount of water remainsconstant. It shows how, under varying conditions, this water is presented as liquid water, water vapour or snow and ice.From our point of view, a particularly important section of this water cycle is where rain falls onto land. Rain first seepsinto the soil and some of it becomes groundwater. Once the soil is saturated, some water flows across the land assurface water which enters streams that flow into rivers and lakes. In many places, surface water and groundwater areinterconnected. The particular importance of this part of the water cycle is that it lies squarely within our capacityto manage it properly.Source: The Watermark Team, 2007.Some useful sources• TS Trueit, The water cycle, Franklin Watts, USA, 2002.• S Postel & A Vickers, State of the world, Worldwatch Institute,Washington, 2004.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 13

the big pictureglobal fresh waterThe world’s freshwater resourcesare now under extreme pressure. There is no escape– we are all implicated …Watersheds come in families, nested levels ofintimacy. On the grandest scale the hydrologicweb is like all humanity – Serbs, Russians,Koyukan Indians, Amish, the billion lives inthe People’s Republic of China – it’s broadlytroubled but it’s hard to know how to help. Asyou walk upstream towards home, you’re moreclosely related. The big river is like your nation,a little out of hand. The lake is your cousin.The creek is your sister. The pond is her child.And for better or worse, in sickness andin health, you’re married to your sink.M Parfit, quoted in M Barlow, Blue gold: the global water crisis and thecommodification of the world’s water supply, International Forum onGlobalization, Sausalito, California, 1999, p. 3714 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water MarkBy the middle of this century, at worst sevenbillion people in 60 countries will be facedwith water scarcity, at best 2 billion in 48countries, depending on factors like populationgrowth and policy making. Climate change willaccount for an estimated 20% of this increasein global water scarcity … Water quality willworsen with rising pollution levels and watertemperatures.E Drioli & F Macedonio, New integrated water treatmentsand production modes for city planning, New Technologyfor Infrastructure – the World of Tomorrow, ATSE Symposium,Sydney, 2006Researchers from the NASA-sponsored Gravity Recovery andClimate Experiment (GRACE) are using satellites to measurechanges in water distribution around the world. If we couldlook at water on Earth in such a way, what would we see?Water covers 70% of the planet’s surface, but 97% of this issalt water and only 3% is fresh water. However, most of thisfresh water is in frozen form. A mere 1% exists as surfacewater (rivers and lakes) and underground water (in aquifers).Yet it is this water that sustains most life on the planet. 1In some Mediterranean and Middle Eastern countriesthe renewable water resource per capita has declined byup to 80% in the last 10 to 15 years. It is forecast thatby 2020 water scarcity will affect many regions aroundthe globe, including half the countries in Europe. 2The use of water resources continues at an accelerating rateto meet the food, fibre and energy needs of a burgeoningglobal population, projected to reach over 8 billion by 2025.Environmental decline and reduced access to fresh water invarious parts of the world has prompted a series of UnitedNations conferences over the past three decades. 3As the world’s population expands, the amount of wateravailable per head of population will decline further. Thisdecline will become even more dramatic in those parts of theplanet where average rainfall is significantly reduced as a resultof climate change.

The Big Pictureglobal fresh waterBut scarcity is not the only issue. There are major problemswith water quality, too. Fresh water in many parts of the worldis contaminated. In developing countries, significant numbersof people die from waterborne bacterial illnesses each year. 4Of the estimated 13 million people who die from such infections,2 million are children. In Bangladesh, 28 to 35 million peopledrink water containing elevated levels of arsenic. Our nearestneighbour, East Timor, has high infant and under-five mortalityrates brought about by diarrhoea and respiratory infectionscaused by contaminated water. 5The situation is somewhat different in the developed world,where industrial products and wastes, such as mercury, cadmium,insecticides and solvents, contaminate both surface water andgroundwater reserves.In Canada, despite past regulatory controls, Lake Ontario continuesto be contaminated by toxic pollutants. 6 In the USA in 2001–02,31 waterborne disease outbreaks were reported across 19 states,causing seven deaths and illness in 1020 people. 7 On theAustralian mainland we have problems with saline, nitrateand pesticide contamination of groundwater.Many countries have built dams as a means of generatingelectricity. A big change is visible in China, where the massiveThree Gorges Dam is being built on the Yangtze River to meet10% of China’s demand for electricity. This project is expectedto displace over 2 million people by the time it’s completed. Laosis also investing heavily in dam construction for this purpose.Such projects come with significant environmental costs.There is also a worrying trend towards water privatisation in a fewcountries, such as the UK, the USA and France. In contrast, othercountries treat water as a matter of public trust to be guardedat all levels of government.Image 1. Russian fishing trawlers lying on the bed of ariver that used to flow into the Aral Sea in Central AsiaA large fleet of trawlers once harvested thousands of tonnesof fish each year from the Aral Sea. Excessive diversion ofwater to irrigate cotton farms put an end to this.Source: Image 2. Two satellite images of the Aral Sea, taken14 years apart. (The picture on the left was takenin 1989 and the picture on the right in 2003.)Spanning Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, two former republicsin the USSR, the Aral Sea was once the world’s fourth-largestlake. Located in the driest region in the USSR, the water wasbrackish and fed by two rivers, the Amu Darya and the SyrDarya. In 1930 the Central Planning Committee of the USSRdecided to sacrifice the Aral Sea by expanding irrigation anddeveloping vast cotton farms. Irrigated land area in the regionincreased from 3 million ha in 1930 to 6 million ha in 1980.The scheme was an environmental disaster. Between 1960and 1987 the surface area of the sea decreased by 40%. Bythe early ‘80s, 20 of 24 species of fish disappeared and thecommercial fish catch dropped from 48 000 tonnes in 1957to zero. The stranded trawlers in image 1 once operated froma port that is now about 70 km from the lake shore.Source: Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 15

the big pictureglobal fresh water80WATER Water Stress STRESS Index INDEX (%) (%)6040200CyprusBulgariaMaltaBelgiumSpainGermanyItalyTurkeyPolandFranceDenmarkPortugalCzech RepublicGreeceLithuaniaEstoniaUKNetherlandsSlovaniaHungarySwitzerlandAustriaRomaniaSlovak RepublicIrelandFinlandLuxembourgLatviaSwedenNorwayFigure 1. The Water Stress Index for European countriesCalculations of water stress have been made for Europe.The index shows how much of a country’s renewable fresh wateris being used as a percentage of what is available. At the presenttime half the countries in Europe, representing 70% of Europe’spopulation, are facing water-stress issues.Although calculations have yet to be made elsewhere aroundthe world, the indications are that high water stress existsin many countries in Africa and Asia.Source: E Drioli & F Macedonio, New integrated water treatments andproduction modes for city planning, New Technology for Infrastructure– the World of Tomorrow, ATSE Symposium, Sydney, 2006.REFERENCEs1. P Swanson, Water: the drop of life, NorthWord Press, Minnesota, 2001, p. 9.2. E Drioli & F Macedonio, New integrated water treatments and production modes for city planning,New Technology for Infrastructure – the World of Tomorrow, ATSE Symposium, Sydney, 2006.3. D Connell, Water politics in the Murray-Darling Basin, Federation Press, Annandale, NSW, 2007, p. 2.4. United Nations World Water Development Report, Water for people: water for life, Berghahn Books(in association with the UN), New York, 2003, .5. World Health Organisation, East Timor health sector situation report, WHO Dili Office, 2000.6.US Evironment Protection Authority, Environment Canada and New York State Department ofEnvironmental Conservation, Lakewide management plan for Lake Ontario, 2006.7. United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Surveillance Summary 2001–02, 2004.Some other useful sources• PH Gleick (ed.), Water in crisis: A guide to the world’s fresh water resources, Oxford University Press,New York, 1993.16 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturethe water cycle in AustraliaThis global water cycle affects countriesin different ways. Such is the vastness of the Australian land mass, thatwe can experience the monsoons of Asia, the deserts of North Africa –and everything in between …This part of it that we saw is alllow even Land, with sandy banksagainst the Sea, only the pointsare rocky, and so are some of theislands in this Bay. The Land isof a dry sandy soil and destituteof Water, except you make wells.William Dampier, A new voyage around the world,1689I love a sunburnt country,A land of sweeping plains,Of ragged mountain ranges,Of droughts and flooding rains.I love her far horizons,I love her jewel-sea,Her beauty and her terror –The wide brown land for me!Dorothea McKellar, My country, 1904We live on the world’s driest and flattestinhabited continent with the lowest percentageof rainfall reaching our rivers as runoff, thelowest amount of water found in our rivers andthe smallest surface area of permanent wetlands.Australia is the largest continental land massin the southern hemisphere, spanning severalclimatic zones. A tropical region extends acrossthe top of the continent, from the tip of CapeYork as far south as Mackay in Queensland,while on the west coast it extends south fromCape Londonderry to Broome. This tropical regionfeatures monsoonal rainfall and cyclonic storms.Below this, on the east coast, a subtropical zoneextends as far south as Coffs Harbour in NSW.The zone extends about 400 km inland andsub-tropical storms occur but no cyclonicactivity. On the west coast, the subtropicalzone extends south to Carnarvon in WesternAustralia and east to around Roma inQueensland. However, this region is very dry.South of the subtropical zone is a warmtemperateclimate zone. This extends to thesouthern tip of Tasmania and features the widestannual temperature range, with frosts andsnowfalls occurring in some areas. On the westcoast the warm-temperate zone extends southto Esperance. 1Much of inland Australia is either arid or desert.Arid lands are classified as those receiving lessthan 200 mm of precipitation annually. Over50% of Australia receives less than 500 mm.Over 80% receives less than 600 mm(about 20 inches in the old language). 2Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 17

The Big Picturethe water cycle in AustraliaTropicalFigure 1. The major climate zones across AustraliaThe Australian continent features a wide range of climatic zonesdispersed within three broad regions: the topical regions of thenorth, the arid expanses of the inland, and the temperate regionsof the east and south.Source: National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australiancatchment, river and estuary assessment, NLWRA, Canberra, 2002,vol.1, p. 57.TransitionalSubtropical dryTropical/warmtemperateWarm-temperateREFERENCEs1. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year book, Australia,2005, ABS, Canberra, 2005, pp. 16–19.2.ibid., p.16.Some other useful sources• M White, Running down: Water in a changing land,Kangaroo Press, Sydney, Australia, 2000.• Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year book, Australia,2005, ABS, Canberra, 2005, pp. 668–77.18 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big PicturevariabilityOur rainfall and stream flows arehighly variable. This variability will increasewith predicted climate change …This climatic unpredictability is somethingthat no-one can change and with which wemust learn to co-operate. To have any hopeof succeeding we have to have a wide vision,see the ‘big picture’ and understand theco-evolution of this continent, its waterresources and its biota through geological time.Mary White, Running down: Water in a changing land,Kangaroo Press, Australia, 2000, p. 1.The best-laid plans …Australia has the greatest rainfall variability of any countryin the world. We are captive to this variability. IndigenousAustralians have known for thousands of years thatAustralia’s rainfall is highly variable. Yet from Europeansettlement onwards, this variability has confronted andbewildered us. Understanding this variability is the key tounderstanding how we have managed our water resources.Australia’s climatic variability is captured in its extremes: frommonsoonal patterns in its tropical north to desert areas whereno real rain falls for years (and yet where flash floods periodicallyIn 1931–32, the NSW Government funded the construction of a new crossing over the SnowyRiver at McKellar Crossing. The concrete-and-steel bridge was 50 m high and 250 m long. Justa few days before the official opening, a major storm, accompanied by a cloudburst, occurredin the upper catchment. This is how the impact was captured:‘The ensuing flash flood, thick with uprooted trees and rocks, swept out of the tributary justabove the new bridge, shot across the Snowy River and smashed against the far bank, then swungdownstream. The water level was 4 m higher than any flood previously recorded. The force torethe bridge’s steel trusses from its pylons. The tangled wreckage came to rest a few hundred metresdownstream. The construction foreman, Edward ‘Ted’ Kay, contacted Orbost on his short-wave radioto advise that the opening should be cancelled.’ 3occur, miraculously bringing these arid areas to life). There areplaces in our warm-temperate zone where summer temperaturessoar over 40°C, while winter temperatures fall below freezing.Early European settlers were struck by the variability of ourrainfall. Australian rivers and streams could be raging torrentsbursting their banks in the spring yet slow to a trickle by summer.The iconic Murray River is a good illustration of this naturalvariability in flow. The long-term, average runoff reaching theriver is 11 259 GL (gigalitres*), but this can vary from 1670 GLin a very dry year to 30 000 GL in one very wet year. 1 The OrdRiver in Western Australia has a long-term average flowof 3980 GL. This can be as low as 1000 GL and as high as12 000 GL. 2These kinds of extremes are in stark contrast to riverssuch as the Thames, the Nile, the Mississippi and theDanube, which have appreciable flow throughout theentire year.This high variability defies prediction. Yet it’s important for usto understand the ways in which this climatic variability bothdominates and constrains our use of land and water. It has playeda huge role in the past and will continue to do so into the future.*A gigalitre is a thousand megalitres or one billion litres. Thevolume of water in Sydney Harbour is approximately 500 gigalitres.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 19

The Big PicturevariabilityANNUAL RAINFALL IN mm3000250020001500100026 inches5000Melbourne88 inches95 inches67 inches48 inches31 inches22 inchesCairns Perth Sydney Darwin Adelaide Queenstown(TAS)SELECTED LOCATIONSCOEFFICIENT (%)20181614121086420Australia S.Africa Germany France NZ India UK Canada China USA RussiaCOUNTRYFigure 2. Rainfall variability in several countries including AustraliaThe height of each bar is a measure of variability. Australia’s variability is twice thatof the UK’s and nearly four times that of Russia.Source: G Love, Impacts of climate variability on regional Australia, paper presented at ABAREOutlook 2005 Conference, Canberra, 2005, Figure 1. Rainfall variation around AustraliaThe extreme nature of this rainfall variability becomes apparent if we compare long-term(80- to 100-year) rainfall records from various places around Australia. A consequenceof this variability is that our streams and rivers display huge variations in their naturalflow rates due to varying amounts of runoff – between winter and summer and alsofrom year to year.Source: Watermark Australia, session notes no. 2, Melbourne, 2005, .REFERENCEs1. W Craik, The drought along the Murray, ABC News Online, 18 December 2006,.2. Water and Rivers Commission Report to Environment Australia, Productivityand water flow regulation in the Ord River of north Western Australia, Department of theEnvironment and Water Resources, 2003, pp. xii–xiv, .3. C Miller, The Snowy River story, ABC Books & Audio, Sydney, 2005, p. 240.Some other useful sources• D Smith, Water in Australia, Oxford University Press, Australia, 1998, ch. 1.• M White, After the greening – the browning of Australia, Kangaroo Press, Sydney, 1994.20 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big PicturerainfallMost of Australia’s rainfall occurs in the north.However, most of our stored surface water is found on the easternside of the continent – on the same side that is currently experiencingsignificant rainfall reduction …But slowly they are routed out, toseek a diminishing water spoutAnd men will die of thirst before,the oceans rise to mount the shore.Then lands will crack and rendanewYou think it strange …it will come true.Mother Shipton,Elder of the Anasazi Indian NationRainfall is a key component in any weathersystem. Australia is a very dry land and rainfallis highly variable between years and acrosslocations. Only now and again do we witnessmajor floods with large areas inundated forweeks and sometimes months.Official rainfall records from weather stationsgo back as far as 1885. When these are sorted,so as to include only those stations with acontinuous data set covering at least 60 years,the analysis shows that, up to 1980, we haveexperienced three pronounced rainfall shifts. 1How much these shifts are due to naturalclimatic variation and how much they reflectthe influence of greenhouse-induced globalwarming is debatable.Whatever the case, these rainfall records revealthat, while the extent of year-to-year variationhas not changed much, the volume of rainwaterfalling in various regions has been decliningsteadily, particularly during the last 40 to 50 years.The 20-year rainfall trend shown forRockhampton in Figure 5, is now evidentin many locations along the eastern seaboardof Australia. 2Analysis of rainfall records since 1900for the whole country puts all of thisinto perspective. It’s clear that large partsof the continent are drying out.In some places the change in rainfall hasbeen very sudden. For example, during thepast 30 years Perth has experienced a declinein average annual rainfall, resulting in anaverage that is 15% lower than that recordedfor the preceding 100 years. This decrease maynot seem all that significant. However, becausevegetation and soil take up the falling rain first,and what remains flows into rivers and streams,the 15% rainfall decrease resulted in a 50% fallin average flows into the city’s water storages. 3As shown in Figure 4, when the same sort ofanalysis is carried out for a number of locationsin Victoria, a similar pattern emerges.Lucid and compelling,70 years ago …With what adoration shouldwe contemplate rain and ourcities’ watersheds. They giveus our life. We should takeoff our shoes as we pass bythem, for the place whereonwe tread is holy ground.AO Barrett, Australia’s entail, reviewed inthe Teachers’ Journal, 20 September 1937,p. 393.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 21

The Big Picturerainfall50.040.030.020.015.010.05.00.0-5.0-10.0-15.0-20.0-30.0-40.0-50.050.040.030.020.015.010.05.00.0-5.0-10.0-15.0-20.0-30.0-40.0-50.0Figure 1. Rainfall trend maps for Australia since 1900These four maps show the trend in annual total rainfall acrossAustralia for different time intervals beginning from 1900.Map 1 covers 105 years; map 2 covers 95 years; map 3 covers55 years; and map 4 covers 35 years.In Map 1, all areas of Australia received average or aboveaverage rainfall. Map 2 shows the increasing rainfall occurringover northwestern Australia. Maps 3 and 4 show the decline inrainfall over eastern Australia – in some parts rainfall has fallento well below average.Source: Bureau of Meteorology, Rainfall trend maps, BOM,Melbourne, .Map 1. Trend in Annual Total Rainfall1900–2005 (mm/10yrs)50.040.030.020.015.010.05.00.0-5.0-10.0-15.0-20.0-30.0-40.0-50.0Map 2. Trend in Annual Total Rainfall1910–2005 (mm/10yrs)50.040.030.020.015.010.05.00.0-5.0-10.0-15.0-20.0-30.0-40.0-50.0Map 3. Trend in Annual Total Rainfall1950–2005 (mm/10yrs)Map 4. Trend in Annual Total Rainfall1970–2005 (mm/10yrs)22 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big PicturerainfallCHANGE Change IN MEAN in mean ANNUAL annual runoff RUNOFF (%) (%)100-10-20-30-40-50Upper Murray RiverKiewa RiverOvens RiverBroken RiverGoulburn RiverCampaspe RiverLoddon RiverAvoca RiverMalleeWimmera-Avon RiversEast GippslandSnowy River (VIC)Tambo RiverMitchell RiverThomson RiverRIVER SYSTEMFigure 2. Predicted changes in mean annual runoff into the major riversystems in Victoria by 2030Latrobe RiverSouth GippslandBunyip RiverYarra RiverMaribynong RiverWerribee RiverMoorabool RiverBarwon RiverLake CorangamiteOtway CoastHopkins RiverPortland CoastGlenelg RiverMillicent CoastThe fatter bars illustrate the predicted change in water runoff. For example, in the case of theGoulburn River, runoff is predicted to decline by at least 3% to 4%, and possibly by as muchas 18%. The thin lines at the top and bottom of these fat bars illustrate the probability of thepredicted change. A short line suggests high probability. Longer lines indicate a lesser probability.Again, in the case of the Goulburn River, the 3% to 4% decline is highly likely. It is much less likelythat it would be 18%, although this is still a possibility.A substantial decline in surface-water runoff is predicted for 28 out of 29 of Victoria’s majorsurface-water management areas. Annual water runoff into these river systems will be between1% and 40% lower than it currently is.Source: Department of Sustainability and Environment, State water report, 2004–2005:A statement of Victorian water resources, DSE, Melbourne, 2006, .TOTAL ANNUAL INFLOW (GL)10009008007006005004003002001000191119151919192319271931193519391943194719511955YEAR1959Inflow 1911 to 1974 (338 GL) 1975 to 2002 (164 GL) 1997 to 2002 (115 GL)Note: A year is taken as May to April and labelled year is the start (winter) of yearFigure 3. The pattern of annual water flow into Perth’s dams between 1911and 2003In 1974, Perth experienced a sudden and sustained change in rainfall, resulting in the storedwater supply falling by about 50%. Between 1911 and 1974 the average annual volume was338 GL. Between 1975 and 1996 it was 177 GL. From 1997 to 2004 the volume had droppedto 115 GL.Source: Indian Ocean Climate Initiative Panel, Climate variability and change in south WesternAustralia, IOCI, East Perth, WA, 2002, p. 34, .1963196719711975197919831987199119951999Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 23

The Big PicturerainfallAnnual Flow GrowthLong term annual averge flow and drought period OF averageannual flow for 1997–2003Wimmera River at Glynwyth (Period of Record: 1946 to 2003)Annual Flow GrowthLong term annual averge flow and drought periOD of averageannual flow for 1997–2003Loddon River at Vaughan (Period of Record: 1946 to 2003)ANNUAL FLOW (megalitres)ANNUAL FLOW (megalitres)250,000200,000150,000100,00050,000Annual FlowLong term annual average - Whole period of recordDrought annual average Jan 1997 to Dec 200365,200 MLANNUAL FLOW (megalitres)ANNUAL FLOW (megalitres)120,00090,00060,00030,000Annual FlowLong term annual average - Whole period of recordDrought annual average Jan 1997 to Dec 200339,000 ML14,200 ML13,100 ML19471949195119531955195719591961196319651967196919711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003YEARS1948195019521954195619581960196219641966196819701972197419761978198019821984YEARSYEARS198619881990199219941996199820002002Figure 4. Recent changes in the pattern of yearly streamflow for four towns in VictoriaComputer-generated mathematical models that can predict Source: Department of Sustainability and Environment, State waterthe climate response to global warming indicate that partsreport, 2004–2005: A statement of Victorian water resources, DSE,of the continent will experience less rain and more variable Melbourne, 2006,.patterns of rainfall. This resetting of rainfall is expected to startin Western Australia and, over time, spread across the southernpart of the mainland.Towns 1 and 2: Glynwyth and Vaughan24 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big PicturerainfallAnnual Flow GrowthLong term annual averge flow and drought periOD of averageannual flow for 1997–2003Werribee River at Ballan (Period of Record: 1973 to 2003)Annual Flow GrowthLong term annual averge flow and drought perIOD of averageannual flow for 1997–2003Moorabool River at Batesford (Period of Record: 1959 to 2003)50,00040,000Annual FlowLong term annual average - Whole period of recordDrought annual average Jan 1997 to Dec 2003200,000160,000Annual FlowLong term annual average - Whole period of recordDrought annual average Jan 1997 to Dec 2003ANNUAL FLOW (megalitres)30,00020,00010,00018,100 ML6,860 MLANNUAL FLOW (megalitres)ANNUAL FLOW (megalitres)120,00080,00040,00062,400 ML9,250 ML1974197519761977197819791980198119821983198419851986198719881989199019911992199319941995199619971998199920002001200220031960196219641966196819701972197419761978198019821984198619881990199219941996199820002002YEARSYEARSYEARSTowns 3 and 4: Ballan and BatesfordVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 25

The Big Picturerainfall1125107520–year mean1025975mm925875825775725189018961902190819141920192619321938194 4Figure 5. Rainfall record for the city of Rockhampton, QueenslandThe long-term trend in average rainfall over the last 100 years for the city ofRockhampton, Queensland. This trend is now evident in many locations along theeastern seaboard of Australia.Source: .Years19501956196219681974198019861992199820 year meanREFERENCEs1. B Vives & RN Jones, Detection of abrupt changes in Australian decadal rainfall (1890–1989),CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, Research Technical Paper no. 73, 2005, p. 35.2. R Miles & KN Purnell, ‘Climate change: How real is it, the issues and implications?’ GeographicalEducation, vol. 18, pp. 32-54, CQU, Rockhampton, 2005.3. Indian Ocean Climate Initiative Panel, Climate variability and change in south west WesternAustralia, IOCI, Perth, 2002, p. 34, .Some other useful sources• Indian Ocean Climate Initiative – Bulletins and Publications, .• Bureau of Meteorology – climate education, .• B Vives & RN Jones Detection of abrupt changes in Australian decadal rainfall (1890-1989),CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Research Technical Paper no. 73, CSIRO, Aspendale, 2005, pp. 1–54.26 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturesurface waterFor most of Australia, our main source of fresh wateris surface water and this is found in large dams and weirs. Right now, thesesupplies are under great pressure. Future supply is predicted to decline …Do you know in the past 20 yearswe have doubled the amount ofwater we have pulled out of ourrivers, our surface water, forirrigation, and trebled the amountwe’ve pulled out of the ground forirrigation? So it’s a bit like theold 6 o’clock swill when the pubsclosed at 6 o’clock, and just as theminute hand was getting to the 12everyone would order more roundsof drinks because they wanted tobelt them down before the publicansaid ‘Time gentlemen please’.Malcolm Turnbull, speech to the SydneyInstitute, 28 August 2006Australia is the lowest continent in the worldwith an average height of only 330 m abovesea level. This flatness means that after rainfalls its passage into rivers and streams isvery slow, and all the while it is evaporating.The majority of Australia’s rainfall is returnedto the atmosphere through evaporation, leavingonly about 12% as surface runoff. 1 Our mainsources of fresh water are surface water (fromrivers and lakes) and groundwater. About73% of the fresh water used across Australia(approximately 24 000 GL) is supplied by rivers.In 1996–97, this amounted to a total of19 109 GL. Surface water is the major sourceof fresh water in all jurisdictions exceptWestern Australia and the Northern Territory. 2In an average year, a lot of rain fallson Australia – in fact more than 3million billion litres! 3 But much ofit falls in places where it can’t runinto rivers and most of it evaporates.Some makes its way into vast naturalunderground storages called aquifers.The surface-water story becomes evenmore complex when we consider the spatialdistribution of this rainfall with respect toAustralia’s drainage divisions. There are 12of these. The largest is Lake Eyre, an area of1.0% 0.4%1.7%20.3%Figure 1. Australia’s 12 drainage divisions0%approximately 1 152 000 km 2 covering muchof South Australia, Western Australia and thecentral part of the Northern Territory. Thesmallest division (Bulloo-Bancannia) is an areaof nearly 98 000 km 2 in far western NSW.There is wide variation amongst the drainage divisions with regard to their physical characteristics,local climates and the volume of rain that falls on each one in an average year. The number writtenover each drainage division indicates the percentage of Australia’s total rainfall that runs into that area.1.9%23.3%13.3%6.1%21.1%0.3%10.6%Source: National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian water resources assessment 2000, NLWRA,Canberra, 2001, p. 24.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 27

The Big Picturesurface waterFive of the 11 mainland drainage divisions haverunoff rates of less than 2%. 4 Surface waterrunoff exceeds 20% in only two monsoonaldrainage systems adjacent to the Timor Seaand the Gulf of Carpentaria.large-capacity waterstoragesFor the past 100 or so years, water managementpractices in this country have tried to addressthe consequences of our rainfall variability bycapturing and storing surface water in almost500 large dams. 5A consequence of the construction of thislarge water-storage capacity is that manyof Australia’s major river systems are nowregulated, i.e. the natural seasonal flowpatterns have been reversed.These water storages have been strategicallyplaced in high-yield catchments to minimisethe cost of moving water to users. For instance,when full, the Hume Dam on the Murray Riverat Albury stores a volume of water six timesthat of Sydney Harbour. 6 Throughout theMurray-Darling Basin, which produces 41%of Australia’s total farm output, 28 majordams and weirs have been built.In Victoria alone, dam capacity increased from1 million ML in the 1920s to nearly 12 millionML today, representing a twelve-fold increaseover 80 years. 7It’s worth noting that the extraordinary period ofeconomic and population growth that took placeafter WW II occurred during decades in whichrainfall was generally higher than the long-termaverage. (This was in contrast to the decades from1900 to 1940, which were relatively dry.) Today’swater allocations, and our current expectations ofwater availability, are based upon the post-WW IIrainfall pattterns.It’s possible that we’re now entering anotherprolonged dry period as we experience the effectsof climate change. It’s imperative that we takeaccount of predictions of reduced rainfall andposition ourselves accordingly.Our water storage capacity is put to the testduring prolonged dry periods. As we are probablyall aware by now, the current declared droughthas resulted in a significant decline in surfacewater runoff across most of mainland Australiaduring the past six to 10 years. As water levelshave dropped in the major water storagessupplying our cities, water restrictions havebeen introduced, and progressively increased.At the end of December 2006, waterrestrictions applied in 28 out of 32cities across Australia with a populationof greater than 50 000 people. A totalof 15 602 000 people were on Stage 3or Stage 4 restrictions. This represents71% of the Australian population.Rainfall predictions suggest the current declareddrought will break. There may yet be enoughrainfall to refill these dams. However, rainfallpredictions do not take account of the climatechange that now seems to be underway. If loweraverage rainfall as a result of climate changecomes about as predicted, the rate at which thesedams fill will be slower. There are two importantunknowns here. How many years will passbefore these dams fill again (indeed, if they evercompletely do)? And what happens if anotherperiod of drought occurs in the short term?small farm damsIn addition to these major water storages, thereare millions of small dams across Australia(many on ‘hobby farms’) which together hold anestimated 9% of all stored surface water. 8 Forexample, in the Gellibrand Catchment, west ofMelbourne, it is estimated there are some 56 000small dams. 9Small farm dams have two major impacts uponthe hydrology of a catchment area. They trapan appreciable amount of water that wouldotherwise enter major waterways and, becauseof their relative shallowness, evaporation ratesare usually high. With evaporation, water whichcould be used on land goes back as vapour intothe atmosphere. When evaporation is high, morewater is lost from the land surface.Evaporation is measured by leaving a calibratedtray or pan exposed and measuring how muchthe water level falls over, for example, a week.This loss is the ‘pan evaporation’ rate and thisrate varies from place to place. Evaporation ratesacross Australia are shown in Figure 4 on page30. The evaporation rate from small farm damsis often almost the same as the pan evaporationrate because the relative shallowness of smallfarm dams means that the surface water warmsup more quickly than water in major storages. Inthe Mallee region of Victoria, a 20 m 2 dam canlose 500 000 L to evaporation in a single year.A 50 m 2 dam can lose 3 million L over the sameperiod. 10In the past, farmers were encouraged to buildsmall dams to ‘drought-proof’ their properties.However, because small dams actually reducethe amount of surface water reaching riversand streams, many municipalities now requirelandowners to apply for a planning permitbefore establishing a dam. In the future, insome catchments farm dams may have to bedecommissioned so that downstream users canobtain water. 11Our water demand increasesDespite the fact that our large storages are nowunder extreme pressure, our use of surface waterhas increased across all sectors: in agriculture, inindustry and in cities and towns.Between 1983 and 1984 and 1995 and1996, surface-water use increased from12 008 GL to 19 109 GL – an increase of59%. Water extracted for irrigation in thisperiod increased by 76%, while urban andindustrial use increased by 55%. 12In NSW, Victoria and South Australia, surfacewaterextraction is either close to, or exceeds,extraction limits. In other words, more licenceshave been issued or allocated than there is waterto supply based on the calculation of surfacewater runoff in average rainfall years. 1328 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturesurface waterFigure 2. The status of surface-water use across Australia in 2000Water in rivers is managed on the basisof surface-water management areas.Approximately a quarter (26%) of Australia’ssurface-water management areas are eitherclose to, or exceed, the sustainable flow regime.Most of the rivers in the NSW portion of theMurray-Darling Basin, the rivers in the west ofVictoria and on the eastern side of St VincentGulf in South Australia are over-allocated; thetotal volume of water that has been approvedfor removal exceeds the average annual flow ofthese rivers.In Victoria, most of the rivers north of the GreatDividing Range which flow to the Murray Riverare fully allocated. The volumes of water beingremoved from the rivers in the Queenslandportion of the Murray-Darling Basin and therivers north of the Basin, from Charleville toTownsville as well as those to the northeast ofAdelaide, are allocated at up to at least 70% ofsustainable yields.With such high allocations and extended periodsof very dry conditions, natural flows can dropso low that the rivers and streams struggle tosustain aquatic ecosystems.The shading on the map indicates the extentof allocation.Over developed, greater than 100%Fully developed, 100%High, 70–100%Medium, 32–70%Low, less than 32%Note: While figure 2 provides a useful snapshotof surface-water use, some caution is needed.It would appear that allocations for Queenslandare grossly underestimated. The rivers aroundBrisbane, in the Condamine area, are all eitherfully allocated or over-allocated.Source: Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering, Water recycling inAustralia, special report, ATSE, Melbourne, 2004,ch. 1, p. 3.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 29

The Big Picturesurface waterNUMBER OF DAMS9080706050403020100185018601870188018901900191019201930Years1940195019601970198019902000after2000200CarnarvonGeraldtonPortHedlandNewmanBroomeWiluna2400PERTH1800 200016001200 1400Albany0 200 400 600 800 kmKalumburuTelfer400028003600 Giles3200Kalgoorlie-BoulderEsperanceDARWINHalls Creek2800CookKatherine32003600TennantCreekAlice SpringsCeduna2400PortLincolnOodnadattaWeipaKowanyamaNormantonMount IsaBirdsville32002000CairnsLongreachTownsvilleCharlevilleMarree 2800Bourke2400PortDubboAugusta 2000Mildura 1800ADELAIDE1600CANBERRAHorsham1400 1200MELBOURNEWarnamboolCape Grim1000StrahanOrbostSt. HelensMackayRockhamptonSYDNEYBRISBANETotalevaporation(millimetres)400036003200280024002000180016001400120010000Projection: Lambert conformal withstandard parrallels 10 o S, 40 o SHOBARTFigure 3. Number of large dams built in Australia since 1850The building of large-capacity dams really started after Federation, and by 1990large dams had been built in all states and territories with a total combined storagecapacity of 78 919 400 ML.Source: W Boughton (ed.), A century of water resources development in Australia,1900–1999, the Institute of Engineers, ACT, 1999, p. 21.Figure 4. Evaporation rates around AustraliaEvaporation is an essential component of the global water cycle. Without evaporation,clouds could not form and there would be no rain. There is wide variation in evaporationrates between different parts of Australia. In the map shown, the grey areas have the highestevaporation rates, while in the blue areas evaporation is lowest.Source: Bureau of Meteorology, Evaporation map, BOM, Melbourne, .30 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturesurface water1000052%increase(GL)Water (GL)80006000400039%increase145%increaseTable 1. Distribution of water storage capacity across Australia, as at 1989State/TerritoryTotal Capacity (GL)New South Wales 25 389 30020000New SouthWales43%increaseVictoria Queensland WesternAustralia50%increaseSouthAustraliaState/TerritoryStates and Territories173%increase 173% Change data notavailable for theincreaseACTTasmaniaNorthernTerritoryAustralianCapitalTerritoryTasmania 24 167 000Victoria 12 225 000Queensland 9 459 200Western Australia 7 011 300Northern Territory 275 200South Australia 266 800Figure 5. Change in mean annual surface-water use (in GL) between1983 and 1984, and 1996 and 1997Use of surface water has been increasing across Australia for most of the past 20 years.Use in recent years has only been lower because of the drought conditions.Source: National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian water resources assessment 2000,NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 61.Australian CapitalTerritory124 600TOTAL 78 919 400Source: W Boughton (ed.), A century of water resources development in Australia,1900–1999, The Institute of Engineers, ACT, 1999, p. 22.(These are the most recent figures available.)Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 31

The Big Picturesurface waterWater (GL) (GL)100008000600040002000076% increase57% increase2% increaseIrrigation Urban/Industrial Rural(including rural domestic)Water use sector65% increaseFigure 6. Change in mean annual water use (in GL) in Australia between1983 and 1984, and 1996 and 1997During much of the past two decades, total use of water in Australia has been increasingsteadily. In the mid-term this demand will have to factor in the likelihood of less annual rainfall.Source: National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian water resources assessment2000, NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 57.Total1.2.REFERENCEsNational Land and Water Resources Audit,Australian water resources assessment2000, NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 24.ibid., p. 55.3. B Foran & F Poldy, Future dilemmas –options to 2050 for Australia’s population,technology, resources and environment,CSIRO Resources Futures Working Paper02/01, CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems,CSIRO, Canberra, 2002.4. DI Smith, Water in Australia: resourcesand management, Oxford UniversityPress, Melbourne, 1998.5. W Boughton (ed.), A century of waterresources development in Australia,1900–1999, Institute of Engineers, ACT,1999, pp.1–170.6. Murray-Darling Basin Commission, RiverMurray water – design and operation ofthe Hume Dam, MDBC, Canberra, 2007,.7. W Boughton (ed.), A century of waterresources development in Australia,1900–1999, Institute of Engineers, ACT,1999, app. 3, p. 78.8.National Land and Water Resources Audit,op. cit., p. 27.9.Department of Sustainability andEnvironment, Sustainable water strategy,central region – action to 2055, DSE,Melbourne, 2006, p.15.10. Grampians and Mallee Water, Farmdams – piping it , fact sheet, 2006, .11. K Savadamuthu, Impact of farm damson stream flow in the upper Marnecatchment, Department of WaterResources South Australia, report02/01/003, DWR, Adelaide, 2002.12.13.National Land and Water ResourcesAudit, op.cit., p. 57.National Land and Water ResourcesAudit, Australia’s natural resources:1997–2002 and beyond, NLWRA,Canberra, 2000, p. 37.Some other useful sources• D Smith, Water in Australia, OxfordUniversity Press, Australia, 1998, ch.1.• P Newell, The olive grove, Penguin BooksAustralia, Ringwood, Victoria, 2000.32 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big PicturegroundwaterGroundwater is an important sourceof our fresh water. Right now, in many parts of Australia, groundwateruse is either above or near the capacity of the resourceto renew itself …Australia has been and still is‘mining’ its renewable resources(of groundwater) as if they weremined minerals. That is, they arebeing exploited at rates faster thantheir renewal rates, with the resultthat they are declining.Jarred Diamond, Collapse, Viking Press, 2005,p. 378In some parts of the Basin,groundwater levels are rising atalarming rates, and salinisationand the displacement of salt loadsto the river systems are occurring.It is predicted that these processeswill continue to severely degradethe usefulness of water resourcesin the Basin, in terms of themaintenance of healthy ecosystemsand the provision of water of asuitable quality for irrigation andpotable use.D Ife & K Skelt, Murray-Darling Basin groundwaterstatus: summary report, Murray-Darling BasinCommission, Canberra, 2004, p.10Although it’s less visible than surface water,there is also a large groundwater resourcelying under vast areas of Australia. In the drierand/or more inland parts of the continent, thisis the major source of fresh water used inagriculture, mining and all domestic activitiesapart from human consumption. Approximately21% of the fresh water we use is groundwater. 1Groundwater is accessed by drilling holesand installing pipes (commonly knownas bores) down into underground stratawhich contain or enclose water. Thewater then comes to the surface eitherby pumping or by natural pressure.The link between surface water andgroundwater is crucial. When a new boreis sunk, the water drawn up is the baseflow of the nearest river. Every time welook at surface water – in a lake, streamor river – we are actually looking at a‘window’ into the underlying groundwater.The flatness of our continent assists waterto seep into aquifers, and Australia hasvast underground reserves of such water.When rain falls onto the land it penetratesthe soil. If enough falls, the water seepsdown to a saturated layer called the watertable. In different parts of the country, thewater table is found at varying depths belowthe surface. Essentially, this water is heldwithin layers of porous soils and rock.We have many small aquifers and some verylarge ones. For example, the Great Artesian Basinis one of the largest aquifers in the world. Formedat least 200 million years ago, this multi-layeredaquifer extends from the Gulf of Carpentariato approximately 600 km north of Adelaide.Although the average depth is about 500 m,in some places water is contained to depths of3000 m and it is estimated to contain 8700 GL. 2Water in some aquifers is very old, havingentered the underground system hundreds,and even thousands, of years ago. Water inan aquifer can also be relatively new, enteringby a process called aquifer recharge, wherewater leaks through geological flaws in thebeds of rivers, lakes and the land surface.A lot of recharge occurs during prolongedand extensive flooding. Thus, while largeamounts of water evaporate following aflood, much also seeps down through soiland rock formations to enter aquifers.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 33

The Big PicturegroundwaterA large part of rural and remote Australia is dependent on thesupply of water from aquifers. The cities of Perth and Adelaideare also partly dependent. Each aquifer being used to supplywater is divided into a number of groundwater managementunits. A unit can supply several hundred farming enterprises,a small town or even a mine.Across Australia there are currently 535 such operational unitssupplying thousands of users. Each of these users is licensedto pump a specified amount of water during a prescribed timeof year. 3 Only 14% of these operational units have some or allof their water use metered. 4For decades people were allowed to sink bores into these majoraquifers and leave them flowing continuously. This has resultedin a significant drop in water pressure and, consequently, flowrates. For instance, across the Great Artesian Basin initial flowrates were more than 10 ML per day. These days, flow rates arein the range of 0.01–6 ML per day. 5There is now a national program underway to cap these boresso that water is released only on demand. Funding to completethis program has been included in Prime Minister Howard’srecently released A national plan for water security. 6In a number of places there are so many people pumpingwater (both legally and illegally) that the total volumebeing removed from aquifers is in excess of the volumethat enters by recharge in an average climate year.In such a situation, the aquifer is described as being‘over-allocated’.A national assessment of Australia’s water resources in 2000indicated that 161 of the 535 groundwater management unitswere either nearly fully allocated or over-allocated. 7In our two biggest food-producing areas, the Murray-DarlingBasin and the Great Artesian Basin, the known allocationsof water already exceed the volumes of water that can bepumped on a sustainable basis.As with surface water, the use of groundwater has increaseddramatically since the early 1980s. In 1983–84 total groundwateruse was 2634 GL. In just over a decade, this rose to 4962 GL – anincrease of 88%. 8 It’s now also known that, in areas of certaingeomorphology, aquifers and rivers are linked so that if too muchwater is removed from the aquifer, available water in the river alsodecreases. Conversely, if too much water is pumped from the river,the recharge of the aquifer diminishes. 9What we must also take account of is that the adverse effectsof excessive groundwater pumping on stream flow can accumulateover a long period. A recent report to the Federal Governmentpresented case studies from the USA and China which show thatthe full effects of excessive groundwater pumping were not felt forseveral decades. 10STATEIrrigationThere is no free lunch here. It’s very simple– every litre of water you pump out ofthe ground reduces river flow by the sameamount.Dr Richard Evans, principal hydrogeologist, Sinclair Knight Merz,Australian Financial Review, 24 May 2007, p. 10Table 1. Mean annual groundwater use (GL) by different use categories in all states and territoriesUrban/IndustrialRural In situ Total (GL)New South Wales 643 160 205 0 1008Victoria 431 127 54 10 622Queensland 816 265 541 0 1622Western Australia 280 821 37 0 1138South Australia 354 23 42 24 419Tasmania 9 7 4 0 20Northern Territory 47 48 33 0 128Australian Capital Territory 2 0 3 0 5TOTAL 2582 1451 919 34 4962In most parts of the mainland, groundwater use is regulated through licensing. It is a major source of water for muchof rural Australia and is also used in manufacturing and most household activities (apart from drinking).Source: National Land and Water Resources Audit, Canberra, Australian water resources assessment 2000, NLWRA,Canberra, 2001, p. 58.34 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big PicturegroundwaterDoes anyone have any idea what percentage of rainfall,if any, is added to the store of groundwater? It does seemthat the ground is so dry that there is little chance ofany rainfall penetrating more than a few inches. To keepdrawing on this water without any measure of whether itis being replaced, even partially, seems very short-sighted.Castlemaine/Campbells Creek Watermark groupFigure 1. Major groundwater resources in AustraliaSome of the fresh water that falls onto theland, and some of the fresh water flowing inrivers, can pass through geological strata andeventually accumulate in underground aquifers.This process has been going on in parts ofAustralia for millenia. By measuring the rateat which this water naturally accumulatesin an aquifer, it’s possible to calculate the rateat which water can be pumped from an aquiferon a sustainable basis.Our groundwater resources are not as welldefined as surface water resources, nor is theirmanagement as sophisticated. With a numberof aquifers, excessive pumping is a majorproblem. There is national concern about theextent of groundwater removal from the GreatArtesian Basin. The Basin has 535 groundwatermanagement units and in 57 of these(approximately 10%) the rate of water removalexceeds the calculated sustainable yield. Foranother 104 groundwater management units(approximately 20%) the rate of water removalis 70–100% of the sustainable yield.The map indicates four scenarios faced by the major aquifers across the country with theshading indicating the extent of groundwater allocation.Greater than 100% (i.e. more groundwateris being removed than the natural rate ofrecharge)Between 80% and 100%Between 30% and 70%Less than 30%Source: Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering, Water recycling inAustralia, special report, ATSE, Melbourne, 2004,ch. 1, p. 3, .Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 35

The Big PicturegroundwaterWATER (GL) (GL)150010005000217%increaseNew SouthWales202%increase45%increase205%increaseVictoria Queensland WesternAustralia22%increaseSouthAustraliaSTATE/TERRITORY122%increaseTasmania97%increaseNorthernTerritoryFigure 2. Change in mean annual groundwater use (in GL) in all states andterritories between 1983 and 1984, and 1996 and 1997Across Australia, since the 1980s there has been a dramatic increase in the amount ofgroundwater being pumped each year.AustralianCapitalTerritorySource: National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian water resources assessment 2000,NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 64.Image 1. Water running out of anuncapped boreGroundwater is used extensively acrossAustralia. It’s essential for watering livestock andsupplying farmhouses and many small industriesin rural towns. In an uncapped bore, waterrises to the land surface under pressure andruns out of the bore and into a trough or tank.Because these bores are either not fitted withclosing valves or have valves that can no longerbe closed off, the water runs continuouslyand a lot of it evaporates. Some bores havebeen allowed to flow in this way for decades.A national program is now being implementedto cap all bores in the Great Artesian Basin.Source: Environment Protection AuthorityQueensland, State of the environment 2003, EPAQ,Brisbane, 2004, p. 56, REFERENCEs1. National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian water resources assessment 2000,NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 55.2. Natural Resources and Water, How is artesian water being wasted?, NRW, Brisbane, 2004, p.1,.3. Murray-Darling Basin Commission, Groundwater resources, 2004, MDBC, Canberra, 2004,pp.1–5,.4.5.National Land and Water Resources Audit, op. cit., p. 64.Natural Resources and Water website, op. cit., p. 2.6. J Howard, A national plan for water security, 2007, pp. 20–1, .7.8.National Land and Water Resources Audit, op.cit., pp. 73-6.ibid., p. 65.9. Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Integrated groundwater – surface watermanagement, Issue paper no. 12004, DEH, Canberra, 2004.10. R Evans, The effects of ground water pumping on stream flow in Australia, technical report toLand and Water Australia, 2007.Some other useful sources• M Price, Introducing groundwater, 2nd edn., Chapman and Hill, South Melbourne, 1996.36 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureforests & firesThere is a crucial interrelationship betweenour native forests (and, in time, plantations), water uptake andfire. In heavily forested areas of Australia, this may have majorimpacts upon our future water supplies to farmers andpopulation centres …The reality is, that if you look at Australia,the amount of land that receives over 600 mmof rainfall, that’s in a temperate zone andthat’s reasonably flat, is probably only equalto a country half the size of England. It’s awell-intentioned drive to plant more trees inAustralia and replace imports and so on, butour available arable land is so very scarce thatwhat’s happening seems almost irresponsible.Then we’ve got all the steep land, the erodedland, the salty land that doesn’t have a tree onit. Looking back in 30 years this [plantationmania] is not going to look all that clever.Terry Buckley, Mt Gambier potato farmer, ‘Treechange’, ABC TV Fourcorners program, 9 April 2007Studies have shown water uptake by MountainAsh regrowth, following bushfire or logging,can reduce water yield in disturbed areas by50% of pre-disturbance runoff rates, some25 to 30 years after a bushfire. The impacton water yield is most pronounced in droughtyears when stream flow can be significantlycompromised due to greater uptake of waterby regrowth trees.Melbourne Water submission to Victorian Bushfire Inquiry,May 2003All vegetation needs water to grow and trees are no exception.During the life of a typical tree (many can live for hundreds ofyears), water uptake is highest for the first 30 or so years. Wateris drawn from the soil by a tree’s roots, transported up throughthe trunk and branches to the leaves, from where a lot of itevaporates. This process is called transpiration.In a forest this component of the water cycle occurs continuously,detracting from the runoff of surface water into the rivers andstreams of a catchment area. If about 1000 mm of rain falls inan average year, about 150 mm may never reach the ground,being held on all the leaves in the forest canopy. The rest of therain will land on the soil, but another 750 mm will be removed bytranspiration. Only 100 mm will be available to move across andthrough the soil to enter the streams that drain the catchment.This water uptake by growing trees can reduce the amount ofsurface water that reaches the watercourses flowing throughthe catchment. Studies have shown that in growing trees, wateruptake from the catchment is maximal, at a rate of 5–6 ML perhectare for the first 20 to 25 years. 1 While the amount of waterbeing taken up by the trees drops off as they mature, a degree ofwater uptake continues for between 25 and 50 years, dependingon the eucalypt species. 2Eucalypt trees are very fire prone because of the high oil contentin the leaves. After fire, a regrowing forest begins this wateruptakeprocess again and vast amounts of water can be takenup, especially during the first 25 years.Trees have a long growing cycle, more foliage and deeperroots than pasture and crops. As a result, water runofffrom forested catchments is generally lower than fromcatchments supporting other land uses. 3Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 37

The Big Pictureforests & firesThe forest resourceAustralia has about 164 million ha of nativeforest, including rainforest. Most of the trees areon Crown land. Commercial forestry is permittedon about 11.4 million ha of this Crown land andis concentrated in Western Australia, Victoria,Tasmania and New South Wales. Another1.7 million ha of commercial trees are locatedin plantations. 4 Commercial timber harvestingon Crown land is carried out under 20-yearRegional Forestry Agreements between eachstate government and the Commonwealthof Australia. 5The forest industries are Australia’s secondbiggestmanufacturing sector, contributingabout only 1% to GDP and about 7% ofmanufacturing output. 6 Forest industries alsoFigure 1. Changes in area plantedto softwoods and hardwoods,1994–2004Since 1994 there has been significantchange in the composition of treeplantations across Australia. Whilethe planting of pines (softwood) hasremained fairly steady, there has beena major increase in the area of landplanted to eucalypt (hardwood) species.This has been occurring in those partsof Australia with the most reliablerainfall.Source: Department of AgricultureFisheries and Forestry – Bureau of RuralSciences, National plantation inventoryAustralia, 2006 Update, p. 1.1,800,0001,600,0001,400,0001,200,000AREA (ha)1,000,000800,000600,000400,000200,0000provide direct employment for approximately80 000 people. 7 This employment is widelydispersed, with employment in many smallcommunities critically dependent upon loggingcontracts, haulage, and jobs in around athousand local saw mills, manufacturingplants and paper mills.The move to aregulated industryCommercial harvesting of native timber waswell established in NSW as early as 1820.Port facilities had been constructed in SydneyHarbour, the floodplains of the Parramatta andLane Cove rivers were littered with farms and,as settlers continued to spread out and clearland, ancient stands of red cedar trees wereHardwoodSoftwood1994 1995 1996discovered. Each summer these trees were felledby groups of timber cutters, and cedar becameone of the young colony’s first export products. 8For more than a century, extensive commercialtimber harvesting was a feature of Australia’sdevelopment. Timber was produced for buildingand construction, for railways, ports, roads andmines as well as furniture, paper products andpackaging. During this time, state governmentsintroduced legislation and regulation tomanage logging in each jurisdiction.Today’s forest industry is highly regulated.Most harvesting of native forests is carried outon Crown land in upper catchment areas. Areaswith commercial trees are usually harvestedusing a method called clear-felling, so that mostof the suitable trees are felled at one time. Some1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003Yearstime after the sawlogs have been removed, theresidual material is burned and, after rain, theeucalypt seeds germinate. Seedlings are allowedto grow into mature trees which will be harvestedabout 80 years later. 9 Not all forest management,however, observes this rotation interval.Logging is not allowed on steep slopes orclose to the edge of streams. Mature treesthat provide seed for forest regeneration, andalso shelters and nesting sites for wildlife, arepreserved. These regulations are in place toensure that disturbed soil is not washed intothe watercourses of the upper catchment andthat logging impacts upon native fauna aremoderated. Loggers operate under contractswith state governments and their operationsmust comply with prescribed codes of practice.Plantations & farm forestryCommercial timber can be grown either onCrown land or on private land in plantations.Although trees have been grown in plantationsin Australia for about 100 years, there has beena major expansion in the past 10 years, withthe conversion of productive farmland to treeplantations on a large scale.Driving this development was the 2020 VisionStatement, released by the then deputy primeminister, John Anderson, in 1997. This statementproposed that: ‘Plantations have the potentialto be of significant benefit to the naturalenvironment, and a sustainable and viableland use in regional Australia. Commonwealth,state and territory governments have in placea set of national principles for the sustainablemanagement of plantations, providing aframework for environmental, socio-economic38 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureforests & firesand cultural issues to be addressed in the context of plantationestablishment and management.’ 10 Significantly, the issues of water useand water balance are mentioned in passing only twice in the document.Today there are three plantation types: softwood (pine), hardwood(eucalypt), and ‘exotic’ timbers (mixed species). All up, plantations(mainly softwood and hardwood) now cover about 1.7 million ha(or around 3%) of Australia’s agricultural land. Current governmentpolicy settings, incentive schemes and taxation arrangementsare aimed at reaching a target of 3 million ha by 2020. 11Pine plantations (softwood plantations) are now a featureof landscapes in the southeast of the mainland. Large-scaleplantations have been established, mainly on Crown land.The volume of production and developments in the chemicaltreatment of the timber means it can be used for a wide rangeof requirements in building and flooring, as structural andfurnishing timber and as packaging. Furthermore, this producthas, in many cases, substituted the use of native forest timbers.Eucalypt plantations (hardwood plantations) account formost of the current expansion. In the last 10 years nearly700 000 ha of new hardwood plantations (41% of the totalplantation area) were established. 12 In 2004–05 alone, over53 000 ha of new eucalypt plantations were planted. 13Plantation eucalypts are usually harvested at around 12 to15 years and converted to woodchips for export. Plantationsof exotic timbers are small scale, long term and high value,aiming to produce timber for furniture products.In the areas where most plantation eucalypts are being established,the young trees have an appreciable water requirement of about1–2 ML per hectare per year. 14 However, in contrast to nativeforests where water uptake from the catchment decreases astrees age, water demand by plantation eucalypts never dropsbecause the short rotation of the plantation cycle means thatthe trees are always young and vigorously growing. 15The scale of recent eucalypt plantings on private land is nowattracting attention in rural communities. Serious concerns arenow being expressed about the additional water demand created byplantations and the capacity of catchments to meet this demand. 16In addition, this conversion results in the removal of money fromlocal economies. For instance, a study has shown that for every10 000 ha of dairy farms that were converted to plantationsunder managed investment schemes, $361 million wasremoved from local economies over a period of 11 years. 17Forests & fireOver millennia, Indigenous Australians used fire as a tool tomanage grasslands, forests and fauna. European settlers, fearfulof fire, had to learn to live with naturally occurring bushfires.The modern-day response to bushfires is a sophisticatedone, with the goals of protecting life, property and watercatchments. We’re accustomed to seeing television imagesof helicopters dropping water bombs on fire fronts and firecrews quelling spot fires with hoses. Depending upon thecircumstances, the fire may be suppressed or merely contained.We’re also familiar with the response of the bush to a big fire.Immediately following the fire, tree trunks and the land surfaceare blackened. No animals or insects are to be seen and there isa distinctive acrid smell. A few weeks later, green shoots emergeout of the main trunks and branches; a good indicator of whichtrees have survived. New green shoots emerge from the soil and,as soon as it rains, the vegetation bursts into life again. Three to fouryears later the bush looks green again, the insects have returned, thebirds have followed them and native animals are once again visible.What we can’t see is the longer-term impact that thefire will have upon the hydrology of the catchment.When rain falls on a forest soon after a bushfire, surface waterrunoff actually increases for a short period of time. There mayeven be a serious flood because the trees have no canopy, sothere are no leaves to absorb water and very little transpiration.As the new growth begins, leaf density in the canopy explodes,transpiration rises and surface water runoff lessens.Table 1. Areas burnt by major fire in Victoria,1939–2007YEARAREA (ha)1939 2 million ha1983 486 000 ha2003 1 300 000 ha2006–07 1 238 000 haThe fire of 1939 in Victoria destroyed a forested areaequivalent to nearly one-third the area of Tasmania. Thethree major Victorian fires since 1983 have destroyedmore forest area than the fire of 1939.Subsequent regrowth of these forest areas is nowplacing high water demand on catchments. This willcontinue for several decades to come. Future fires willimpose additional demands. Climate change predictionsof hotter summers and drier catchments point toincreased fire risk.Source: Victorian Department of Sustainability andEnvironment, Significant fire years, .Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 39

The Big Pictureforests & firespost-fire effectsThe water-demand effect often peaks 30 years after the fire,although it can sometimes last for up to 70 years. The long-termeffects upon water supply can be huge, especially when a verylarge area of forest is destroyed.For example, the 1939 fires in Victoria resulted in the destructionof nearly 2 million ha of forests. The water required for thenatural regeneration and regrowth of these forests meant thatless surface water was available for agriculture and industries inrural areas. Apart from the reduction in surface water to supportthese activities, Melbourne’s water supply was also affected.Some of the forests in Melbourne’s water catchments were alsodestroyed by the 1939 fires. The authorities were able to quantifythe resultant shortfall in surface-water runoff into Melbourne’swater storages. This shortfall was a staggering 6 000 000 L peryear for every hectare of forest. This deficit was experienced everyyear for the next 30 years.On 25 December, 2001, lightning strikes sparked a seriesof fires in several of Sydney’s water catchments. Thesefires burned for several weeks and 225 000 ha of forestedareas were blackened. Water supply from the NattaiCatchment has subsequently been reduced by 50%. 18Predictions of the impact of global warming upon southernAustralia include a rise in average daily temperatures, more hotterdays and drier catchments. If this eventuates, we will experiencemore frequent fires and larger areas within catchments willbe burned. This will result in water runoff in these catchmentsdeclining further. In addition, rainfall over many of thesecatchments is also predicted to decline. The shortfall in surfacewaterrunoff due to fire effects and subsequent revegetation willbecome an even greater constraint on the overall availability of water.1.REFERENCEsG Kuczera, ‘Prediction of water yield reductions followinga bushfire in ash-mixed species eucalypt forest’, Journal ofHydrology, vol. 94, 1985, pp. 215–36.2. National Groundwater Committee, Impacts of land usechange on groundwater resources, Issues paper no. 3, DEH,2004, pp. 1–4.3. RJ Keenan, A Gerrand & M Parsons, Science for decisionmakers: plantations and water - plantation impacts onstreamflow, Bureau of Rural Sciences, Barton, ACT, 2006, p.1, .4. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, How doesAustralia’s forest management compare with the rest of theworld?, fact sheet, DAFF, Canberra, 2006, .5. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Regionalforest agreements, fact sheet, DAFF, Canberra, 2007, .6. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Australianforest industries, fact sheet, DAFF, Canberra, 2006, p. 1,.7.ibid., p. 1.8. A Harris, 1847, reprinted in Settlers and convicts, MelbourneUniversity Press, 1995, ch. 5.9. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Leadbeater’spossum, DSE Melbourne, 2006, pp. 2–3.10. Private Forestry Consultative Committee 1997, Plantationsfor Australia: the 2020 vision, p. 3.11.ibid., pp. 1-24.12. M Parson, M Gavran & A Gerrand, National plantationinventory – 2004 update, DAFF, Canberra, 2006, p. 2, .13. M Parson, M Gavran & A Gerrand, National plantationinventory – 2005 update, DAFF, Canberra, 2006, p. 3, .14.op. cit., p. 4, .15. RJ Keenan, A Gerrand & M Parsons, Science for decisionmakers: Plantations and water - plantation impacts onstreamflow, Bureau of Rural Sciences, Barton, ACT, 2006,p. 1, .16. The Wilderness Society, Forest practices are threateningLaunceston’s water supply, TWS, Hobart, 2004, pp. 1–4,.17. D Cornish, MS&A submission to Treasury Inquiry, Proposedtaxation arrangements for investment in forestry managedinvestment schemes (MIS), 2005, pp. 14-15.18. C Chafers, Wildfire, catchment health and water quality:a review of knowledge derived from research undertakenin Sydney’s water supply catchments 2002–2007, ewaterCooperative Research Centre, Canberra, 2007.Some other useful sources• B Lyons, All Gunns blazing: J and T Gunn and thedevelopment of Launceston 1871–1997, 1990.40 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturesevere droughtOur current experience of very dry conditionsfor many years now, and over so much of eastern Australia, may beanother drought – or it may be something more ominous …As the drought continued, prayerwas abandoned and more devilishsteps adopted. Finally soldierswith rifles marched to the topsof the hills and began shootingat passing clouds.Laurie Lee, Cider with Rosie, Longman’s PublishingGroup, London and New York, 1959Periodic droughts are an enduring feature of lifein Australia. Over the 100 years between 1895and 1995 we have experienced nine periodsof serious drought. These periods have lastedfrom two to eight years. In each case droughtwas experienced in at least two states and onone occasion (1918–20) all states experienceddrought conditions. Overall, serious drought hasbeen experienced somewhere in Australia in 39of these 100 years. 1Because of the regular cyclical occurrence ofdrought, Australian farming practices haveevolved so that, in good years, farmers try tomake provision for drought by storing surplusfodder, silage and grain feeds. Security of watersupply is a critical buffer to the immediateimpacts of drought. During the last century,all Australian governments carried out majorinfrastructure projects aimed at ’droughtproofing’both rural areas and capital citiesthrough the construction, and strategic siting, oflarge water storages across the mainland.At the present time a significant proportionof Australia is experiencing a prolonged dryperiod and the Federal Government has officiallydeclared this period a drought.December rainfall totals for 2006 were generallywell below average across the drought-affectedparts of eastern and southern Australia, withrainfall deficits remaining widespread overTasmania, Victoria, South Australia, NSW andsouthern Queensland. It was the driest year onrecord (since 1900) across parts of the south,most notably in northern and eastern Tasmania,northeast Victoria and adjacent parts ofsouthern NSW and the ACT. 2 While some areasare now experiencing their fourth or fifth yearof drought conditions, people on the land areaware that dry conditions have prevailed for upto nine years in some places.As drought conditions extend across a region,farmers defer sowing crops. They substantiallyreduce livestock numbers by either sellinganimals for slaughter or sending them toagistment. Animals that do remain on droughtaffectedproperties have to be hand fed, eitherwith feed that has been stored in good yearsor with purchased feed. This is a very expensiveway for farmers to operate.The serious impactsof droughtProlonged drought can lead to social and localindustry decline and it can damage aquaticecosystems. The depth of these direct impacts isnot always felt in the big cities. Indeed our largecity populations are almost totally disconnectedfrom the drought experiences of rural people –those on farms, living in small towns and owningor working in businesses in provincial centres.Drought effects do show up in the nationalaccounts. The 1982–83 drought was the mostsevere one experienced in the 20th century. Itcost nearly $5 billion in reduced productionand insurance claims with a 40% drop incereal grain, cotton and sugar production,the destruction of millions of livestock andthousands of tonnes of topsoil blown away indust storms. 3 Overall, gross domestic product(GDP) was reduced by 0.75%, with a 9%reduction in rural exports. 4In provincial cities and rural townships,the effects of drought are immediate andendure for several years after a droughthas broken with good seasonal rainfall.A recent business and industry survey reportedthat, overall, 59% of respondents consideredthat the drought was having a negativeimpact upon their business. The overwhelmingimpact was a decline in revenues for 77% ofbusinesses. 5Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 41

The Big Picturesevere droughtWhen a drought is officially declared,governments respond by activating droughtreliefschemes for farmers and ruralcommunities. These have now evolved tothe point where responses are in accordwith Australia’s National drought policy. 6The objectives of this policy are to:• encourage primary producers and othersections of rural Australia to adopt selfreliantapproaches to managing risksstemming from climatic variability• maintain and protect Australia’s agriculturaland environmental resource base duringperiods of extreme climate stress; and• ensure early recovery of agricultural andrural industries consistent with long-termsustainable levels.We need to ask whether the dry conditionsbeing experienced in much of Australiasimply represent a prolonged severedrought, or whether they point to afundamental change in our weatherpatterns; a change that will have majorimpacts upon the availability of freshwater in this country.GLOBAL WARMINGIf global warming continues and ambienttemperatures are reset somewhere between0.54°C and 1.24°C, the annual surface-waterrunoff will be reset accordingly. Predictions forVictoria are alarming. By 2030 there will be adeficit in surface-water runoff in 28 of the 29surface-water management areas across thestate of Victoria. 7 Unfortunately, this sort ofanalysis is not available for all of the major riversystems of southern Australia.The 2007 report of the Inter-governmental Panelon Climate Change 8 (IPCC) forecastsrises in average daily temperatures by the endof this century in the range of between 2.0°Cand 4.5°C, with a 3.0°C rise a strong possibility.Furthermore, it states that the average rise inglobal temperatures by the end of the centuryis unlikely to be less than 1.5°C. 8 This increasein average temperatures, and the consequentshift in local climate conditions, will becomean overlay, accentuating any natural changein our weather pattern that may take placeconcurrently.Broken HillWentworthBourkeOrangeGoulburnTamworthSydneyGraftonBroken HillWentworthBourkeOrangeSydneyGraftonFigure 1. Areas in NSW declared fordrought assistanceIn the space of seven years, drought conditionshave spread across Australia’s most populousstate. Even when there was some good seasonalrainfall (as in 2005), almost the whole state wasdrought-declared within the next year.Source: NSW Department of Primary Industry,Resource information – monthly maps,.January 2000 January 200742 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturesevere drought10 10 000 000 000 000Volume in storage (ML)9 000 9 000 000 0008 000 8 000 000 0007 000 7 000 000 0006 000 6 000 000 0005 000 5 000 000 0004 000 4 000 000 0003 000 3 000 000 0002 000 2 000 000 000100 10090 9080 8070 7060 6050 5040 4030 3020 201 000 1 000 000 0000 010 100 0JUL JUL AUG AUG SEP SEP OCT OCTNOV NOV DEC DEC JAN JAN FEB FEB MAR MAR APR APR MAY MAY JUN JUNMONTHPERCENT FULL (%)1996/19971997/19981998/19991999/20002000/20012001/20022002/20032003/20042004/2005Volume in storage (ML)1 0001 000 000100 1001 6001 000 600 0001 4001 000 400 0001 2001 000 200 0001 0001 000 000800 000 800 000600 000 600 00090 9080 80400 000 400 00020 20200 000 200 00010 100 00 0JUL JULAUG AUG SEP SEPOCT OCT NOV NOV DEC DEC JAN JANFEB FEBMARMAR APR APR MAY MAY JUN JUNMONTH7060504030PERCENT FULL (%)70605040301996/1997 1996/19971997/1998 1997/19981998/1999 1998/19991999/2000 1999/20002000/2001 2000/20012001/2002 2001/20022002/2003 2002/20032003/2004 2003/20042004/2005 2004/2005Figure 2. Water storage levels for rural water supplies and Melbourne’s water supplies,1996–97 to 2004–05The longer the period of drought, the less water there is entering storages. For Victorian rural andmetropolitan storages, as illustrated above, the volumes of surface water flowing into storages aredeclining year by year.Source: State Water Report: A statement of Victorian water resources, DSE, Melbourne, 2005..Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 43

The Big Picturesevere drought10,000,0009,000,000NUMBERS OF PEOPLE8,000,0007,000,0006,000,0005,000,0004,000,0003,000,0002,000,0001,000,000Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5STAGE OF WATER RESTRICTIONSFigure 3. Water restriction levels for Australian cities and towns with a populationgreater than 50 000At the end of December 2006, water restrictions applied in 28 out of 32 cities across Australia witha population greater than 50 000 people. A total of 15 602 000 people were on Stage 3 or Stage 4restrictions. This represents 71% of the Australian population.Source: Water Services Association of Australia, .REFERENCEs1. Bureau of Meteorology, Drought trends,BOM, Melbourne, .2. Bureau of Meteorology, Drought statement,4 January, 2007, BOM, Melbourne, 2007.3. S Power, G Loughlin & A Clark, Drought inAustralia: impacts, mitigation, monitoring,policy and prediction, Convegno Siccita.Cagliari-Villasimius, 2000, p. 2.4.5.Australian Bureau of Agricultural ResearchEconomics, Australian commoditiesforecasts issues, no. 2, ABARE, Canberra,1995.Victorian Employers’ Chamber of Commerceand Industry, December quarter 2006, VECCIsurvey: Droughts and interest rates drivea drop in business confidence, 29 January2007, p. 2.6.Department of Agriculture, Fisheriesand Forestry, Exceptional circumstanceshandbook, DAFF, Canberra, 2006,

The Big Picturewater & the environmentWe have extensively degraded many of ourfreshwater ecosystems. Some of this damage is beyondrepair. Yet our very future rests not only on repairing as much aswe can, but on adapting to the impacts of climate change …Historical legacies of land-usechange together with growingdemands for water resources fromagricultural, industrial and urbansectors have extensively degradedmany of the freshwater ecosystemsof Australia. Recent and rapiddeclines in the condition of theseecosystems indicate that currentpatterns of water consumptionare ecologically unsustainable,particularly in agriculturallandscapes.PS Lake & NR Bond, ‘Australian futures: Freshwaterecosystems and human water usage’, Futures, vol.39, 2007, pp. 288–305The aquatic environment is much moreimportant than many of us realise. Acomposite of rivers, streams, wetlands,estuaries, billabongs and bogs, it maintainsa vast array of flora and fauna, as well assupporting all other life – ours included.A sufficient quantity of fresh water of theright quality guarantees our food supply,the quality of life in our cities and townsand our public health and leisure activities.We are constantly extracting this water fromour aquatic environments, yet we are notmaintaining the health of those environments.In the past, we have used our waterwaysto dispose of waste and pollutants. Wehave also drained a large percentage of ourwetlands to provide more land for farming.There is no case for laying blame here. Whilethe indigenous inhabitants understood thisland, European arrivals did not. For most of us,this remains the case today. While early settlerssoon realised that this was a very differentclimate and the soils were very different,inappropriate attitudes and practices havepersisted to the present day. We were notaware, for example, of the vast quantities ofsalts in our soils or that the replacement of deeprootednative vegetation with shallow-rootedcrop species set the scene for major long-termchanges in the hydrology of our catchments.We have now, in Australia, a threedimensionalenvironmental problem.We have to stabilise and repair ecosystemsthat have been extensively degraded anddamaged by past inappropriate land-usepractices. At the same time, we have to ensurethat current developments and forms of landuse don’t repeat past ecological mistakes.Into the immediate and long-term future,we will also have to address the negativeimpacts of predicted climate change.Degradation of aquaticecosystemsThere is insufficient water being left in manyof our rivers, streams and lakes to maintainthem as healthy ecosystems and habitats.The extent of degradation of our aquaticenvironments is evidenced by the following:• An assessment of 18 000 km of major riversand tributaries in Victoria shows that only27% are in good or excellent condition. 1• Surface water is over-allocated for mostrivers in the NSW section of the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB), the rivers in westernVictoria and on the eastern side of StVincent Gulf in South Australia. 2.• In Victoria, most rivers north of the GreatDivide and running into the Murray arefully allocated. Volumes of water beingremoved from the Queensland portionof the MDB are already at 70% of thesustainable yield. This situation is similar forrivers north of the basin, from Charlevilleto Townsville in Queensland; as it is forrivers northeast of Adelaide. With suchhigh allocations and extended periodsof very dry conditions, natural flows canbecome so low that the rivers and streamsstruggle to sustain aquatic ecosystems.• River health, measured by the presenceof aquatic invertebrates (such as worms,yabbies, beetles and countless others)is poor. A national assessment reveals asubstantial reduction in river health along22 000 km of river length. In NSW the lossis evident along 50% of river length. In theACT and Western Australia, it is evidentalong 35% of river length, while for theremaining states and the Northern Territory,the loss is between 12% and 24%. 3Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 45

The Big Picturewater & the environment• Riparian vegetation (the grasses, bushes andtrees growing alongside rivers and streams)is substantially degraded along 85% of thesesame rivers. 4• Australia’s wetlands have been seriouslyaffected by urban development and theexpansion of agriculture. Vast areas ofwetland, seen as swamps that could becompletely drained, have been eliminated tomake more land available for cultivation orhousing developments. More recently, despitea better understanding of the importance ofwetlands as ecosystems, wetland degradationcontinues. 5• With the exception of the top end of theNorthern Territory and the north of WesternAustralia, most of Australia’s large wetlandsystems are seriously degraded. Over 90%of the wetlands in the Murray-DarlingBasin and 95% of the Gwydir Wetlandsare gone. The Narran Lakes only receive32% of their natural flow and the MacquarieMarshes and the Condamine-Balone systemsare collapsing. Bird counts on these largewetlands have dropped by as much as 80%.Over-allocation of water for irrigation isa major cause of the current decline and,if these systems are to recover, they musturgently receive adequate volumes ofenvironmental water. 6• Across Australia, approximately 85% ofriver length is in catchments whose naturalcondition has been altered, mainly by recentland clearing, changes in land use and broadacreagriculture. 7• Each year, some 19 000 tonnes of phosphorus(from fertilisers) are transported by our riversto be discharged into our estuaries. Over 80%of river length carries suspended sedimentloads (i.e. the particles that make watercloudy) that are 10 to 200 times greaterthan normal. 8• Approximately 28% of Australia’s estuarieshave been significantly modified by pollutants,dam building, dredging, wetland drainageand other effects of human settlement. 9• Dryland salinity has a direct effect on reducingagricultural productivity and it can have offsiteeffects, too. The most significant of theseis salinisation of freshwater rivers. On currenttrends in land-use practices, land clearing andthe spread of dryland salinity, it is predictedthat by 2050 the length of rivers and streamswith salinised water will double in WesternAustralia and treble in Victoria. Little furtheragricultural development will be possible onthe Lower Eyre Peninsula in South Australiaand salt concentrations in the Murray Rivermay rise significantly. 10repairing damagedenvironmentsIn the past 25 years a number of innovativeprograms have been initiated to stabilise, andthen reverse, the environmental damage ofthe last 200 years of land use. They includethe National Landcare Program, the LivingMurray Initiative of the Murray-DarlingBasin Commission; and the programs andservices provided by catchment managementauthorities such as WaterKeepers, HealthyRivers Campaigns and Coastcare. Commonly,these programs are government supported,community focused and ongoing.Within these programs, community activitiesare usually directed towards changing land-usepractices, stabilising affected areas, interceptingand reversing degradation processes, andimproving local ecosystems and habitats. Theseapproaches have been successful in many partsof Australia and should continue to be so.However, there are questions about whetherthese well-intentioned programs can bringabout positive change quickly enough,given the scale of the problems and therate of decline of these ecosystems.Two critical actions would lead tomajor changes in the overall healthof our waterways and adjoining landareas. These are the re-establishmentof adequate riparian vegetation andenvironmental flow regimes.Riparian vegetation along rivers andstreams has come under extreme pressurefrom human activities, to the extent that agreat deal has been removed or degraded.Yet this band of vegetation represents animportant micro-habitat. It contributes toimproved water quality, aquatic and terrestrialbiodiversity and the stabilisation of banks.The second major action is the need tore-establish environmental flow regimes. 11This is crucial to reversing some of the keyprocesses involved in aquatic ecosystemdegradation. With this agenda in mind, the1994 Council of Australian Governments(COAG), made up of the prime minister, statepremiers and territory chief ministers, agreedto implement a strategic framework to reformthe Australian water industry. The frameworkestablished, for the first time in Australia, alegal recognition that water should be allocatedfor the benefit of the natural environment. 12To date, however, there has very been limitedsuccess in achieving agreement betweencompeting users about the volumes of waterrequired, and then actually finding the waterto release. These quandaries are best illustratedby the slow rate of progress in releasingenvironmental flows into two of our iconicrivers: the Snowy River and the Murray.THE SNOWY RIVEROn 6 October 2000, the Victorian, NSW andCommonwealth governments announced a$375 million agreement to breathe life backinto the Snowy River and preserve a nationalicon for future generations. A long-termtarget was set to re-establish 28% of theriver’s natural flow, while protecting otherriver systems and water users. The subsequentagreement established a target flow rate of21% to be returned to the Snowy River overa 10-year period. The remaining 7% shouldbe achieved through new infrastructureprojects involving the private sector. 13To date, the highest flow reached in theSnowy River (in 2005–06) was a mere 4.3%of the mean annual natural flow. 14 Withonly three years to go, it seems unlikelythat the legal obligations agreed to will bemet within the prescribed time frame.46 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturewater & the environmentTHE MURRAY-DARLING BASINIn October 2003, following extensive consultation,the Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council (MDBC)announced an allocation of $500 million to be used tobuy water for environmental flows, with the longertermobjective of making 500 GL available by 2009. 15Again, the identification and delivery of the water has provenproblematic. Meanwhile, this major river system maintainingAustralia’s food bowl and a number of vital ecosystems,is dying a slow death. The 2007 Progress Report indicatesthat 253 GL will be delivered from projects now beingimplemented, with additional projects being developed todeliver a further 209 GL. Another 35 GL may become availablethrough projects yet to be developed. Before 2006–07, NSWand Victoria had identified only 220 GL with ‘year-to-yearavailability being subject to environmental conditions’. 16a critical stageWe have reached a critical stage in Australia regardingour use of agricultural land and water. It’s time to thinkabout how and where irrigation will continue to operate.Essentially, we need to embrace efficiency within existingirrigation schemes, stabilise degradation, enhance ournatural environment and raise productivity with a lowerwater input. Alternatively, as hinted at in the prime minister’s2007 A national plan for water security 17 , we can relocate asignificant component of the agricultural sector to the northof Australia. In other words, we can leave our environmentalproblems behind, only to create new ones elsewhere.Land and water reform will require a major shift in waterefficiency in both the farming and mining sectors. It will alsorequire a willingness to recognise that in some parts of thecountry irrigation is simply not sustainable. Some land will eitherhave to revert to dryland farming or be taken out of productionaltogether. A key task will be to determine imaginative waysfor using such land to obtain broad environmental gains.Table 1: The slow death of a major river systemYear19911994Action or Development1000 km of the Darling River is infested with blue-green algae, an early sign that the riveris under stress.COAG’s Water Policy Reform document decrees that river health should be factored intowater management.1996 Further removal of water from the Murray-Darling system is restricted through introductionof a cap set at 1993–94 levels. Surveillance of groundwater pumping is not increased.1999 An audit finds that Adelaide’s water will be unacceptably salty by 2050.2002–032004200520062007Impacts of a severe drought begin to seriously hit farms, towns, businesses and communitiesin the Murray-Darling Basin. Dredging keeps the mouth of the Murray River open in SouthAustralia. The governments of Australia, NSW, Victoria and South Australia commit $500 millionto buy 500 GL from irrigators to increase environmental flows in the river system.The National Water Commission articulates its aim to increase the productivity and efficiencyof Australia’s water use, including introducing full water trading between the states.A survey of river red gums on parts of the Murray flood plain finds that 75% of the trees arestressed because of low flows due to the drought and because too much water is being removedfor irrigation.The Murray-Darling Basin experiences its worst drought on record. Water allocated for irrigationis halved. Surface water flowing into the basin’s rivers drops to 550 GL. In an average year thefigure is 11 200 GL. The Murray-Darling Basin Commission (MDBC) has not been able to purchaseany water to increase environmental flow in the Murray.Hydrological analysis of aquifers in the MDB indicates that groundwater pumping in NSW,SA and Victoria increased after introduction of the cap on surface water removal.A report on the wellbeing of river red gums on the Murray River flood plains below Eustonin NSW indicates that most of the 200-year-old trees are either dead or dying.Prime Minister Howard intervenes and releases A national plan for water security.Source: Adapted from an article by Asa Wahlquist, 'Running on empty', the Australian, 8 November 2006.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 47

The Big Picturewater & the environmentREDUCED WAter level (mAHD)1051500103100010150099097-50095-100093-150091-200089-250087-300085 -35001 Jan 86 1 Jan 89 1 Jan 92 1 Jan 95 1 Jan 98 1 Jan 01ACCUMULATIVE MONTHLY RESIDUAL RAINFALL(mm)MDBC Groundwater Status ReportCharlesvilleToowoombaMilduraGriffithMurray BridgeCanberraSheppartonBendigoBore 56424Renmark SubsystemYEAR56424 AMRRFigure 1. Shallow acquifers in the Murray-Darling BasinThe Murray-Darling Basin is a shallow geological feature withconnections between the surface water in the rivers of thebasin and three shallow acquifers. These are the Gunnedah,Shepparton and Renmark groundwater systems. The graphand map on this page show accumulating monthly rainfall andacquifer water levels in the Renmark system.Starting in about 1994 groundwater usage increased sharplyin areas of usable supply. In many parts of the basin rates ofextraction exceeded the recharge capacity of the aquifers.The hydrograph shown here indicates that declininggroundwater levels are commonplace in productive areas of thecatchment. The hydrograph also shows a strong correlationbetween rainfall, groundwater levels and usage. In the 1980sclimatic conditions were wetter and groundwater levels showeda strong correlation to rainfall.Source: D Ife & K Skelt, Murray-Darling Basin groundwater andclimate, Australian Earth Science Convention 2006, .48 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturewater & the environmentREFERENCEs1. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Healthy rivers,healthy communities and regional growth, Draft Victorian RiverHealth Strategy, DSE, Melbourne, 2002, p. 33.2. National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian waterresources assessment 2000, NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 70.3. National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian catchment,river and estuary assessment, vol. 1, NLWRA, Canberra, 2002, p. 79.4.op. cit., p. 81.5. Inland Rivers Network, ‘The plight of our Basin’, Inland RiversNetwork NSW News, vol. 11, 2006, pp. 1–12.6.op. cit., pp. 1–12.7. National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian catchment,river and estuary assessment, NLWRA, Canberra, vol. 1, 2002, p. 83.8. National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian agriculturalassessment, NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 96.9.ibid, pp. 131–3.10. National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australians and naturalresource management., NLRA, Canberra, 2002, pp. 142–3.11. Native Fish Australia, Fisheries Management Policy, NFA,Melbourne, 1993,.12. National Competition Council, Assessment of governments’progress in implementing National Competition Policy andrelated reforms, NCC, Melbourne, 2001, p. 81.13. New South Wales, Legislative Council 2000, Snowy RiverAgreement, hansard extract, pp. 11 678–11 686, 14. L Crisp, Snowy River environmental flows – How successfulso far?, Snowy Strategic Weekend Workshop, Dalgety,NSW, 2006.15. Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council, The livingMurray – a discussion paper on restoring the healthof the River Murray, MDBC, 2002, p. ii.16. Murray-Darling Basin Commission, The livingMurray – Progress report (water recovery), MDBC,Canberra, 2007, p. 1.17. J Howard, A national plan for water security, 2007,pp. 20-1, .Some other useful sources• Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council, The living Murrayinitiative, 1999, .• Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council, The salinity audit –a 100-year perspective, MDBC, Canberra, 1999, .• C Miller, Snowy River story, ABC Books & Audio, Sydney, 2007.• J Howard, A national plan for water security, .Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 49

The Big Pictureour footprintWe are an affluent, high water-use country.We have the largest domestic water footprint of any nation on Earth and it isgrowing bigger by the day …Australians are behaving as ifthe environment is like the magicpudding in Norman Lindsay’schildren’s book, capable ofendlessly supplying our needsand wants no matter how big ourappetites are.Dr Peter Newton, Chief Scientist, CSIRO,the Age, 17 May 2006, p. 10In gross terms, our use of water across thefour recognised categories – agriculture,urban-domestic, industrial, and rural stockand domestic – makes us the third-highestper-capita users of water in the world. 1Agriculture is the largest user of available waterin Australia, accounting for approximately 75%of water used. The remaining 25% is distributedat 12% for urban-domestic use; 8% forindustrial use; while rural stock and domesticuse represents approximately 5% of the total. 2In actual volumes, approximately17 935 GL are used for irrigation;4754 GL for urban/industrialpurposes; and 1369 GL forother rural consumption andproduction. NSW and Victoriatogether account for two-thirdsof the total water used. 3In recent years we have usedmore water than ever before.In just 13 years, from 1983–84to 1996–97, water use inevery Australian state andthe Northern Territory hasincreased substantially – far more than can beaccounted for by population growth alone. 4A large ecological footprintThe ‘ecological footprint’ is a conceptdeveloped by environmental scientists inCanada in the 1990s. It calculates how muchof the Earth’s resources, materials and energyeach person uses and converts this intothe equivalent area of the Earth’s surface.If we divide all biologically productive landand sea by the global population, 1.8 globalha is available for each person per year.Australians are using 7.7 global ha,giving us one of the largest ecologicalfootprints on Earth and Victorians havethe largest footprint in Australia.As we increase our wealth andextend our consumption, we increasethe size of our footprint.The reality is, that if every one on theplanet lived like Victorians, we wouldneed more than four planets to support us. 5The largest domesticwater footprintWithin this broad schema, it’s possibleto calculate a footprint for each resourcebeing consumed, including water.Each nation’s water footprint has both aninternal and an external component. Theinternal water component is made up ofdomestic consumption as well as the waterthat is ‘embodied’ in the production of thefood, goods and services consumed by peoplein their households. The external componentencompasses the volume of water used inother countries to produce the food, goodsand services that we import and consume.In terms of our water footprint,incorporating these internal andexternal components, we are rankedeighth in the world. However, despiteliving on the driest inhabited continent,we are ranked highest for our use ofdomestic and embodied water. 6Something that we should all be acutelyaware of is that everything we purchase andconsume, whether it be an apple or a car,comes with an embodied-water price tag.50 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureour footprintBecause our group is made up of people from our mothers’ group,a lot of discussion centred around how we can bring up our children with a respectfor water. Little things like how we can teach them through waterplay but also toincorporate an understanding of how precious water is as a resource.Mothers Watermark Australia group, Box Hill NorthTHE WATER PRICE TAGThe amount of embodied water in food items,consumer goods and services is illustrated in thefollowing examples. It takes:7• 70 L of water to produce one glass of wine8• 4660 L to produce a large steak9• 2000 L to produce a cotton T-shirt10• 47 600 L to produce a one-tonne vehicle11• 23 400 L to produce a tonne of paper12• 500 L for a large potato13• 50 L for an orange14• 140 L for a cup of coffee15• 1400 L to produce a kilo of riceFor persons in the lowest 20% of the incomerange, their weekly electricity usage accounts for18 L of water. For persons in the top 20%, theirelectricity usage per week accounts for 36 L ofwater. 16 When we leave lights on unnecessarily,we are wasting water. This is because thereare inherent inefficiencies with respect to thewater used in coal-fired electricity generation.When we waste food and other goods, we wastewater. A 2003 survey by the Australian Food andGrocery Council revealed that Australianswaste about 2.2 million tonnes of food a year.This food contains sufficient embodied water tosupply all households in Sydney and Melbournewith enough water for a year. 17Another recent report estimates that Australiansspent more than $10.5 billion in 2004 onwasteful consumption. Food accounts forthe largest proportion of this spending. Eachyear we waste $2.9 billion on fresh food,$630 million on uneaten takeaway, $876 millionon leftovers, $596 million on unfinished drinksand $241 million on frozen food – a total of$5.3 billion on all forms of food. 18Increasing affluence &consumptionIn the past 50 years the average new house sizein Australia has almost doubled from 115 m 2in 1955 to 221 m 2 in 2000. In the same periodthe number of people living in households hasdecreased, with occupancy rates dropping from3.6 to 2.6 persons per house. 19Household size, however, does not accuratelypredict water use. The determining factoris income levels. Bigger houses mean morespace to fill with furniture, spa baths, curtains,lighting, carpets, appliances, paved areas,gardens, heating and air-conditioning. Morewidely, Australians take up new technologies(e.g. computers, mobile phones, plasma TVs) atrapid rates. When we extend our consumptionof material goods there is an invisible waterprice tag.Buying these goods requires large amounts ofmoney. Over the past 25 years, average weeklyearnings have grown four-fold, from $268to $1043. 20 We earn more but save less. Thehousehold savings ratio has decreased over thisperiod, to the point where it is now ‘negative’, inthat household consumption exceeds disposablehousehold income. 21Our spending capacity over this same periodhas been massively augmented by personalborrowing for consumer goods. In 1985Australians incurred $571 million on creditcards. In the past 20 years this has grown morethan 50-fold to over $26.5 billion. 22Consumer goods represent significant amountsof embodied water. A 1998–99 analysis of theABS Household Expenditure Survey, showed thatthe total water budget of an average Sydneyhousehold was about 3 million L.About half of this household water budgetwas the water embodied in food; only11% was water being directly consumed inshowers, watering gardens and cleaning.Furthermore, the analysis showed that a 100%increase in household expenditure should resultin a 70% average increase in water use. 23Governments have been busy mountingextensive water conservation campaigns of late,particularly as the levels in the water storagessupplying our cities continue to drop. Rightly,these send messages about ways to reduce ourdirect consumption of water.But these water conservation campaignsdo not yet address total water demand. Thiswould not only entail acknowledging theextraordinary amount of water that’s built intoour consumption patterns and lifestyles, buta preparedness to establish in people’s mindsthe obvious link between affluence, resourcedepletion and scarcity.Mindsets do take changing. Despite our alreadylarge water footprint, there is an establishedview that if only we got on with augmentingVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 51

The Big Pictureour footprintwater supply we could have all the water wewanted! In releasing a major report card onAustralia’s urban water supply in May 2007, thechairmen of the National Water Commissionsuggested our cities could have ‘unlimited’supplies of water in future if governmentsstopped relying on rain to fill dams and insteadinvested in new technology, such as recyclingand desalination. 24In the same month the Victorian oppositionspokeswoman for water said Melburnians havealready cut their water use sufficiently. Sheargued that if the government had had theforesight to build a dam and a desalinationplant, ‘we could use as much water as we liked’. 25The challenge is for people to move away, andquickly, from viewing Australia as a NormanLindsay ‘magic pudding’, capable of endlesslysupplying our needs and wants, to a lifestylethat’s less materialistic and consumptive. 26DenmarkLuxembourgCzech RepublicSlovak RepublicUKPolandSwedenIrelandSwitzerlandAustriaFinlandGermanyFranceIcelandHungaryNorwayKoreaNew ZealandNetherlandsTurkeyJapanMexicoBelgiumGreeceSpainItalyPortugalAustraliaCanadaUSAPer capitaOECDFigure 1. Intensity of water use percapita amongst OECD countries includingAustraliaEach bar represents the water that is directlyconsumed plus the water that is used as‘embodied’ water, i.e. the food used to growfood and make consumer goods. In 1997Australia ranked number five, and in 2004 weranked number three.Source: Organisation for Economic Cooperationand Development, OECD environmental indicators2004, OECD Environment Directorate, Paris, 2004,p. 22.0 50010001500m 3 /capita/year52 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureour footprintAgricultural internal water footprint (per capita)Total water footprint (per capita)1400300012002500Water (GL) Water (GL)10008006004002000400350300250200150Litres/year10050USAItalyCanadaFranceGermanyMexicoAustraliaIndonesiaJapanDomestic internal water footprint (per capita)IndiaChinaWater (GL)20001500Litres/year10005000USAItalyCanadaFranceGermanyMexicoAustraliaIndonesiaFigure 2. This series of bar graphs compares the water footprint per capita for severalnations as well as the sectors that make up this water footprintWhile we rank eighth in terms of our total water footprint per capita, Australia’s domesticwater footprint per capita is the largest in the world.Source: AY Hoekstra & AK Chapagain, ‘Water footprints of nations: water use by people as a functionof their consumption pattern’, Water Resource Management, 2006, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 1–14.JapanIndiaChina0USAItalyCanadaFranceGermanyMexicoAustraliaIndonesiaJapanIndiaChinaVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 53

The Big Pictureour footprint%10.07.55.02.50-2.5-5.0Sep1992Sep1994Sep1996Sep1998YearsSep2000Sep2002TrendSeasonally adjustedSep2004Sep2006HOUSEHOLD DEBT (% HOUSEHOLD DISPOSABLE INCOME)People concerned about the environment (%)12011010090807060501990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004Years41.039.037.035.033.031.029.027.025.0GDP PER CAPITA ($/000)Peopleconcernedabout theenvironment(%)HouseholdDebt (%householddisposableincome)GDP perCapita($)Figure 3. Household saving ratio 1992–2006The downward trend in household saving ratios has continued, to the point where householdconsumption is now greater than household disposable income.Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian national accounts: national income, expenditure andproduct, cat. no. 5206.0, ABS, Canberra, 2006.Figure 4. The cross-over: materialism and environmental concernOver the past decade, the wealth of many Australians has continued to rise. Consumptionpatterns continue to be fed by rising personal debt. In the same period concern about theenvironment has declined.Source: PW Newton, ‘Human settlements’, theme commentary prepared for the Australian State ofthe Environment Committee, Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Canberra, 2006,p. 41, .54 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureour footprintREFERENCEs1.2.3.4.Organisation for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment, OECD environmental indicators2004, OECD Environment Directorate, Paris,2004, p. 22.National Land and Water Resources Audit,Australian water resources assessment 2000,NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 55.ibid., p. 55.ibid., p. 58.5. Environment Protection Authority Victoria,Victoria’s ecological footprint, no. 975, EPAV,Melbourne, 2005, p. 1.6.AY Hoekstra & AK Chapagain, ‘Waterfootprints of nations: water use by peopleas a function of their consumption pattern’,Water Resource Management, 2006, vol. 1,no. 1, p. 8.7. J Williams, Wealth from water: a nationalperspective, presentation to the Wealth fromWater Conference, Wagga Wagga, 2003, p. 3.8.9.op. cit., p. 3.AY Hoekstra & AK Chapagain, op. cit., p. 8.10. B Foran & F Poldy, Future dilemmas – optionsto 2050 for Australia’s population, technology,resources and environment., CSIRO ResourcesFutures Working Paper 02/01, CSIRO SustainableEcosystems, Canberra, 2002, p. 195.11.op. cit., p. 191.12. AK Chapagain & AY Hoekstra, ‘Value of water’,UNESCO Institute for Water Education –Research report series, no. 16, 2004, pp. 41–2.13.14.ibid., p. 41.ibid., p. 42.15. World Water Council, Virtual water trade –conscious choices, Synthesis of the 4th WorldWater Forum, 2004, p. 4.16. B Foran & F Poldy, Future dilemmas – optionsto 2050 for Australia’s population, technology,resources and environment., CSIRO ResourcesFutures Working Paper 02/01, CSIRO SustainableEcosystems, Canberra, 2002, p. 176, p. 193.17.Australian Food and Grocery Council,Environment report, AFGC, Canberra, 2003, p. 5.18. C Hamilton, R Denniss & D Baker, Wastefulconsumption in Australia, Australia InstituteDiscussion Paper No. 77, AI, 2005.19. C Hamilton & R Denniss, Affluenza, Allen andUnwin, Sydney, NSW, pp. 20–1.20.Reserve Bank of Australia, .21. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australiannational accounts: national income,expenditure and product, cat. no. 5206.0, ABS,Canberra, 2006.22.23.Reserve Bank of Australia, .M Lenzen, ‘The influence of lifestyles onenvironmental pressure’, in Australian Bureauof Statistics, Year book, Australia, cat. no.1301.0, no. 84, ABS, Canberra, 2002.24. B Doherty, ‘Unlimited water on tap with newtechnology’, the Age, 18 May 2007, p. 1.25.26.P Kerr, ‘Thwaites holds off on personal watertargets’, the Age, 10 May 2007.PW Newton, ‘Human settlements’, themecommentary prepared for the Australian Stateof the Environment Committee, Departmentof the Environment and Water Resources,Canberra, 2006, p. 41.Some other useful sources• For more information on the ecologicalfootprint, go to: .• World Wildlife Fund, Living planet report2006, .Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 55

The Big PictureagricultureWe use most of our available waterto produce what we eat, as well as some exports. Despite significantsalinity problems, irrigation agriculture continues to expandand use more water …In fact, in most of Australia’sfarmlands the rainfall is sufficientto raise crops to maturityin only a fraction of all years: notmore than half of all years at mostlocations, and in some agriculturalareas only in two out of 10 years.Jarred Diamond, Collapse,Viking Press, p. 384, 2006The arrival of aboriginal people inthe continent, possibly as long agoas 140 000 years, and the impactof their ‘fire stick farming’ on anice-age affected land was profound,altering the nature of vegetationover much of the continent. Theimpact of European settlement onthis unique land in the past 200years has been devastating.Mary White, After the greening – the browning ofAustralia, Kangaroo Press, Australia,1994Agriculture produces food for the nation aswell as a diverse range of export products. Itcontributes $17.6 billion to export earningsannually and provides employment for nearly400 000 people. 1 Overall, agriculture contributesabout 2.7% to Australia’s GDP.Agricultural production is Australia’s biggestwater user, requiring around 19 000 GLannually. This is approximately 70% of availablefresh water. 2 The Australian dilemma is thatwhile our agricultural sector can be justifiablyproud of its contribution to domestic andexport food production, this has come at greatenvironmental cost. Australian farming andland-management practices have broughtabout major changes in catchment hydrology 3with many negative impacts upon the naturalenvironment.IMPACTS OF IRRIGATIONThese impacts are represented in the steadilydeclining health of many rivers and streams,the absence and decline of natural riparianvegetation, extensive loss of wetlands, lossof tree cover, elevated water tables, substantialreductions in biodiversity, invasion by weedsand exotic plants, lowered water quality, highturbidity, bank erosion and siltation of river beds,elevated heavy-metal and nutrient levels in soils,toxic chemicals, pesticides and herbicides insoils and water, acid soils and the salinisationof extensive areas of land. 4, 5AREA IRRIGATEDThere are two major types of farming inAustralia: dryland farming and irrigationagriculture. Dryland farming takes up mostagricultural land, producing sheep/wool, beefcattle, grains and legumes. Such farmingrelies mainly on seasonal rain, as well as someadditional water from bores, rivers and streams.In contrast, irrigation agriculture uses littleland (about 1%, or 2 million ha of availableagricultural land) but most of the availablefresh water (mainly surface water and somegroundwater). In total, this amounts toapproximately 18 000 GL in an average year. 6Furthermore, irrigation agriculture is highlyconcentrated with 1 472 241 ha in the Murray-Darling Basin (total area: 1 058 800 km 2 ) beingused for irrigation. 7reliance on irrigationagricultureThe history of this irrigation dependency isinstructive. Soon after European settlement,it became evident that the farm practices of thehome countries were not suitable in this ‘new’56 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureagricultureland, with its dramatically different physicalfeatures and highly variable rainfall. Securingfood production for a growing Australianpopulation, as well as developing exportproducts, would mean developing new farmingpractices using different types of grains and,ultimately, the application of extensive irrigation.Water for irrigation goes to three main formsof agricultural output: pastures and foddercrops; broad-acre crops such as cotton, riceand soy beans; and intensive horticultureincluding vegetables, nuts and tree fruits.The most intensive part of the irrigation industryin Australia is set up within designated areas,e.g. the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. Withinthis area, surface water is pumped from themajor rivers and delivered to hundreds offarming units, usually of about 1000–1500 haeach. After passing through these properties,the residual water drains back into the system.Each farm unit contributes to the maintenanceand running of the irrigation system and eachholds an entitlement to a certain volume of water.About two-thirds of Australia’s production fromirrigation takes place within the Murray-DarlingBasin, which is known as Australia’s ‘food bowl’,and produces rice, cotton, cereals, soy beans andfruit and vegetable crops. 8 This productivity islinked directly to the fact that the basin containsAustralia’s three longest rivers: the Darling, theMurray and the Murrumbidgee. Outside the basin,irrigation is used mainly for dairy pastures, seedcrops, fodder, horticultural crops and sugar cane. 9There are striking differences in the volumes ofwater used and the dollar value of agriculturalcommodities produced from irrigation. Rice is themost water-costly crop, using 7458 L per dollar ofoutput, compared with vegetables and fruit whichare least water costly, using 379 L per dollar ofoutput. 10The big increase in the use of irrigatedland has occurred only in the last 40 years, 11with major growth in irrigated horticulture,and the irrigation of sugar cane, riceand especially cotton. Within the last 20years alone, land dedicated to irrigatedcotton increased from 50 000 ha in 1980to 375 000 ha in 1999. This expansion hascontributed to the present problem of overallocatedwater licences. Australia is nowthe third-largest exporter of raw cotton. 12In regard to irrigated horticulture, there hasbeen a significant recent shift into ‘high-value’products. For example, the value of the almondcrop in Australia rose from $7 million to$29 million between 2000–01 and 2004–05,a four-fold increase. By comparison, the valueof the relatively low-value orange crop fell by20% in the same period. 13 High-value crops,such as almonds, tend to be water hungry andproductivity can be significantly increased if morewater is used strategically within a growing cycle.In overall terms, between 1983–84 and 1996–97,water used in irrigated agriculture increased byaround 76%. 14The scope for water efficiencyWe enjoy plentiful, high-quality yet low-cost foodin Australia. Our strong dependence on irrigatedagriculture to produce the food we eat, as wellas our export produce, is likely to continue.At present, there are 73 irrigation systemsthroughout the country which are operated by38 businesses. Irrigation employs 370 000 peopleand has a gross value of $39 billion. 15Much of the infrastructure associated withthis intensive irrigation is now quite old, withapproximately 31 000 km of channels, pipes andwaterways. 16 Losses of water from evaporationand leakage can be as high as 30%. At the sametime, climate change, lower volumes of availablesurface water and overuse of groundwatermean that our irrigation industries will need toembrace substantial water-efficiency measures– and as soon as possible.ACHIEVING BEST PRACTICEWhile there are legitimate claims that parts ofirrigated agriculture are already water efficient,there is still enormous scope for furthersubstantial savings. Calculations for the Murray-Darling Basin alone, show that if half of theexisting enterprises adopted best practice, thewater savings would be in the order of 900 GLper year. Significant savings can also be achievedby improving delivery systems. In an averageyear some 6800 GL of water travels throughirrigation delivery systems. About 23% of thisis lost through leakage and evaporation.Reducing this loss to 20% would save 300 GL.Reducing this loss to 15% would save almost600 GL annually. 17The move from current levels of efficiencyto super efficiency on a national scale willrequire irrigation farming improvements infour key areas:• major improvements in farm managementwith widespread adoption of best-practicemeasures that require low on-farminvestment• high on-farm investment coupled withthis best practice, including the installationof modern water-measuring technology,adoption of new plant types and differentwater and fertiliser regimes• major off-farm, water-use efficiency gains,including refurbishing and lining of channelsto reduce leakage, covering channels toreduce evaporation and installing modernmetering/monitoring systems• major structural changes in both policies andpractices for irrigated agriculture, includingwater pricing, access to rural finance,support of environmentally appropriate ruralenterprise and regulation of inappropriateforms of farming.It is estimated that adoption of best practice,the refurbishing of irrigation systems and gettingthe right policy framework in place could resultin water savings of at least 3000 GL per yearover 10 years. 18Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 57

The Big PictureagricultureNew forms of land useIn addition to irrigated agriculture expanding,there are also new forms of agricultural landuse that impact on rates of water consumptionin local situations (newer forms of land use,such as eucalypt plantations, are outlined in the‘Forests & Fires’ section).One of these is almond farming. The almond treeoriginated in central Asia and was cultivated asa source of food in ancient Greece. In Australia,almonds have been cultivated north of Adelaidefor some time because this region has a climateideally suited to the requirements of almondproduction. To obtain good yields, almond treesneed water throughout the summer, and thewater requirement is about 6–10 ML per hectareper year. Trees can produce for up to 20 years,and in Australia the industry has two sectors:farms with old trees; and those with trees thatare 6 to 7 years old.Corporate investment in new areas ofhorticulture during the past decade has targetedalmonds, olives and grapes. Almond productionis an example of a sector where scale ofoperation and a high level of water applicationare key ingredients. This new type of farmenterprise is likely to be owned by a publiclylisted company operated through a managedinvestment scheme (MIS). One such enterpriseat Robinvale in Victoria already has almost 2400ha of almond trees planted. 19 Production ismaximised by applying large amounts of water– about 15–17 ML per hectare per year.To deliver this, water has to be traded into thearea through either temporary or permanenttrades. The production figures available indicatethat it takes about 6 L of water to produce asingle almond.Salinity: a continuing problemAgricultural production for both drylandfarming and irrigation agriculture is linked tothe major problems we now face with salinity.The dryland salinity problem has come aboutas a result of excessive tree clearing for theintroduction of shallow-rooted crops, such aswheat and pasture for livestock, causing watertables to rise. At the same time, large quantitiesof salt are mobilised in the rising groundwater‘000 ha‘000 ha2500200015001000500019151935and some of this salt is deposited on the soilsurface. In some situations salt lying on the soilsurface will be dissolved by rain and then findits way into streams and, eventually, rivers.In the case of irrigation, the effects of treeclearing are compounded by the applicationof large volumes of water (usually delivered asflood irrigation) onto poorly draining soils. Thesoils become waterlogged and the excess waterseeps down to salty groundwater. 20 The watertable consequently rises and salt is brought tothe land surface.In both cases, salinity has emerged as a majorenvironmental problem, accounting for a major1955Years19751995loss of agricultural productivity, a significantamount of infrastructure damage as well asshortening the lifespan of expensive plant andmachinery. 21 The annual economic loss attributedto the salinity problem in Australia is estimatedat about $1 million per 5000 ha of land affected.By 2100 the area of saline-affected land may beas high as 5 million ha, representing an annualloss of about $1 billion. 22 National and stateprograms to combat the processes and effects ofsalinity are already underway and this will remaina major cost.Figure 1. Growth in area of landirrigated in Australia from1920 to 2005Since 1915, there has been steady growth inthe area of land irrigated. Breaks in the linerepresent when data were not collected. Thebig increase commences in the 1960s.Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Wateraccount, Australia, 2004-2005,cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2006.58 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big PictureagricultureHigh Rainfall ZonePastoral ZoneWheat-Sheep Zone0 500KilometresProjection: Albers Equal AreaFigure 2. Main farming zones across AustraliaThe production of agricultural commodities takes place in differentparts of Australia. Rainfall, rainfall variability and soil type are majordeterminants of the locations for various forms of farming. Broadly, thedifferent forms of farming are carried out in three geographic zonesacross Australia: the pastoral zone, the wheat/sheep zone and the highrainfall zone.Source: National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australian agriculturalassessment, vol. 2, NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 238.1. National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australianagricultural assessment, vol. 1, NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. v.2. National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australians andnatural resource management, NLWRA, Canberra, 2002, p. v.3. J Williams, Sustainable agriculture in Australia – some waysforward, the Farrer Oration for 2005, 2005, pp.1–2.4.5.National Land and Water Resources Audit, op. cit.,vol.1, 2001.ibid., vol. 2.6. DH White, N Beynon & O Kingma, ’Identifying opportunitiesfor achieving water savings throughout the Murray-DarlingBasin’, Environmental Modelling and Software, vol. 21, 2006,p. 1015.7.8.REFERENCEsibid., pp.1016–17.ibid., pp.1016–17.9. B Foran & F Poldy, Future dilemmas – Options to 2005for Australia’s population, technology, resources andenvironment, CSIRO Resource Futures Working Paper 02/01,CSIRO, Canberra, 2002, p. 193.10. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Agricultural survey, AgStats,2001, .11. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia, 2004-2005, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2006.12. Australian Bureau of Statistics, International trade, cat. no.5465.0, ABS, Canberra, 2005, p. 2.13.14.15.16.17.National Land and Water Resources Audit, op. cit.,2000, p. 57.Australian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage,Benchmarking report, Wagga Wagga, 2004–05, p. 2.ibid., p. 1.DH White, N Beynon & O Kingma, op. cit., pp. 1019–20.ibid., p. 1021.18. Primary Industries and Resources SA, Water budgetingguidelines – almond, fact sheet no. 08/06, PIRSA, Adelaide,2006, pp. 1–8, .19.20. Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council, The salinity auditof the Murray-Darling Basin: a 100-year perspective, MDBC,Canberra, 1999, p. 25, .21.22.23.ibid., p. 25.ibid., p. 24.ibid., pp. 22–23.Some other useful sources• P Andrews, Back from the brink, ABC Books & Audio, Sydney,2006.• D Smith, Natural gain in the grazing lands of SA, UNSW Press,2000.• ‘ Renaissance on Lanark’, supplement to Wingspan, BirdsAustralia, vol. 9, March 1999.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 59

The Big PicturehouseholdsThe amount of water we usein our homes, flats and gardens makes Australians among thehighest domestic water users in the world …The Pacific Institute calculatesthat the minimum amount ofwater needed for ‘drinking,human sanitation and moderatedomestic use’ is 40 litres/person/day.PH Gleick (ed.), Water in crisis: A guide to theworld’s fresh water resources, Oxford UniversityPress, New York, 1993Australian households directly consume asignificant amount of water every day, placingus among the greatest per-capita users of waterin the world.The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimated thatin 2004–05 the yearly domestic consumption ofwater was 103 000 L per person, equating to282 L per person per day. 1According to these figures, an average Australianfamily of four is likely to directly consumebetween 1100 and 1150 L of water per day, everyday of the year. It is also possible to calculatethe daily direct consumption per person per dayin each state and territory in Australia. The ratesof consumption are as follows:• Victoria – 222 L• New South Wales – 230 L• South Australia – 258 L• ACT – 260 L• Queensland – 340 L• Tasmania – 392 L• Northern Territory – 419 L• Western Australia – 493 LIn 2000, among 31 OECD countries, Australiaranked third in daily urban water consumption(321 L per person), behind the USA (515 Lper person) and Canada (438 L per person).Denmark ranked lowest at 120 L per person. 2In our cities, household water is used in thefollowing way:• gardens and lawn (34%)• bathroom (26%)• toilet (20%)• laundry (15%) and3• kitchen (5%).While these figures reflect general usagepatterns, there are significant variationsin the quantum of water used per capita.The age of occupants appears to be a majordeterminant here. A survey carried out by theMelbourne City Council suggests that younger,high-rise dwellers (18 to 40 years) are far lessconcerned about making water savings. 4In high-rise apartments, very little wateris used outside the building. Usually, fromthe first floor up, gardens and lawns havebeen eliminated. However, this does not meanthat there are commensurate domestic watersavings. The same survey of four apartmentbuildings in the Melbourne CBD found that70% of household water use was accountedfor by showers. Around 60% of the dwellingsdid not have water-saving showerheads.Average water consumption in the fourapartment blocks was in the range of329–673 L per day. 560 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big PicturehouseholdsWater consumption patterns in single-persondwellings can also differ from general usagepatterns. Recent research reveals particularpatterns of consumption within the domesticwater-use sector. Commonly, water-useprojections are derived from expectedpopulation growth only. But when theseprojections are recalculated to take into accountchanging household types and, in particular, theincreasing numbers of single-person dwellings,the water-consumption figures are 18–62%higher than average. 6This higher rate of consumption can beillustrated as follows. A four-person householdmight use 20 L filling the sink to wash up aftera meal (the per-capita usage of water in thiscase is 5 L). A person living alone still needsto do the dishes. If roughly the same amountis used in a similarly sized sink, the amount usedper person will be more than 5 L.800700600500NSW/ACTVICQLDFigure 1. Changes in per-capita water consumption for each state and territory,2000–01 to 2004–05The graphs above and on the following page show the level of household waterconsumption state by state during four periods over a ten-year span: 1993–94,1996–97, 2000–01 and 2004–05.Sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia, 1993–94 to 1996–97, ABS,cat. no. 4610.0, Canberra, 2000, ; and Australian Bureau of Statistics, Wateraccount for Australia, 2004–2005, ABS, cat. no. 4610.0, Canberra, 2006, .GL40030020010001993–941996–972001–012004–051993–941996–972001–012004–051993–941996–972001–012004–05Per Capita water consumption: YearsVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 61

The Big Picturehouseholds400350WA8070TAS3006025050GL200SAGL40NT1503010020501001993–941996–972001–012004–051993–941996–972001–012004–0501993–941996–972001–012004–051993–941996–972001–012004–05Per Capita water consumption: YearsPer Capita water consumption: Years1. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Wateraccount, Australia, 2004-2005, ABS,Canberra, 2006.2.3.REFERENCESOrganisation for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment, Environmental outlook, OECDEnvironment Directorate, Paris, 2001,pp. 97–102.Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering andInnovation Council, Recycling water for ourcities, DEST, Canberra, 2003, p. 2.4. C Houston, ‘Melbourne’s energy guzzlers stillliving the high life’, the Age, 23 December2006, p. 4.5.ibid., p. 4.6. R Birrell, V Rapson, & TF Smith, Impactof demographic change and urbanconsolidation on domestic water use,Water Services Association of Australia –Occasional paper no. 15, Monash UniversityMelbourne, 2005, p. 5.Some other useful sources• Australian Government Department ofthe Environment and Water Resources.All government initiatives related towater can be accessed here such as waterefficiency labelling, community watergrants, and water reform and resourcesinformation, .62 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturebusiness & industryBusiness and industry in Australiause a significant amount of water. Our mining sector andservice industries are set to expand. Their continued growth will requireever-increasing amounts of water …Over the past 16 years,the fastest growing categoriesof exports in real terms have beenmanufactured exports and exportsof services … Even with exportdiversification occurring, we arestill going to be a country witha high proportion of our exportscoming from the resource sector.John Macfarlane, former governor, Reserve Bank ofAustralia, The Australian economy: past, present andfuture, speech to the National Press Club, April 2002Business and industry are major sectorsin our economy. They provide millions ofAustralians with employment and manyof the goods and services that we needand use in our daily lives, and they earn alarge part of the nation’s export income.Manufacturing industries contributeapproximately 13.5% to GDP 1 and this hasconsistently been the case for the pastfew years. The total trading profit for themanufacturing sector in 2004–05 was$93.2 billion 2 and approximately 1 057 600people were employed in this sector. 3Service industries (such as commercialand domestic cleaning, banking, personnelagencies, health programs and care andsupport agencies) in 2005–06 contributednearly 13% to GDP 4 and gross value wasjust under $100 billion. The industriesemploy approximately 6 million people. 5There are 1.2 million small businessesacross Australia – 400 000 of these arein manufacturing and 780 000 in serviceindustries. 6Like farms and households, all businessesrequire water inputs. But some sectors withinbusiness and industry require significantlygreater inputs than others. Service industriesare emerging as major water users. In 2004–05,they accounted for 1041 GL. In the same yearmining and minerals processing used 397 GL,and manufacturing industries used 541 GL. 7In terms of national figures for water use, therequirements of mining do not seem all thatgreat. However, many mining operations aresituated in remote arid areas, so providingadequate water supplies and solving waterpollutionproblems near mine sites is vital. 8Activity in both these sectors is stronglyinfluenced by the performance of the domesticeconomy and cyclical global settings. Strategicdecisions will be required to meet the waterneeds of these sectors during periods of highactivity and output.We are experiencing a mining boom andthis is reflected in water-use figures. Inthe past four years, water used in mininghas grown from 452 GL to 608 GL – anincrease of 35%. 9 Most of this increasedconsumption has occurred in WesternAustralia (an increase of 81%), followedby Queensland, NSW and Victoria.Most water used in the mining industry ispumped groundwater. To date there is virtuallyno reuse of this water, with only 1.2% beingreused in 2004–05. 10Manufacturing, on the other hand, uses bothgroundwater and delivered surface water. In thepast four years water used by manufacturinghas grown from 548 GL to 600 GL, an increaseof 9%. 11 There is marginally greater water reuse(2.2%) by manufacturing. 12 Reflective of themining boom, metals manufacturing consumedapproximately 60 GL in 2001 and just over 90 GLin 2004–05. 13Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 63

The Big Picturebusiness & industryTable 1. Annual water use by industry sectorsState/TerritoryMiningGLManufacturingGLService IndustriesGLNew South Wales 63 126 311Victoria 32 114 261Queensland 83.6 158 202South Australia 19 55 52Western Australia 183 81 168Tasmania 16 49 18Northern Territory 17 6.3 29Totals 397 541 1041After agriculture and households, the three industry sectors indicated above use significant volumesof water. In particular, the service industry sector is emerging as a major water user. This trend islikely to continue.Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia, 2004–2005, ABS, Canberra,2006, pp. 9–47.REFERENCEs1. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year book Australia, 2002, ABS, Canberra, 2002.2. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year book Australia, 2005, cat. no. 8221.0, ABS, Canberra,2005, p. 7.3.ibid., p. 5.4. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian system of national accounts, 2005-06, cat. no.5204.0, ABS, Canberra, 2007, p.1.5.ibid., p. 2.6. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year book Australia, 2005, cat. no. 1301.1, ABS, Canberra,2005, p. 3.7. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia, 2004-05, ABS, Canberra 2006,pp. 9-478.Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, ‘Are today’s waterusepatterns sustainable?’, Water and the Australian economy: community summary,Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, Melbourne, 1999.9. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia, 2004-05, ABS, Canberra, 2006,p. 2.10.11.12.13.ibid., p. 2.ibid., p. 2.ibid., p 2.ibid. p. 2.Some other useful sources• K Ringwood, Water Stewardship - a business imperative, paper for Minerals Councilof Australia.64 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturewaste(d) waterFor a dry continent, it is puzzling thatwe have for decades dragged the chain on any large-scale waterrecycling. Despite a looming water crisis, there is still inertia …The Israelis assume that nobody intheir right mind would ever disposeof raw sewage. I had to bite mytongue at that point.Malcolm Turnbull, Watermark Australiasession notes, no. 5Recycling processes in Europe aresophisticated and commonplace.Most importantly, attitudes towater in Europe are completelydifferent.Kate Shaw, ‘Just another case of being a wally’,the Age, 15 September 2006, p. 17Every day millions of litres of used water arecarried away from homes, factories, businessesand farms. This is water that has been used inday-to-day human activities. It can contain awide range of contaminants, including humanand industrial wastes, household products, foodwastes, cleaning chemicals, fats, oils etc. Oncegenerated, this water is usually moved to moreremote locations for treatment before beingdischarged.It’s symptomatic that Australians usethe term ‘waste water’ rather than‘wasted water’!The technology now exists to treat this ‘waste’water to varying standards, right up to makingit fit for human consumption. We couldsubstitute much of our potable water if wetreated and used what we now call waste water.This is not news for many countries around theworld. Israel recycles, after treatment, 70% of itswaste water of urban and industrialorigin for reuse in agriculture.Singapore uses state-of-the-arttechnology to recycle water and theuse of recycled water has becomea way of life. California has beenrecycling water for over 50 years. Ithas over 300 water-recycling plantsin operation. 1In Europe, water recycling and reusethrough surface and groundwaterbodies is common practice. Denmark,for example, treats something like87% of its waste water mechanically,chemically or biologically. 2In Australia, however, the driest inhabitedcontinent, 97% of our city runoff and 86%of effluent water is unproductive. 3 Sydneyalone pumps 450 billion L of barely treatedsewage into the ocean every year. In 2002–03,360 billion L of waste water was dischargedinto Bass Strait and Port Phillip Bay, fromMelbourne, after treatment. 4slow Government responseAs with harnessing stormwater, Australia hasbeen very slow to move towards treating andrecycling the water we use in our day-to-dayactivities. Foremost among the reasons why isthe lack of active leadership from governmentsacross our federal system.Around 30 years ago, the Federal Governmentreceived recommendations from a major reviewof wastewater use. The review recommendedthat we should initiate: 5• a national program of research,demonstration and education• an integrated approach to water supply,sewerage and solid-waste disposal as anintegral part of one planning processVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 65

The Big Picturewaste(d) water• smaller, simpler sewer networksbased on regional plants locatednear opportunities to reuse• the use of recycled water for conservingwater resources in rivers and streamsand recharging aquifers providingnutrients were controlled• an assessment into the substitutionof recycled water for fresh waterin Adelaide and inadvertentgroundwater recharge in Perth• the development of conceptual models,pilot applications and some full-scaleprojects, particularly for the ‘interception’method (presumably ‘sewer mining’)and the ‘dual pipe’ supply concept.Visiting Australia 30 years later, a member ofthe original 1977 study team observed, withsome amazement, that little had happened. 6In 1992 the productivity commissionwas asked to enquire into waterresources and waste disposal. 7 Whileits recommendations formed the basisfor the COAG National Water ReformFramework, recycled water was left out.Only since 2003 has there has beenany national government funding for anumber of water recycling projects.Other countries are recycling,so why are we so far behind?Organic Apples Watermark Australia groupDemonstration projects onlyA number of local recycling projects havebeen implemented in Australia. Most aresmall in scale (recycling less than 10 ML perday) and aimed at using recycled water for adesignated purpose (e.g. irrigation or wateringa golf course). The largest of these is theLower Molongo Water Quality Control Centrein the ACT, which treats 90 ML each day.State governments and private developershave initiated a number of ‘suburban-scale’housing projects that incorporate recycledwater. Notable ones include Olympic Park andRouse Hill (Sydney), Aurora (Melbourne), MawsonLakes (Adelaide) and Port Douglas (Queensland).These supply a residential community withwater for multi-purpose use, excluding humanconsumption. They use a ‘third pipe’ to deliverrecycled water to individual households. Theseschemes are evaluated in the context of eachjurisdiction’s planning regulations for watersensitiveurban design (WSUD). These integrateurban planning and development with waterconservation, protection and use. This is donewithin the constraints of the overall water cycle. 8Water-sensitive urban designWhile at the present time WSUD principlesgenerally focus on stormwater, it has beensuggested that these principles could beextended to include elements such as:• rainwater tanks• the use of greywater from householdkitchens, bathrooms and laundries• on-site treatment of all householdwaste water for reuse• the use of recycled water derived fromoff-site wastewater treatment. 9Despite the fact that such technology is used toprovide potable recycled water in places like theUSA, Singapore and Israel, the first ‘metropolisscale’project has only just been commenced inAustralia. The Illawarra Project in Wollongong,south of Sydney, will treat all of Wollongong’ssewage to tertiary level and have the capacityto provide 20 million L at least of treatedeffluent to the nearby BHP Billiton steelworks. 10BARRIERS TO RECYCLINGThere are several factors that frustrate movesto recycle more water. The first is cost. Treatedwater will be considerably more expensivethan the potable water that is supplied tous now. While the technology will evolveand the unit cost of treating water shouldreduce over time, governments’ willingnessto address water-pricing issues is limited.The second obstacle is community resistanceto the idea that water derived from treatedhuman waste is fit for consumption.The third is the complexity of intergovernmentalarrangements and regulationsrelating to planning, health standardsand water in this country. This is apparentin the multiplicity of legislation andregulations that impact upon any party’sattempts to progress water recycling.In 2004, 65 separate pieces of legislationwere on the statutes of various governmentsacross Australia – all impacting in someway upon water recycling. 11 At the timeof writing this number had increased!Table 1. Wastewater recycling in Australia’scapital citiesstate capitalSydney 2.3Melbourne 2.0Brisbane 6.0Adelaide 11.1Perth 3.3Hobart 0.1% recyled water useAlthough the largest volumes of waste waterare generated within our capital cities, thevolume recycled is very low. The greatest use ofrecycled waste water is occurring in rural areas.Source: Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering, Water recycling inAustralia, special report, ATSE, 2004, p. 7,.66 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturewaste(d) waterTable 2. Changes in rates of treatment and use of sewage effluent across AustraliaRegion 1996–99 2001–02Effluent,GL/yrReuse,GL/yr%Effluent,GL/yrReuse,GL/yrQLD 328* 38* 11.6 339‡ 38‡ 11.2NSW 548† 40.1† 7.3 694 61.5 8.9ACT 31* 0.25* .8 30 1.7 5.6VIC 367 16.9 4.6 448 30.1 6.7TAS 43 1 2.3 65 6.2 9.5SA 91* 9* 9.9 101 15.2 15.1WA 109 505 601 126 12.7 10.0NT 21* 1* 408 21 1.1 5.2AUST 1538 112.9 7.3 1824 166.5 9.1†1996 *1998 ‡ Subject to revisionThe table shows the amount of treated sewage effluent that is being treated andrecycled as a proportion of the total amount being treated at sewage treatment plantsin each state and territory at two points in time (1966–69 and 2001–02).Source: Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering,Water recycling in Australia, special report, ATSE, 2004, p. 7, .%1.2.3.REFERENCESAustralian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering, Water recyclingin Australia, special report, ATSE, Melbourne,2004, p. 23, .Organisation for Economic Cooperationand Development, OECD key environmentalindicators, OECD Environment Directorate,Paris, 2004, p. 23.MD Young, W Proctor, M Ejaz Qureshi & GWittwer, ‘Without water: the economicsof supplying water to 5 million moreAustralians’, Water for a healthy countryflagship report, CSIRO (Canberra) andMonash University (Melbourne), 2006,pp. 6–17.4. Victorian Government White Paper, Securingour water future together, 2004, p. 107.5.Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering, op. cit., p. 49.6. HI Shuval, cited in Water recycling inAustralia, ATSE special report, ATSE,Melbourne, 2004, p. 50.7. Productivity Commission, Water resourcesand wastewater disposal, industrycommission report no. 26, ProductivityCommission, Canberra, 1992, .8.9.Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering, op. cit., p. 11.op. cit, pp. 53–70.10. E Drioli & F Macedonio, New integratedwater treatments and production modesfor city planning, New Technology forInfrastructure – The World of Tomorrow,ATSE Symposium, Sydney, 2006.11.Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering op. cit., app. 2.Some other useful sources• Department of the Environment and WaterResources, Australian Greenhouse Office,,(keyword: wastewater)Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 67

The Big PicturestormwaterAlthough stormwater is a significant potentialsupplementary water resource, which is usually of much higher qualitythan industrial discharge, we have been very slow to captureand use it in our modern cities …Till taught by painMen really know notWhat good water’s worthLord Byron, Don Juan, 1810Community engagement for waterrecycling should be based on twopremises: the community hasgood capability to reach soundconclusions if given the correctinformation from a trusted source;and, in general, the communityhas poor information and oftendoesn’t trust the sources.Prime minister’s Science, Technology andInnovation Council, 2003While the size of Australian cities has steadilyincreased, the use of stormwater has beenessentially overlooked. Yet the volume of urbanstormwater runoff from our cities in an averageyear is only slightly less than the total volume ofwater consumed by households.Our cities cover a lot of ground! Brisbane,for example, has a total metropolitan areaof 98.9 km 2 , while Melbourne covers 36.5 km 2and Sydney 27.8 km 2 . These three capitalcities on the east coast have extensive areasof impervious surfaces. This results in largevolumes of stormwater running off into nearbywaterways and/or into sewerage systems. Thetotal annual estimated volume of stormwaterfor these cities is 1285 GL. 1, 2little urban stormwatercaptureHarvesting stormwater into rainwater tanks wasa common practice among our forebears, butthe concentration of ever-growing numbers ofpeople in our modern cities changed all that.We built our cities either in proximity to thecoast or alongside major rivers, so that wecould access adequate freshwater supplies anddischarge our household and industrial wastes.We developed reticulated water-supply systemsthat could be connected to every building.We constructed sealed roads and pathways,acres of roofed houses and city buildings, carparks, airports and wharves, so that enormoussurface areas were sealed and waterproofed.To prevent these areas from flooding duringperiods of high or extended rainfall, they weredrained so that stormwater now gravity-feedsthrough the drainage system and eventuallyflows into local rivers or estuaries or directlyinto the sea.In this modern urban landscape there wasno place for the household rainwater tank.Indeed, for several decades householderswere discouraged, and even prevented,from using water tanks by public healthlegislation and council regulations.And so, stormwater disappeared frompublic recognition as a significant sourceof fresh water to complement surfacewaterreserves.Renewing interestin stormwaterThe increased pressure on our water resources,particularly the supply to cities and the predictedimpacts of climate change on rainfall, are nowforcing various authorities and professionalorganisations to rethink the potential forsupplementing water supplies by capturing,treating and distributing urban stormwater.In 2004 a major review by the AustralianAcademy of Technological Sciences andEngineering reported on water-recyclingpractices, policy, regulation and legislation andconsidered all potential water sources, includingstormwater. According to this review, thepotential benefits of stormwater recycling include: 368 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturestormwater• reduced demand for potable water suppliedfrom water storages• reduced volumes at peak flows ofstormwater, and therefore reduced risks ofstorm damage• reduced pollution from stormwater runoff• reduced need for water-supply infrastructure• provision of acceptable-quality water insituations where alternate sources of waterare limited.There has yet to be any demonstrablemetropolis-scale response by governments tothis report. While some larger-scale stormwaterrecycling schemes have been built, thesetend to be showcase projects, carried outopportunistically rather than from strategicconsiderations on the part of the water retaileror sewerage authority.More recently, in direct response to theprolonged drought, state governments havebegun providing financial incentives for peopleto purchase and install rainwater tanks. Inmost cases, this harvested rainwater is used forexternal purposes only.On its own, this level of stormwater harvestingdoes not fully exploit the opportunitiesavailable. To produce a serious addition topotable water supplies, governments andtheir water authorities will need to assist themove to the metropolis-wide harvesting anduse of stormwater. This will require largescaleharvesting, treatment and distributionof stormwater from locations close to majorpopulation centres.REFERENCEs1. G Mitchell, R Mein, & T McMahon, The reuse potential of urban stormwater and wastewater,Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology, Melbourne, 1999,.2.Stormwater figures supplied by Brisbane City Council.3. Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering., Water recycling in Australia,special report, ATSE, Melbourne, 2004, .Some other useful sources• Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), Managing urban stormwater: harvestingand reuse, DEC, May 2006.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 69

The Big Pictureclimate changeAustralia’s climate is becoming hotterand average yearly rainfall is declining along the entire easternseaboard – where most of us live …Australia is suffering its worstdrought in 100 years. Now, Irealise we can’t take just oneyear in one city, or even in onecontinent as proof that somethingunusual is happening. And I amno scientist, but I do know howto assess a risk – and this one isclear. Climate change poses clear,catastrophic threats. We maynot agree on the extent, but wecertainly can’t afford the risk ofinaction.Rupert Murdoch, speech delivered to theemployees of News Corporation, New York,9 May 2007Like every other country, Australia is influencedby global climate and ocean-current systems.Against this backdrop, a characteristic feature ofour climate is its variability (for more on this, seethe Variability section on pages 19–20).While this climatic variability can be influencedby several factors, we now know that amajor indicator is what we call the SouthernOscillation Index (SOI). When sea-surfacetemperatures in the eastern Pacific (near SouthAmerica) are low relative to temperatures inthe western Pacific (near Australia), Australiaexperiences ‘La Nina-type’ conditions andrainfall is generally above average. Whenthis temperature difference narrows becauseof warming in the western Pacific, Australiaexperiences ‘El Nino-type’ conditions and rainfallis usually below average. Each set of conditionscan remain dominant for several years at a time.The IPCC concludes that ‘El Nino events havebecome more frequent, persistent and dryingover the last 20 to 30 years compared to theprevious 100 years’. 1 If this trend continues, wecan expect generally hotter and drier weatherpatterns in Australia. Our tropical rainfall systemwill move further south in Queensland andWestern Australia, but there will be less annualrainfall in the southern half of the mainlandand more extreme weather events around thecountry. 2In the Murray-Darling Basin, annualtemperatures are projected to increase byup to 2°C by 2030, and up to 6°C by 2070. 3There is now strong evidence that globaltemperatures are rising. While the debatecontinues in some quarters as to whetherthis is a natural event or is induced, at leastin part, by human greenhouse-gas producingactivities, there is a striking parallel betweenthis temperature rise and the accumulation ofcarbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Irrespectiveof the causes, a sustained rise in globaltemperatures will be mirrored by rises in thetemperatures of the world’s oceans. Thesetemperature increases will directly affect climatesystems, causing even more variability andgreater extremes.Computed climate predictionsAccess to supercomputers during the last 20or so years has made it possible to developand refine mathematical models of our climatesystems. These models also describe the waysin which the anticipated changes in rainfallpatterns will unfold across the southern halfof the Australian mainland.According to these models, a new rainfall patternwill first become evident on the western side ofthe continent and will slowly work its way westto become the dominant pattern over a largepart of the eastern seaboard. While most peopleare aware of the expected hotter summers andwarmer winters, they probably don’t appreciatethat, with a medium rise in average dailytemperatures (of about 0.85°C), annual rainfallacross southern Australia is predicted to decline70 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureclimate changeon average by about 15%. An immediateconsequence of this annual rainfall reductionwill be a reduction in the volumes of surfacewater running into rivers and streams.This predicted change will bring a newedge to Australia’s climate. Our weatherwill become even more variable than itis now. At the same time, it is predictedthere will be more hot days, more dry daysand more extreme storm events.Now here is the double whammy! Wheneverrain does fall, higher ambient temperaturesmean that more water will evaporate from theland surface, while at the same time the driersoils will absorb more of this water, causingsurface water runoff to reduce even further.Our major storages will fill at slower rates andour groundwater aquifers will also be rechargedmore slowly. Keep in mind here that, evenwithout this further reduction in runoff, surfacewater and groundwater in many parts of thecountry are already being removed at ratesexceeding the ability of these sources to bereplenished naturally.Cyclones may move further south creatinglocal flooding in places which have seldomexperienced such impacts. An alarmingobservation for eastern seaboard dwellers is thatwhen Australia’s weather systems are under theinfluence of El Nino conditions, cyclones in thenortheast have tended to move south AND tothe east. A lot of the rain associated with thesesystems has fallen over the Pacific Ocean ratherthan over northern and central Queensland.In contrast, the northern regions of WesternAustralia have been getting wetter, with weatherpatterns moving in from the Indian Ocean andprogressing in an easterly direction.In addition, it has been suggested that land-usepractices in Indonesia are contributing to thisemerging pattern. Fire is used extensively toclear vegetation, resulting in smoke particlesforming an aerosol haze in the upper layers ofthe atmosphere. This causes monsoonal windsto move south towards Australia, and more rainto fall in the north of Western Australia. 4In February 2007 the IPCC released a followupreport to the reports on greenhouse-gasemissions and climate change that it releasedin 2004. This latest report confirms thatatmospheric concentrations of the greenhousegases – carbon dioxide, methane and nitrousoxide – have continued to rise. 5 Furthermore,11 of the years between 1955 and 2006 areincluded in the 12 warmest years since 1850. 6A previous prediction of average dailytemperature rises by 2030 gave a figure of0.85°C in a temperature range of 0.54°C–1.24°C. 7 The new report calculates thatduring this century, the rise in average dailytemperatures will be between 2.0°C and 4.5°C,and most probably closer to 3.0°C. The averagerise in global temperatures by the end of thecentury is unlikely to be less than 1.5°C. 8TEMPERATURE temperature ( 0 C) ( o C)1.00.50.0-0.51000Carbon dioxide and temperature last 1000 yearsCape Grim and South PoleLaw Dome ice corestemperature change800600400years Years before BEFORE 2000 AD200Figure 1. Measurements of temperature and carbon dioxide levels in the Earth’satmosphereCarbon dioxide and temperature measurements are available for the past 1000 years. Eachhas been rising steadily over the last 100 years or so – since the Industrial Revolution.Source: CSIRO, Climate change projections for Australia, CSIRO, Canberra, 2003,.0350300250200CO2 (ppm)Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 71

The Big Pictureclimate change35302520TEMPERATURE ( 0 C)151050-5-10-15-20-25-30-35197019721974197619781980YearFigure 2. The Frequency of El Nino conditions in Australia’s climate1982Since 1970 at least, El Nino conditions have had a dominant influence upon Australia’sclimate. We have had only four La Nina wet periods and nine El Nino dry periods. TheInter-governmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that these dry periods will continueto prevail.Source: R Miles & KN Purnell, ‘Climate change: How real is it, the issues and implications?’Geographical Education, no. 18, 2005, pp. 32–54.19841986198819901992199419961998REFERENCEs1. Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change meeting – Geneva, CambridgeUniversity Press, 2001.2. Australian Greenhouse Office, Climate change science: questions answered, AGO, Canberra,2005, .3. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Securing our water future together, DSE,Melbourne, 2004, p. 9, .4. N Nicholls, ‘Detecting and attributing Australian climate change: a review’, AustralianMeteorology Magazine, 55, 2006, pp. 199–211.5. Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change 2007: the scientific basis,Summary for policymakers, Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 3.6.7.ibid., p. 5.Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change, op. cit.8. Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change 2007: the scientific basis,Summary for policymakers, Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 12.Some other useful sources• Australian Greenhouse Office, Climate change science – questions answered, AGO, Canberra,2005, .• Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists, Australia’s climate is changing Australia, WGCS,Sydney, 2006, .72 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturepopulation & economyAustralia’s population growth, urbanexpansion and steady economic growth reflectassumptions that water will always be available, and in whateverquantities required …A nation with a long-term strategicview would know the extent towhich water, precious to its people,its industries and its environmentalintegrity, is embodied in eachgood, service and product that itproduces for domestic consumption,for export or that it imports.B Foran & F Poldy, Future dilemmas – optionsto 2050 for Australia’s population, technology,resources and environment, CSIRO ResourcesFutures Working Paper 02/01, CSIRO SustainableEcosystems, Canberra, 2002, p. 213In the economic growth scenario,pressures for expansion(particularly in agriculture)will occur at such a level thatachieving any form of ecologicalsustainability in future will beimpossible.PS Lake & NR Bond, ‘Australian futures: freshwaterecosystems and human water useage’, Futures, vol.39, 2007, p. 303The arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 added 859people to the estimated 750 000 Aboriginaland Torres Strait Islander people alreadypresent. Since that time the main componentof our population growth has been naturalincrease, contributing about two-thirds ofthe total growth since the beginning of the20th century. Natural increase rose sharplyin the mid- to late 1940s as a result of thepost WWII baby boom, and the immigrationof many young people who then had childrenin Australia. As of June 2005, Australia’spopulation stood at 20.3 million people. 1PROJECTED POPULATIONDuring the last 80 years, Australia’spopulation has trebled. 2 According to ABSprojections, given the current trends in lifeexpectancy, total fertility rates, overseasmigration and current immigration policy, ourpopulation will increase to between 24 and28 million by 2050. Much of this projectedincrease will occur in our capital cities. 3The dynamics of our population growthare now in a different phase. Over the past50 or so years, life expectancy at birth hasincreased while the total fertility rate hasfallen. Under such conditions, the settingof net immigration targets can become animportant determinant of population trends.Because immigration levels over comingdecades have yet to be set, predictions aboutour future population levels cover a widerange. This makes it difficult to accuratelypredict future water demand and consequentlyformulate appropriate water policy.Water underpins economictransformationsIn the fledgling colony, the focus was onthe farming of small holdings with theaim of increasing production of staples tomeet the colony’s needs. Agriculture slowlyexpanded beyond subsistence levels, asnative grasslands were settled and grazingdeveloped. Timber was also harvested for localuse and select timbers were shipped back toEngland. By 1821, wool was being shippedback to England. Thus the first Australianeconomy was essentially an agrarian one.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 73

The Big Picturepopulation & economyTHE DISCOVERY OF GOLDThe Australian economy has grown steadily andhas undergone a number of transformationsalong the way. Each phase has had its distinctivecharacteristics and measures of success. Thefirst transformation occurred with the discoveryof gold. Immigrants arrived in their thousandsand this sudden increase in population createdstrong consumer demand. The new-foundwealth meant that Australians could now affordto purchase goods from around the world.Sydney and Melbourne became sophisticated,European-style cities, and country towns likeBathurst, Bendigo, Ballarat and Charters Towerswere transformed into cities and centres ofcommerce and local industry.THE exploitation OF COAL &MINERALSThe next major transformation was driven bythe commercial exploitation of the country’svast coal resources. Coal provided the domesticeconomy with a cheap, highly transportablesource of energy. Coal was also a resourcethat could be exported in bulk to the largeindustrialised nations of the world.A steady expansion of exploration andmining heralded the next transformation.The availability of vast quantities of mineralsand locally mined coal provided a foundationfor industrial development. In 1915 BHPcommenced construction of its first blastfurnace at Newcastle. This marked the nexttransformation: the arrival of heavy industryand then dispersed manufacturing into theeconomy. With government assistance, tariffprotection and a growing population andworkforce, these industries were able toconsolidate and expand. 4Water has been an essential and enablingfactor in each of these transformationsand it will remain a key determinantin our production of minerals, metals,manufactured goods and farm products.In the second half of the 20th century thingsbegan to change. Trade with Europe, and theUK in particular, began to decline. New tradeagreements began to develop with Japan, theMiddle East and the USA. Australia came underpressure to reduce tariffs, and soon heavyindustry and manufacturing faced competitionfrom imports. At the same time anothertransformation was taking place in the economy.With the development of oil and gas, in additionto coal, Australia became a significant energyexporter and the world’s largest exporter of coal.The current phase, which has unfolded overthe last 25 years, has involved the rapid uptakeof information technology, the diversificationof manufacturing and the rise of the serviceindustries.Economic performance is conventionallymeasured every three months. At the presenttime we are in another phase of economicexpansion with 41 successive quarters ofeconomic growth; compared with 31 and 28for the 1970s and 1980s respectively. 574 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturepopulation & economyPOPULATION (million)20,000,00018,000,00016,000,00014,000,00012,000,00010,000,0008,000,0006,000,0004,000,0002,000,00001788 1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000Figure 1. Australia’s population growth since the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788The first significant population expansion occurred between 1850 and 1875, largely with thediscovery of gold. After Federation, individual states competed to attract people for their burgeoningeconomies. Post-WWII saw another rise. After 1950, the population more than doubled to its present size.Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian historical population statistics, cat. no. 3105.0.65.001,ABS, Canberra, 2006.THE GLOBALISATION OF TRADEBroadly, the Australian economy consistsof a small domestic market for food, goodsand services with a high-volume exportcomponent. We rely upon international tradein resources and services to earn the hardcurrency to enable us to pay for imports.International trade in the resource andservices sectors accounts for about 75% ofAustralia’s international trade. In 2005–06the value of exports totalled nearly $152billion. The value of exported commodities was$81 billion, with coal, minerals and refinedmetals accounting for $54.6 billion of this. 6Thus we are linked into global trade as amajor supplier of resources. We are significantsuppliers of food, fibre, minerals, metalsand energy and we have rapidly expandingmarkets for these commodities in Asia (andparticularly China). We also export servicesand various elaborately transformed goodsto niche markets around the world. In fact,there has been 12.4% growth between1985 and 2001 in the export volumes ofthese manufactured products, comparedwith 7.5% for services, 6.4% for mineralsand metals, and 3.4% for farm products. 7Essentially, Australia relies on internationaltrade, and these arrangements are unlikelyto change for some time. Strategic policydecisions, taken by successive governmentssince 1983, mean that Australia will remaina major exporter of commodities. All thesecommodities require significant water inputs.Water’s link to populationIt’s not just these trade patterns that requiresignificant water inputs, however. As wehave already outlined, Australia’s populationis projected to increase substantially untilat least 2050. This translates into increaseddomestic demand for housing, services,urban expansion and manufactured goods– all of which increase demand for water.Issues of sustainable ecological development,limits to economic and population growthwere raised for debate from the early 1990son. The Population Inquiry of the early 1990stook place when the national population stoodat about 17.5 million people. This inquiry wasthe culmination of a series of sophisticatedanalytical papers produced for the FederalGovernment’s Bureau of Immigration Research.Although the 1992 report stemming fromthe inquiry dealt mainly with the dynamicsand determinants of Australia’s futurepopulation, it recognised the critical nexusbetween population levels and water. 8The report noted that while irrigation wasthe major user of water in Australia, largeurban settlements, particularly on thesoutheast coast, placed significant pressureson available water resources. The city ofAdelaide was already understood to beexperiencing ‘serious problems with watersupply’. 9 Unchecked, urban water demandswould ‘soon lead to strong competition withagricultural users for water supplies’. 10Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 75

The Big Picturepopulation & economyPOPULATION (million)Population (million)454035302520High population growthMedium population growthLow population growth2001 2021 2041 2061 2081 2091At 30 JuneYearsFigure 2. Three projections of possible population growth for Australia as shown inthe State of the environment report, 2006These population projections are based on the mathematical models used by the AustralianBureau of Statistics. The end of each curve points to the number of people likely to be living inAustralia by 2101. The final population numbers differ slightly from those of Foran and Poldybecause different assumptions are made in their respective models.Source: Australian State of the Environment Committee, Australia state of the environment report,Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Canberra, 2006, p. 8.The report argued that the ‘low-density natureof urban development in Australia plays animportant role in growing water demands’ andthat a ‘more dense settlement pattern wouldreduce per-capita water consumption, allowinggreater populations to be handled with a givenwater supply.’ 11 . Comment was also made aboutthe large volumes of partially treated rawsewage being discharged at that time through,for example, Sydney’s ocean outfall plants.Two years later, the House of RepresentativesStanding Committee, chaired by Barry JonesMP, explored in greater detail the links betweenpopulation and environmental impacts. Thecommittee’s unanimous report, Australia’spopulation ‘carrying capacity’: One nation –two ecologies, expressed the need foran in-depth examination of Australia’sfuture population levels and proposedthat levels should be set taking accountof geographical, environmental andresource-diversity considerations. 12All these observations continue to have currency,especially when we acknowledge that allAustralian mainland capital cities (except Darwin)and regional population centres now facewater restrictions, and the signs are that futurewater supplies will be more precarious still.The future supply of adequate waterto the populations in our cities willpresent some significant challengesover the next two to three decades.Except for Perth and Adelaide, most of the freshwater used in our cities is surface water. Withthe effects of climate change, the volumes ofsurface water available to all cities (other thanDarwin and Hobart) are predicted to declinesignificantly. 13 However, by 2030 an extra4.5 million people are projected to be livingin our cities, with capital-city populationspredicted to increase by between 8% and 69%.Faced with this conundrum, state and territorygovernments have responded by developinga Water Resource Strategy for each of thecapital cities, the Gold Coast and Hunter Valley.With the exception of Hobart and the LowerHunter, the strategies emphasise increasingwater supply by implementing a diverse rangeof actions, not simply building more dams. 14This imperative of factoring water useinto the economy, including the domesticwater component, is best illustrated bya recent detailed CSIRO analysis of thethree possible population targets thatare achievable from this point. 15• The low-population scenario: netimmigration would be set at zero andthe population would stabilise at around20 million people by 2050.• The base-case scenario (medium populationgrowth): net immigration would be set at70 000 persons per year, resulting in apopulation of about 25 million people by 2050.76 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturepopulation & economyTable 1. Projected population and water consumption in our major cities• The 0.67% scenario (high-growth scenario):with this level of net immigration, Australia’spopulation will reach 32 million by 2050 and50 million by 2100.The scenarios imply significant populationgrowth and indicate that more water willbe required for domestic consumption. Forexample, a population of around 20 millionin 2050 would have an urban requirement ofaround 5000 GL per year; a population of 25million would require 6000 GL; while a highgrowthscenario of 32 million by 2050 wouldrequire an additional 7500 GL per year. 16Whichever population projection provesaccurate, it’s possible that we could be using40 000 GL of water annually versus around24 000 GL at present – a figure whichincorporates both urban requirements and theneed to export commodities to sustain ourdomestic consumption of imports.The same CSIRO study has explored the linkbetween increasing water efficiency andreducing the amount of water needed. It foundthat efficiency gains could be substantial. Theresearch suggests that with an increase in waterefficiency of 30%, by 2050 the expected highgrowthpopulation of 32 million would lowerits annual water requirement from 7500 GLto 6000 GL. The base-case scenario (involvinga population of 25 million) would reduce itsrequirement from 6000 GL to 5000 GL. Further,the total annual water requirement could bereduced from 40 000 GL to 30 000 GL. 17Australia’s population levels will be a majordeterminant of the quality of life of futuregenerations. The compelling data on the linksbetween human activity and global warming, 18and the predicted changes in regional climatesystems, present us with substantial challenges.A further challenge is that while our populationis growing, it’s also significantly aging.Where would the projected additional 12 millionpeople live? According to the same CSIROresearch, adoption of the high-populationscenario would require us to decide whetherto grow our current cities on their margins orto develop new ones. The projected populationincrease would require the equivalent of90 cities the size of Canberra to be located,established and serviced. 19In outlining these scenarios, the CSIRO researchconcluded that the most critical issue for thefuture of water in Australia was not finding oracquiring water. Instead, it was the plethora ofside-effects associated with our current use ofwater, such as irrigation salinity, river salinity,depletion of inland fisheries, maintenance ofeconomic and social vitality in regional areas,heavy-metal and pesticide contamination andthe beauty and amenity of our urban areas. 20In arriving at this conclusion, it should be notedthat the CSIRO research took account of theearlier predictions by the Inter-governmentalPanel on Climate Change for an average risein global temperatures by 2030 of 0.85°C. Thelatest prediction is well above this figure. 21CityCurrentPopulation(000s)ProjectedPopulation in2030 (000s)%increaseAdjustedUnrestrictedConsumption(ML/yr)Adelaide 1090 1182 8% 190 383Brisbane 931 1509 62% 196 095Canberra 357 486 36% 51 208Darwin 101 168 67% 35 142Gold Coast 472 800 69% 69 899Hobart 188 215 14% 40 679Lower Hunter 496 585 18% 72 231Melbourne 3497 4573 31% 498 295Perth 1453 2177 50% 262 359Sydney 4189 5592 33% 647 158Total 12 774 17 287 35% 2 063 448Across Australia, state and territory governments have developed strategies to supply water to urbancommunities from diverse sources. With the current immigration policy settings that are in place, by2030 (just 23 years away), our major cities will need to supply water to an extra 4.5 million people.For the south and east of the country the extra demand will be lowest in Adelaide (8%) and higheston the Gold Coast (69%).Source: Water Services Association of Australia, Testing the water, Position paper 01, WSAA, 2005, p. 14.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 77

The Big Picturepopulation & economyTable 2. Net water consumption (in GL) by major use sectors in the Australian economyin two time periods: 1993–94 to 1996–97 and 2000–01 to 2004–05SECTOR 1993-94 1996-97 2000-01 2004-05Agriculture (includingforestry and fishing)12 159 15 503 14 989 12 191Mining 591 570 321 413Manufacturing 736 728 549 589Water Supply 2065 1707 2165 2083Household 1704 1829 2278 2108Other 2235 2370 3421 3219Water use can vary from year to year in any sector of the economy, depending on factorssuch as rainfall and drought. In particular sectors it can also vary from year to yeardepending on the state of the local or global economy.Note: volumes of water used by various water-use sectors, and reported by the ABS, differfrom volumes published in other reports (e.g. the National Land and Water Resources Auditreports). This is explained by the fact that the different reports give figures for differentyears and/or periods of time and, in addition, the ABS covers a wider range of water-usesectors.Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia, 2004-05, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS,Canberra, 2006, .1.2.Department of Immigration and Citizenship,Population projections, fact sheet, DIC,Canberra, 2006, p. 1, .Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Populationsize and growth’, Year book, Australia, 2002,ABS, Canberra, 2002, cat. no. 1301.0.3. Hamlyn Publishing, Illustrated history ofAustralia, Paul Hamlyn Pty Ltd, Sydney,1974, pp. 963–1239.4. IJ McFarlane, Reserve Bank of Australiabulletin, RBA, Canberra, April 2002, p. 7.5.Australian Bureau of Statistics,‘International merchandise trade’, Yearbook, Australia, 2007, cat. no. 1301.0, ABS,Canberra, 2007, .6. IJ McFarlane, Reserve Bank of Australiabulletin, RBA, Canberra, April 2002, p. 9.7. I Diamond, Population issues and Australia’sfuture: environment economy and society,report to the Population Issues Committeeof the National Population Council, 1992,pp. 52–3.8.9.10.11.12.REFERENCEsibid., p. 52.ibid., p. 52.ibid., p. 52.ibid., p. 52.House of Representatives StandingCommittee on Long Term Strategies1990–96, Australia’s population ‘carryingcapacity’: One nation – two ecologies, AGPS,Canberra, 1992.13.14.Water Services Association of Australia,Testing the water, position paper no. 01,WSAA, Melbourne, 1992, pp. 16–17.ibid., pp. 20–3.15. B Foran & F Poldy, Future dilemmas –options to 2050 for Australia’s population,technology, resources and environment,CSIRO Resources Futures Working Paper02/01, CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems,Canberra, 2002, pp. 16–39.16.17.18.19.20.21.ibid., pp. 201–03.ibid., pp. 206–07.Inter-governmental Panel on ClimateChange, Climate change 2007: the physicalscience basis, summary for policymakers,IPCC, Geneva, 2007, pp. 2–3.B Foran & F Poldy, op. cit., 2002, p. 14.ibid., pp. 211–12.Inter-governmental Panel on ClimateChange, op. cit., 2007, pp. 1–21.Some other useful sources• Australian Academy of Science, 2007 FennerConference on the Environment, Water,Population and Australia’s Urban Future,.• R Fincher, Immigration, urban infrastructureand the environment, AGPS, Canberra, 1991.• T Norton, S Dovers, H Nix & D Elias, Anoverview of research on the links betweenhuman population and the environment,AGPS, Canberra,1994.78 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturewater as a common goodIn many parts of the world water is privately owned.This has not been the Australian experience – but changes now underway apply free-market principles andpractice to water entitlements and water allocation. In the face of these changes, and our uncertain waterfuture, we need to be sure that we have legislative and regulatory frameworks in place that not only respect, but alsosecure, the concept of water as a common good.Our concern is that the marketwill be taken up by those who canafford to get into water speculation,e.g. banks, big business, whohave no real stake in how wateris allocated. Their motivation issimply making money.Kaniva Watermark Australia groupDon’t it always seem to go that youdon’t know what you’ve got til it’sgone …Joni Mitchell, part of the lyrics toBig yellow taxi, 1970Water has long been managed in Australia asa common good; belonging to all and able tobe shared. However, the 1994 COAG adoptionof a water-reform framework set in train anumber of important developments which havechanged the nature and allocation of waterentitlements and removed restrictions on watertrading, including where trading can occur.From 1 July 2007 each landholder’s waterentitlement will be separated from the landtitle (a process called ‘unbundling’). In addition,for the first time in Australia, it will be possiblefor anyone to permanently acquire a waterentitlement (or entitlements) without owningany farmland. The water entitlement itself cannow be held in perpetuity. It can be leased,used as collateral, and it can be bequeathedor permanently traded. Water entitlementswill now also need to be registered.These arrangements bestow a new statusupon water – making it a commodity thatcan be bought and sold in the marketplace.In order to grasp the magnitude andimplications of this shift, we need to step backin time and trace the deep and long-standingattachment Australia has to the conceptof managing water as a common good.MANAGING WATER ASA COMMON GOODDuring at least 40 000 years of habitation,water was woven into the traditions ofAustralia’s indigenous peoples. It was ashared resource. Billabongs and streamswere used as gathering places, for spiritualand recreational activity and as sources ofabundant food. Rivers provided a reliable wayof navigating from inland areas to the coast.Soon after the arrival of the First Fleet at SydneyCove, land became private property, but waterremained a common good. In December 1803,a notice appeared in the Sydney Gazette:‘If any person whatever is detected in throwingany filth into the stream of fresh water,cleaning fish, washing, erecting pig stiesnear it, or taking water out of the tanks, onconviction before a magistrate, their homewill be taken down and forfeit five poundsfor each offence to the Orphan Fund.’ 1Governor Phillip’s proclamation clearlydefined the colonial administration’sstewardship role over water. For the firstthree decades in the colony, everyone hadfree access to fresh water, though there werepenalties for polluting the resource. As peoplespread out from Sydney Town, the need for anoverall governance structure was identified.The eventual response was the 1886 RoyalCommission which established that ‘governmenthad a right to divert and control water.’ 2This recommendation paved the way forthe states to take control over water, onbehalf of their people. By Federation, eachhad a Water Act on its statutes. These legalarrangements meant that when the Constitutionwas drawn up in 1900, water remainedthe responsibility of state governments,to be managed for the common good.Water entitlementsEarly attempts by government to regulatewater use came in the form of licences issuedto control groundwater pumping for irrigationexperiments. The next significant raft of water-Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 79

The Big Picturewater as a common goodrelated legislation facilitated the setting upof irrigation schemes by government, to bemanaged under statutory arrangements.Thus, the NSW Irrigation Act of 1912established the NSW Water Conservation andIrrigation Commission, which immediatelyembarked on the development of theMurrumbidgee Irrigation Scheme. 3State governments set about securing thewater necessary to support the growth oftowns and cities, agriculture and mining. Thisapproach to water management continuedfor several decades. Throughout this time,farmers held water entitlements which gavethem special access to, as distinct fromownership of, water as common property.These water entitlements were attached tofarmland – linked to the property title. Whenland was traded or bequeathed, the waterentitlement went with it as an integral partof the transaction. Within this system, somefarmers were able to obtain additional water(at a negotiated price) from others, to assistin times of need. Such arrangements weredescribed as ‘water sharing’. This was possiblebecause part of a water entitlement could beleased. However, this temporary trading inwater was restricted. For example, water couldnot be moved out of an irrigation district.THE 1970S: A SHIFT BEGINSThe mid-’70s represented a turning point inwater policy. The globalisation of trade broughtchanges in economic thinking. Competition in aglobal marketplace dictated actions with respectto trade barriers, financial deregulation, the roleand size of government and the operationof state-owned monopolies.Free-market principles were extolledwith ever-greater force. The messagewas that government bureaucracies wereself-serving, slow to respond, insulatedfrom commercial realities and wasteful.Markets can, and will always, do it better.A water market & water tradingThis self-confident mantra began to bearticulated with respect to water use andmanagement. Water was seen as a commoditythat could be bought and sold in an openmarketplace. As a secure investment and atradeable entity, water would become morevaluable; and this would in turn promote greaterefficiency in its use and management. Insteadof its use being geographically restricted, watercould be directed to its highest value: watercould be moved out of irrigation districts,across state borders, and between rural andurban communities. Other perceived benefitsincluded the removal of barriers to privateinvestment in new water infrastructure, andthe breaking of state monopolies over water,thereby introducing healthy competitioninto the supply of rural and urban water. 4A water market came to be seen as animportant tool in facilitating structuraladjustment within irrigation farming andto assist the orderly transition of agriculture. 5Farmers could buy additional water entitlementsto improve reliability of supply and expand theirfarm production. With the help of other policyinstruments, such as full cost recovery, watercould be reallocated away from inefficient lowvalueirrigators on unsuitable soils, to efficienthigh-value irrigators on productive soils. 6 Suchreallocations would create more viable farmbusinesses, increase economic output from thelimited resource, provide farm employment andboost local processing and service industries,helping to reinvigorate rural communities andgenerate environmental benefits. 7 Farmers wouldalso be free to sell their water rights, retiredebt and make dignified exits from the land.In this schema, permanent trading inentitlements is seen as having advantagesover temporary trading. Permanenttrades can facilitate long-term structuralchange because farmers are more likelyto make significant financial investmentsin irrigation infrastructure when they havelong-term security and control of the water. 8Some argue that water trading can also bringwith it environmental benefits. It can relocatethe extraction and application of water awayfrom environmentally sensitive areas – suchas badly salinised soils, either in the locality orfurther afield. 9 Indeed, some agencies with acommitment to environmental sustainability arealready identifying and designing initiatives onthe assumption that permanent water tradingpresents a valuable opportunity to addressland-degradation issues. Degraded and/orabandoned land can be purchased, rehabilitated,the water infrastructure refurbished, and somenative habitat re-established. In this way, theusefulness of the land is enhanced, turning itinto a viable and valuable farming enterprise,as well as bringing returns on investment. 10Water trading is also seen as a way ofopening up options for trade between waterusingsectors. For example, urban waterutilities could obtain new sources of waterat significantly lower cost than alternativeoptions. 11 This view assumes that the vastamounts of water currently used for relativelylow-value irrigated agriculture could betransferred to inland urban centres. 12In this context, permanent water tradingbecomes the vehicle for opening up majorprivate-sector investment in infrastructuredevelopment, particularly in eastern Australia.The purchase and delivery of rural water toour expanding cities, for example, wouldrequire major investment in piping, pumpingand water-treatment infrastructure.The recent paper of the Business Councilof Australia provides an important clue asto what various private-sector and thinktankorganisations now seek with regardto water trading and the development ofa marketplace for urban water. The councilcalls for an expansion of the National WaterInitiative (NWI) to cover urban water issuesin the ‘same depth as rural ones’, and thereplacement of physical water restrictions ‘withproperly functioning urban water markets’.It advocates for allowing ‘greater privateownership of disaggregated water utilities’;removing the ‘various impediments to waterrecycling’; and conducting a ‘national reviewof water pricing in cities and towns’. 1380 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturewater as a common goodThose buying the water rightsinclude managed investmentschemes fuelled by city investorstaking advantage of tax laws.At a time when growers worrydesperately about the watershortage, MIS operators aregobbling up water rights beforethe tax loophole that spawnedthem is wound up in a year.Dan Silkstone and Orietta Guerrera, ‘Beneathdry blue skies, growers fear the worst …’,the Age, 21 April 2007, p. 7.Speeding up market arrangementsThe 1994 COAG created an agreed Water ReformFramework that obliged state governmentsto reform their water management practices,separate water-access entitlements from landtitles, separate water-delivery from waterregulationfunctions and make explicit provisionfor environmental water. States could be (andhave been) financially penalised for failing tocomply and meet milestones and for failingto deliver fully on proposed reforms. 14A decade later, the COAG meeting of June2004 reached agreement on the National WaterInitiative, recognising the ‘continuing nationalimperative to increase the productivity andefficiency of Australia’s water use, the needto service rural and urban communities andto ensure the health of river and groundwatersystems by establishing clear pathways to returnall systems to environmentally sustainable levelsof extraction’. 15Of the eight key elements in the initiative, thefirst two dealt with water-access entitlementsand a planning framework, and water marketsand water trading. To establish uniformityacross states, the NWI reinforced the conceptof permanent water trading, arguing thatthe ‘consumptive use of water will requirea water-access entitlement, separate fromthe land, to be described as a perpetualor open-ended share of the consumptivepool of a specified water resource, asdetermined by the relevant water plan’. 16The now-separated water entitlementwill be exclusive, able to be traded, given,bequeathed or leased, subdivided oramalgamated. They will be ‘mortgageable’(and in this respect have similar status tofreehold land when used as collateral foraccessing finance). The parties holdingthese now-separated entitlementswill be ‘recorded in publicly accessiblereliable water registers that foster publicconfidence and state unambiguously whoowns the entitlement, and the nature ofany encumbrances on it’. 17The NWI stressed that these water-accessentitlements had to operate within a statutorywater-planning framework. At the state andterritory level, water plans will provide for‘secure ecological outcomes by describingthe environmental and other public benefitoutcomes for water systems and defining theappropriate water management arrangementsto achieve those outcomes; and resourcesecurity outcomes by determining the sharesin the consumptive pool and the rules toallocate water during the life of the plan’. 18The recent sharpened sense of a water crisishas stepped up pressure on governments towork out these market arrangements within theagreed time frame. In November 2006 a hastilyconvened meeting of heads of governmentresolved that trading, temporary or permanent,could begin across state borders as early asJanuary 2007; and as recently as March 2007,the federal minister for the environment andwater resources announced $5.6 million toaccelerate the development of water tradingin Australia. 19Legislating for a nationalwater marketRunning in parallel with this national reformagenda, and in order to facilitate the creationof a water market and permanent trading,individual states made significant amendmentsto their Water Acts and regulations. Reformsin Victoria serve as a good example of thischange in direction. Here are the key legislativedevelopments within the last two decades:• In 1987 amendments to the VictorianWater Act (1958) were made legalisingthe temporary transfer of water rights.• Two years later, a new Victorian WaterAct (1989) was passed in the VictorianParliament. Temporary trading remainedin place. It also provided for the permanenttransfer of water rights and licences. Tradewas only allowed for gravity irrigationdistricts, and only within them.• In 1994 an amendment to the Water Act(1989) enabled water rights to be tradedfrom within an irrigation district, to any land.• In December 1997, further amendmentsto the Water Act (1989) allowed permanentinterstate trade in water rights and licences. 20As a result of these legislated changes,from 1994 onwards, temporary andpermanent water trading took offin Victoria. In the ensuing six years,the volume of water in temporarytrades ranged between 3% and 8%of total water use. In the 10 years to2000–01, a volume of water equalto 6% of the total entitlement tofarmers was permanently traded. 21Increased activity in both temporary andpermanent water trading is reflected nationally.In 2004–05, across Australia, there were223 556 water-access entitlements thataccounted for 29 832 GL. Approximately a thirdof these were entitlements to surface water.The rest were entitlements to groundwater.There were 13 456 temporary water trades(representing 1053 GL) and 1802 permanentwater trades (representing 248 GL). 22NOT EVERYONE IS CONVINCEDThere is strong support for the developmentof a water market and permanent watertrading in certain quarters of governmentand the private sector, and among land/Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 81

The Big Picturewater as a common goodwater specialists and various interest groups.But the policy framework behind the NWIand the introduction of permanent watertrading are not universally welcomed andhave come under sustained attack fromparts of the irrigation and agricultural sector.Limited national media coverage meansthat the degree of anger and hostility tothese changes is not readily apparent.At the time of writing, a formal resolutionis being forwarded to the Water ResourcesCommittee of the Victorian Farmers’ Federationcalling for the process of ‘unbundling’to be immediately terminated, and for acomplete halt to permanent water tradingbetween different districts and statesuntil a 100% water allocation is restoredthroughout the state. A resolution of thisnature suggests the issue is causing uneaseand real angst in farming communities. 23Lack of fairnessThe overriding concern is that watermarketmechanisms, on their own, are notfair or acceptable processes for allocatingand reallocating water. There is a strongsense that unregulated water trading willprice farmers out of business, causinghuge write-downs of farm assets. 24If irrigation water is lost to other uses,the shortage of water in a tight market willsubstantially force up the price of irrigationwater. There is also great concern thatthe trading of water and departures fromfarms will leave stranded assets – damsand diversion works, major channels anddiversion infrastructure, local channel anddelivery works, on-farm delivery systems,and other on-farm infrastructure assetsassociated with irrigation delivery. 25A central concern rests with big non-landholders getting in on the act. With theseparation of water entitlements fromland ownership, parties can now acquiresubstantial rights to water, causing pricespikes that will be difficult for manyfarmers to contend with.The fear is that an open water market willallow ‘water barons’ to buy water andmanipulate supply in a tight market – pushingprices to high levels, particularly in times ofdrought. In an open water market, city waterretailers will always be able to outbid farmers,as urban authorities can spread their costsover businesses and across households. 26Flawed economic modelsThe economic modelling that underpins watertrading and predicts its impacts is perceivedas far too narrow. It is seen as ignoringimportant economic, social and environmentaldimensions to farming, and the dynamics thatbuild economic and social cohesion in ruralcommunities. At issue is whether permanentwater trading will damage rural communities.One early estimate is that the loss of 150 000ML of irrigation water from northern Victoriahas resulted in farm-gate losses of $150 millionannually, the loss of $600 million from theregional communities annually, and a totalwrite-down of $210 million in farm assets. 27Those who challenge permanent water tradingalso argue that the concept of ‘low-value use’versus ‘high-value use’ is fundamentally flawed.They say that the value of a farm product isnot measured by the farm-gate price alone.Important economic and social objectives areserved by ‘low-value’ irrigated agriculture. Theseinclude the provision of reliable, safe, low-costfood and fibre for both domestic enjoyment andexport earnings. There is also the employmentgenerated in rural Australia in the handling,transport, processing, manufacturing andmarketing of these products.The flaw in judgements about ‘low-value’versus ‘high-value’ products is that valuationscan change rapidly. Take grapes, for example.Substantial amounts of water have beentraded to corporate wine-grape farms financedby large managed investment schemes,yielding substantial tax breaks to investors.This has led to a significant oversupply ofa number of wine-grape varieties, withprices falling from $600 to $800 per tonne,to $150 to $200 per tonne in 2006. 28 Thisoutcome not only affected corporate grapegrowers – it affected all grape growers.When permanent water trading is simplydescribed in terms of ‘high-value’ use andprofitability, it ignores the issue of publicaccountability.In a managed irrigation district, the waterauthority is accountable to the parties itsupplies. If, for example, loss rates are judgedto be high, the parties can demand that theauthority respond and fix the infrastructureto reduce these losses. In contrast, when wateris permanently traded out of a district, andstored on the corporate farm, no-one else knowswhat is actually happening to the water. Thenew owners of the entitlement are accountableonly to their shareholders. Provided they stick totheir licence agreement, there is little oversightand limited opportunities for public scrutiny.Finally, the anger over permanent watertrading spills over to the policy makers. Theyare seen as having neglected importantissues, including the amount of water lost intransmission when traded over long distances,the benefits to farm areas gaining water andthe costs to farm areas losing water, the fullcost to farmers and water-supply authoritiesresulting from the stranding of assets, andthe economic losses and gains when wateris traded from one region to another. 29Negative impacts of managedinvestment schemesThose opposed to permanent water tradinghave special concerns about the localimpacts of managed investment schemes(MISs). They see that permanent watertrading is open to capture by the MIS, withconsequential distortions of rural investment,agricultural markets and water allocations. 30In this regard, it’s worth noting that most watertrade in agriculture has been directed to MISs.According to an investigation conducted by theAge newspaper, in 2005, MISs were responsiblefor 85% of the secure water traded out ofVictoria’s largest water authority – Goulburn-Murray Water. In 2006 water brokers estimated82 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturewater as a common goodthat 75% of the Goulburn-Murray water soldout of the catchments, and up to 100% ofLower Murray water, has been traded to justthree MISs: Timbercorp, SAI Teys McMahon andMacquarie Agribusiness. 31These investments are perceived as respondingto government-sponsored tax breaks ratherthan being driven by market forces. In asnowballing effect, the purchase of multiplewater entitlements in an area can leadfarmers to exit the industry. Their irrigationchannels then become uneconomic, causingthe stranding of water-infrastructureassets and the assets of other farmers. Inturn, other farmers go out of business. 32TROUBLED WATERSIt’s hard to argue against the provision ofopportunities to move water from differentparts of agricultural production to others. Afterall, it makes sense to secure additional water tocover shortfalls, adverse seasonal situations andto expand production. All of this can be achievedwith the temporary trades in water that havebeen occurring between irrigators in Australiafor many years.A key feature of this approach was thatthe water being temporarily traded alwaysremained available as part of the pool.Some would argue that it is too late to reverseinstitutional changes now underway. We notethat there appears to have been no specificdemocratic mandate, either sought or granted,to introduce permanent water trading, thoughit dramatically changes the nature of waterWater trading soundscomplicated and, no punintended, dry. Country peopleperceive themselves as facingthe problem alone, and theydon’t like it. They believe theyare slowly being strangled. Theywant the attention of urbanAustralians.Dan Silkstone and Orietta Guerrera, ‘Beneath dryblue skies, growers fear the worst …’, the Age, 21April 2007, p. 6.entitlements, the distribution of rural waterand the relationship between water sectors.There is a strong case, therefore, for bringingto light a number of troubling issues, so thatdebate can take place that might inform futuredevelopments regarding the operation of awater market – both rural and urban.Water & the environmentAcross the country there is compellingevidence that too much water has alreadybeen removed from the natural environment.Reversal of damage to our freshwaterecosystems will require us to replenish ourrivers and streams, provide seasonal floodingof wetlands and provide a mechanism foraquatic species to migrate along waterways. Inaddition, if water leaves districts permanently,land without water has little value and canbe left in a state of serious disrepair. Thiswill compound existing problems of landdegradation and the costs of restoration.Water for the environment wasaccorded legal recognition by COAG in1994. Yet, despite this advance, littleadditional water has been allocated forenvironmental flows – in part due to theprotracted drought.Our earlier section on surface water showedflow predictions for Victoria’s river systems. Allbut one are predicted to have reduced flows. Ina later section of this document, we outline afundamental principle regarding river health:that to maintain our rivers and streams as livingentities, they need the first drink.If permanent water trading continues toexpand, the broader community will need to beconfident that the environment can compete, inrespect of environmental flows and land repair,with the interests of for-profit shareholders andindividuals who trade in water.Potentially adverse economicoutcomes for the communityThe rhetoric accompanying the introduction ofpermanent water trading, and the developmentof a national water market, is that watercan be moved and put to its highest-valueuse. In this context, high-value use is aneconomic construct to do with productivityand profitability. Such a concept does notintrinsically reflect other values, such asenvironmental and ecological integrity, socialequity, the welfare of rural communities,and social cohesion between rural and urbandwellers. Indeed, it’s usually because of theinability of the marketplace to account for suchvalues that, from time to time, and in variouscircumstances, market failure occurs.Australians need to feel confident that thepush to create a national marketplace forrural, and possibly urban, water does notfurther impact negatively on freshwaterecosystems or the welfare and water-securityof rural Australians. This is especially soif, and when, there is market failure.As detailed earlier, from 1 July 2007 stategovernments, in their pursuit of the COAG ‘waterreform’ agenda, will amend water legislation sothat any party or person will be able to purchasewater entitlements or ‘water shares’. When watercan be bought and sold in an open marketplace,those with a financial and institutionalcapacity to pay have an intrinsic advantage.Water is an appreciating ‘asset’, a fact illustratedin a recent promotion (dated 16 April 2007) byMacquarie Private Wealth/Macquarie EquitiesLtd (a member of the Macquarie BankingGroup). Potential investors are being encouragedto purchase units in ‘the Credit Suisse PL100World Water Trust’. 33We are glad the Snowy is inpublic hands and not, as far aswe know, having profit wrungout of it for private investors.Ivanhoe Watermark Australia groupVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 83

The Big Picturewater as a common goodThe promotion draws on evidence from theUnited Nations predicting that, if present ratesof water consumption are maintained, by 20255 billion of the world’s 7.9 billion people will livein areas where safe water supply is uncertain(including areas of eastern Australia and mostof China and India). In the US alone, waterdemand has tripled over the last 30 years butthe population has grown by only 50%.The promotion suggests that with ‘demandfor water increasing globally, PL100 WorldWater may present an attractive investmentopportunity.’ Some of the key benefits include‘exposure to a basket of international waterstocks,’ ‘investment loans … available toapproved applicants’, ‘Australian dollar returns’and ‘5-year terms’. Macquarie Private Wealth isclearly a canny investment outfit. They rightlyappreciate the dire water circumstances facingeastern Australia, as noted in the UN appraisal.As if to underline this uncertainty, just four daysafter the mail-out to potential investors, theAustralian prime minister and the minister forthe environment and water urged Australians to‘pray for rain’. 34In order to prevent too much water fromleaving a particular irrigation district, capshave been placed on the amount that canbe permanently traded in any year.Even allowing for the application of these capson the amounts of water traded, water tradingprovisions now open the door for private parties,and especially those with substantial financialresources at their disposal, to acquiresignificant volumes of water over time. Whilewe appreciate that an asset such as water willonly realise its value if used to create income,there will need to be anticipatory and effectiveregulation that prevents water hoarding andmarket manipulations that hurt genuine farmingenterprises.In addition, these caps and constraints reflectthe policy imperatives of the times. Incrementalcreep is not restricted to tax brackets. Interestgroups often lobby hard to promote theirinterests and, as we know, governments comeand go with great regularity. There can besignificant policy changes every time there is achange of personnel on the parliamentary frontbenches. We note that up until July 2006, thecap in Victoria was set at 2%. A year later, thiswas increased to 4%. In this context, people inthe broader community need to feel confidentthat these caps will not be detrimentally raisedat regular intervals, by different parties in power,responding to different constituencies.When large investments are made, they aremade with an eye to security and satisfactoryreturns on capital. One of the key issuesvarious water interests want to progress withgovernments is the question of financialcompensation. There are two major aspectshere. The first concerns the possible failureof the owner of the water share to receivethe full volume of water purchased becauseof general water scarcity. The second is whathappens if a government is forced to take someof the private entitlements to water to meet acommunity need or crisis.Once trading is permitted, it may be harderto reduce water users’ rights withoutcompensation when rivers are subsequentlyfound to need greater flows. 35 Taxpayers couldpotentially be exposed to a significant risk ofpaying out large sums by way of compensationto owners of water shares who will argue theirentitlement is secure.Water & energyWater and energy are inextricably linked. Thislink is even more critical as we face the problemof increased greenhouse-gas emissions. Fromnow on, when we look at different options foraugmenting supply we are going to have to verycarefully consider the energy implications.Huge amounts of water are used to generatehydroelectric power, particularly at times of peakdemand. With private parties able to accumulatesignificant amounts of water, the stage is set forpower companies to purchase water and use itto meet peak demand. Into the future, more ofthese peak periods will occur during summermonths. Hotter daily temperatures will causepeople to use more power (and embodied water)for cooling homes and workplaces – unless, thatis, we redesign our housing and reassess ourconsumer and lifestyle preferences.At the present time, our patterns of energyuse and levels of demand work againstthe provision of adequate water forenvironmental flows.Part of the reason why the Snowy River hasn’treceived anywhere near the agreed 28% ofenvironmental flow promised it, is becausewater is being held to generate power ratherthan being released to restore it to health.Risking the common goodAustralia is at a critical juncture with respect toits water future. There are some very difficultissues before us as a nation, including thesignificant readjustments that will need tomade in parts of the irrigation sector, achievingsubstantial increases in water efficiency inall water-use sectors (including industry andhouseholds), and determining what populationtargets are feasible in an era of water scarcityand climate change.The creation of a national water market,and in particular permanent watertrading, may well meet many of thestated objectives regarding structuraladjustment in irrigation and efficiencyin the allocation of water amongcompeting users. At the same time,however, there are also risks that goway beyond those defined in capitalmarkets and free-trade thinking.The central one is to do with the concept ofwater being managed as a common good –belonging to us all and shared by us all. Weneed to be confident that the new water tradingarrangements don’t seriously compromiseor threaten the management of water as acommon good.With land and water now disassociated intoindependent assets, it’s possible for parties to84 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturewater as a common goodbuy and sell water entitlements. Technically, theydo not own the water. So, in this sense, wateritself is not privatised.However, when water is permanentlyallocated from the broader consumptivepool; when its use is controlled byprivate parties with limited transparency,oversight and public scrutiny; when thebenefits of its use are confined largelyto private parties for their own gain,and where there are no attendant socialand environmental responsibilities; itcould be argued that water tradingprivileges private users, rather thanserving community interests. Under thesecircumstances, the common good iseffectively denied.There are further ambiguities and dilemmaspending which may impinge on, and perhapsalter significantly, the management of wateras a common good. As it stands now, theownership of water remains with the people. TheCrown (i.e. each state government) has the titleto water which it manages within its territorialboundaries for the good of the people. However,existing Water Acts focus primarily on waterflowing in rivers, rather than on the water storedbelow the ground. The ownership of waterbelow the ground appears to be less certain,and may well be contested over coming years.For example, feasibility studies are beingconducted into the storage of suitably treatedstormwater and/or wasted water into existing,shallow aquifers. If private parties are allowedto do this, will they then own the water in theaquifer and be able to sell it in the marketplace?Another potential uncertainty concerns thetreatment of effluent. Our eastern seabord citieswill have to respond to the predicted declinein surface-water availability by significantlyexpanding the capture, treatment and use ofwasted water. No doubt private sector interestswill want to play a part – perhaps in the buildingand operation of facilities to treat effluent.The treating of effluent turns something oflittle value into a product of real value. In thiscase, are private operators simply providinga contracted service? Or can they claim thatbecause they have cleaned the water, it nowbelongs to them and can be sold back into themarketplace?As we move into a less certain water future, weneed to have in place legislative and regulatoryframeworks that not only respect, but alsosecure, the concept of water as a common good.It may well be that this pivotal question will needto be further clarified under constitutional law.1,000 megalitres1,000 megalitres2502001501005001990/1We all have to recognise that wateris not a public good …Macolm Turnbull, in a speech to the Australian Water AssociationSymposium on Recycling, 22 March 2006PermanentTemporaryIncludes auction1992/3 1994/5 1996/7 1998/9 2000/1YearsFigure 1. Growth in water trading in Victoria 1990–01 to 2000–01With permanent water trading, the volume of water that is becoming privately owned isaccumulating year by year. Temporary trading is usually only an annual transfer of the water.Source: Department of Natural Resources and Environment, The value of water – A guide to watertrading in Victoria, DNRE, 2001, p. 12.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 85

The Big Picturewater as a common goodREFERENCEs1. Sydney Gazette, 18 December 1803.2.Government of New South Wales, first report of the RoyalCommission on the Conservation of Water, 1886.3. K Jeffcoat, More precious than gold – an illustrated history ofwater in New South Wales, Kangaroo Press, Sydney, 1988.4. Independent Committee of Inquiry, National Competition PolicyReview (Hilmer Report), August 1993.5.H Bjornlund, ‘The socio-economic structure of irrigationcommunities – water markets and the structural adjustmentprocess’, Journal of Rural Society, 12 (2), pp. 123–145.6. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Thevalue of water – A guide to water trading in Victoria, DNRE,Melbourne, 2001, p. 17.7.8.9.10.H Bjornlund, op. cit., p.19ibid., p. 3.Department of Natural Resources and Environment, op.cit.,p. 21.There are a number of superannuation agencies already eitherinitiating or exploring investment programs of this nature.11. Allen Consulting Group, Saying goodbye to permanent waterrestrictions in Australia’s cities, report commissioned byInfrastructure Partnerships Australia, May 2007, pp. 1–2.12.ibid., p. 2.13. See, for example, Business Council of Australia, Water underpressure: Australia’s man-made water scarcity and how tofix it, BCA, Melbourne, September 2006.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.National Competition Council, ‘Payment recommendationsapproved’, press release, 21 December 2004; NationalCompetition Council, ‘NSW and the NCP – the facts’, pressrelease, 17 February 2004.Intergovernmental Agreement on a National Water Initiativebetween the Commonwealth of Australia and the Governmentsof New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, TheAustralian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory, 25 June2004.ibid., pp. 6-7.ibid., p. 6.ibid., p. 7.Minister for Water and the Environment, ‘Government investsmillions to further develop water trade.’, media release,7 March 2007Department of Natural Resources and Environment, op. cit., p.99.ibid., p.12.22. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account Australia,2004–05, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2006, ch. 8, p. 105.23.Jim Belbin, Vice-President Sunraysia Branch, Victorian Farmers’Federation, personal communication, 7 June 2007.24. P Byrne, J O’Brien, Eagle & D McDonald, High and dry: howfree trade in water will cripple Australian agriculture, FreedomPublishing, North Melbourne, 2006, p. 51.25.ibid., p. 46.26.27.28.29.30.31.32.33.ibid., p. 45.ibid., p. 47.ibid., p. 57.ibid., p. 34.ibid., p. 55.C Egan, ‘Water wheels and deals leave anxious farmers dry’,the Age, 17 September 2006, pp. 1–2.P Byrne, J O’Brien, Eagle & D McDonald,op. cit., p. 70.Macquarie Equities Ltd, promotional letter to potential investor,dated 16 April 2007.34. Herald Sun, 19 April 2007, p. 1; and ABC Television, Insiders,22 April 2007.35.Department of Natural Resources and Environment, op. cit.,p. 21.Some other useful sources• T Fullerton, Watershed - Deciding our water future, juggling theinterests of farmers, politicians, big business, ordinary people -and nature, ABC Books, Sydney, 2001.• G Hardin, ‘The tragedy of the Commons’, Science, 162, pp.1243–48, 1968.• Productivity Commission, Rural water use and the environment:the role of market mechanisms, research report, ProductivityCommission, Melbourne, August 2006.D Smith, • Water in Australia, Oxford University Press, Australia,1998, ch. 4.86 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureproblems with managementWe need to lift our game in the waywe manage water. Major environmental restoration is required.High demand for water can be expected yet less water will be available …Fifty years is a lot of water(recycled or otherwise) underthe bridge. Who knows whatAustralia’s climate will be by2057? … The advantage ofhaving the state and the nationlargely onside is an opportunityto be grasped. At stake is anenvironmental future that demands,and should receive, an ecumenicalapproach.Editorial, the Age, 13 February 2007Numerous examples can be found to demonstratethat, on some fronts, we are already managingwater at best-practice levels in this country. Atthe same time, however, we do have significantinstitutional problems that need to be squarelyaddressed if we are to restore and maintain ourfreshwater ecosystems, achieve widespread waterefficiency, and continue to provide water for ourpopulation’s needs and to produce exports.THINKING NATIONALLY ABOUTWATERWe have a long tradition of not thinkingnationally about water! The constitutionalarrangements for water were establishedat Federation. Under the Commonwealth ofAustralia constitution act (1900), section 100, allthe power was vested in the States:‘The Commonwealth shall not, by any law orregulation of trade or commerce, abridge theright of a State or of the residents therein tothe reasonable use of the waters of rivers forconservation or irrigation.’ 1In the time since, successive state governmentsapproached the management of their waterresources with a view to underwriting statedevelopment: the growth of cities, agriculture,manufacturing, mining and, more recently,service industries, such as tourism. Water wasnever seen as a limiting factor. There was morerecognition of public health issues than theenvironmental degradation that went withwater extraction and diversion.Yet, over at least the past four decades,the pressure on our water resourceshas grown considerably; our riversand streams have been seriously overallocatedand degraded.In 2004-05 there were some 76 000surface-water access entitlements acrossAustralia, representing a combined totalbody of water of almost 23 000 GL. However,total water consumption in agriculturewas just over half the total volume ofthese surface-water entitlements. Inother words, there is a substantial overallocationof surface-water entitlements. 2In addition, our groundwater supplies havebeen over-allocated, salinised and contaminatedwith nitrates. Vegetation has been cleared fromthousands of kilometres of river banks. Treeclearing on a massive scale has resulted in risingwater tables and increasing dryland salinity.Despite a hundred years of major damconstruction, water supply to all mainlandcapital cities (except Darwin) is now attroublingly low levels. From the early 1980s theCSIRO predictions of greenhouse impacts on ourclimate have gone unheeded.The Commonwealth taxation system has beenexploited by water-hungry arrangements suchas managed investment schemes coveringplantations and, more recently, farm enterprises.There is little formal regulation across Australiarequiring large-scale recycling in industry andin our cities. If ever there was a need to thinknationally about how to manage our water intothe future, that time is clearly now.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 87

The Big Pictureproblems with managementStrategic thinking for thelonger termLong-term issues will not be solved by shorttermthinking. Unfortunately, regular changes ingovernment do no promote strategic thinking forthe longer term. In the course of the five decadesin which water availability and use started tobecome seriously problematic, Australia has beengoverned by 10 federal governments, formedunder new prime ministers, and more than 70state governments. At the federal level, one inevery three elections has seen a change of theparty in power.Over the last two decades at least, Australiangovernments have been urged to consider themounting evidence that Australia’s climatewill be adversely affected by global warming.Since 1991 we have had federal governmentsunwilling to acknowledge this evidence. Localand international reports were dismissed,inquiry processes were stalled and internationalagreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol, wereactively avoided.Australia has not been willing to accept theneed to change its internal policy settingsso as to reach agreed emissions targets. Thestandard response, illustrated by the primeminister as recently as March 2007, is thatmeasures which threaten domestic jobs orour international trading position will not becountenanced. 3 There seems to be little, if any,recognition that the position in 20 years’ time– without change and adjustment now – mayresult in huge job losses and adverse economicimpacts. Meanwhile, other OECD countriesare positioning themselves for the future bydeveloping new, low-emission technologies thatmay well leave us stranded with vast reserves ofcoal largely unwanted by the marketplace.Yet another example of short-term thinkingputting at risk long-term environmentalimperatives is what has recently happened tothe Snowy River. The Snowy River HydroelectricScheme operates under a managementarrangement involving the Federal Governmentand the state governments of NSW and Victoria.In 2002 the parties agreed to restore anenvironmental flow of at least 28% to theSnowy River. 4 This was the lowest estimatedeemed acceptable by an independentscientific panel appointed to assess theriver’s failing health. Four years later, in2006, the NSW Government (being the majorshareholder) proposed that the Snowy RiverHydroelectric Scheme be sold. Victoria and theCommonwealth felt they had no option butto go along with the proposed sale. However,intense public protest and political pressureled to the plan being shelved. (Incidentally, theNSW Government’s motivation for the sale wasto use the proceeds to retire debt before theanticipated state election in 2007.)Bipartisanship on majorissues such as waterOn big issues, such as water, a cultureof bickering and adversarial partisanpolitics is seen by the electorate as bothdisappointing and unproductive.In January 2007, the prime minister releasedA national plan for water security. 5 The statesalong the Murray-Darling system were askedto respond to this $10 billion proposal and,specifically, to refer their powers to theCommonwealth.One of the first requirements of effectivecollaboration is appropriate consultationbetween the major parties. This did not occur.Instead, following the announcement, thevarious heads of government traded cheapshots, almost daily, for weeks. The states airedsuspicions about a constitutional takeoverby stealth. The South Australian premier’sinsistence on an independent national authoritywas derided by the Commonwealth. TheVictorian Government refused to refer powersas requested. The NSW premier agreed to thereferral of powers almost immediately – nodoubt in line with his expectations that NSWwould receive most of the available money.Federally, National Party ministers in thecoalition government expressed oppositionto a key provision in the plan: the proposedCommonwealth purchase of water entitlements.Timely, strategic & integratedplanningWhen the clock is ticking, as it is now withrespect to the state of our environment andwater supplies, we can ill afford inertia and poorplanning by governments and their agencies.In an example of poor planning and inertia,Sydney Water Board officials were told over25 years ago that the city would run out ofwater by 2000 unless urgent action was taken.In 1979 the Snowy Mountains EngineeringCorporation completed a report for the thenWater Board, concluding, ‘It can be seen that bythe year 2000, the demand could be … greatlyin excess of the present (1978) capacity of thesystem.’ Recently, a former midddle managerat Sydney Water stated, ‘We knew the climatewas changing, we knew we had problems withover-consumption, we knew we had to recycle’. 6The earlier prediction was almost on the mark.Sydney in 2007 has a disturbingly low level ofsupply and, throughout this period, no majorinitiatives were implemented to recycle water.Take another example. In 1977, Gutteridge,Haskin and Davey made recommendationsWith such political and point-scoringbehaviour, we are not likely to arrive at what is best forthe country as a whole, and certainly there will not be anyequality across the population’s individual needs.Castlemaine/Campbells Creek Watermark Australia group88 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureproblems with managementto the Federal Government about a nationalprogram for widespread water recycling. 7 Yet,30 years later, according to a member of theoriginal consultancy team, nothing has beendone. 8 In November 2003, the prime minister’sScience Engineering and Innovation Councildelivered its report on water recycling forAustralia’s cities. 9 And then, in November2004, the Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering produced its reporton water recycling. Despite all this, we still haveonly draft national guidelines for recycled water. 10Vigilance & transparencyregarding due processThere have been demonstrable failures in ourplanning processes, such that we can justifiablyask – albeit when it’s almost too late – howcould this have been allowed to happen?A prime example of such a failure is CubbieStation in southwestern Queensland, which has14 000 ha under cotton production. The propertyhas constructed a vast system of weirs andlevees with a holding capacity of 480 billionL. Whenever rain falls over the Condamine-Balonne River System in the Darling Basin, allof the water is trapped on Cubbie Station. Nowater flows downstream to other farmers inQueensland and New South Wales. In addition,the country along the Culgoa floodplain nolonger experiences periodic flooding. All of thiswas allowed to come about when the BorbidgeNational Party government in QueenslandThe meeting of scientists, economists, sociologists, lawyers, engineersand political scientists had been sitting in Canberra for two days,debating the future of the Murray-Darling River Basin, when JackLarkin finally had enough. Lumbering to his feet, the big farmerlooked around the room in frustration: ‘When can we getsome action? We’ve got the people here who know about theproblem and we have been talking for two days. But what sort ofthings can we farmers do about it?’More than 20 years have passed since that meeting in 1984,when Larkin’s despair was reported in the Age under the tellingheadline, ‘Basin full of strife’. Sadly, a generation on, the basic story– too much talk, not enough action – has hardly changed. 6Liz Minchin, ‘Basin at boiling point’, the Age, 24 April 2006granted water licences to the largest irrigatedcotton farm in Australia – without first requiringan environmental impact study! 11A further example of failure, this time ona even grander scale, is the situation withsmall farm dams on agricultural enterprisesand hobby farms across Australia. These areestimated to have a capacity to hold 9% ofsurface water in an average year. Yet, there isno inspection regime to ensure compliancewith permits, or even to check whether thetotal volume of water held in these dams fitswith catchment management plans. Regulationis limited to the siting and construction ofdams and does not extend to such issuesas to how to minimise evaporation. 12National investment inwater efficiencyAgainst the backdrop of ever-increasing wateruse, water scarcity in major parts of Australiaand the impacts of predicted climate change,we have seriously under-invested in measuresdirected towards water efficiency, let alone inmeasures directed at super efficiency.Our irrigation systems are aging, mostlyuncovered and leaking. Only now, after 10years of drought and witnessing hundreds ofrural communities stretched to the limit, havegovernments begun the construction of keypipeline systems that will enable movement ofwater in different parts of rural Australia.Water-inefficient washing machines are stillmanufactured and sold, even though the mostefficient of these uses more than twice thevolume of water of the least-efficient frontloadingmachine. 13 It’s also estimated thatnearly 3 million Australian households are notfitted with dual-flush toilets, and only 17% ofhouseholds have rainwater tanks. 14 Timer orsquirt taps in gymnasiums and leisure centresare almost non-existent.There is no formal requirement for industryto undertake water audits and develop waterefficiencyplans. Our building codes do notmandate any capture of stormwater, either.We have yet to do anything significant to savewater in our cities (beyond a few demonstrationprojects linked to urban-sensitive water designprinciples). We continue to operate sewagetreatmentplants that discharge huge volumesof treated waste into our oceans.Instead of state governments embarking onlong-term investment programs to address suchdeficiences, money has been taken, year afteryear, from water retailers and spent on activitiesunrelated to water. In the two years from 2005to 2006, State Governments across Australiatook almost $1 billion in dividends from theirpublicly owned water bodies. 15‘Water efficiency’ is a term in commonuse in the water sector and governmentquarters. Narrowly defined, it tends tofocus only on ways of reducing direct waterconsumption, such as cutting down showertimes or not hosing driveways. It suggeststhat we become water efficient when weuse less water in everyday activities.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 89

The Big Pictureproblems with managementHowever, real water efficiency is reachedonly when we significantly reduce thevolumes of potable water used in oureveryday activities, and when we use allavailable water, again and again, beforewe finally discharge it as waste water.At the same time, we have to reduce ouruse of ‘embodied water’ in the food weeat and the goods and services that wemanufacture and consume.The scope for greater efficiency is realand compelling. Significant improvementsin water efficiency can be made in theirrigation sector which translate intomajor reductions in water demand. For theMurray-Darling Basin alone, water savingsof at least 3000 GL are attainable. 15Our cities and regional population centres andmany more of our non-farm industries canbecome much more water efficient. By simplyretrofitting households with existing watersavingtechnologies, it’s conceivable to reduceper-capita water consumption by around 50%.By adopting as national goals moves towardsefficiency and super efficiency, we will be ableto maintain, and even improve, agriculturaland industrial output with a lower water input.We can also bring about major behaviouralchange in our urban communities. Ultimately,these major developments and changeswill result in more water being available forthe needs of our natural environment.Community engagementon waterAustralians are not being encouraged toparticipate in discussions and debates aboutour water future. With a resource as critical aswater, we might expect that our governmentswould have sophisticated consultativeprocesses in place; that all Australians wouldbe encouraged to become water literate, andthat we would be encouraged to work towardsagreed national goals. After all, water is essentialto sustain every one of us. It is essential for ourhealth and wellbeing. It is essential to sustainthe healthy environments that we depend on,it is essential for the production of the food weeat, the goods and services we consume, and formany of our recreational pursuits.Governments and the community are beginningto realise that we are entering a period ofgreater climatic variability, with less rainfallexpected and less surface water available.Despite this, present water-reform initiativesfail to achieve basic standards of communityengagement.While the states have mapped out strategicdirections for our water future, the depthof community consultation varies greatly.At the same time, political expediencyremains an undercurrent, with significantdifferences between the major parties aboutimplementation. Competing policies – aboutthe use of desalination technology versus newdam construction, or the transport of waterfrom northern Australia – illustrate this. Atthe Commonwealth level, the governmentinterface with water is essentially through theMurray-Darling Basin Commission and theNational Water Initiative. While the Commissionhas operated a broadly based communityconsultative committee, the National WaterInitiative consults with only a narrowstakeholder group. 16In addition, there is regular staging of waterconferences and summits within the waterindustry. These high-cost, sponsored eventsshift around the country. Full registration feesare usually set in the thousands of dollars and,effectively, the community is excluded.The most serious failure in communityengagement relates to the steady move towardsthe establishment of a national water marketfor water used in agriculture by 2014. Very fewAustralians know about this, understand how itis being achieved or what the implications of itare. Some organisations and individuals, such asgovernment departments, farmers, the financeindustry, land and property developers, policythink-tanks, the timber and electricity industriesand local governments in rural Australia knowabout it. But, by and large, the average person inour capital cities does not.The fact that water is being purchased andpermanently traded will come as a surpriseto many. Over the past decade a series ofpivotal changes have been ushered in by stategovernments and the Federal Government,particularly regarding the nature of waterentitlements and where trading can occur. Yetthere was no specific democratic referencefor this agenda, even though it poses realchallenges to the fundamental idea of water asa common good. Instead, we are assured thatthe marketplace will effectively regulate futurewater problems.Rhetoric & realityThere are often huge gaps between the rhetoricand reality of water reform. The rebuilding ofMelbourne’s Spencer Street railway station(renamed Southern Cross railway station) wasa major infrastructure project in the secondterm of the Bracks government. In 2003, thepremier wrote in the government’s Green Paper,Securing our water future, of the need to ‘buildan ethic throughout the community of waterconservation. We need to cut our water usewherever we can, recycle and reuse whereverpossible … This will require some hard decisions,strong leadership and community support’. 17Despite the brand-new railway station havingthe largest roof area in the central businessdistrict, no water-harvesting provisions wereincorporated into its design and construction.It has been estimated that in an average rainfallyear, approximately 18 million L of water wouldbe available for collection from the station’sroof. The station was reopened in early 2006.One year later, the premier announced that anextra $1.2 million would be spent on retrofittingthe building for rainwater harvesting. 18 A keywater-efficiency initiative on a showcase projectwas thus presented as an afterthought.Gaps between rhetoric and reality are notconfined to government. The Business Councilof Australia (BCA) released a document in2006 called Water under pressure: Australia’sman-made water sarcity and how to fix it. Thepaper argues that fundamental water reform90 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Pictureproblems with managementis now one of the most urgent tasks facingAustralian governments. 19 The choice of wordshere is significant. The BCA does not outlineany strategy whereby business itself would playa leadership role in embracing change. This isdespite the fact that water use by business,particularly in mining and manufacturing, hasramped up over the past two decades. 20 Instead,the belief is that by getting the policy settingsright, particularly on water pricing, investmentby business in water efficiency and recycling willautomatically follow.The new Southern Cross railwaystation, Melbourne, now beingretrofitted for stormwater capture.REFERENCEs1. Commonwealth of Australia constitution act(1900), sec. 100.2. R Quentin Grafton, ‘An economic evaluationof the national plan for water security’, DryWater, Crawford School of Economics andGovernment, policy briefs, Issue 1, ANU,Canberra, 2007, p. 5.3. J Topsfield & K Murphy, ‘Howard’s stern line onclimate’, the Age, 29 March 2007, p. 1.4. NSW Legislative Council 2000, Snowy RiverAgreement, hansard, pp. 11 678–11 686,2000, 5. J Howard, A national plan for water security,Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet,Canberra, 2007, .6.J Lehmann, ‘Water Board warned of crisis 26years ago’, the Weekend Australian, 16–17July 2006, p. 3.7.Gutteridge, Haskin & Davey, ‘Strategiestowards the use of reclaimed water inAustralia’, in Water recycling in Australia,Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering, special report,ATSE, Canberra, 2004, .8. HI Shuval, cited in Water recycling inAustralia, op. cit., 2003, p. 50.9.Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering andInnovation Council, Recycling water for ourcities, report by an independent workinggroup presented at the PMs SE&IC Meeting,November 2003.10. National Water Commission, Frameworkfor the management of recycled water:development of a methodology to assessimplementation of the national recyclingguidelines, NWC, Canberra, 2007,.11.12.13.14.P Sheehan, ‘A National Party that is anythingbut’, Sydney Morning Herald, 29 August2005.National Land and Resources Audit,Australian water resources assessment 2000,NLWRA, Canberra, 2001, p. 27.The National Australian Built EnvironmentRating System – NABERS, 2006, .A Smith, ‘Tanks can delay need for saltwaterplan’, Brisbane Times, 16 April 2007.15. National Water Commission, Nationalperformance report 2005–06, NWC,Canberra, 2007.16.DH White, N Beynon & O Kingma,‘Identifying opportunities for achievingwater savings throughout the Murray-Darling Basin’, Environmental Modelling andSoftware, vol. 21, 2006, pp. 1013–24.17.18.National Water Commission, ‘Peak groupsidentify common goals for water reform’,media release in Distilled, edition 14, January2007.Rachel Kleinman, ‘Vic-SA split on Murraywater’, the Age, 2 February 2007, p. 5.19. Business Council of Australia, Water underpressure: Australia’s man-made waterscarcity and how to fix it, BCA, Melbourne,2006.20. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Wateraccount, Australia, 2004–05, cat. no. 4610.0,ABS, Canberra, 2006.Some other useful sources• B Davidson, The northern myth, MelbourneUniversity Press, Australia, 1965.• L Robin, How a continent created a nation,UNSW Press, 2007.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 91

The Big Picturethe motivation to actIn our everyday lives, a flashing amber lightusually puts us in alert mode. If ever we needed a signal tobecome more involved in water and take actions to secureour water future, then surely this is it …But in order to move through thedanger to seize the opportunity,we have first to recognize that weare in fact facing a crisis. So whyis it that our leaders seem not tohear such clarion warnings? Arethey resisting the truth becausethey know that the moment theyacknowledge it, they will facea moral imperative to act? Is itsimply more convenient to ignorethe warnings?Perhaps, but inconvenient truthsdo not go away just because theyare not seen. Indeed, when they arenot responded to, their significancedoesn’t diminish, it grows.Al Gore, Vanity Fair, May 2006, p. 107The current water crisis in Australia is veryserious. It’s not just serious for farmers, butfor all of us. Sam Lake and Nick Bond cogentlyoutlined three possible water scenarios in theirrecent paper ‘Australian futures: freshwaterecosystems and human water useage’. 1A ‘business-as usual’ scenario is where wecontinue our present farming practices, miningand manufacturing processes and urbandomestic consumption patterns. We wait forthe drought to break, ignore the environmentaldamage to our land and water and simply treatand restore a few iconic sites. In truth, this is arecipe for disaster.Equally problematic is the ‘Bathhouse, anyone?’scenario (see box on this page) in which weattempt to accelerate economic growth, rampup water extraction and give away any chanceof carrying out the necessary repair andrestoration of our land and water systems.Our best chance is to embrace a sustainabilityscenario: not simply to cope with existingpressures but to position ourselves withrespect to climate change. This will requireus, as a matter of urgency, to initiate majorimprovements in water efficiency in everyaspect of life in our society and set in trainprocesses for environmental repair.Now is the time when we need to see articulateda national goal for water reform, to which allAustralians can aspire, as well as clear pathwaysfor taking action on water that will help secureour future in this country. The sections thatfollow are devoted to precisely this task.REFERENCEsPS Lake & NR Bond, ‘Australian Futures:Freshwater Ecosystems and Human WaterUseage’, Futures, vol. 39, 2007, pp. 288–305.We find it almost impossible to imagine the End of Us.But then so did the Mayans, one imagines. Or even the Romans, withtheir milder catastrophe. Perhaps in the midst of the decline there werespeeches in the Forum about what great shape the franchise was in.A little unrest with the Christians, a bit of bother with the barbarians,but nothing the empire couldn’t deal with by ‘growing the business.’Bathhouse, anyone?F Souter, ‘Buy now pay later’, the Age Good Weekend ,10 June 2006, pp. 40–192 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

The Big Picturethe motivation to actAdvertisement developed by the Watermark Australia team for insertionin the Age and the Herald Sun, 3 August 2005.Several Watermark project champions, project launch, Federation Square,Melbourne, 22 March 2005. (From left: Frank Ryan, Lynne Haultain, Tracy Bartram,Dur-e Dara, Glen Manton.)Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 93

PART TWOA national goalEveryone – no matter who they are, whatthey do or where they live – seeks rapidimprovements in water efficiencyto the point where Australia becomes anation of super-efficient water users.We have become, by power of a glorious evolutionary accidentcalled intelligence, the stewards of life’s continuity on Earth. We did not ask for this role, butwe cannot abjure it. We may not be suited for, it, but here we are.Stephen Jay Gould, Harvard University, quoted in M White, Listen … our land is crying, Kangaroo Press, 1997, p. 9Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 95

PART TWO the way forward20 principlesguiding water reformThe following 20 principles will help us meet our serious water challenges by securing agreementon actions, ranking priorities, and working for the common good. These principles were derived bythe Watermark Australia team using as a basis the discussions and reports from all the Watermark groups,as well as a specific workshop with several of the scientists who gave their time to the project. We also drewon a statement of community principles contained in the Purple Sage Project, led by the Victorian Women’s Trust.THE FUNDAMENTALSWorldwide, the availability of clean freshwater is diminishing while the globalpopulation grows and the Earth appearsto be entering a period of significantclimate change. We are everything withwater – and nothing without it. Wateris not a resource for the privileged few.Nor should it cause social division. Weneed to accord a special status to waterwhich is maintained across generations.2Access to clean fresh water isa fundamental human right.Water has an intrinsic value to humanityand all living things irrespective ofcommercial considerations.This fundamental value mustbe safeguarded by our political,social and economic institutions.3Our fresh water is a common good,shared by all, and held in publictrust by governments.4Creating the conditions thatensure access to water to meetthe essential needs of every person,every community and all living things isan obligation on society as a whole.In meeting these essential needs, publichealth must always be protected; and5social cohesion, rather than polarity,should be nurtured and maintained.96 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

the way forward20 principlesguiding water reformKNOWLEDGE TO GUIDE ACTIONModern societies have created new andspecial pressures on Earth’s finite waterresources. Their future depends on achievingsustainable water use. Such recognitionneeds to occur at all levels of governmentand their agencies, in businesses and acrosswider communities. Responses need to beinclusive of people and based on soundknowledge and accurate information.6The decisions that need to be madeabout water have to be taken rightnow by us, at this moment in time, andnot left to some future generation.All people should have the opportunity toparticipate in the debates and decisions7about water that will affect theirlives and livelihoods.8Rural and urban Australians are tightlyconnected by the water that is usedto produce our food and fibre. Theresponsibility for reaching sustainablewater use, and the investment that willbe required, is a shared one.We should seek to understand the land inwhich we live and appreciate its variability,limits, ecological processes and their timelines.9Improving and extending our waterliteracy is an essential step towardsachieving a sustainable water future.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 97

the way forward20 principlesguiding water reformWith European settlement, many ofour cities and towns were locatedalong waterways. Water was suppliedeasily to these emerging populationcentres, as well as servicing the needsof agriculture and industry. At thesame time, these waterways wereused to dispose of our domestic andagricultural waste. Other towns andfarming regions, however, grew bydrawing on our groundwater resources,originally thought to be limitless.Steadily, there has been a shift in thecommunity perception of waterways,from what we might call a utilitarianview, to one that is more holistic – seeingwaterways as natural living systems,essential for healthy catchments, andsupporting a range of flora and fauna.We now know that waterways andaquifer systems are linked, and thatgroundwater resources, accumulated overmillennia, are not inexhaustible. In manylocations groundwater is being used atrates in excess of the natural recharge.10To remain living things, our riversand streams need to get the firstdrink. Once this need is satisified, water can beallocated for other purposes.11We should always respect the linkages betweensurface water and groundwater, ensuring thatneither is wasted or contaminated.We should seek to reuse water as many timesas possible. At the same time, we should aim to12minimise adverse environmentalimpacts and maximise the socialand economic gains from its use.98 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

the way forward20 principlesguiding water reformGOVERNMENTS’ ROLEGovernments have a centralrole in guiding the economy,mediating competing interestsand enhancing society in relationto water management. Decisionsabout water are likely to affecteveryone to a varying degree.These decisions and proposedactions must be informed,considerate of the common goodand of intergenerational impacts.131415andGovernments have a particularand enduring responsibility toprovide wise stewardship of thenation’s water resources.Governments in a market economyhave an enduring responsibility to actas a balance to market forces in themanagement of our water resources.Governments should act as committedand independent regulators ofwater use, taking into accounturgency, social impact, fairnesscommunity expectations.16Governments have a responsibilityto measure, monitor and reportregularly on how water is beingconsumed and by whom, how the environmentis being provided for and how communities aremoving towards the sustainable use of water.National and state government programson water reform must be underpinned byappropriate public inquiry and consultation17as well as being transparent,technically sound and socially andeconomically responsible.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 99

the way forward20 principlesguiding water reformWHAT IT WILL TAKE18Australia’s dire water situation requiresconcerted, long-term national responses.We should understand and accept the needfor significant investment and expenditure,19to be shared equitably. There will beindividual costs as well. These investmentsshould be seen as a stake in our future, toensure a quality of life that is shared, safe,20secure and aesthetically pleasing. Rapiduptake of existing and new technologieswill be central to many of these actions.We need to accept and share the significantmedium-term financial costs that will berequired to achieve wise and efficient water use.All sectors of society should be preparedto rapidly adopt appropriate, proven,water-saving technologies and activelysupport further innovation.Each of us has a responsibility toleave society and our environment inbetter shape than we found it.100 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

PART THREEbecomingsuper-efficientwater usersEveryone can do something to bring aboutsignificant improvements in water efficiency,and, ultimately, reach super efficiency. Somewill want to do more than others. So muchthe better. We need to aim for major advancesacross the whole community over the next fewyears. These are the steps we recommend toachieve these vital aims.step 1: recognise our powerWe have more power than we realise. This is playedout on several different levels.Our power as individualsWord of mouth. Word and deed. Remember thatword of mouth is possibly the most potent source ofinformation in our society! Try talking with everyoneyou know to raise community consciousness aboutwater, and show the way by your own actions.Our power in a small groupWhen we join forces with others, we share wisdom as well asthe load. As individuals we usually wear different hats: as familymembers, parents, friends, employees, employers, small businesspeople, volunteers or neighbours. There is enormous scope forchange in coming together in small clusters of people to doimportant work. We know this already through such hugelysuccessful initiatives as the Landcare groups, now dotted allover Australia.All it might take is for a couple of parents to urge their schoolcouncil to apply for a Community Water Grant to do a wateraudit, install rainwater tanks or other water-efficiency measures.It might involve patrons urging the manager of the local gymto start a similar process, or ratepayers talking with their localcouncil, or staff in their workplace taking action, or volunteers ina not-for profit agency.Our power in a communityMost of us connect in some way with organisations and networksthat can help spread information, take initiatives and broadcastachievements. These could be employer groups, unions, sportsclubs and associations, shareholders, faith communities, arts andrecreation bodies, and so on.Our power as votersWhen we elect people to represent us in local councils or in stateand federal governments we effectively give them our power ascitizens to use responsibly on our behalf. We trust them to usethis power wisely.We need to talk with our representatives about water, waterefficiency and super efficiency, making suggestions and requests,commending them on important achievements and holding themto account for inadequate responses or non-responses.Our power as global citizensWe need to look after water in our own patch as well as do whatwe can to help manage freshwater resources around the world.There are plenty of established forums for taking action on wateroutside the political arena. Start by supporting an internationalnot-for-profit organisation such as WaterAid, which is dedicatedto the provision of safe domestic water, sanitation and hygieneeducation to the world’s poorest.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 101

PART THREEbecomingstep 2: appreciate the scope for actionThere are no limits to what can be attempted or achieved whenit comes to improving our water efficiency. Many of you arealready doing great things in this regard. You now need to lookat what you can do to assist with moves towards super efficiency!super-efficientwater usersThe following sections outline the many things we can all doto kick-start the move to super-efficient water use in four majorareas: in business and organisations; on the land; in households;and in government.what people can do:IN BUSINESS &ORGANISATIONSON THE LANDIN HOUSEHOLDSIN GOVERNMENTEach of these parts addresses three interrelated tasks:• to measure and monitor the water we use• reduce the amount of water we use• and reuse water as many times as possible.There is no way we can do justice here to all the many things thatare already being done and can still be done. Our aim is to provideenough detail and direction for people to at least appreciate thescope for action, and to start the ball rolling wherever they can.We have come to the realisation that the water issue is anextremely complex one, and one that can only be progressedby using many different water-saving methods and ideas. Someof these strategies require us to change our attitudes to wateruse, some can be achieved via legislation and by the use of newtechnology, but probably the most effective measures (and themost challenging) will involve changing people’s basic attitudesto water.Our deepest fear is notthat we are inadequate;our deepest fear is thatwe are powerful beyondmeasure. It is our light, notour darkness that most frightensus … And as we let our own lightshine, we unconsciously giveother people permission to do thesame. As we are liberated fromour own fear, our presenceautomatically liberates others.M Williamson, A return to love: reflections on the principlesof a course in miracles, HarperCollins, 1996, pp. 190–91102 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

what people in business & organisations can doRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• In 2004–05 the manufacturing industryin Australia used 600 505 ML of water. 1• The food, beverage and tobaccoindustries accounted for 35.8% ofthis use, followed by metal products(26.2%), and wood and paper products(16.5%). 2• In 2004–05 the mining industryused 608 575 ML. 3 Western Australiaused 46.2%, followed by Queensland(22.8%), New South Wales (14.2%),and Victoria (5.5%). 4• A 1993 estimate calculated that a typical300-room hotel uses 225 000 L each dayor 750 L per room. This is equivalent to483 Olympic-size swimming pools eachyear. 5• A commercial sink requires about40 L to fill, while a water-efficientcommercial dishwasher may use aslittle as 15 L. 6• As of June 2004 about 67% of allsmall businesses, meaning businessesemploying less than 20 people, werehome based. 7• There are about 2350 ovals and parks inMelbourne and over 3000 in Sydney, all ofthese require watering. 8There are huge numbers of people tiedinto organisations with high levels ofwater use. For example:• There are about 7145 organisations inAustralia providing sports and physicalrecreation activities. 9• In the 12 months to April 2004, 4.3million Australians were involved in sportand/or recreation. 10• There are 41 universities and 78 TAFEinstitutions in Australia. 11Across the huge diversity of business – from thelocal deli to car-production lines, from biscuitmanufacturers to hairdressers – people have animportant role to play in achieving real waterefficiency and in reaching super efficiency.Many people also connect with, or belongto, significant organisations – as employees,volunteers, or participants in different activities.You might be a staff member at a school oruniversity, or an office bearer in a voluntaryassociation like the Guides or Scouts, for example.There are many actions you can take to achieve realwater efficiency and then super efficiency, whetheryou are running a small or large business, part ofa voluntary club or large organisation.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 103

BUSINESS & organisationsmeasure & monitor water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• Food processing consumes 28%of the total water used in themanufacturing sector. Water useranges from 1 L per kilogram ofproduction for bakery products to9 L per kilogram for meat products. 12• In hospitality, most water is usedin guests rooms (38%) followed by:kitchens (21%), lockers/public toilets(16%), laundries (12%), cold rooms(6%), steam generation (4%), pools(2%) and air-conditioning (1%). 13• In 2007 the Victorian Governmentidentified 17 hospitals as beingamong the top-200 water usersin the state. 14• Many sporting organisationsare significant users of water –particularly those playing outdoorsports on grass surfaces.Identify your water useTo identify opportunities for increasing the waterefficiency of your business you will need to do awater audit. For instance, the ways in which yourorganisation uses water may include:• domestic-use drinking water, washing, flushingtoilets and watering gardens and ovals• cleaning for hygiene reasons, product qualityand product changeover• cooling, removing heat from machinery, andcondensing vapours• processing, diluting, mixing, heating andcooling or separating materials• rinsing, diluting and dispersing spills and leaks,avoiding contamination between processes• steam-raising for process heating.Measure water useOnce you have identified and quantified all theways in which water is used by your organisation,you can begin to identify ways in which water usecan be monitored and managed on a regular basis.Develop a standard reporting procedure for waterissues. This should include:• total water use over a defined period (week,month or quarter)• a comparison to previous water-use patternsand identified goals• issues that need addressing (such as leaks)• responsibilities for action.Read your meter daily to monitor usage, orinstall an automatic monitoring system. Considerinstalling sub-meters to monitor specific areasof use, for instance sub-meters could be usedto monitor cold-water supply, hot-water supply,kitchens, cooling towers, buildings, publicamenities, laundries and outdoor areas.Identify where your watercomes fromIn some businesses, water may come fromvarious sources. Include these various sources inyour audit. Sources may include:• mains water• bore water• extraction from local surface water• harvested water.Investigate opportunities to improvestormwater management on site. Thiswill present opportunities for using thestormwater, thus offsetting water you arepaying for, as well as reducing the risk ofunwanted discharges from the site.DOING MORE WITH LESSConsider if there will be any impacts on otherusers, upstream or downstream, or ecologicalimpacts with changes in water use.verify supply systems• Set up a database with a user-friendlyinterface so that meter readings can bemanually or automatically fed into thesoftware.• Include reporting information in annualreports and environmental reports.Involve staff & consumersBrainstorm possible solutions and encouragestaff to form a water conservation team. Thefindings and recommendations from the wateraudit are a good place to start adressing yourwater use.Compile a water-managementplanDevelop a structured change-managementprocess to smoothly and effectively implementaction items arising from your waterThe Australian Food and Grocery Council was one of thefirst industry groups to sign an Eco-efficiency Agreementwith Environment Australia in 2000. Eco-efficiency isbased on the idea of ‘doing more with less’, and efficientwater use is an important factor in achieving this. 15104 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

BUSINESS & organisationsmeasure & monitor water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• In an average year in a temperateclimate zone, a standard sportsoval requires around 70 000–80 000 L of water per application.About three applications (subjectto weather) are needed per week,requiring a water input of 210000–240 000 L per week to keepthe oval in a healthy and playablecondition. 16• A standard soccer pitch requiresapproximately 50 000 L of waterper application. Again, threeapplications are required per week(150 000 L per week). 17• A bowling green requires15 000–30 000 L of water perweek to keep the turf alive. 18management plan. When compiling a watermanagement plan it’s important to:• ensure all staff are totally commited andinvolved• document your investigations of all water–efficiency opportunities• identify items that need action• prioritise actions according to their costs,benefits and implementation timelines• form a clear policy on water conservationand waste minimisation, in accordance withexisting environmental standards and practices• establish a results-driven but realistic timelinefor implementation and review.consider harvested waterMost water that falls on roofs and sealedsurfaces, such as car parks, is not collectedfor further use. Investigate the practicality ofcapturing and storing this water for irrigation,flushing toilets or other uses. Do this by:• calculating the sealed surface area available forpotential harvesting• factoring in inhibitors to harvesting waterfrom these sites – possible inhibitors includepollutants, particularly from vehicles• checking your local Environment ProtectionAuthority (or equivalent) for guidelines on thesafe reuse of water and relevant regulations.E-laundry and dry-cleaning services, VICTORIAE-Laundry operates a niche laundry service that offers a guaranteedturnaround time of less than 24 hours, in an industry that typically offersturnaround times of 48 hours.E-Laundry relocated to a site in East Brunswick with the intention ofincreasing their capacity by 60%. Its upgrade included installing an EcolabAquamiser Filtration system to recycle approximately half of the facility’swaste water that would otherwise be discharged into the sewer. E-Laundrycan expect to recycle over 15 ML per annum of water (the equivalent of15 Olympic-size swimming pools), resulting in significant reductions inboth potable water use and water discharged into the sewer.E-Laundry highlights the capacity for this technology to be replicatedin hospitals, large hotels, small food processors and by the foodmanufacturing sector. 19TOWARDS A CLEANER CREEKThe City of Whitehorse is assisting residents to monitor the health of oneof their creeks: Gardiners Creek. A gross pollutant trap has been installed,estimated to prevent 25 tonnes of pollution entering the creek. By installingclear signs on a number of drain outlets along the creek with a uniquedrain identification number and phone numbers for a pollution hotline,those who live nearby can report spillages and leaks quickly and easily.Source: City of Whitehorse .Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 105

BUSiness & organisationsreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• Overall water use across Australiafor 2004–05 was 18 767 GL – areduction from 2000–01 whenit was 21 702 GL. This is accountedfor by the impact of the prolongeddrought. 20• Despite this, water consumptionincreased in the same period in themining and manufacturing sectors. 21• Across most councils, the mostwater is used by playing fields(37%), followed by open spaces(22%). Swimming pools andrecreation centres consumeapproximately 18% of water. 22LeaksChecking for leaks in taps, pipes and hoses is aneasy way to reduce water wastage. Remember,one leaking tap can waste more than 2000 L permonth. 23 In order to prevent leaks:• replace worn seals on water pipes• repair leaking pipes, valves or other equipment• monitor wash tanks and storage tanks toensure they do not overflow• ensure all taps are turned off when not in use.Cooling towers & processwater coolingTypically, cooling towers used for air-conditioningconsume about 10–25% of a commercialbuilding’s total water use. 24 To minimise this:• ensure that your evaporative cooling system orchiller cooling tower is serviced regularly• avoid overflowing and ensure the float valveand seal of the make-up supply is set correctly• eliminate water lost via wind drift by usingbaffles and drift eliminators• ensure blowdown water use is controlledproperly• regularly check seals in the cooling system.Washing & cleaningMost commercial washer-extractors can beretrofitted with a tank to save the final rinsewater, which can then be reused as a pre-wash inthe next load. You can also save water by:• using a bucket to wash and rinse wherepossible, instead of running the tap or hose• agitating rinse baths with air or mechanically,to increase rinse-water life and efficiency• replacing standard taps with ceramic-seal taps(the seals last longer than washers and are lesslikely to leak)• cleaning plant areas and paths with broomsrather than water• ensuring all hoses are fitted with triggeroperatedguns• using process water from other areas forequipment that needs to be cleaned regularly• using alternative methods of cleaning, such ashigh-pressure air jets• washing items in water baths rather thanunder sprinklers where possible• using scrapers and brooms to remove residualbuild-up in plant machinery• regularly checking that spray nozzles are aimedcorrectly• installing lever or mixer taps (with a singlelever or knob), as these let you find the rightwater temperature quickly• using reusable microfibre cleaning productswhich can reduce water use and the use ofchemical cleaning products.Educating staffSaving water at your business means everyoneneeds to be involved in the process and encouragedto take ownership of it. Even little things likereporting leaks can help. You should also:• set goals for reduced water use and informemployees• consider incentives for staff to save water• form teams that compete for a monthlyreduction target and offer a small reward tothe team with the biggest reduction• review water conservation plans and progressin staff meetings• use communication tools such as bulletins,newsletters and emails to send staff watersavingideas, announcements, progress reportsand news of special achievements• include water conservation policies andprocedures in staff training programs• establish an ideas box to encourage employeesto suggest new ways to save water• erect signs informing customers and visitors ofrestrictions and ask for their co-operation inreducing water use.On the production lineTo reduce water use on production lines:• adjust flow rates to the minimum required forthe operation• ensure water sprayers and jets turn off whenthe production line halts or ceases – use timersor motion sensors to do this• install high-pressure, water-efficient spray jets• install flow restrictors and regulators whereappropriate• use pedals and timers to deliver water onlywhen needed• use fogging nozzles to cool products• inspect nozzles for clogging on a regular basis• instead of using water for dust-suppressionconsider using drought-tolerant plants to bindsoil and screen dusty areas – material suchas paper mulch can be used to cover areas106 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

usiness & organisationsreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• The Victorian government’s SchoolsWater Efficiency Program (SWEP)estimates there are potential watersavings of between 5% and 30%, anestimated billion litres or more to besaved in schools across the state. 25• In May 2005 the Australian NationalUniversity bought 46 vacuumpumps to replace the existing waterused aspirators in laboratories. Thevacuum pumps should save around50 000 KL of water and $62 000each year. This is probably thelargest single water conservationinitiative ever undertaken at theuniversity. 26susceptible to erosion (the mulch can be easilyremoved as required) 27• use high-pressure, low-volume sprayersto remove waste material. Waste shouldbe removed in dry mode first to preventchemicals and pollutants from entering thesewer system 28• consider pipe pigs, air or inert gas pulses forpipelines that carry manufactured product andneed periodic cleaning 29• conduct trials to determine the optimum flowfor the equipment, or compare the flow ratewith manufacturers’ specifications to see if theflow can be reduced• install automatic monitoring and control devicesin key sites to lower production costs.Plant or site gardensIn plant or site gardens:• group plants with similar water needs as thishelps to ensure they all receive the correctamount of water• select indigenous and other water-wise plantsand lawns. In addition to requiring less waterthey also generally require less maintenance• create a rain garden by directing surface runoffand water from gutters to landscaped areasinstead of stormwater drains• mulch around plants• use water crystals or other wetting agents,particularly to reduce transplant shock toplants• don’t water automatically – check weather andsoil conditions first• check for leaks outdoors, including in sprinklersystems and tapsStaff bathroomsOld-style toilets can use up to 11 L of watera flush compared to 2 L for an individual urinal.Waterless urinals are now also available. Toincrease water efficiency in bathrooms:• install reduced-flow showerheads• install pressure-reduction valves in ablutionareas• install and use water-efficient urinals ratherthan toilets• replace timer-controlled urinals withmovement sensors or manual controls• install auto shut-off taps• install auto sensors on urinal flushes• insulate hot water pipes to avoid wastingwater and power while waiting for hot waterto flow through.Staff kitchensEncourage staff to wait until they have a fullload in the dishwasher before using it. This saveswater and energy, and reduces the amount ofdetergent entering the sewer system. Also:• avoid rinsing dishes before loading them intoyour dishwasher. Use the rinse/hold settinginstead• wash fruit and vegetables in a half-filled sinkinstead of under running water.Commercial kitchensDishwashingTo reduce water use when washing dishes:• wash full loads only• turn off dishwashers when they are not in use• scrape, rather than rinse, dishes and utensilsbefore loading into dishwashers, or• pre-soak utensils and other items in sinksrather than rinsing with running water beforeloading into dishwasher• install spray rinsers for pot washing andreduce flow of spray rinsers for prewash• ensure water pressure and flows to dishwasherare set at minimum required settings• replace spray nozzles with water-efficient types• install electric eye sensors for conveyerdishwashers• install new water- and energy-efficientdishwashers when renovating.Ice machinesTo obtain maximum water efficiency:• adjust ice machines to produce only therequired amount of ice• consider a closed circuit cooling system ifyour ice machine is currently cooled via ‘oncethrough’ cooling water• consider buying ice from commercial vendors.Food preparation and serviceReduce water use by:• not using running water to thaw foods –defrost frozen goods in the refrigerator• washing fruits and vegetables in a filled basin,not under running water• purchasing fruits, vegetables and saladingredients in ‘ready-to-serve’ form to avoidwashing and preparationVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 107

BUSINESs & ORGANISATIONSreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• purchasing drinks in ready-to-use form(canned or bottled) to reduce water used indrink preparation• serving water from jugs to prevent half-emptybottles or carafes of water being discarded• turning off continuous flow to wash draintrays of drink machines; clean trays as needed.Cleaning upTo become more water efficient at clean-up time:• eliminate nightly hosing in kitchen areas wheremopping will provide adequate sanitation• send laundry to commercial facilities• use squeegees or brooms to remove surfaceand floor debris before washing with water.Commercial laundriesFor efficiency gains in commercial laundries:• consider using high-pressure steam boilersduring laundry hours and a low-pressure onewhen the laundry is closed• only use washing machines for full loads• check that temperature settings in heatingand cooling settings are stable• ensure equipment such as boilers, pumps,chillers and water heaters are used accordingto actual loads• ensure equipment is properly maintainedto prevent water loss due to leaks, steam orcondensation• install a timer to turn off equipment whenit’s not in use.Construction sitesTo economise water on construction sites:• reduce evaporation by retaining as muchvegetation as possible during construction• protect water quality by minimisingdisturbance of waterways, floodplains andvegetation and soil and install and maintainerosion and sediment control and cover orfilter stormwater inlets and drains• use a broom rather than a hose to clean pathsand gutters• use buckets of water to clean tools insteadof running water• capture surface water runoff to supplementsupply where possible• minimise use of watering for dust suppressionand wash down• use pipes rather than open drains wherepossible.In guest rooms & toiletsTo save significant amounts of water:• consider installing infra-red urinal flush controlswhich generally use less than 20% of the waterused by a normal ‘fill and flush’ system• install plumbing fixtures such as waterefficientshowerheads and taps, or insert flowcontroldevices into existing ones• install fixtures that deliver the highest waterefficiency rating, e.g. 4.5/3 L dual-flush toilets• insulate hot water pipes so heat loss isminimised and guests don’t need to wait toget hot water to the tap• minimise the distance between hot watercylinders and taps• establish a system whereby guests can electto keep their towels and bed linen for staysof more than one night and save water in thelaundering• review water use by cleaners to check whetherit can be reduced.In poolsFosters Yatala Brewery, QUEENSLANDIn a 10x15 m uncovered pool, 7 cm of surfacewater will evaporate each week. This amountsto 10 500 L of water in a week or 546 000 L in ayear. 30 To minimise water losses:• install pool and spa covers to reduceevaporation• equip pools with recirculating pumps• check pool infrastructure regularly to avoidleaks or other problemsA $14 million water management project, undertaken by multibeveragecompany Fosters Australia as part of an expansion at its Yatalabrewery, has achieved massive water savings, as well as reductions inenergy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, salt-discharge levels andconsumption of cleaning chemicals. At the heart of the project is an advancedwastewater treatment system for on-site recycling of process water.This brewery, south of Brisbane, produces a quarter of all the beerconsumed by Australians and is the largest water user on the GoldCoast. Fosters is now producing beer with 2.5 L of water for everylitre of beer produced.The company is saving about $1.5–2 million a year by recoveringindustrial waste water, which is returned to the plant in pristine condition. 31108 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

BUSINESS & organisationsreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• check the water level in your pool to avoidunnecessary water loss• for more hints on how to save water in poolsand spas, check out the ‘Households’ sectionon page 136.Sports fields & ovalsIf you’re still using traditional irrigation methods,consider installing a computerised irrigationsystem, which shuts down automatically whenit rains, resulting in substantial water savings,reduced costs and improvements in plantdurability. 32 Also:• turn off all automatic timers• don’t water automatically — check weatherand soil conditions first• check for water leaks outdoors, including insprinkler systems and taps• form a committee to consider installingsynthetic playing surfaces and weigh upthe initial costs against the long-term savings.UniversitiesReport water wasting to maintenance, or yourrelevant department. In laboratories and researchschools significant savings can be made by:• turning the water off when it’s not required• replacing water aspirators with vacuum pumps• replacing stills with reverse-osmosis machines• installing dedicated-process cooling forscientific equipment.If appropriate, you could also investigatereplacing single-pass cooling systemstypically used in ice machines, x-raymachines, CAT scanners, degreases, hydraulicequipment, vacuum pumps, condensersor air-conditioners with close-loopsystems or reuse the water elsewhere.FLINDERS PEAK SECONDARY COLLEGEHarley, Jamie, Sarah, April and Eboney are Year 9 students atFlinders Peak Secondary College in Corio, Geelong. They werepart of the first intake of the new Snowy River Campus of theVictorian Department of Education.As part of their formal team study, they were required todevelop a Community Learning Project. They decided toredesign a garden at their school in order to make it more waterefficient. Harley says, ‘We chose this project because water ispretty low.’Now that they’ve finished doing the plant research and areback at the school, they’re putting their plan into action, firstestablishing the garden and then looking for local sponsorshipso they can install a rainwater tank near the gym.A sydney hotel targets water wastageIn 2002 management of the Ashfield Hotel approached Sydney Waterfor help with identifying water wastage and requested a set of actionsto reduce wastage. As a result of the measures adopted, water usagedecreased by 36%.Initial capital outlay was a mere $1300! The projected water savingsare around 5800 KL a year and the projected cost-savings are $11 600a year (which includes both water and sewerage charges). At this rateit will only take the hotel one month to recoup its costs. 33Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 109

BUSINESs & organisationsreuse & substituteRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• Reuse of water in manufacturingdoubled to reach 2% from 2000–01to 2004–05. 34• Within manufacturing, thepetroleum, coal, chemical andassociated products industries hadthe highest rate of reuse of water,at 58.6%. 35• The mining industry increased waterreuse by 34% in the three years upto 2004–05. 36• On average, Australian citiesrecycled about 8% of waste waterin 2004–05. 37• The Austin Hospital in northeastMelbourne was identified in2007 as having reduced its waterconsumption by 11% by reusingwaste water and through rainwaterharvesting. 38Capturing rainwaterRainwater can be captured or harvested frommany sources on site. These include sealedsurfaces such as pavements, car parks and roofs.Potential uses for rainwater include, but are notlimited to:• toilet flushing• laundry use• garden watering and farm irrigation• use as top-up water for lakes and ponds.Water recyclingIdentify processes whereby discharged water canbe reused. Reusable water includes water fromequipment cleaning, filtered backwash water,final cooling and cleaning water, and water usedfor transport.Consider other options for keeping wastewater that can potentially add value to theorganisation’s use of water on site. Waste wateroften contains high levels of nutrients and otherby-products. If treated appropriately, these byproductscan be reused or sold as products suchas mulch.Recyclable water may also originate from:• cooling towers• industrial processes• equipment cooling and cleaning• garden irrigation.It may also be possible to:• consider waste-treatment processes such aswetlands, composting and worm farms• recycle cooling water through a cooling towerrather than operating a single pass through tothe sewer system• recycle steam condensation and non-contactcooling water from sterilisers to top up waterin cooling towers or boilers• recycle brine from reverse osmosis or filterbackwash for cooling 39• continuously assess water use in chilledsystem operation• implement water recycling by capturing usedwater and recycling it to coolers• use rainwater recycling for toilet flushing andgarden irrigation.In plant & site gardensTo save water in this context you can:• maximise water infiltration to rechargegroundwater• install rainwater collectors and coversfor pools to collect water and minimiseevaporation• install a water-reuse system to divert wastewater to gardens for irrigation• redirect surface runoff and gutters tolandscaped areas instead of stormwater drains.On mine sitesWater use can be minimised on mine sites by:• reclaiming water from tailings dams• capturing surface runoff to supplementsupply• recycling water from vehicle wash-down bays• appropriately treating and reinjecting waterinto aquifers.In constructionIn order to save water on construction sites:• collect rainwater for storage and reuse intanks, ponds, dams, swimming pools orunderground tanks• use recycled water, if available, for cleaningwherever possible.Parramatta CouncilParramatta Council has reducedwater use in many of its facilities andpublic spaces. Council currently reusesgroundwater collected from floodedindustrial pits to water its extensiveplaying fields. Groundwater is used inthe irrigation system installed at DoyleGround, North Parramatta, wateringthe entire playing area. Based onseasonal use, the council will be ableto reuse approximately 48 000 000 Lper year for irrigation, cutting $14 000a year from its water bill. 40110 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

BUSINESS & organisationssome wider actionsRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersPlan aheadThere are many things your business can doto achieve real water efficiency, on the way tobecoming super efficient. Many actions leadingto water efficiency will also result in greaterenergy efficiency, as the two are often linked.Smart businesses need to anticipate the effectsof climate change and look at what they caninvest in now to avoid much greater costs in thefuture. If your business finds a leading edge insustainability, other businesses may follow yourlead.Planning ahead is vital to maximising savingsin your business. Current climate changepredictions of rising temperatures anddecreased rainfall will impact on all people andorganisations in some way; be it increased airconditioneruse or more competition for water,which will trigger price increases.In your businessInstall facilities to trap and store water on ascale appropriate to your business. This may bea rainwater tank or, for a large business, it couldmean constructing a dam, the use of bladders orindustrial-sized tanks.Within businesses& industriesThere are some key things you can do withinyour business or in combination with otherbusinesses to promote the water-efficiencyagenda. You could:• create a forum for discussion with othermanufacturers to share ideas and experiencesdirected at saving water• contact your local small business council ortraders association and instigate a forum,inviting a representative from your local waterauthority to speak about ways of saving water• liaise closely with peak industry bodies tocreate a standard for water management• use your success in saving water to promoteyour company to environmentally awarecustomers• use existing awards to recognise achievementsin water-use efficiency – there may be scope toBusiness cannot ignore the turbulent environment being created bygrowing sustainability concerns. Business must take all possibilitiesinto account in strategic planning by engaging in the sustainabilitydebate, embracing foresight methodologies such as ‘wild card’identification and analysis and getting more creative.Stephen McGrail, ‘Urgency turns into emergency,’ the Age, 19 February 2007.initiate awards under government auspices, aswas the case with the Golden Gecko Award• consider calculating the total amount of watertaken to produce an item, the embodied waterrate.Between your business& local water authorityYou should contact your local water authorityand find out what kind of support is availablefor businesses. They may be able to assist yourbusiness in either a technical or an advisorycapacity.Between your business& governmentBusinesses and government can work togetherto promote water efficiency. Your business could:• investigate incentives for the adoption ofwater-efficiency equipment – includingrebates, tax concessions and vouchers• apply for a federal government Smart WaterGrant• establish a business/government forum toresearch, and prepare guidelines on, the costeffectivenessof water use• lobby government to continue to supportresearch into efficient use of water in keybusinesses• prepare formal guidelines and protocols on thereporting of water information.On mining & constructionsitesDevelop a groundwater resource code, similarto the Joint Ore Reserve Committee Code formineral deposits. This would better definethe risks for a water resource of meeting therequirements of a mining project.Penrith city councilPenrith City Council is one ofSydney’s largest local councils.When they signed up for SydneyWater’s ‘Every Drop Counts’program in April 2002, theyanticipated water savings ofjust 10%. But trial audits of sixof the council’s high-water-useproperties proved them wrong byidentifying potential savings ofbetween 15% and 56%.In the event, Penrith City Councilreduced water consumption by56%. Better still, savings of $17805 per year were achieved byinvesting just $17 830. 41Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 111

BUSINESs & organisationssome inspiring storiesRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersA water-wise bus company leads by exampleLatrobe Valley Buslines services theMoe, Traralgon, Morwell, Boolarra,Churchill, Yinnar, Newboroughand Yallourn North communitiesin Gippsland, Victoria. It has 67employees and about 70 buses.Three years ago the company installedrainwater tanks at their Traralgondepot to collect water to wash theirfleet of buses. This was instigated byRhonda Renwick, a director of LatrobeValley Buslines, who had grown upin the country in an environmentof collecting and carting one’s ownwater, and who had built a home witha rainwater system and sustainablegarden. ‘It just seemed like the logicalway to go,’ said Rhonda. The companydidn’t receive any governmentfunding for this endeavour – it was allcarried out at their own cost. They’renow installing rainwater tanks attheir other depots. Rhonda also had tosource a suitable pump and bus-washsystem that would work effectivelywith the tanks.The used water flows into thestormwater system, so the companyhas also put a lot of effort intosourcing environmentally friendlycleaning products.Water is not just being collected towash buses. At the Traralgon busdepot the rainwater tanks have twoinner compartments. One third of thewater collected is held in reserve forthe local fire brigade.In early January 2007 LatrobeValley Buslines, in response to theincreasingly dry conditions, decidedto implement a new policy: therewould be no washing of bus exteriorsat all. Normally buses would bewashed daily upon return to thedepot. Staff have been relieved of oneof their duties, and the response fromboth staff and the public has generallybeen positive.As far as Rhonda Renwick is aware,Latrobe Valley Buslines is the firstbus company to employ a communitydevelopment officer. ‘We wantedto understand the needs of thecommunity, so that our business canrespond to those rather than the usualtimetables, etc.,’ explained Rhonda.The business is thriving as thecompany responds to local andcommunity needs, as well as the widerissue of water efficiency. In Rhonda’sview, ‘It’s really only an attitude anda new way of looking at things, ratherthan simply continuing to do thingsthe way they’ve always been done.’112 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

BUSINESs & organisationsgeneral referenceRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users1. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia,2004–05, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2005, p. 80.2.3.4.ibid., p. 80.ibid., p. 79.ibid., p. 79.5. Savewater! Alliance, Why save water in hospitality?, viewed 22March 2007, .6.ibid.7. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Characteristics of smallbusiness, Australia, (reissue), ABS, Canberra, 2004, p. 70.8. Greater Melbourne Street Directory, Melways, Mt Waverley,2007; Sydney Street Directory, Sydways, 2007.9. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year book, Australia, 2006,cat. no. 1301.1, 2006, pp. 381–2.10.11.12.ibid., p. 385.ibid., p. 295.Savewater! Alliance, viewed 22 March 2007, .13. Savewater! Alliance, Why save water in hospitality?, viewed 22March 2007, .14. John Thwaites (acting premier), Government ‘top 200’ sitessave water, media release, 23 January 2007.15.Department of the Environment and Water Resources, viewed4 April 2007, .16. City of Greater Geelong, Australia, Water restrictions andsports grounds: frequently asked questions, viewed 22 March2007, .17.18.REFERENCEsibid.ibid.19. Sustainability Victoria, The sustainable laundry, viewed 22March 2007, .20. University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, 2004, Watermanagement plan, .21. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia,2004–05, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2005, p. 9.22.23.ibid., p. 9.NSW Department of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability,viewed 4 April 2007, .24. Sydney Water, Fact sheet: cooling towers, 2001, viewed22 March 2007, .25. Victorian Government, Our water our future – Schools WaterEfficiency Program , viewed 22 March 2007, .26. Australian National University, viewed 22 March 2007, Waterconservation at the ANU, 2005, .27. Environment Protection Authority Queensland, Save waterin the workplace, ecoBiz Queensland, .28.29.ibid.ibid.30. Savewater! Alliance, Why Save Water in Hospitality?, viewed22 March 2007, .31. ‘ Water worries’, transcript of ABC Television Stateline program,7 October 2005, viewed 27 March 2007, . (Reporter: Margie Smithurst.)32. Department for Victorian Communities, Sustainable waterpractices for sport and recreation, PowerPoint presentation,p. 25, .33. Sydney Water, Case study, Ashfield Hotel, 2002, viewed22 March 2007, .34. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia,2004-05, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2005, p. 86.35.ibid, p. 86.36. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia,2004-05, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2005, pp. 82–3.37. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, SecuringAustralia’s urban water supplies: opportunities andimpediments, Marsden Jacob Associates, November 2006, p. 29.38. John Thwaites (acting premier), Government ‘top 200’ sitessave water, media release, 23 January 2007.39.Centre of Excellence in Cleaner Production, Curtin University ofTechnology, Cleaning and disinfection fact sheet, 2003, viewed22 March 2007, .40. NSW Government, Water for Life, Water smart governmentfact sheet, 41. Sydney Water, The Conserver – every drop counts businessbulletin, issue 3, 2003, 42.Toyota Australia, .Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 113

BUSINESS & organisationsgeneral referenceRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersSome other sources• Australian GovernmentDepartment of Environmentand Water Resources’ AustralianGreenhouse Officewww.greenhouse.gov.au/challenge• Australian GovernmentDepartment of Transport andRegional Serviceswww.dotars.gov.au• Australian National UniversityGreen websitewww.anu.edu.au/facilities/anugreen/water• Centre of Excellence in CleanerProduction, Curtin University ofTechnologyhttp://cleanerproduction.curtin.edu.au/• National Australian BuiltEnvironment Rating Systemwww.nabers.com.au• Sydney Water ‘Every DropCounts’ business programwww.sydneywater.com.au• Victorian Government’sSustainability Victoriawww.sustainability.vic.gov.auToyota Australia DRIVING changeSince 2000 Toyota Australia hasachieved:• a 26.5% reduction in waterconsumption• a 30.5% reduction in wasteto landfill• a 4.7% reduction in energyconsumptionIVANHOE PRIMARY SCHOOL: SUSTAINABLE SCHOOLMary Anne Mugavin is a Grade5 teacher at a state primaryschool in Ivanhoe, Melbourne.She applied for a CommunityWater Grant in 2005 but wasunsuccessful. In early 2006she helped form a SustainableSchool Committee, whichhas about 13 members.Using the Water EfficiencyProgram of the Department ofEducation, contractors cameto the school and carried outa detailed audit of water use.The school then reapplied fora grant to help carry out the• a 40.8% reduction in volatileorganic compound (VOC)emissions.In April 2004 Toyota’s Australiancorporate headquarters won theaward for ‘Best Contribution toSustainable Development – LargeScale’, at the City of Port PhillipDesign and Development Awards.work required to reach greaterwater efficiency, includingcapturing runoff from the mainbuildings, and refurbishingtoilets (i.e. installing waterlessurinals and valve systemson all taps). The second timearound they were successful!Importantly, students havebeen involved in gathering andanalysing baseline data, as wellas witnessing the transformationof their school. The school nowaims to become sustainable interms of water, energy, wasteand maintaining biodiversity.One of the key features ofthis building is a 350 000 Lunderground stormwater tank thatcollects and harvests stormwaterfrom the roof for use in the watersystem servicing the toilets andfor the gardens surrounding thebuilding. 42,‘We started with nothing much,’ MaryAnne says. ‘What’s been exciting is tosee the growth in awareness across theschool, and to see the culture changeoccurring.Even the real estate sign out the frontcarries the words “Thinking Globally,Acting Locally”.’114 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

what people on the land can doRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersMost of the nation’s available water is used onagricultural land. For over 200 years farmers haveprovided all of us with cheap, safe, high-qualityfood, fibre and other farm products.We now realise, however, that this has come at a costto our natural environment. Our farming practices,combined with the demands of a highly urbanisedpopulation, have altered the hydrology of thelandscape with devastating consequences. In someplaces there is no turning back. Acidification andsalinisation of our soils is costing us billions of dollars,and salinity problems are set to dramatically increase.When these effects are combined with the harshrealities of farming in Australia today – 10 dry yearsacross some of the country’s prime agricultural landand perhaps more to come – the situation becomescritical. Sustainable farming involving a reductionin water use is already being practised by leadingfarmers across the country. Education, the sharing ofknowledge and the tireless pursuit of real efficiencyare all key to turning the situation around. To ensurethat gains are made on a broad front, we also needto get behind sustainable agricultural enterprises bybuying their products and investing money in them.This section is divided into three parts: whatirrigators can do; what farmers on dryland propertiescan do (i.e. farmers managing with seasonal rainfall);and what rural lifestyle landholders can do.• We use most of our water in agriculturalproduction – 65% of water consumed during2004–05 was for this purpose. 1• This was a 23% decrease from 2000–01,attributable mainly to drier conditions. 2• Livestock, pasture, grains and otheragricultural commodities had the highestconsumption rates – collectively 36%. 3• This was followed by cotton (15%)and sugar (10%). 4Initially I was embarrassed because I thought,‘Here’s me promoting conservative stocking rates and I’m now runningmore livestock per hectare than I was 20 years ago.’ But, in actual fact, it’s exactly whatI want to be saying. If you focus on the welfare of the land first, then in the long runyou may actually be able to increase your stocking rates, whereas if you focus on thestocking rates ahead of the welfare of the land, then in the long term you go backwards.John Weatherstone, ‘Lyndfield Park’, Gunning, NSWVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 115

ON THE LANDmeasure & monitor water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersirrigators• There are many types of waterusers in Australia’s main irrigationareas: cotton growers with largeoff-river storages, rice growersand growers of other cash crops,dairy farmers, and irrigators ofhorticultural crops such as vines,fruit trees and vegetables.• Surface irrigation (often knownas flood irrigation) is the mostcommon irrigation method used inAustralia. 1• Surface irrigation accounted for60.2% of the total area irrigatedin 2004–05. 2• Only 22% of Australian irrigatorsused a form of soil moisturemonitoringproduct in 2003. 3To move toward real efficiency, irrigatorsneed to measure and monitor the weather,water use, soil moisture and crop and/orpasture needs. They need to assess howmuch water their crops or pastures actuallyneed and when it is needed.Highly productive and efficient irrigatorsknow a great deal about the soil on theirproperty and its water-holding capacities.WHOLE FARM PLANNINGWhole farm planning is a series of measures aimedat precision farming. Whole farm planning makesuse of surveys to identify where salts are storedin the soils and determines the optimum layoutfor drains, on-farm channels and storages. It alsocovers paddock irrigation design, cropping andpasture planting, as well as providing informationon where to undertake remediation methods torestore soil fertility.REVIEW ON-FARM WATER USETo gain an accurate picture of on-farm water use:• explore all options to help you do the mostaccurate measuring and monitoring, such asonline technology and support, professionaladvice from agricultural advisers (if available)and educational materials and courses• Talk to your local member about the kinds ofinformation and services you need and useIt is not the quantity of water appliedto a crop, it is the quantity of intelligence appliedwhich determines the result – there is more dueto intelligence than water in every case.Alfred Deakin, 1890your own and other irrigators’ influence toget support for these services and informationsources• compare estimated annual crop waterrequirements with the total water applied• review total on-farm water use. This mightincluded water use in sheds and yards (in theform of recycle cooling water and for yardwash down), stock and domestic consumption,drainage/effluent, and irrigation use• review the security and best use of waterrights (water-allocation policies permitting)• concentrate inputs (such as water) on the mostproductive areas of the property• monitor the quality of irrigation and drainagewater.WEATHER INFORMATIONThe following products and techniques can helpirrigators attain greater water efficiency:• weather data and water-use estimates.Daily weather information is vital to bettermanaging irrigation. Weather stations canbe connected to a range of soil watermeasurementdevices to provide data that caninform irrigation decisions• daily evaporation-rate statistics collatedthrough the Bureau of Meteorology alsoprovide valuable data• climate analysis and decision-support packages(software packages containing monthly anddaily rainfall and streamflow records).MOISTURE MONITORINGAccurate soil water-monitoring is crucialto moving towards greater eficiency.This is possible through the use of linkedsoftware systems which allow irrigatorsto continuously monitor changes in watercontent through analysing soil profiles.116 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

Rapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersirrigatorsON THE LAND: IRRIGATORSreduce & reuse• Around 90% of all water used foragriculture in 2004–05, was usedto irrigate crops and pastures. 4• The actual area irrigatedin Australia has increaseddramatically in the past 50 years,from about 500 000 hain 1955 to 2.4 million ha today. 5• Nationally, almost one-third ofirrigating establishments irrigatedpasture for grazing. 6• Irrigation of cotton increasedsignificantly during 2004–05,with both the area irrigatedand volume used increasingby 46% compared tothe previous year. 7• Rice required the highestapplication rate of irrigationwater (12.1 ML per hectare),followed by cotton (6.5 MLper hectare). 8APPLY WATER EFFICIENTLYKey actions to ensure efficient application include:• understanding the water storage (holding)capacity of soil in the root zone of plants• knowing how long to irrigate for. Match theapplication rate (or the discharge and durationfor flood irrigation) to the rate at which wateris absorbed• knowing how often to irrigate. Understandwhen to schedule irrigation by measuring soilmoisture or analysing weather (e.g. comparingevaporation and rainfall) and/or plantrequirements• applying water evenly with an irrigationsystem designed to match soil types and usingwell-maintained irrigation equipment.MINIMISE WATER LOSSESOR WASTAGEMinimise losses and wastage by:• incorporating weather forecasts into irrigationdecisions• establishing surface drains to collect runoffand/or subsurface drains to prevent excessinfiltration• establishing and managing a drainage-waterreuse system (especially for flood irrigation).LAND MANAGEMENTTo improve land-management practices:• recognise soil-condition problems and theirpotential to be remedied• monitor soil nutrients, pH, salinity andgroundwater levels• be familiar with any regional or catchmentmanagement strategies.A BUNDABERG irrigation storySome of the following suggested actions forapplying preventive and remediation measuresare very expensive to implement. Look for existinggovernment-funded programs that will assistyou financially, e.g. with fencing riparian areas.Talk with local government representatives aboutfunds or support to enable you to undertakethe other actions (e.g. funding to educateirrigators about recent technological advances).Bundaberg cane grower Tom Loeskow is building the soil fertility onhis farm for the next generation. Recent soil tests confirm the successof his farming methods — primarily a return to green-manure cropping.He is currently trialing a mix of field pea and turnip as a winter greenmanurecrop.Mr Loeskow’s irrigation decisions are based on likely return oninvestment. As water is a limited resource, he concentrates on blocksmost likely to produce the greatest return. Different soils receive differenttreatments. The red soils receive favoured treatment, due to their inherentproductivity, with the installation of trickle tape. Some soils respond todeep ripping of the inter-row space because compaction of the inter-rowreduces the water-infiltration and water-holding capacity of the soil.Mr Loeskow has also developed a business plan to maximise potentialsavings.Sourced from Australian Canegrower, 11 July 2005Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 117

Rapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersirrigatorsON THE LAND: IRRIGATORSreduce & reuseAPPLY WATER EFFICIENTLYON PASTURES FOR GRAZINGThe National Land and Water Resources Audit(2002) produced a guide for dairy farmers usingirrigated water, entitled Best managementprinciples for the dairy industry. These principlesare reprinted on the following two pages – theyare an excellent starting point.AcidityTo control acidity:• test and record surface soil (0–10 cm) pH atleast every three years (more frequently ifintensively irrigated and fertilised)• ensure subsurface (10–60 cm) acidity does notincrease• apply fine lime when soils become too acidic• consider sowing deep-rooted pastures withlegumes to ‘mop up’ excess nitrogen and getadvice on pasture species that might alsolower the water table• return manure and feed refusals to thepaddock• minimise nitrogen leaching (e.g. by usingsmall, repeated nitrogen applications, notover-irrigating, keeping healthy pastures thatuse the available nitrogen and rotating nightpaddocks).Dryland salinityTo manage dryland salinity problems:• concentrate production on the lowestsalinity soils• do not fallow during wet seasons• fence off and vegetate recharge anddischarge areas• plant salt-tolerant pastures‘Previously, I couldn’t find a drip system that would increasemy production while also reducing water use, but the openhydroponics system has done both. In our second season usingthe system, we increased our navel orange production by40%. Every tree is getting the same amount of water and nutrients– their health is much improved and they’re consistently producinggood fruit.’Citrus grower Dean Morris, NSW• establish deep-rooted pastures or revegetatewith suitable species• install surface and/or subsurface drains orgroundwater bores and manage drainagewaters• use and manage groundwater in conjunctionwith surface water.Irrigation-induced salinityTo reduce irrigation-induced salinity:• maximise irrigation efficiency to avoid overirrigation(particularly with saline water)• ensure sufficient irrigation water infiltratessoil to prevent salt accumulation by capillaryaction• carefully manage the use of saline effluent• plant salt-tolerant pastures• install surface and/or subsurface drains orgroundwater bores and manage drainagewaters• use, monitor and manage groundwater inconjunction with surface water.ErosionTo minimise soil erosion:• adopt conservation tillage methods(oversowing, minimum or zero tillage andcultivate across slopes)• avoid cultivating during high-rainfall seasons• reduce runoff and its velocity (e.g. maintaingroundcover such as permanent pastures and/orconstruct contour banks or diversion structures)• fence off and revegetate degraded areas• fence off and manage stock access to waterfrontages• farm land according to its capability• design and locate laneways to avoid runoffinducederosion.Acid sulfate soilsTo manage acid sulfate soils:• avoid drying out (oxidation) of acid sulfatelayers (e.g. use laser levelling instead of drainageand avoid new drainage or excavation)• adopt shallow cultivation to avoid acid sulfatelayers unless wet• after cleaning drains, water lime into soil, andhold water back for 5 to 7 days.Soil structureTo preserve soil structure:• adopt conservation tillage methods• apply gypsum to soils where necessary• increase the organic matter content of soilsthrough pastures and/or manures118 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

Rapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersirrigatorsON THE LAND: IRRIGATORSreduce & reuse• Just 2% of water consumedby agriculture in 2004–05was reused water. This wascalculated through regionalreuse schemes, such as councilsproviding treated effluent toirrigators, but does not includeon-farm reuse or recycling. Thisis lower than 2000–01 whenwater reuse was 3% of totalwater consumption. 9• The highest use of reused waterwithin agriculture in 2004-05 wasby livestock, pasture, grains andother industries, followed by dairyfarming, vegetables and rice. 10• avoid compacting soils by not overgrazing orcultivating when wet and by keeping traffic todesignated laneways• deep rip or aerate compacted soils.Wet soil pluggingTo minimise wet soil plugging:• adopt special grazing measures when wet (e.g.selective grazing, on–off grazing, loafing padsor lower stock numbers)• establish multiple entry/exit points for stock• adopt suitable surface drainage practices (e.g.spoon drains, ‘hump and hollow’ or ploughaffected areas in lanes)• install and manage subsurface drainage whereappropriate• fence off extremely vulnerable areas• select locally suited pasture species andmanage their recovery from grazing tomaintain adequate cover.Nutrients from fertilisersFertiliser applications need to be balanced withplant/feed/production requirements: To do this:• test the nutrient levels of soils (at the samelocation) every 1 to 2 years and adjust fertiliserapplications accordingly• prepare nutrient budgets (at the paddock orfarm level) to monitor nutrient losses throughmilk, crops and stock and nutrient gains throughlegume pastures, fertilisers, feeds and manure• apply phosphorus at the beginning of pasturegrowth periods• apply nitrogen in small quantities, to meetpasture needs, periodically during the growingseason.Minimise nutrient lossTo reduce nutrient runoff:• reduce phosphorus loss by controlling soilerosion in cultivated lands• reduce nitrogen loss by minimising leaching• avoid applying fertiliser before heavy rainfall,on sloping ground or within 20 m of streams.When flood irrigating:• do not over-water and minimise runoff• laser level to reduce runoff and nutrient losses• do not irrigate for at least four days afterapplying phosphorus fertiliser• ensure there is no runoff for two irrigationsafter fertilising• reuse irrigation runoff• apply nitrogen soon after an irrigation.Reduce concentration of effluent onimpervious surfacesEffluent runoff can be reduced by:• designing dairies and managing herds so cowsspend only a short holding period in yards• using water-efficient cleaning systems• minimising effluent loss and runoff fromlaneways and feedpads• locating dairies to minimise the time cowsdefecate on roadways.Reclaim effluentTo reclaim effluent:• collect effluent where possible (e.g. fromthe shed and yards, feed pads, calving pads,laneways, roadsides, silage and wet foodstorages)• treat collected effluent (e.g. in a pond system)CHALLENGING TIMESAn irrigator contemplates theworst-case scenario of a zero waterallocation: ‘I would start off byjust heavily pruning – cutting thevines right back to the absolutelybare essentials. To sit back and donothing would be unthinkable. So,we need to be proactive in orderto conserve as much water aspossible and to reduce the amountof evaporation. And if we doeverything that we possibly can,and we’re still on zero, then at leastwe can say, “Well, we tried”.’Grape grower Reg Brook, Barmera, SAVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 119

Rapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersirrigatorsON THE LAND: IRRIGATORSreduce & reuseReusing the runoff means that we use every bit ofwater that comes on farm, but with accurate irrigation timingsthe runoff is dramatically reduced.Dairy farmer, northern Victoria• accommodate wet weather, herd size and soiltypes in pond design or effluent-managementpractices.Recycle effluentWhen recycling effluent, spread it over a sufficientarea to avoid concentrating nutrients and water.Prevent off-farm movement ofeffluent and wastesTo keep effluent and wastes on farm:• fence off and manage access by stock towaterways• use vegetated ‘filter strips’ (that include groundcover) adjacent to streams, particularly invery high rainfall areas, to reduce the physicaltransport of manure to streams and only ‘crashgraze’ these areas• manage stormwater (including stormwaterfrom roadsides) to reduce the prospect ofmanure being discharged to streams.Beyond these measures aimed at the soundmanagement of irrigating pastures for grazing,there are a range of other land-managementpractices with broad environmental benefits. Theseare outlined herer.MANAGE EXISTINGNATURAL AREASTo ensure that exisiting natural areas aremaintained in a healthy state:• fence remnant vegetation to manage its useand regeneration• control rabbits and hares and eradicate weeds• fence waterways to manage access and grazing• manage remnant wetlands to maintain naturalwetting and drying cycles. Retain naturalsnags, and eradicate introduced fish.REVEGETATE LANDSCAPESTo assist in the revegetation of landscapes:• use windbreaks or shade plantings to linkwaterways and patches of remnant nativevegetation or as part of a district, catchmentor roadside program• use a range of local native species (and localprovenances if possible)• establish groundcover and understorey plantsas well as trees• adopt direct seeding techniques or otherlocally proven revegetation methods• design plantings to minimise potential localpest- and weed-control problems.MANAGE WILDLIFETo manage wildlife:• maintain tree hollows and other naturalhabitat• provide nesting boxes in revegetationplantations• control cats, foxes and other vermin• monitor, evaluate and manage wildlifepopulations and their impacts.Brighton Council (Tasmania) CHAMPIONS WATER REUSEBrighton Council (Tasmania) discussed their effluent reuse project withbroad-acre farmers at the outset to ensure that they had clients for therecycled water. The farmers also had to agree to install the infrastructureto store the water and irrigate with it.‘The farmers saw it as an amazing resource,’ said a senior project engineerat Brighton Council. ‘I think people in the wider community are realisingthat water has more than a zero value. Brighton has installed water meterson residential, commercial and farming properties and, after installation,the demand for water dropped by 20%.’There are seven farms involved in the Brighton reuse scheme, with therecycled water being pumped directly to farm dams for storage before beingused for irrigation. It has reduced the load on the Derwent by 30 tonnes ofnitrogen and 7 tonnes of phosphates at least.120 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

Rapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersirrigatorsON THE LAND: IRRIGATORSsome wider actionsUSE OF TREATED EFFLUENTWhat is the likelihood and what are thepracticalities of linking in with your local councilto receive treated effluent? While some councilshave been using small amounts of treatedeffluent for many years, there are also counciland irrigator partnerships operating acrossAustralia whereby councils treat effluent fromurban areas and deliver it to local irrigationestablishments. Dubbo City Council’s GreengroveEffluent Irrigation Facility is a good example ofsuch a program. The council has achieved 100%beneficial reuse of the city effluent. The BrightonCouncil effluent reuse plan in Tasmania (see thebox on the opposite page) is also a good example.CHANGES TO WATER RIGHTSThe changes to water rights on irrigationproperties are significant and may haveimportant implications. On 1 July 2007 waterrights on irrigation properties in northernVictoria will be treated as a separate entity fromland titles as part of the Victorian Government’swater reforms. Take the time to talk with yourlocal water authority and relevant advisers tofind out as much as you can about how thesechanges will affect you, particularly in relationto implementing strategies for your locality andyour particular situation.WATER-SMART IRRIGATIONBundaberg melon growers Mick andRon Martens recently discoveredthe benefits of having two formsof moisture monitoring equipmentinstalled to assist them withirrigation scheduling.After purchasing a diviner three yearsago, the Martens brothers set out togain greater insights into the wateringrequirements of the melon andpumpkin crops they grow in rotationon their 80 ha sugar cane property.With assistance from the Water forProfit team they used three sets ofjet-fill tensiometers to double checkthe moisture levels recorded by thediviner. While the diviner readingswere proved accurate, they decidedto retain the tensiometers as acontinuing check process. This wasa wise decision that helped themresolve a problem later in the season.Readings from the diviner showedeverything was normal, but Mickand Ron had noticed a lack ofvigour and spread in the foliageof a particular melon crop. Thetensiometers installed in thatblock showed a significantlydifferent picture from the diviner.Investigation led to the discoverythat a hole in the trickle tape wascausing excess water to be appliedto the area directly around thediviner tube which was affectingreadings. The hole was fixed and thediviner moved: problem solved at anearly stage.Sourced from Fruit & Vegetable News,January 2007, p. 24Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 121

Rapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersDRYLAND FARMersON THE LAND: Dryland Farmersmeasure & monitor water use• For the 12-month period from March 2006to February 2007, serious to severe rainfalldeficits affected southern and easternAustralia. 1 The area affected extended,in a broad arc, across southern SouthAustralia, most of Victoria, much of NSWwest of the Great Divide (apart fromfar western areas), and a large part ofsoutheast Queensland roughly centredon Dalby. Northern and eastern Tasmaniawere also affected, as was WesternAustralia west of a line from Exmouthto Bremer Bay. Record low falls occurredin a strip from Melbourne to centralNSW, between Dalby and Goondiwindi insouthern Queensland, along Tasmania’snorth coast and much of WesternAustralia’s west coast. 2• The nation’s wheat, barley and canolaproduction is expected to fall by over 60%in 2006–07 due to the current drought. 3• Agricultural income is forecast to fall to$2.6 billion in 2006–07 – a fall of 72.4%from the 2005–06 figure of $9.3 billion.This is the lowest level of agriculturalincome since 1994–95. 4In the current dry times being experienced in Australia,it’s more crucial than ever to know as much as possibleabout water – not only within and upon the land, butalso to understand weather patterns, and how to bestuse this knowledge to farm sustainably, water efficientlyand profitably.The water considerations and management of water onfarms will vary depending on whether the farm is usedfor cropping, intensive farming systems, or livestockfarming. For all types of farming, as all farmers know,water is the key element.MEASURE & MONITOR WATER AVAILABILITYTo measure and monitor the availability of water you’ll need toascertain how much water is available on the property for stock.You’ll need to assess how long dam water will last in an extendeddry period and, if pumping water from a stream or bore, you’llneed to know how much is going to be available. To gain anaccurate picture you’ll need to:• calculate how much water stock are drinking on a weekly basis.This can be done through the many resources available throughthe Department of Primary Industries in each state (calculationsare based on depth of dam, evaporation rates and numbers ofstock)• tap into local knowledge – this is crucial on every farm. Forexample, in relation to groundwater you’ll need to find outsuch things as the depth of the groundwater, what the levelsare, what the likelihood is of bores drying up, what the directionof groundwater flow is, and whether salt stores are likely tocarried into streams.In this part of the worldthere’s enormous concern about what’shappening to our regular seasons. They’vechanged and it’s pretty scary … I thinkthat we’re all slow to change because youtend to think that next year it will rain inthe autumn, but invariably it doesn’t. If itcontinues we’ve got to look at our stockmanagement, because we like to lamb whenwe’ve got feed! So I’m actually thinking ofchanging from a May/June lambing to anAugust/September lambing next year … Idon’t think anyone knows what’s going tohappen, but we’re in it now, I’m sure we are.As far as we’re concerned, loss of grass inautumn and winter is the biggest problem.Tom Porter, sheep and cattle farmer, Hay, NSWThis kind of knowledge is not obvious on all farms. In some partsof Australia, agricultural and scientific government departmentsare working with farmers to gather this information and combineit to produce catchment scenarios. If your state’s departmentof agriculture offers advisory services, seek them out and talkto your local agricultural advisers to find out how to access theinformation needed.122 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

ON THE LAND: DRYLAND FARMersmeasure & monitor water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersDRYLAND FARMersSalinity estimates made available by the CSIROin 2003 give the following staggering statistics:• The current cost of lost agricultural productiondue to salinity is $130 million annually.• Salt-affected infrastructure (such as roads,pipes and buildings) needs constant replacement,at a cost of $100 million annually.• There is an annual cost of at least $40 millionin the loss of environmental assets. All of thesecosts are rising.• Around 2 million ha on about 20 000 farmsacross Australia showed some signs ofsalinisation in 2002. 5• About 800 000 ha are unusable for agriculturalproduction as a result of salinity. 6• Salinity causes $9 million damage annuallyto roads and highways in southwest NSW. 7• The area of salt-affected land in WesternAustralia is increasing at a rate of one footballfield an hour. 8MEASURE & MONITOR SOIL HEALTHBuild up a picture of soil health. A well-managed pasture that’sadapted to the soil, climate and livestock systems is more likelyto survive long periods of low rainfall than a pasture that’s poorlymatched to the environment, is inappropriately managed, and isalready under stress before dry conditions set in. To assess andimprove soil health:• measure economic returns from each paddock and identifypoorly performing areas• identify areas prone to deep drainage and look at potentialrevegetation systems to capture and hold the water• access available resources and link into local initiatives. Find outwhat funds and resources are available in your area to managedrought, dryland-salinity, and soil-erosion problems. Contactyour local catchment management authority, local agriculturaladvisers and farmers’ groups• adopt local solutions. Groups, such as Southern Farming Systemsin Victoria, provide local knowledge, research, field days andmuch more. These types of groups, organised by farmers andbased on their landscape knowledge, real-life experience andscientific support are found across the country.MEASURE & MONITOR THE WEATHERThere are many technologies available to help predict weather as wellas other services and sources of information. You should aim to:• build up an understanding of local weather patterns – Bureauof Meteorology scientists run climate workshops for farmersin some areas• use climate-predicting software (e.g. Rainman)• find out what expertise is available locally• closely monitor short-term forecasts and computer models,in order to enable you to respond quickly and opportunisticallyto actual weather conditions.I see farming that works withinconservation bounds as being a recipethat must be grasped, and very quickly, if thestructure of the nation as we know it is to beheld together. It is clear that we cannot rely onformal nature reserves alone.I believe the present high-input high-returnfarm-management system is not sustainablein the comparatively short term – let alone thelong term. It’s non-sustainable for the distinctlyAustralian fragile base resources – soil andwater – but also for the few farmers left battlingthe elements in such a large land.Retired farmer John Fenton, ‘Lanark’, near Hamilton,Western VictoriaVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 123

Rapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersDRYLAND FARMersON THE LAND: DRYLAND FARMersreduce & reuse• About 30% of land in WesternAustralia’s southwest is consideredto be at risk of becoming saline by2050. 9• If salinity is not effectivelymanaged within 20 years, the saltcontent in Adelaide’s drinkingwater may exceed World HealthOrganisation standards fordrinking water in two of every fivedays. 10• Around 50 million ha of Australianagricultural land are affected bysurface soil acidification. 11• Of 73 river basins assessed in2000 across Australia, two-thirdsshowed major water-qualityproblems, including salinity(saltiness), turbidity (dirtiness), andnutrient excesses (which can resultin choked waterways). 12HOLDING ONTO WATER: NATURALSEQUENCE FARMINGNatural Sequence Farming looks at how to retainwater and nutrients in the landscape to helprevegetate land back to its natural state.Farmer Peter Andrews has become well knownacross the country for developing this concept,and for producing impressive results inconverting degraded, salt-ravaged properties intofertile, drought-resistant pastures. 13Field days for farmers and agriculturalists areregularly held on properties where Peter Andrews‘results are evident. The key principlesof his approach are:• working in partnership with the naturalprocesses of the Australian environment• undertaking relatively simple environmentalsculpting to restore or mimic the originalsustainable processes developed overthousands of years to reunite waterwayswith their floodplains• slowing and directing water flow throughlocal floodplains, thus creating a freshwater‘lens’ perched in the soil just below the surface.This feeds the roots of vegetation and keepsdown salt. Organic matter and sediment fromupstream then have a chance to accumulateand form soil, rather than being whisked awaydown deeply eroded creek channelsWe look at the varieties we choose and the timing of theplanting. For example, last season (2003–04) we had 49 cold-shockdays for the cotton – the average for the area is 24. Right on top ofthat, we then had 42 heat-shock days, which is also unusual.We have to get rid of the old attitude of ‘let’s plant on the first ofOctober’, and instead really monitor the weather trends leading upto planting. It’s getting more complex.John Hamparsum, primary producer (irrigated and dryland), Breeza, NSW• managing livestock in harmony with theAustralian landscape to spread fertility fromthe floodplain to the hillsides to rejuvenatethe whole farm landscape.STORING WATERIn order to reduce water usage on drylandproperties and maintain water quality andefficiency:• springs, soaks and dams should always be fenced• ensure that farm dams are protected frompossible erosion – maintain vegetation filterstrips• pipe water to troughs to preventcontamination and bogging• pump water from shallow dams to a centralone to reduce evaporation losses.• build drains from road catchments or otherhard surfaces to catch water from summerthunderstorms and channel it to dams• in extended dry periods, de-sludge empty dams• store water carted (from community boresor standpipes) in a tank rather than a dam toreduce seepage and evaporation losses• find out about bladders for storing water, likethose used by the Australian Armed Services• use circular above-ground swimming pools asa cheap form of temporary water storage• consider bulk cartage of water by contractors –it could well be cheaper than the do-it-yourselfoption.• choose the pump and pipe that bestmatches your requirements in order toreduce pumping costs124 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

ON THE LAND: DRYland farmersreduce & reuseRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersDRYLAND FARMers• check streams and bores for salinity• clean troughs and uncovered tanks each weekwhen using saline water• site new troughs and tanks to suit future needs.PASTURE PRODUCTIONSowing well-adapted pasture species andmanaging pastures to enhance productionand persistence are key factors to reducingwater requirements. This will improve pastureproduction for each millimetre of rain, and willallow pastures to carry feed further into a dryperiod and to recover faster. Find out whatresources are available to assist you with plantingwell-adapted persistent perennial pastures.NATIVE VEGETATIONMeasures necessary to preserve native vegetationinclude:• reducing the rate of clearing of nativevegetation. Whatever natural habitat areasexist on your land should be kept andprotected. This is particularly important duringdry times if stock are eating ‘scrub’. Trees andshrubs should be only lightly pruned, and stockshould not be allowed to access new growth• seeking advice from local agricultural advisersabout resources available for maintainingnative vegetation, especially in dry times(e.g. fencing assistance).OTHER MEASURESDryland farmers can adapt to drier conditionsby adopting a range of measures. For example,they can:• reallocate resources, such as fertilisers, fromareas of the farm that are performing poorlyto more responsive areas• reduce intensive farming practices (e.g. adoptminimum tillage)• adjust stocking rates to allow soil toregenerate (lock up paddocks if they areovergrazed)• consider opportunity cropping (if suited tolocal conditions), which involves sowing a cropwhenever soil-water reserves are adequate. Bydoing this you ensure that more water is usedfor productive purposes where it accumulatesand less water escapes below the root zoneinto groundwater• consider phase farming (alternating a series ofcrops with a few years of perennial species).This practice helps to control recharge incropping areas• consider companion farming, in which annualcereals are oversown into a perennial pasturesystem. This system is being trialled by somenorthern NSW farmers who are planting nativegrasslands with success• explore the potential of agroforestry foryour farm (but be aware of the widercatchment impacts). Agroforestry integratestree crops onto your land to produce forestproducts. It can benefit farm productivity andsustainability. Seek professional advice as tothe suitability of your land for this purpose• enter the carbon emission trading market.New opportunities and income streams areemerging from planting small tree lots. Findout about Landcare initiatives in this direction• explore options to retire some of your land if it isdegraded and has limited production potential.It’s very fragile country where we are – shallow sandstone soil. Inthe 1982 drought we kept our cattle alive, but only by further degradingthe already degraded land. Had we done that again in the 1986 drought,I would’ve ended up a basket case, so I changed my philosophy. I reducedour herd by one-third, with the aim of bringing it back up to the originalnumber at the end of the drought. But when it finally rained, I wassurprised by how quickly the country improved with the lower number ofstock, so I decided never to increase the herd again.The controversial result of this was that, because of the improved qualityof our soil and pasture, the fertility of our cows increased by about 15%and our productivity actually marginally rose with one-third less cattleon the site. (I say controversial because I live in an area where we were alwaystold that it was impossible to be green and productive at the same time.)Hugo Spooner, ‘Avocet’, Central QueenslandYou may be able to receive assistance to plantnative vegetation and fence it to promote naturalregeneration and ecological succession. Theemerging carbon emissions trading market is alsorelevant here. Remember also to:• become adaptable. Look for opportunities todiversify, and work with what promises to beprofitable and sustainable in the long term• make informed decisions based on as muchdata as you can gather, rather than countingon unrealistically optimistic future scenarios.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 125

ON THE LAND: DRyland farmerssome wider actionsRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersDRYLAND FARMersStudy weather patterns• If you work in the field of rural support (e.g.as an agronomist farm adviser, fertiliserspecialist, etc.), you need to be aware of farmwater efficiencies and practices that will besustainable in both the short and long term.• Talk to your neighbours and see if there isinterest in learning more about weatherpatterns and what climate change will mean inyour area. Find out, through local agriculturaladvisers what information is already availableand how you can access local data. ABARE isworking to provide this information to farmersin some areas of Australia.• You can participate in a self-teaching programon the Bureau of Meteorology website to learnhow to interpret weather patterns.preservative vegeTation• There are a range of native-vegetationprotection programs across Australia offeringvarying degrees of support and assistance tofarmers. Talk to your local Landcare groups andagricultural advisers to find out more.establish wildlife corridors• Is there an opportunity for establishing awildlife corridor on your land? Explore schemesthat enable private land to be reservedspecifically for conservation and rehabilitation.Talk to local members and local governmentand find out what the current situation is inyour area.On Christmas Eve 1982, we had a howling northwesterly wind.The ground was absolutely bare and we had this huge dust storm. In theafternoon I went out to take some photos because we’d never seen anythinglike it before. I went over to the edge of the highway, which runs along theside of our farm, and I jumped over the fence to get a vantage point to takea photograph. I noticed that where grass hadn’t been grazed, there betweenour fence and the side of the road, the dead grass had actually caught a lot ofthe organic matter blown by the wind off the surface of our paddock. In someplaces it was almost like a sponge of clover burr and other organic matterand was nearly knee deep.I looked at that, and looked at our paddocks on the other side of the fence,which were absolutely bare, and it gave me a real shock. As I stood therecontemplating the significance of that, I made a solemn resolve that if wesurvived the drought I was going to do something to try and ensure that ourfarm never looked like that again.John Weatherstone, ‘Lyndfield Park’, Gunning, NSW126 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

ON THE LAND: RURal lifestyle landholdersintroductionRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersRURAL LIFESTYLE LANDHOLDERSThe face of agriculture and rural life in Australiais constantly changing. As you move away frommetropolitan centres, farms become progressivelylarger. Farms close to urban style amenitiesare being transformed into smaller lifestyleholdings where income is not necessarilyderived from the land.This has been the direction of change for a numberof years and, in some places, small holdings aregrowing at a rapid rate as traditional farms aresubdivided. This is happening in the most populousparts of Australia – in areas predicted to receive lessrainfall and more variable weather patterns due tothe effects of climate change.Rural lifestyle landholders will be affected by thesechanges in weather patterns and the uncertaintylinked to climate change. Agricultural practices ofthe past – even on a small scale – may no longer besuitable, viable or sustainable. The prediction ofmore and larger bushfires is also relevant, as manyrural lifestyle properties are in natural settings withsurrounding bushland. This section looks at whatpeople on small landholdings can do to managetheir property and its water needs in the mostefficient and sustainable way.FOR SALEA 153-acre cattle property with good soils, two dams and the potentialto become a quality lifestyle or hobby farm, with phone and power available.This is a quality ‘drought-proof’ small acreage previously used for a dairy herd. It iscleared grazing country with a high carrying capacity. It is in a beautiful rural areaand has rolling hills with rich ‘scrub’ soils and ample water and troughs for stock.The area is close to Brisbane and the Gold Coast – offering a quality rural lifestyle ina safe rainfall area.Advertisement on Sell Without Agents website, March 2007Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 127

ON THE LAND: rural lifestyle landholdersmeasure & monitor water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersRURAL LIFESTYLE LANDHOLDERS• Almost 16.6 million ha of Australianland is managed by sub-commercialfarmers who typically derive mostof their income from nonfarmingactivities. 1• In Western Australia in 2005 therewere about 40 000 landholders withproperties between 1 ha and 100 ha. 2• Of more than 4000 land salesannually in Victoria, more than 56%are of plots less than 20 ha. 3• In the Sydney Basin, an area subjectto the demand for rural lifestyleland, the agricultural land return is$5500 per hectare compared to theNSW average of $136 per hectare. 4• Small lifestyle landholders areattracted to areas of natural beauty.There are high proportions of thesmall landholder sector in areasidentified as having threatenedecosystems. And the subdivisionrate in these areas is increasing. 5ASSESS WATER AVAILABILITY& QUALITYIn order to assess water availability and quality:• determine the uses to which the water is to beput, e.g. stock, home, garden, domestic, crop orirrigation use• determine how much water is needed for eachproposed use, and in which seasons it will bemost needed• determine what options are available toprovide the required supplies at the level andtiming wanted (i.e. does the property have ariver, creek, stream, dam or water right?)• gather as much information as possible on theweather patterns and flow regimes affectingthe property• regularly measure and monitor yourhousehold water use (see the Householdsection on page 134 for information on howto do this). Decide whether or not you haveenough domestic water-storage capacity forunpredictably dry times.LIVESTOCKDrinking-water requirements for stock varyaccording to the weather, the quality and natureof feed, water quality, animal age, the conditionof animals and even social behaviour. Summeruse will usually be about 125% of the averagedaily requirement. Winter use is usually 75% ofaverage daily requirements. To ensure that youhave adequate water and feed for stock:• calculate your stock water needs using guidesavailable through all state government primaryindustry departments. Landcare has alsoproduced excellent guides• calculate the fire fighting reserves needed onthe property. Contact your local agriculturaladviser or primary industry department to geta guide as to how much water should be heldin reserve• check pasture availability regularly. In dry timesstock can graze plants that are not usually partof their diet and which may be toxic• calculate the cost and time involved in feedingstock if your water supplies are not going tobe adequate. Decide early (before stock losecondition) if you’re going to feed through dryspells or remove stock by sale or agistment.ASSESS LAND HEALTHYou need to determine the overall health of theproperty and assess whether the land is understress. Measures to help you do this include:• finding out what funds and resources areavailable to measure soil health on theproperty• contacting your local catchment managementauthority and local agricultural advisers tofind out if soil tests have been done on theproperty recently• talking to neighbours to see what they havedone in this regard• finding out how neighbouring propertiesare using their land to see if this has anyimplications for your property in terms ofwater use, runoff or possible contamination.There are many different intensive farmingpractices employed on small properties.128 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

ON THE LAND: RURal Lifestyle landholdersreduce & reuseRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersRURAL LIFESTYLE LANDHOLDERS• Rural lifestyle landholders areattracted to areas of natural beauty.There are high proportions of smalllandholders in areas identified ashaving threatened ecosystems, andthe subdivision rate in these areasis increasing. 5DAMSIn regard to dams on rural lifestyle landholdings,you should:• minimise evaporation losses. There areexcellent resources available through theNational Program for Sustainable Irrigationto measure the potential losses throughevaporation of dams and the estimated costsof mitigating evaporation. Find out about thesetools and how to apply them to the dam ordams on your property• explore what kind of dam is appropriate toyour particular location. Many people, uponpurchasing a rural block, decide to builda small (or not-so-small) dam. However,remember that dams have a catchment-wideimpact. Each farm dam lessens the amount ofsurface water entering the rivers and streamsin a catchment• plant out the edges of dams with the mostappropriate shrubs and bushes for your areaand soil. This will reduce evaporation andprovide a haven for birds.LAND MANAGEMENTA healthy landscape will use whateverwater is available far more efficiently andeffectively than degraded and eroded land.To maintain land health and enhance biodiversityon your holding:• reduce the removal of native vegetation andprotect whatever natural habitat areas remainon your land as this has the added benefitof preventing soil erosion and improving soilcondition• secure the remnant vegetation on yourproperty. Find out through local agriculturaladvisers what resources are available to fencethe remnant vegetation and protect theseareas from weeds. Remember that revegetatedriparian strips are a simple way to improvewater quality, aquatic habitats and providewildlife corridors• enhance the habitat value of native vegetation.Control weeds, undertake direct seeding withthe appropriate seed mix or plant tubestockwhere the soil seed bank has been exhausted.Contact local Landcare groups as a startingpoint for assistance.It’s sort of just got bigger, but the basis of it is still thesame. It’s still education based – that’s the most important thing. Weneed to keep that going because there’s still a hunger for knowledge.There’s people coming to live in this district who want to knowthings, there’s people who live here and right around that want toknow, I mean there’s 350 lectures over two days and we don’t wantto lose the education base.James Loneragen, Mudgee Small Farms Field Day committee member, 2004• try and link remnant vegetation. This providesopportunities for species to move and mix andrestores biodiversity. Talk to your neighboursand see how you can work together inthis endeavour. Find out what resourcesare available to help by contacting localagricultural advisers, Landcare coordinatorsand other related organisations (such as thelocal catchment management authority)• seek advice about the most appropriatepastures and grasses for your property. Thereare programs available to support the growthof perennial grasses and native grasses• seek professional advice before undertakingany significant landscaping. Areas strippedbare of covering for any length of time canexperience significant erosion and runoff• adjust stocking rates to allow soil toregenerate. Look for signs of overgrazing,especially in extended dry periods. You mayneed to fence off severely overgrazed oreroded areas• fence off stream areas from livestock. Thereare numerous programs in all states to assistproperty owners to do this• if you are exploring the potential ofagroforestry for your farm, be aware of thewider catchment impacts. Agroforestry isthe integration of tree crops into your landto produce forest products. It can benefitfarm productivity and sustainability. Seekprofessional advice about the suitability ofyour land for this purpose.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 129

ON THE LAND: rural lifestyle landholderssome widers actionsRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersRURAL LIFESTYLE LANDHOLDERS• Encourage the local council or shire to runexpos for rural lifestyle landholders, witha particular focus on the implications forlandholders of local change in weatherpatterns and climate change scenarios.• Talk to local agricultural advisers to seeif they can provide information events,specifically for smaller properties, addressingparticular needs not addressed throughtraditional farming education forums.• There are a range of native revegetationprotection programs across Australia withvarying degrees of support and assistance. Talkto your local Landcare groups and agriculturaladvisers for more information.• Is there an opportunity for establishing awildlife corridor on your land? Some farmersare already being supported to do this, withgreat success. Explore ways that private landcan be reserved specifically for conservationand rehabilitation. Talk to local membersand local government and find out what thecurrent situation is in your area.Why are animals wanted and whatwill ultimately be done with them? Stockfor commercial gain will take considerable time, money andknowledge for optimum (or even reasonable) production. Theirultimate fate is generally slaughter. Landholders wanting to usestock simply as ‘lawnmowers’ are strongly advised to consideralternative vegetation for their land or to hire or buy a rideonmower or slasher – it will be cheaper and easier inthe long run.Government of Western Australia, Department of Agriculture, Farmnote Reviewed, 2005130 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

what people on the land can dogeneral referenceRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersIntroduction1Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account,Australia, 2004–05, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS,Canberra, 2005, p. 68.2ibid.3ibid.4ibid.Irrigation1. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water use onAustralian farms 2004–05, cat. no. 46180.0,ABS, Canberra, 2006, p. 3.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.ibid.ibid., p. 16.ibid., p. 1.ibid., p. 2.ibid., p. 2.ibid., p. 2.ibid., p. 3.9. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Wateraccount, Australia 2004–05, cat. no. 4610.0,ABS, Canberra, 2005, p. 71.10.REFERENCEsibid., p. 71.Additional resources• C Creighton, W Meyer & S Khan, Farming andland stewardship, Case study – Australia’sinnovations in sustainable irrigation, proceedingsof the 4th International Crop Science Congress,Brisbane, 2004.• National Land and Water Resources Audit,Australians and natural resource management2002, app. 4, ‘Best Practice ManagementPrinciples for the Dairy Industry’, NLWRA,Canberra, 2002.Dryland farmers1. Bureau of Meteorology, Definition of termsused to describe rainfall. Serious deficiency:rainfall in the lowest 10% of historical totals,but not in the lowest 5%2. Severe deficiency: rainfall in the lowest 5% ofhistorical totals.3. Bureau of Meteorology, Drought statement,BOM, Melbourne, 2007.4. Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Impact ofthe drought on agricultural production in2006–07,’ in Australian national accounts:national income, expenditure and product,cat. no. 5206.0, ABS, Canberra, 2007.5. ibid.6. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Salinity onAustralian farms 2002, cat. no. 4615.0, ABS,Canberra, 2002, p. 8.7. ibid., p. 2.8. National Action Plan For Salinity and WaterQuality, fact sheet, 2001, .9. ibid.10. R Beeton, K Buckley, G Jones D Morgan, RReichelt & D Trewin, (2006 Australian Stateof the Environment Committee), State of theenvironment 2006, Independent report to theMinister for the Environment and Heritage,DEH, Canberra, 2006, ch. 8.11. National Action Plan for Salinity and WaterQuality, fact sheet, 2001,..12. National Land and Water Resource Audit,Australian agricultural assessment, summarychapter, NLWRA, Canberra, 2001.13. P Andrews, Back from the brink - howAustralia’s landscape can be saved, ABC Books &Audio, Sydney, 2006.Additional resources• John Weatherstone’s booklet Lyndfield Park:looking backward, moving forward, (for a freecopy contact CanPrint 1800776 616, ProductCode PK030494).Rural lifestyle landholders1. C Hollier, J Francis & M Reid, ‘Shrinkingextension to fit a growing small farm sector’,Extending extension: beyond traditionalboundaries, methods and ways of thinkng,program and abstracts, Australasia PacificExtension Network, Hobart, 2004, p. 2.2. H Conkey & H Aslin, ‘Sea changers, treechangers, lifestylers and downshifters in ruralAustralia: implications for policy’, proceedingsof Department of Agriculture, Fisheries andForestry, BRS Seminar Series, June 2006.3. ibid.4. ibid.5. C Hollier, J Francis & M Reid, op. cit., p. 3.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 131

what people on the land can dogeneral referenceRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water userssome other useful sourcesIrrigation• National Program for Sustainable IrrigationPh: (03) 9563 3214, (02) 6263 6030• State Departments for Primary Industries,Natural Resource Management and Water• Irrigation Association of Australia Ltdwww.irrigation.org.auProvides information about the irrigation industry andstandard practices.• Aglinks – The Australian Agricultural Directorywww.aglinks.com.au/Resources/Irrigation_and_Water/index.htmlBodies and organisations involved in irrigation andwater-resource management.• Landcarewww.landcare.com.auA community, government and business partnershipto care for the landscape. More than 4000 volunteercommunity Landcare groups operate across Australiaand in other parts of the world.• Waterwatchwww.waterwatch.org.auA national community water-monitoring program.Dryland farmers & rural lifestyle landholders• Departments of primary industriesin each state – contact your local, state or territorygovernment.• Bureau of Meteorologywww.bom.gov.auDaily graphs and archives of the Southern OscillationIndex (SOI). (The Southern Oscillation Index is calculatedfrom the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the airpressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin.)• Industry-based Extension ProgramsBestwool: www.dpi.vic.gov.au/bestwool/Top Crop: www.topcrop.grdc.com.auContact local agricultural advisers to find outabout other relevant programs.• Saltwatchwww.saltwatch.org.auA national community salt-monitoring program.• New programs in sustainable farmingwww.crcsalinity.com.au• National program for sustainable irrigationwww.npi.gov.auFor information on dams and evaporation• Local agricultural advisersprovide a wealth of information and resources. Contactyour local municipality for information on all ruralprograms, initiatives and personnel in your local area.• Bushcarewww.nht.gov.auAn initiative of the Natural Heritage Trust. Supportsgroups to conserve and restore native habitat.• Natural Sequence Farmingwww.naturalsequencefarming.com• Publications for sustainable farmingavailable in newsagentsGrass Roots MagazineGrass Roots Publishing Pty LtdEarth Gardenwww.earthgarden.com.au132 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

what people in households can doRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• Australians are one of the greatestper-capita users of water in the world. 1• If we combine water we use directly andthe water embodied in the food, goods andservices we consume, Australians have thelargest domestic water footprint on theplanet. 2• Most water used in Australian householdsis for outdoor purposes, such as gardens,swimming pools and outdoor waterfeatures. 3• In 2004 Australians consumed, on average,282 L of water in and around the homeeach day. 4• In 2003 people in Denmark usedapproximately 125 L per person per day. 5• Between 1993 and 2003 Denmark’shousehold water consumption fell by onequarter.This took place in tandem with a150% increase in the price of water, whichincluded a household water tax. 6• In many developing countries, people usemuch less than 50 L of water per personper day. 7Most of us either rent a home, own a home, livealone, share households with friends or family,live in high-rise buildings, units or individualproperties with gardens of varying size, or withno gardens at all.We can all do a great deal at the householdlevel to become more water efficient, to thepoint of being super efficient.This section suggests ways you can improvewater efficiency. It also puts forwardsuggestions for achieving further efficiencies byworking with your neighbours, with clubs, yourcouncil, local developers and businesses andyour local water authority.I organised a visit from a plumberrecommended by a local environment shop. We now have flowcontrolvalves on every single tap in the house, our rainwater tank hasbeen plumbed into the toilet, we’ve got a hose for greywater attached to thelaundry, low-flow showerheads and buckets in the showers. All up,it’s cut our household water use by almost 200 L a day!!!Watermark Australia group participant, Fairfield, Vic.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 133

Householdsmeasure & monitor water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• There are about 500 000swimming pools in Australia –or one for every 12 homes. 8• Around 70% of household poolsand spas in Western Australiadon’t have a pool or spa cover. 9• Most Australians underestimatetheir daily water consumption. 10• Most apartment dwellers have noway of calculating their householdwater use because apartments arenot individually metered.The most important first move in cuttingdown water use is to find out how muchwater your household is using. There arethree important steps in this process.STEP 1Eliminate the possibility of leaks. For allhouseholds on mains water, you can check forleaks by reading your water meter late at nightand then again early the next morning, duringwhich time no water should have been used. Ifyou are unsure how to do this, check the websitewww.savewater.com.au for its instructionalvideos to assist you around the house.STEP 2Work out how many litres your householduses each day. Unfortunately, billing systemsand styles vary across Australia. Some billswill tell you your daily usage and give youinformation on past usage as well. Locateas many of your old water bills as you canor start collecting them.STEP 3Work out in more detail how you use the waterin your household. The best way to do this is toconduct a water audit of your home. You cando this yourself or you can engage a qualifiedplumber. The Green Plumbers website has anexcellent 50-point Environmental HouseholdInspection Report which you can do yourself.This helps you calculate the amount of wateryou’re using in each part of the home and inthe garden. A water audit by an accredited GreenPlumber will give you the opportunity to discussvarious water-saving technologies: ranging fromminimal-cost measures to water conservationand reuse measures that cost as much as you’rewilling (or able) to pay.SUPPORTING MEASURESYou should also let your water authority knoweach and every time you have a problem withyour water bill. Your feedback will help themto continuously improve their bills in termsof readability and in the standardisation ofreporting structure and design. Make sureyou also keep your water bills to measureyour progress.If we could somehow measure our useof water, perhaps we could start using less. Forexample, having some sort of meter or gauge directly in thecentral area of the kitchen, somehow connected to the mainswater meter, so you can actually see how much water is beingused per day. It could tick over like a petrol bowser.St Monica’s Book Club Watermark Australia group, Essendon134 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

HOUSEHOLDSreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• Most fresh water used byAustralian households is foroutdoor purposes: nationally 44%. 11• Around 84% of Australianhouseholds flush clean drinkingwater down toilets daily. 12There are countless ways to reduce water usein your home. Advice on how to save waterwithin the home is freely available. If you haven’talready swung into action – along with thethousands of others who already have – nowis the time to get going! You can cut down onwater for washing dishes, for example, by wipinggreasy plates beforehand with a paper towel (arenewable resource). You can cut down on thenumber of times per week you use the washingmachine. You can use rinse water to give potplants a drink. And all of this without installinga thing! Human ingenuity being what it is,new water-saving ideas are continually beingdeveloped and brought to the market!There are many excellent websites providingadvice on reducing water use at the householdlevel. Some of these are listed at the end ofthis section. A particularly useful one worthhighlighting is the Savewater! Alliance website(www.savewater.com.au) which provides anextremely comprehensive list of water-efficiencymeasures. Much of the following information hasbeen sourced from this website. We’ll now look athow to save water in different areas of the home.IN THE GARDENThis is where Australians use most domesticmains water. It’s still possible to have a beautifulgarden with minimal water use. Indeed, there areexamples all over the country of thriving waterefficientgardens.Water-efficient gardens are sometimes referredto as ‘xeriscape gardens’ (xeros meaning ‘dry’,scape meaning ‘land’). Xeriscape gardens targetseven basic areas: planning; soil care; selectionof plants; lawn care; irrigation; mulching;and maintenance. When applied together,these techniques reduce water consumptiondramatically. However each technique on its ownwill have a significant impact, too.There are several key ways to ensure efficient useof water in your garden. You should:• learn what kinds of plants are appropriate toyour local conditions and how much waterthey really need. Find out what droughttolerantplants are available and suitable• use a soil moisture meter so you know whenwater is really needed (ask for one at gardenand DIY centres)• get the soil right. Good soil retains moisturebetter and allows plants to resist dryconditions. If the soil is lacking, build it up withorganic matter, such as compost• use appropriate water-storing granules andwetting agents• always mulch your garden. Mulching reducesevaporation from garden beds, blankets outweeds and keeps soil cooler in hot conditions.Your local council is a good place to ask aboutmulch as they may have discounted offers ofmulch and compost to households• leave your lawn long (not less than 3 cm) anddon’t cut grass by more than a third of itslength at any one time• not allow the water to run off the soil –make a small dam from mulch and soil toconcentrate water where you want it• water the plant’s roots, not its leaves. Makesure water is being delivered on or below theground, close to the root zone, not higher upor farther away, where it can be blown off orevaporate• monitor how your plants are going in summerso you can make changes in autumn.IN THE KITCHENAlthough less water is used in the kitchen thanoutdoors, you can still make significant savingsin water use by observing a few simple rules.DishwashersSave water when using your dishwasher by:• running the dishwasher only when you have afull load• using the rinse/hold setting on the dishwasher,if it has one, rather than rinsing dishes underthe tap.TapsTo minimise wastage with taps:• never leave a tap running continuously whenyou’re not actively using it• install flow-controlled aerators. These areinexpensive and can reduce water flow by 50%.• where convenient and appropriate, try tocapture ‘warm-up’ water for use on plants,rinsing dishes, washing fruit and vegetables orother cleaning tasks• insulate hot water pipes. This avoids wastingwater while waiting for hot water to flowthrough (and saves energy)• make sure your hot water system thermostatis not set too high. Adding cold water to coolvery hot water is wasteful.IN THE LAUNDRYBe aware that a top-loading washing machineuses much more water than a front-loadingmachine. One of the best ways to considerablyreduce water consumption in your laundry is tobring forward the replacement date of your toploadingwashing machine. To further save water:• adjust the water level to suit the size of thewash load – some new water-efficient modelswill even do this for youVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 135

HOUSEHOLDSreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• Waterless toilets have beencommercially available since theearly 1990s, but are not used toany great extent in Australia. TheFederal Government encouragesthe use of waterless toilets, but it’snot mandated. In Victoria, the StateGovernment is trialling the use ofwaterless urinals in selected publicbuildings with 100 or more staff. 13• In 2006, 43% of Australianhouseholds have a reduced-flowshowerhead. In 1994 it was 21.8%. 14• wait until you have a full load before washingand you’ll save 10 L of water for every wash(and cut your electricity costs as well)• use the sud-saver option, if your old machinehas one, when you have several loads to wash• educate everyone in the household, especiallychildren, to sort out which clothes actuallyneed washing.IN THE BATHROOMIn a couple of decades we’ve become a showerobsessedsociety!! People survive all overthe world without a daily shower, and mostAustralians managed without daily showers fordecades yet avoided public health problems!Have a think about whether you really need toshower daily. Of all water consumed in the home,approximately 40% is used in the bathroom andtoilet (about 20% each).ShowersTo economise on water used in the shower:• install a water-efficient showerhead.It won’t stop you having a great shower, butit could save you $100 in water and energycosts a year. A standard showerhead mayuse up to 25 L of water per minute. A waterefficientshowerhead might use as little as7 L per minute. There are models featuringshut-off levers and other mechanisms that letyou reduce water flow to a trickle while yousoap or shampoo yourself, then turn back onwithout having to readjust the temperature,saving yet more water• consider an instantaneous water heater ifyour water has a long way to travel from thewater heater to the bathroom. But talk to aplumber before you do so to make sure it willwork adequately with your water-efficientshowerhead• use a bucket to collect water while waiting forit to warm up• look for information about the waterefficiency of any product when making apurchase. However, also check to see if themarketing claims are independently verified orsubstantiated• use a shower timer. There are a range ofmanual and electronic timers, ranging fromsimple four-minute egg timers to moresophisticated electronic timers that eitherattach to the shower wall or showerhead orare wired into the wall during construction.These measure volume of water used, or time,and usually provide an audible ‘time-up’ tone.ToiletsTo cut down on toilet water use:• check for leaks by putting a few drops of fooddye into the cistern. (Toilet cisterns can developslow leaks which can waste litres of water eachday.) If you have a leak, coloured water willappear in the bowl before the toilet has beenflushed• install a four-star rated toilet. These use just4.5 L for a full flush and 3 L for a half flush.Four-star rated toilets can save the averagehome up to 35 000 L per year• consider a composting toilet. They have comea long way, don’t smell, and are increasinglyused in urban areas outside Australia.IN POOLS & SPASThere are about 500 000 pools in Australia, orone for every 12 homes. Most use sand filterswhich can use over 10 000 L a year to cleanthrough backwashing. To conserve water in poolsand spas:• install covers to reduce evaporation andkeep water cleaner (reducing the need to addchemicals)• consider installing a cartridge filter ratherthan a sand filter, as these only require a quickhose-down to clean. Cartridges are finer filtersleaving your pool clearer• install decking around the pool as pool deckingloses less water to evaporation than the samearea covered with grass• cover your pool on windy days, as evaporationlevels increase with wind strength.IN THE GARAGE & DRIVEWAYWe tend to be lavish water consumers when itcomes to washing cars, trucks and boats. In manycases, commercial car-washing facilities savewater by providing a specialised site with waterrecyclingtechnologies and they also minimisethe use of detergents released into the drainagesystem. To save water when washing vehicles:• wash cars, boats and other vehicles on thelawn (if practical) with a bucket, not a runninghose. Use a trigger nozzle or a positive shutoffnozzle infrequently for occasional rinsingsprays• use a commercial car wash that recycles itswash water (but only if you don’t have to drivetoo far to reach one)• water-free car washing products are appearingon the market. Check out what’s availablevia the Savewater! Alliance website, www.savewater.com.au.136 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

HOUSEHOLDSreuse & substituteRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• In 2004, 16% of Australianhouseholds recycled and reusedsome water in and around theirhomes. 15• The delivery of recycled waterto Australian households is onlyjust starting to happen. Thereare now a number of residentialareas using a ‘third pipe’ system.For instance, Rouse Hill in Sydney,NSW, supplies around 12 000households in Sydney’s northwest.There are similar schemesdeveloping in all states. 16• Denmark has invested extensivelyin wastewater treatment overthe last 25 years. Currently, mostof the waste water from Danishhouseholds is directed throughadvanced treatment systemsbefore being discharged into thesea or watercourses. 17REUSE WATERThe ideal approach to rapidly improving yourwater efficiency is obviously to use less – ifyou reduce your household water use thenyou generate less waste water. However,your household will always generate somewaste water.The most basic and popular household greywatersystem is the humble bucket. Bucketing wateronto the garden in dry times has been occurringin Australia since the first domestic gardenswere established. However, today’s householdgreywater contains many foreign (and potentiallyharmful) substances, such as laundry detergents,dishwashing detergents, bleach, carpet cleaners,medicines, herbicides, pesticides, paints, motor oiland pool chemicals, to name a few.The most important thing to consider whenreusing water in your home or garden is toknow how to use it safely and sustainably.The Victorian Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) has produced an information bulletin onreuse options for household waste water. Itidentifies acceptable and unacceptable householdwastewater reuse practices, outlines approvalsrequired for acceptable options, identifies risksinevitably associated with reusing household waterand suggests measures to minimise these risks.The Savewater! Alliance also provides a veryuseful section on greywater on its website. Thefollowing tips on the humble bucket system andbasic DIY greywater hose diversions come fromthis resource:It is important to remember that theconstruction of efficient, physically separate watersupply and wastewater collection systems in our cities wasresponsible for great improvements in publicand environmental health. New systems designed torecycle greywater must be well managed in orderto protect our health and that of our environment.Savewater! Alliance• Water diversion systems are best restricted tolow-risk sources such as the bath, shower andlaundry rinse water.• Kitchen water should not be reused as it isheavily contaminated with fats, greases andsolids.• It’s not advisable to reuse laundry wash waterdue to high detergent concentrations.• Only divert in hot, dry conditions, in quantitiesthat can be taken up by plants.• Don’t apply greywater to vegetable gardens ifthe vegetables are eaten raw or lightly cooked.If you plan to install a proper greywater diversionsystem you will need to use a licensed plumber.They should observe the following measures:• To reduce the risk of spreading disease,greywater should be distributed around thegarden by a below-ground system, such asdrip irrigation. The dripper lines need to haveadequate cover. A thick layer of mulch on thegarden will assist.• A screen or filter will be needed to avoidclogging the irrigation system by lint andhairs. Front loading washing machines aremost suitable as they produce less lint (andalso use less water than top loading machines).• The system used to collect greywater fromthe house and divert it to the garden mustbe fail-safe, so that greywater is automaticallydiverted to the sewer if a blockage or othersystem malfunction occurs. This will preventgreywater running over the ground intostormwater drains.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 137

HOUSEHOLDSreuse & substituteRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• In 2004 about 17% of Australianhouseholds had a rainwater tank.In South Australia, the figure wasmuch higher with almost half thehouseholds (48%) having a rainwatertank. However, most tanks were smalland used mainly for drinking. 18• All states and territories haverecorded an increase in the numberof rainwater tanks since 2001. 19• The greywater system must have a valve orsome other means to allow greywater to bediverted to the sewer when the garden is toowet to absorb it.• The plumber should use pipes of a differentcolour to the mains system.Households with diversion systems should:• indicate where greywater is being used withsignage• take care when choosing detergents and otherhousehold cleaning products. Using nonphosphoruscontaining detergents (these havean ‘NP’ symbol on the pack) is advised.SUBSTITUTE waterWhen we use the term substitute, we arereferring to the substitution of potable waterwith some other form of water e.g. recycled orstormwater. Every reuse and substitution actiontakes the pressure off the primary source – waterfrom the environment.Harvesting & using rainwaterTo harvest and use rainwater you can install asimple rainwater diverter which is fitted to yourdownpipe allowing rainwater to be diverted toany area of your garden by simply attaching agarden hose. This diverter is available at hardwarestores for very little cost.For a much more significant investment you caninstall a rainwater tank. If it’s plumbed into yourlaundry, kitchen, bathroom and toilet system(as is the case in many rural dwellings), you willmaximise your water savings.Tank installation tipsThe following are some things to keep in mindwhen installing rainwater tanks:.• If your tank is large, consult a builder orengineer as it may require structural support.Larger tanks may also require a building permitfrom the local council.• Have the tank installed by a plumber or thetank manufacturer. This will ensure the systemoperates efficiently and is easy to maintain.• Lead-based paint and flashing, or the tarbasedcoatings found on some roofs affect waterquality. Make sure your roof material is non-toxic.• A U-shaped gutter traps leaves and twigs.If possible, choose water-friendly gutters orcover existing gutters with mesh.• Try to make all pipes ‘dry’. This means having acontinuous fall so water can’t accumulate inthem between flushes.• Cover all openings with a mosquito-proof mesh.• Install a first-flush diverter on the downpipe.This is especially important in areas of highpesticide use or atmospheric pollution.• A sump box between the downpipe and thetank can slow the water flow, sieving out anysediment not previously diverted.• Make sure the tank overflow outlet isconnected back into the stormwater pipeor irrigation system.• Clean the inside of the tank every few yearsas sediment will accumulate.• You may need to install a pump to provideadequate water pressure for some appliances.Consider appliances that can operate at lessthan mains pressure.A MELBOURNE FAMILY COLLECTS EVERY PRECIOUS DROPWe wanted to ensure that we achieved the maximum watersavings possible while being an ordinary family on anaverage income.We installed four 2250-L rainwater tanks down the side of our house. Thetanks were sited on land that was unusable for other purposes (such as vegetablegardens) and they were set below the fence line, as required by regulation.Because we have a two-storey home, we have a reduced ability to capturerainwater. To increase roof area, we covered the pergola to the rear of the houseand attached guttering to it. We negotiated with our next-door neighbours todivert their roof water to our tanks. We also negotiated with the neighbourto the rear of our property to divert water from his garage roof into a smalltank to boost our capacity to water our garden.Graham and Janet Steele, City of Whitehorse Sustainability Home Award Winners, 2006138 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

HOUSEHOLDSsome wider actionsin your neighbourhood & local communityRapid improvements in water efficiency … we become a nation of super-efficient water usersNEIGHBOURSThere are ways in which you can join forces withfriends and neighbours to save water. You could:• entice some of your neighbours to join you inbrokering a group discount with a local GreenPlumber to have your homes audited• there is an excellent state government andcouncil funded initiative called SustainableHomes in Victoria which runs across threecouncils in Northern Melbourne. The programfocuses on five key environmental themes:Energy, Water, Biodiversity and SustainableGardening, Waste and Travel. It consists ofworkshops, self audits and commitments, andfree Sustainability Starter Kits and will run forthree years 2006 – 2008. Find out if your councilcould qualify or be part of such an initiative.• begin discussions in your neighbourhood aboutcollective water storage for households. Talk tothe appropriate person in council and your localwater authority. Think about what it would taketo initiate a pilot project in your area• let your friends and neighbours know aboutfree or discount offers for water-savingproducts and services as you become aware ofthem. You will help them to save money andenergy, as well as water• look for opportunities to join forces withneighbours and like-minded people in yourlocal area. Find out about the SustainabilityStreet movement and think about formingyour own group• talk to your body corporate (if applicable)about installing individual water meters inplace of a collective meter. You would needto talk this through with your local waterauthority. They will maintain all meters that areinstalled. There are obvious financial incentivesto individually metering apartments (tenantsare charged for actual water use, encouragingefficiency).NORTHCOTE UNITEDA group of Northcote residents insuburban Melbourne decided totake action locally. They formedtheir own local sustainabilitygroup. They persuaded 42households to jointly undertakehousehold water audits andnegotiated reduced rates forthe audits. The group plans toimplement all the water-efficiencyrecommendations arising from thewater audits through fundraisingand their own contributions.NEW HOUSING DEVELOPMENTSBe proactive in finding out information if you’reintending to buy a home in a new housingdevelopment. Ask about the sustainabilitymeasures planned for the home you’reinterested in. Developers are required bylaw to implement sustainability measures inthe construction of new homes. The level ofenvironmental standards imposed dependson which state you live in. There are manyprogressive developments already happening innew housing developments, such as individualwater meters inside the home itself.Use your considerable influence as a prospectivebuyer by showing your preference forenvironmentally sustainable designs.Find out about government-supportedsustainable housing developments. Theseare being developed in most states. Someare up and running already, such as RouseHill in Sydney. Aurora, a planned sustainablecommunity of 8000 in Epping North, Victoria,is in the developmental stages and due forcompletion over the next few years. Eachhome in the development will have a third pipereturning recycled water to gardens and toiletsand for other outdoor uses. It will also userecycled water to irrigate the development.Northcote residents.Photo: John Donegan,(courtesy of the Age)Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 139

HOUSEHOLDSsome wider actionsin your neighboUrhood & local communityRapid improvements in water efficiency … we become a nation of super-efficient water usersINSPIRING ENVIRONMENTALDEVELOPMENTSIf you live in Melbourne, visit the Centre forEnvironmental Research and Education Strategies(CERES) in East Brunswick. This communityenvironment park has developed an Urban WaterConservation Demonstration and ResearchFacility. This project demonstrates the latesttechnologies for water conservation, recyclingand reuse in a variety of settings. Water is reusedon site in the home, nursery, café, organic farmand community centre. Wander at your leisure,enjoy lunch and learn lots!LOCAL COUNCILSThere are actions you can take to progress waterefficiencyinitiatives with your council.• Enquire whether your council has a sustainablewater use plan. If not, talk to your councillorsand identify who has responsibility forenvironmental issues. You could also approachthe mayor.• Find out which council staff are responsible forimplementing water-efficiency initiatives. Askif there is any community representation, oropportunities for local community members tohave input into these initiatives.• Be vigilant in reporting any leaks or breakagesin council-owned water appliances or wateringsystems. It’s too easy to assume that someoneelse will take care of it.• We all know our local patch best. Talk to yourcouncil about possible locations for capturingand reusing water.• Talk to your council about water-savingprograms for households, e.g. some councils inAustralia are retrofitting homes with waterefficientappliances at a very reduced cost.• Ask your council if they will put together alist of accredited plumbers for water-efficientadvice and services.• Lobby for council-funded ‘water-efficient’display homes.• Encourage council to display prominent‘barometer-type’ signage to measure the effectof council’s water-efficiency initiatives and todemonstrate to all the progress being made.• If your community group has received afederal government community water grant,let council know. They could use your groupas a positive example for other communitygroups. Encourage council to make public theamount of water saved through these grants intheir municipality.• Ask your council if they can provide practicalwater-reuse demonstration projects. Theycould set up training for council staff,local tradespeople and developers in themunicipality.• Check with your local council to see if they’reproviding reduced-cost mulch and compost tohouseholds. If not, approach the environmentdepartment of council and see if they arewilling to provide this service.LOCAL WATER AUTHORITIESLet your water authority know that you’vecompleted a water audit, especially if you havemanaged to encourage others to join you. See ifyour local water retailer can set up some kind ofinteractive webpage where their water customerscan post water saving suggestions and actions.This could be advertised and promoted throughthe water authority’s regular conservation tipsusually included with bills. Also lobby your relevantauthority and state government for realistic watertank rebates – cost is still a big factor in delayingaction for many.LOCAL COMMUNITY GROUPSThere are a number of government-fundedprograms, at both federal and state levels,aimed at assisting community organisations toundertake water-saving initiatives. The federalgovernment’s community water grants are agood example and many small organisations(such as scout halls and community centres)have already received such grants. Make sureyour local organisations – such as environmentgroups, service clubs, nursing homes and sportsclubs – know about this initiative.Did you know that there are sustainablefundraisers around? For example, Green Canary(www.greencanary.com) offers a range of productsyour community group can use to raise funds.LOCAL SPORTING CLUBSAsk at your sporting club if there are anywater-efficiency measures being undertaken.Automatically timed showers with waterefficientshowerheads would make considerablesavings, as would reduced-flow taps andpressure-controlled taps. Also talk to theclub about the possibility of reusing water ongrounds, courts or fairways. You can help byTENNIS, ANYONE?Heatherdale Tennis Club inMelbourne’s east replaced theireight En Tout Cas courts witha Classic Clay surface and aresaving about 3400 KL of waterper year. Apart from wanting toreduce water consumption, theclub was conscious that En ToutCas particles were being washedinto local waterways after thecourts were hosed before andafter every set.They received a state governmentgrant to replace the courts andare retrofitting clubroom toiletsand showers so they are morewater efficient.140 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

HOUSEHOLDSsome wider actionsin your neighbourhood & local communityRapid improvements in water efficiency … we become a nation of super-efficient water usersRIPPON LEA ESTATE, MELBOURNEIn suburban Melbourne, a stunning example of a sustainable waterefficientproperty has been around for more than 130 years! RipponLea, a late 19th-century private suburban estate, had sophisticateddrainage, sanitation, recycling and watering systems in place wellbefore Melbourne had any reticulated water-supply and seweragesystems.Sir Frederick Thomas Sargood, who originally owned the statelyRippon Lea mansion, was a visionary. He created European-stylegardens on 11 ha of uncultivated land in Elsternwick in 1868. Theirrigation system he devised, using stormwater and a natural spring,enabled the gardens to flourish in Australia’s variable climate.He also developed underground rainwater tanks for use inside themansion, and made use of household and stable waste for fertilisinghis gardens. The property, which at its peak had a staff of 45, wasentirely self-sufficient in water.The original system, which over the years has been replaced bymains water supply, is being restored, and Rippon Lea will developa Water Conservation and Education Centre to promote waterefficiency to businesses, schools and the broader communityRippon Lea house and gardenPhoto: Department of theEnvironment and Water Resourcesproviding some directions and resources forthe club to take this further. There are state andfederal programs that can financially supportsports groups to undertake these measures.SCHOOLS & CHILDCARE FACILITIESTalk to like-minded parents to see if a few ofyou can explore what water-saving incentivesare available for your child’s school or childcarecentre. There may be local incentives, applicableonly to your area, as well as state and federalresources. Ask staff at your child’s school aboutthe Sustainable Schools Program (Victoria) orsimilar programs in other states.LOCAL BUSINESSESThere are many things you can do in your smallbusiness that are quite similar to the actionsappropriate to householders. Most importantly,you can advertise to your customers that you’redoing your bit to achieve water efficiency. Youcan do this using signs, posters or just talkingwith your customers – especially if you’re ahairdresser!There are also environmental businessesdeveloping in every state. Find out what existsin your patch and what they have to offer. TheEnvironment Shop in Northcote, (suburbanMelbourne) offers expertise to business, councils,householders and community groups as well asa considerable body of free information on theirwebsite to help you get going.LOCAL NEWSPAPERSFind out if your local paper is willing to run aregular ‘water success story’ feature. You couldhelp by writing the first one, or by sourcinga suitably inspiring example via your localwater authority. Local businesses, schools andresidents could all feature. It could even besponsored by your local water authority toinclude prizes and awards.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 141

HOUSEHOLDSgeneral referenceRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersReferences1. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECDenvironmental indicators 2004, OECD Environment Directorate,Paris, p. 23.2. AY Hoekstra & AK Chapagain, ‘Water footprint of nations: wateruse by people as a function of their consumption pattern’, WaterResource Management, vol. 21, no. 1, 2006, table 3, p. 8.3. Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Household water use and effects ofthe drought’, Australian economic indicators, cat. no 1350.0, ABS,Canberra, 2005.4. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia,2004–05, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2005, p. 103.5. Danish Water and Waste Water Association, ‘Water supplystatistics’, Nature and environment 2003 – theme: water inDenmark, Miljoministeriet, Copenhagen, 2003.Some other useful sources• The Alternative Technology Associationwww.ata.org.auPh: (03) 9639 1500The ATA also publishes Renew Magazine- available in newsagents• Community Water Grantswww.communitywatergrants.gov.au• CERES Community Environment ParkMelbournewww.ceres.org.auPh: (03) 9387 26096. ibid.7. PH Gleick, ‘Basic water requirements for human activities: meetingbasic needs’, Water International, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 83–92, 1996.8. Savewater! Alliance, .9. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Domestic water use, WesternAustralia 2003, cat. no. 4616.5.55.001, ABS, Canberra, 2003, p. 6.10. Environment and Natural Resources Committee, Parliament ofVictoria, Inquiry into sustainable communities, DSE, Melbourne,2005, p. 188.11. Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Household water use and effectsof the drought’, Australian economic indicators, cat. no. 1350.0,ABS, Canberra, 2005.12. ibid., p. 101.• Sustainability Streetswww.voxbandicoot.com.auPh: (03) 9416 1066• Green Plumberswww.greenplumbers.com.auPh: 1300 368 519• Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards(WELS) Schemewww.waterrating.gov.auPh:1800 803 77213. Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Waterefficiency guide: office and public buildings, Department of theEnvironment and Heritage, Canberra, 2006.14. Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Household water use and effectsof the drought’, Australian economic indicators, cat. no. 1350.0,ABS, Canberra, 2005.15. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia,2004–05, cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2005, p. 102.16. ibid., p. 101.17. Danish Water and Waste Water Association, ‘Water supplystatistics’, Nature and environment 2003 – theme: water inDenmark, Miljoministeriet, Copenhagen, 2003.18. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia, 2004–05,cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2005, p. 101.19. ibid.• Savewater! Alliancewww.savewater.com.au• Safe Use of Detergents: Lanfax Laboratorieswww.lanfaxlabs.com.au• G MagazineBi-monthly environment friendly Australian magazinewww.gmagazine.com.au142 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

what people & government can doRapid improvements in water efficiency … we become a nation of super-efficient water usersAustralia faces a major water crisis and weneed to urgently embark upon a long-termnational response. As a nation we mustbecome water efficient and then superefficient. That is the challenge.This will take time, and the costs will besignificant. Most importantly, it will requirepeople and governments to work togetherin a concerted way.Our best chance is to make use of theprovisions offered by our robust democracy –and to begin right now.• There are 151 federal electorates acrossAustralia. 1• There are 595 state parliamentariansin Australia. 2• In June 2006 there were 13 081 539enrolled voters in Australia. 3• There are 722 local governments inAustralia. Of these, 579 cover regionaland rural areas. 4Many individuals, communities andgovernments are already working to bringabout important changes in water policy,programs and initiatives. We have nointention of trying to duplicate these efforts.But we do have some ideas to add which,we believe, could add to current thinkingand action.This section outlines these major ideas.Some are simple while others are largein scale – but all are achievable.We urge governments around the countryto consider these proposals. Likewise, weurge people to press their governments, andall elected representatives, to consider them.Ideally, the relationship between electedrepresentatives and the people is reciprocal.The representative’s role is to serve the people, and the people’s role is to assistin identifying needs in the community, to track issues and policy commitmentsand convey their satisfaction or dissatisfaction about policy and political decisions.This relationship should be respectful and honest. In the absence ofthese features, the voter becomes suspicious and distrustful and therepresentative becomes remote and even cynical.The Purple Sage Project, From the wisdom of the people: Action for our times, p. 28, 2000.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 143

PEOPLE & GOVERNMENTmeasure & monitor water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• Some water retailers in Australiaoffer a service to conduct and reporton a household water audit for lessthat $50. 5• As of January 2007 all whitegoodsare required to display a waterefficiencyrating. 6• There is currently no state lawrequiring industry to conduct andreport on water audits.• In densely settled rural catchments,hobby farms (with small dams) canmake up 50% to 60% of all ruralproperties. 7CLARIFY THE OWNERSHIP STATUSOF WATERThere is an urgent need to clarify the ownershipstatus of water. Does water in this countrybelong to the Australian people, or not? On onelevel, the move by state and commonwealthgovernments to create a national water marketis cast as a necessary reform. Reforms areone thing, but threatening the longstandingtradition of managing water as a commongood is something else again. In this regard,some crucial ambiguities and dilemmas are nowapparent concerning the fundamental questionof ownership. For instance, existing state WaterActs primarily focus on water flowing in rivers,but the ownership status of water below theground is less clear. And, if waste water is tobe treated by privately owned plants, will theensuing ‘new’, higher-value product (i.e. thewater) be owned by the plant operators andavailable for sale to the marketplace?Even though we are some way downthe track towards forming a nationalwater market, these matters demanddetermination, and should be testedunder constitutional law. In our democraticsystem, there are two ways that this can bedone: either a reference could be given to afull bench of the High Court; or the mattercould be the subject of a referendum.Clarification of this fundamental ownershipissue is critical to the long-term security of ourirrigation industries and the future supply ofwater to our cities. It’s particularly importantthat this matter be determined soon, given theCOAG decision to have a national water marketoperating by 2014.ESTABLISH NATIONAL WATERACCOUNTSIn order to better manage our water resources,it’s now recognised that a set of accurate andreliable National Water Accounts must bedeveloped. These would track how much wateris being used, where it’s being used, and forwhat purposes. These accounts would need to becomprehensive and transparent.The set of National Water Accountscurrently proposed by the National WaterCONSULTATION GENERATING POSITIVE OUTCOMESCommission needs to be expanded torecord estimated volumes of water beingstored. This might mean the inclusionof aerial-survey data and volumetricestimates for small farm dams. Statescould then determine what measuresneed to be put in place to control on-farmstorage.Without such integrated detail, there can be noguarantee that water trades will deliver water toplaces and purposes which maximise agriculturalbenefits to the broader community.SUPPORT AND RESOURCE WATERLITERACYThere are programs in most states that focus onspreading the water conservation message andinitiating the necessary behavioural changes inthe community. While these are impressive inIn 2003 the Victorian Environment and Natural Resources Committee was setup to inquire into matters dealing with the environment, natural resources,planning, development or protection of land. The Committee was made up ofseven members of Parliament, drawn from both houses and all parties. Thecommittee heard evidence from 135 people at hearings in metropolitan andregional centres and received 82 written submissions. Its published reportcontains 72 recommendations relating to water and energy efficiency, wastemanagement, education and the role of local government.Within three years of its establishment, many of these recommendationseither have been, or are now being, implemented.144 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

PEOPLE & GOVERNMENTmeasure & monitor water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water userstheir content and detail, the scale of the changesrequired, and the urgency involved, means thatinitiatives must extend well beyond transientTV campaigns, newspaper ads and informationprovided on websites.The Watermark Australia team has engagedpeople in a process of local-level dialogue aboutwater. This has significantly increased people’sunderstanding of the problems we face and theopportunities for action. Raising levels of waterliteracy needs to be an ongoing and evolvingtask. Generations to come should only have theexperience of being super-efficient water users.The following key factors should be considered:A national funding program is requiredto develop and support wide-rangingcommunity initiatives directed at achievingsophisticated levels of water literacy. Thesewill help to bring about the necessarychanges in all sectors of Australian society:in agriculture; business and industry;in large and small organisations; ingovernment; and households.Water bills can convey crucial messages aboutwater efficiency. This information, however,must reflect a more robust notion of efficiencythan what tends to be employed at present. Forinstance, the information on Melbourne waterbills suggests that a household of four personswith a medium-sized garden can consider itself‘water efficient’ if it uses no more than 557 L perday. (Remember that many European countries,such as Denmark, Netherlands and Germany,have reduced their per-capita consumption tosignificantly lower levels than this).A standardised water bill needs to be introducedacross Australia and used as a supplementarymeans of educating water consumers. In a highlymobile population such as ours, this would givepeople the benefit of easily understandableinformation on their water-use patterns.A key factor in changing behaviour lies in makingclear the link between agricultural water useand the amount of water embodied in the foodand fibre consumed by our urban populations.The volume of embodied water can be reducedin two main ways: by using less water to growfood and produce goods; and by our affluentsociety making lifestyle changes to reduce levelsof consumption.Ongoing, targeted communication strategiesshould be developed to help people reducethe volume of water used in their homes. Themessage needs to be clearly disseminated thatreal water efficiency is achieved when specificactivities are undertaken using lower volumes ofwater, and when water is used over and over again.Given the urgency of the changes required, thereis a special case to be made for the re-educationof licensed plumbers and increasing the numberof plumbers over the next few years. Initiativessuch as Green Plumbers point the way here.Plumbers are central to consumers adoptingwater-saving technologies with relative ease,and the uptake of water-saving technologiesshould increase as a result of these initiatives.BIPARTISAN LEADERSHIP TO MAKEOUR CITIES WATER EFFICIENTWith the exception of Darwin, each of themainland capital cities is facing a major reductionin surface-water availability over the next 30years at least. At the same time, it’s expected thatan additional 5 million people will be living inour capital cities by 2030. Much of the currentfocus is on increasing the supply of water, ratherthan driving down consumption and bringingabout the behavioural change needed to reachA WATER-EFFICIENT PARLIAMENTsuper efficiency. In addition, state and territorygovernments appear reluctant to regulate ormandate water-efficient technology in thebuilding and construction sectors.People in the broader community feeldismayed at the adversarial nature of ourpolitical culture and at the blame-shiftingand political point-scoring that accompaniesimportant issues. Most would preferconstructive, bipartisan approaches to majorproblems. There is, however, important workgoing on behind the scenes in such processesas parliamentary committees and inquiries. Webadly need to see public displays of genuineA water audit of the NSW Parliament House was completed in 2004–05.Recommendations were implemented to retrofit the entire building with AAAshowerheads, install flow restrictors in all hand basins and sensor-operatedflushing units on urinals and install sub-meters on major water-using facilitiesand to connect these meters to the building’s management system. Thesechanges were estimated to reduce water consumption by 8 million L a year.NSW Government, Water for Life, Water Smart government fact sheet, viewed 22 March 2007, Resource Centre > Downloads>.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 145

PEOPLE & GOVERNMENTreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• All water authorities and waterretailers are owned by state andterritory governments. Each isrequired to pay a public dividend toits government each year. Hundredsof millions of dollars in revenue isreceived in this way.• Across Australia, there are more than7.7 million residences. 8• In an average year, an averagehousehold on Sydney’s North Shoreuses 2.7 million L of embodied water.Half of this is the water that hasbeen used to grow the food that isconsumed. The rest is embodied ingoods such as clothing, furniture andmotor vehicles. 9• Every day in Australia about 450 newresidences are added to the nation’sstock of housing. 10 Very few are waterefficient.collaboration on water. After all, this is what wewould expect if the nation was facing any otherkind of serious threat.The need for urgent action on water presents ourpolitical leadership with an opportunity to cometogether and commit to a program to createwater-efficient cities and suburbs.Within the next 12 months, each stateand territory government around Australiashould bring their leaders and oppositionparties together at a round table to reachbipartisan agreement on an urgent programaimed at achieving water efficiency, andthen super efficiency, across industries andhouseholds.In the first instance, each round table should setand timetable targets for future household waterconsumption. This should be followed bya commitment to the following measures:• legislating for mandatory auditing andreporting on water use by business andindustry• developing guidelines for use by industry,government agencies and local governmentthat encourage and assist them to significantlyexpand their use of of recycled water• legislating for mandatory fitting of key watersavingtechnologies in all new householdsand businesses - including, but not limitedto: dual-flush toilets; certified water-efficientshowerheads; the fitting of ‘dead space’ watersavingvalves and pressure-reduction valves;the installation of 2000–5000 L domestic watertanks, with larger-capacity tanks for industry;and local, industrial-scale water-treatment andrecycling technology.• substantially expanding rebates and incentivesto assist water users to become more waterefficient.• creating and resourcing the capacity forgovernment-owned water retailers to driveretrofitting programs.• guaranteeing appropriate financialarrangements to assist people on low and fixedincomes to pay for retrofitting.• introducing new regulations requiringmandatory fitting and inspection of watersavingtechnologies in properties coming on tothe market for resale.• instituting programs to officially recognise andcommend water-efficiency achievements byhouseholds and businesses.After detailing the possibilities, the roundtable would enter into a formal bipartisanagreement, which would be broadcast to thecommunity and provide details of proposedactions and the means for reaching specificgoals.This is entirely an issue about priorities andwhat is in the long-term interest of citizens,communities and society generally. And shouldthere be any doubt about the capacity to makeserious investments in water-efficient cities andsuburbs, the Victorian Auditor General estimatedthat the staging of the 2006 CommonwealthGames in Melbourne involved governmentoutlays of $1.14 billion. 11IMPROVE IRRIGATION EFFICIENCYIN THE MURRAY-DARLING BASINMaintaining agricultural production in theMurray-Darling Basin is a critical issue forAustralia. However, irrigation in the basinmust become an environmentally sustainableactivity. As outlined in the Big Picture sectionon agriculture, the Murray-Darling BasinCommission was advised in 2002 that four mainactions are required to ensure this: 12Action 1Major changes to irrigation practices arerequired throughout the basin.At least half of all irrigators need to moveto current best practice. Achieving this willrequire significant inputs by governments,farmer organisations and private consultantsinto initiatives such as farmer education, TAFEcourses, online education services, advisoryservices, mentoring, field days, farm tours,demonstration activities and research.Action 2Training needs to be made available inthe use of state-of-the-art irrigationtechnology.Incentives should be offered to encourageirrigators to adopt new technologies (involvingthe use of things such as modern water-metering146 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

PEOPLE & GOVERNMENTreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersdevices, moisture and salinity probes and onlineweather information and satellite imagery).Action 3A basin-wide program is needed torefurbish irrigation infrastructure.The result would be reduced water losses vialeakage and evaporation.Action 4Accelerated policy development is needed.This is a prerequisite to consolidating gains inwater efficiency. It would mean according a highpriority to the proposed National Inquiry intoWater Pricing and an assessment of existingwater-trading rules and regulations.STRATEGIC MOVES TOWARDSDESALINATIONDesalination is the only technology available atpresent that can produce potable water usinga non-freshwater source. Worldwide, there isincreasing interest in the possibility of addingdesalination to existing water-supply systems.Greater interest is being shown in locationswhere average rainfall is either very low or highlyvariable, and where the population is sufficientlywealthy to find the necessary capital and meetrunning costs. While it’s now possible to powera large plant using electricity from a renewableresource (solar energy), large amounts of energyare required to lift the water to storages becauseplants are located close to sea level.Australia’s first large-scale desalination planthas now been built at a cost of $400 million.The plant itself is solar powered, although thewater distribution will use conventional coalfiredpower. Located at Kwinana, the plant’soperation is now being trialled but it shouldeventually supply Perth with 45 GL per day.A second desalination plant in Western Australiais also under consideration.Currently, the volumes of stored water to supplySydney, Melbourne and Brisbane are at very lowlevels. Governments are coming under sustainedpressure on the issue of water supplies. Thenew buzz word is ‘desal’. Many people seem tothink that desalination is the answer. The NSWgovernment has identified a site and is evaluatinga possible desalination project. The premiersof Victoria and Queensland each say that theirgovernments will consider the desalination option.There are three important issues to considerhere. Firstly, bearing in mind that Australiansare among the largest domestic water userson Earth (and our ecological footprint isalso one of the largest), it’s irresponsible toperpetuate an expectation among our urbanpopulations that water supply can, and should,be endlessly increased to satisfy our high levelsof consumption. Secondly, desalination shouldbe seen as an option of last resort. Desalinationplants are very expensive to construct andrequire large energy inputs to operate anddistribute the desalinated water. The debateshould refocus instead on a strategic approachto implementing desalination technology.The case for desalination is best made inrelation to securing Adelaide’s water future.Adelaide is already more water efficientthan other capitals. Rates of recycling anddomestic use of rainwater tanks are thehighest in Australia. City and suburbanplanning regulations are very advancedin their focus on water saving and waterefficiency. Despite these efforts, the citystill faces serious water problems.Adelaide gets most of its potable water fromthe Murray-Darling system. While the populationof South Australia is only expected to grow byaround 8% by 2050, the state faces decliningwater availability and a rise in salt concentrationswhich will eventually pose a health risk. Inaddition, the city has relatively low-volume waterstorages available to it.The Commonwealth Government should provideleadership on this issue by directing significantcapital to South Australia over the next 20 yearsto allow it to invest in desalination technology.The overall aim would be to achieve the capacityto generate 150 GL of potable water per year.A NATIONAL RIPARIAN VEGETATIONPROGRAMThere is a very important opportunityavailable to make a positive contributionto the health of our rivers and streamsby setting up a national program to reestablishriparian vegetation along everyriver and stream in rural Australia. The goalshould be to establish 100 metre-widestrips by 2050.Across rural Australia, there are thousand ofkilometres of stream and riverside frontagespresently used as farmland. While most of thisland is privately owned, an appreciable area isCrown land. Management of this land is theresponsibility of state governments. In manycases, the Crown land is occupied under anannual licence, with the land user being requiredto erect and maintain fencing along the lengthof the frontage. Some river and streamsidefrontages are occupied under leases, and in mostcases the width of existing riparian strips is closeto 20 metres, (although a small number are wider,at up to 140 metres).Often, the inspection of fences has been patchyand they have fallen into disrepair. Stock havebeen allowed to graze right to the water’sedge. As a consequence, there are now seriousdegradation issues concerning our freshwateraquatic ecosystems and reduced water qualityin many streams, rivers and lakes.The long-term gains resulting from a nationalriparian vegetation program would beconsiderable, including:• significant improvements in water qualityVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 147

PEOPLE & GOVERNMENTreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• reduced chemical loads and salt leaching intorivers and streams• reduced salinity risk close to many rivers andstreams• significant increases in vegetation cover acrossrural Australia• creation of major wildlife corridors providinghabitat, as well as protected pathways, fornative animals to move and redistribute aslocal climate zones are reset• major improvements in the distribution andabundance of a wide range of terrestrial andaquatic fauna and native fauna• establishment of a major carbon sink to trapatmospheric carbon dioxide• increases in farm property values.This national program would require agreementand co-operation between the states so that therequired width of strip could be progressivelyintroduced. Promotional campaigns andconsultation with landholders would be asignificant feature of such a program. The costsof refencing, vermin and noxious weed controland the removal of exotic trees would be sharedby the program and the landowner. The programmight also attract external funds from sourcessuch as ethical investment funds. Responsibilityfor program management could be placed withcurrent catchment management authorities(where these exist) and Landcare groups.In some parts of Australia, re-establishingvegetated riparian strips could involve Crownland, as well as private land that could bebrought into the scheme either throughvoluntary land purchase or by agreement. InVictoria, for example, leases on streamside andriver frontages come up for review in 2009. Dataheld by the Victorian environment assessmentcommissioner indicates that nearly 92 000 ha isCrown land, along approximately 46 000 km ofwater frontage. 13As revegetation progressed, a significant increasein tree cover would result, providing majoropportunities with regard to proposed carbondioxideemission trading.A 50-YEAR INVESTMENT WATERBONDA national program to increase waterefficiency, and then achieve super efficiency,will require significant expenditure. It may bethat expenditure in the next 20 to 25 years willneed to be in the region of at least $50 billion.Substantial investment, by both governmentand the private sector, will clearly be required.It’s not as though we can’t afford this level ofexpenditure: the ANZ Bank’s chief economist,Saul Eslake, estimates that total government‘giveaways’ in the two successive federal budgetsof 2004 and 2005 amounted to $103 billionover four years! 14 Perhaps the electorate couldmake a choice between receiving personal taxcuts or seeing the money deployed instead inprograms aimed at repairing our environmentand achieving water efficiency.A number of specific initiatives could be funded,in whole or in part, through forms of ethicalinvestment. A vehicle for this kind of investmentcould be a long-term water bond. Bond holderswould be offered a defined return on theirinvestment; trustees would place investmentsin the marketplace and the differential returnwould be directed towards prescribed ethicalinvestments.The Commonwealth Government shouldencourage the establishment of a 50-yearinvestment water bond. Trustees for bond holderswould manage investment projects, such as therevegetation of riparian zones or the purchase,restoration and revegetation of degradedagricultural land.As part of the process for establishing thisbond, the Commonwealth Governmentshould encourage the finance industry tohost a conference attended by governmentrepresentatives, industry members and interestedcommunity organisations to examine thefeasibility of the project.A SECURE FOOTING FOR IRRIGATIONCOMMUNITIESWe all depend on our irrigation industries to feedus. Yet there are now problems with water securityand some forms of land use. These developments,combined with competition from imports, theoperation of managed investment schemes, andthe introduction of permanent water trading areplacing these industries, and the people involved,under great pressure.In the past eight years, 15%of Merbein’s water rights havebeen sold out of the district –the second-largest percentageloss of any district in the state.As water rights leave, moneyand people follow. Localsestimate that about 50 farmershave left the land in that time,leaving ghost properties.Unpicked grapes hang stuntedand withered on dead vinesoverrun by weeds. ‘For Sale’signs stand outside countlessproperties … Merbein real estateagent Roger Walder says thatonce a farm’s water right istraded away, the farm is nextto worthless. “Nobody will buyit, it just sits there. It’s nothingbut a horse paddock.” There areflow-on effects. In Merbein’smain street, half the shops areempty.Dan Silkstone and Orietta Guerrera, ‘Beneathdry blue skies, growers fear the worst …’,the Age, 21 April 2007, pp. 6–7.148 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

PEOPLE & GOVERNMENTreduce water useRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersWhat of the future for these industries uponwhich all Australians depend? Do we simplyleave everything to the market to decide? Or isthere scope for well-considered interventionto address the combined needs of sustainablewater use and the security and wellbeing of thecommunities involved. This is a much biggerissue than providing short-term drought relief.There is now a need for a national inquiryto develop recommendations to helpresolve the glaring conflicts between thewater needs of irrigation and the needsof the environment. The inquiry shouldconsider our water crisis and the extentof degradation of our ecosystems andfarmland. It should assess the waterrequired to maintain healthy freshwaterecosystems while promoting sustainableirrigation agriculture.Such an inquiry could become the basis fora plan to restructure and secure Australia’sirrigation industries. It would considerthe position of irrigators and towns,rural communities, and manufacturingand supply industries that depend onirrigation. It would identify needs andnew opportunities, and develop strategiesto help people make dignified transitionsfrom the land (if they so choose), addressrural infrastructure problems and initiateand support programs to repair and restorerural lands.People’s lives and livelihoods are at stake here,as well as regional environments and freshwaterecosystems. We can surely do better – bothby people and the environment – than to sitback and watch while farms are abandoned,water rights are sold out of desperation, ruralcommunities are left to slowly decline throughlack of support and our freshwater ecosystemsfall further into decline.DEBATE AND SET A POPULATIONTARGET FOR 2050In the Big Picture section, we looked atinformation available in authoritative reportsidentifying links between population growth andincreased water demand. We face a situationlikely to become even more critical and difficultto manage when we add into the equation thepredicted effects of climate change.Population levels and the rate of populationgrowth have become important determinantsof direct water consumption, particularly inour cities. They also account for the rate ofconsumption of large volumes of embodiedwater. This in turn raises the question ofhow many people the continent is capable ofsupporting (assuming that there is consensusthat, as a responsible society, we should functionwithin the constraints of environmentalsustainability).A BUILDING FOR THE FUTURECH2 is a visionary new Melbourne City Council building with the potentialto change forever the way Australia – and indeed the world – approachesecologically sustainable design. CH2 has sustainable technologiesincorporated into every conceivable part of its 10 storeys, including a waterminingplant in the basement and phase-change materials for cooling.The Green Building Council of Australia awarded CH2 six Green Stars, whichrepresents world leadership in office design. The CH2 project is the first inAustralia to achieve the maximum six Green Star certified rating.The Green Star rating system separately evaluates the environmental designand performance of Australian buildings based on a number of criteria,including energy and water efficiency, quality of indoor environments andresource conservation.City of Melbourne, .CH2 building, MelbourneVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 149

PEOPLE & GOVERNMENTsubstitute & reuseRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water users• In an average year, the stormwaterrunoff from just the three capitalcities on the eastern seaboardexceeds 1000 billion L (or 1000GL). This water has minimalcontamination yet is allowed toflow into the sea. 15• Less than 20% of Australianhouseholds have a rainwatertank. 16 The largest number ofhouseholds with water tanks is inSouth Australia. States have set upincentive schemes to encouragethe installation of tanks, based onevidence that a rainwater tank cansave up to 40 000 L per householdper year.The time has come to initiate an inquiry todevelop policy recommendations which willguide the setting of Australia’s populationtargets, and the rate of growth required toreach these targets.Once such recommendations became available,the Commonwealth Government could ask theProductivity Commission to inquire into the likelyimpacts, upon various sectors of the economy, ofmoving towards the 2050 population target. Thecommission’s findings would help governmentsmake the necessary changes to current policysettings.If such processes are not initiated soon, we willexperience serious difficulties in becoming superefficientwater users. The states, faced with everincreasingnumbers of people requiring services,will struggle to meet demand. In addition, ourcities will quickly reach the limits of their growth– not because suitable urban land can’t bemade available, but because of climate-imposedrestrictions on the supply of fresh water.AIM FOR INNOVATIVE BUILDINGPROJECTSFor the past 30 years our cities have witnesseda wave of multistorey building construction.New buildings have defined the ever-expandingboundaries of commercial precincts and havereplaced existing low-rise buildings, the bulkof which were constructed between the twoworld wars. A more recent trend has been theconstruction of multistorey residential buildings.An unfortunate characteristic of these buildings istheir high energy usage for air-conditioning. Theyalso lack the infrastructure to capture, store andtreat stormwater runoff.To turn around the high per-capita use of energyand water in Australia’s cities, now is the time tobegin constructing the next generation of citybuildings. These would incorporate state-of-theartfeatures to boost energy and water efficiency.For a start, these buildings of the future wouldbe designed and oriented to capture as muchcoastal breeze as possible. The above-groundelement would stand over an enormous watercistern, which would replace underground carparkingareas. Low thermal-mass metal and glasswould be replaced by a concrete ‘post-and-beam’structure. The concrete structure would be cooledduring the evening by water circulation, requiringno other air-conditioning.The Department of Primary Industries and Resources, South Australia(PIRSA), and the City of Salisbury in conjunction with the CSIRO havepioneered ASR in South Australia over the past 10 years. During the highrainfall period in winter, excess stormwater, filtered and cleaned by thewetlands, is pumped into an aquifer 164 m below the ground. During the drysummer, the water is recovered, as needed, to irrigate sports fields and turfareas. This reduces the demand on distributed water for irrigation, conservingwater and reducing costs (City of Salisbury, 2006).Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia, 2004-2005, cat. no. 4610.0, AustralianBureau of Statistics, Canberra, p. 57, 2005, .Cranbourne Botanical Gardens,a waterwise garden project.150 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

PEOPLE & GOVERNMENTgeneral referenceRapid improvements in water efficiency ... we become a nation of super-efficient water usersBRINDABELLA BUSINESS PARK, CANBERRAAll water used for irrigation at Brindabella Business Park(and the entire airport precinct) is either recycled or israinwater or non-potable groundwater. Since switchingto this system, Canberra International Airport has nothad to draw on the ACT’s potable water supply forirrigation. In addition, a low water-use/high-efficiencysystem has been designed for 8 Brindabella Circuit. Thisconsists of local drippers and in-soil wetting blankets.Water sub-meters featuring leak-detection systemsare installed on all water uses in the building,including cooling towers. In unmonitored buildings,water leakages typically account for 25% of waterconsumption.The office building at 8 Brindabella Circuit saves687 000 L of water a year compared with a standardbuilding of similar size. That is, the water-efficientdevices installed lead to a 43% reduction in waterconsumption.Water-efficient devices include water-free urinals,hands-free taps, 3/6 L dual-flush toilets and 5A ratedshowerheads.In addition to these water savings, the water-efficientdevices employed throughout 8 Brindabella Circuit leadto a 36% reduction in emissions to the sewer.Sources: Canberra International Airport, viewed 22 March 2007, Sustainability>.1.2.ReferencesAustralian Electoral Commission website: .Figures calculated from state and territory governmentwebsites.3. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year book Australia, 2007,cat. no. 1301.0, ABS, Canberra, 2007, p. 68.4.5.6.7.Australian Local Governance Association, .Waterfix Program of Sydney Water is one example, .Water Efficency Labelling Scheme, .C Hollier, M Reid & J Francis, Department of Sustainability andthe Environment & Department of Primary Industries, DriverResearch Phase, Background report no. 4, Understandingdrivers of land use change associated with life style farms, , DPI,Victoria, 2004.8. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year book, Australia, 2007,cat. no. 1301.0, ABS, Canberra, 2007, p. 222.9.M Lenzen, ‘The influence of lifestyles on environmentalpressure’, Year book, Australia, 2002, cat. no.1301.0, ABS,Canberra, 2002.10. Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘What drives housing?’ Yearbook, Australia, 2002, cat. no. 1301.0, ABS, Canberra, 2002.11.12.Auditor-General Victoria, ‘Melbourne 2006 CommonwealthGames – Special Purpose Financial Statements‘, AuditorGeneral’s report on the annual financial report of the state ofVictoria, 2005–06, VAGO, Melbourne, section 4.3.1.DH White, N Beynon & O Kingma, ‘Identifying opportunities forachieving water savings throughout the Murray–Darling Basin’,Environmental Modelling and Software, vol. 21, issue 7,July 2006, pp. 1019–20.13. ABC Television, ‘The Enviro Save Water System’, The NewInventors, 2005, .14. Land Conservation Council of Victoria, Statewide assessment ofpublic land use, Land Conservation Council, Melbourne, 1988,pp. 70–80.15. Saul Eslake, Initial assessment of the 2005-06 federal budget,10 May 2005 ,.16. Water Services Association of Australia, Testing the water,WSAA position paper 01, Water Services Association ofAustralia, Melbourne, October, 2006, p. 14.17. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water account, Australia,2000-01, cat no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2004.Some other useful sourcesM Rayner, • Rooting democracy: growing the society we want, Allen& Unwin, NSW, 1997.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 151

PART FOURbuilding communitymomentumNever doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizenscan change the world. Indeed it is the only thing that ever has.Margaret Mead, US anthropologist, 1901–1978The public release of this document, Our Water Mark,signals a new phase in the way people can engage inmeaningful water reform in Australia.People usually wear several different hats: as individuals;members of families and households; employers and employees;volunteers; sports coaches or players; members of school councilsor local organisations, professional associations and so on. Giventhe many domains we all interact with, we have an enormouscapacity to trigger change and make a difference on big issues.Working in with others can make this even easier. The smallgroups of friends and acquaintances who came together duringthe Watermark Project found there were lots of benefits inlearning and discussing together. You could start just by gettinga group of friends, or family members together and working yourway through this document, discussing it’s different parts anddeepening your understanding of water. Maybe you could initiatesuch a group in your workplace. If you decide to do so, contactthe Watermark Australia team and we can provide you withmultiple copies and other support materials.In another way of enabling change, from the time Our WaterMark is released, the team at the Victorian Women’s Trust willset up a simple process whereby people can be connected withothers on water matters. This will make it possible to share ideas,experiences and strategies.So, after reading Our Water Mark, if you wish to endorse its goaland principles, you can do so by registering your support for theWatermark Australia Project online. Along with this declarationof support you might decide to take a significant step – or indeedseveral steps – either by yourself or within your community, toachieve real water efficiency within the next year or so.When goals are achieved, you can report this online. Rememberthat experience is a great teacher. By sharing our experiences withothers we can learn from one another, avoid pitfalls and savevaluable time and effort. Your story can inspire others to changeand build vital community momentum. Together we can bringabout real change!Watermark Australia: (03) 96420422Email: enquiries@watermarkaustralia.org.au3 I would like to endorse the goal andprinciples of Our Water Mark.3 Over the next 12 months I intend to takesignificant action, either by myself or withinmy community, that will lead to greaterwater efficiency and help Australia becomea nation of super-efficient water users.3 I would love to report my achievements toothers to help build much-needed communitymomentum around water reform.3 I intend to register with the online teamat www.watermarkaustralia.org.au and bepart of a wider community engagement inwater reform.152 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

PART FIVEglossarygAlgal bloomsA proliferation of microscopic algae in rivers and lakes, stimulatedby the input of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen.Annual croppingA system where one crop is grown each year.AquiferA geological formation, group of formations, or part of aformation that stores and/or allows movement of groundwater.Arid zoneThose areas in Australia that receive less than 250 mm or 350 mmof rainfall each year.BiodiversityVariety of lifeforms including the different plants, animals andmicroorganisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems theyform. Biodiversity is usually considered at three levels: genetic,species and ecosystem.BoreA hole of uniform diameter (usually 150 mm to 160 mm) drilledvertically into the ground to tap an aquifer. It contains a pipethrough which groundwater can be pumped or can flow to thesurface by artesian pressure.Broad-acre farmsCommercial farms over a large area. Produce includes crops, wool,beef and sheep meat. Farming is usually under dryland conditions.C3 and C4 plantsC3 plants comprise more than 95% of the plant species on Earth.(Trees, for example, are C3 plants).C4 plants, such as the common marsh grasses and otherherbaceous plants, are abundant in arid, hot environments. Theyinclude such crop plants as sugar cane, corn and soybeans andare the second-most prevalent photosynthetic type.The C3 and C4 refer to how these classes of plants assimilatecarbon dioxide into their systems. During the first steps inCO2 assimilation, C3 plants form a pair of three carbon-atommolecules. C4 plants, on the other hand, initially form fourcarbon-atom molecules.The important difference between C3 and C4 species for risingcarbon dioxide levels is that photosynthesis in C4 species issaturated with carbon dioxide at present levels, while C3 speciescontinue to increase for photosynthesis as carbon dioxide rises.CatchmentAn area of land where runoff from rainfall goes into the one riversystem.Climate variabilityThe natural year-to-year and season-to-season variation of theclimate system.Direct household water consumptionWater that we use in day-to-day activities (watering gardens,cleaning, food preparation, in toilets and bathrooms).DiversionSurface water diverted for use from the resources of a surfacewater river basin for supply to both within-basin consumers andconsumers external to the basin.Drainage divisionThe drainage divisions are a series of non-overlapping polygonscovering the whole of the Australian continent and some otherareas such as the Protected Territories. A drainage division mayinclude areas that have no recorded surface runoff. The systemof drainage divisions and river basins were defined by the formerAustralian Water Resources Council and were recently revivedunder the auspices of the Agriculture and Resources ManagementCouncil of Australia and New Zealand.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 153

PART FIVEglossarygDryland salinityThe accumulation of salts in soils, soil water and groundwater.This can be a natural phenomenon, but it can also be caused byclearing of native vegetation. Dryland salinity differs, in origin,from wetland (irrigation) salinity.EcosystemA community of organisms, interacting with each other, plus theenvironment in which they live and with which they also interact(examples are a pond or forest).Environmental flowsRiver flows allocated for the maintenance of aquatic and ripariansystems.Environmental water requirementsDescription of the flow regimes (e.g. volume, timing, seasonality,and duration) needed to sustain the ecological values of aquaticecosystems including their processes and biological diversity.EvaporationThe process of water changing from a liquid to a vapour.External water footprintThis is the water used in other countries to grow food andproduce goods that we then import.Gigalitre (GL)1000 megalitres.GreywaterWater that has not been contaminated by toilet and industrialdischarge. It includes water from bathtubs, dishwashing machinesand clothes washing machines, as well as water from commerciallaundries and carwashes.GroundwaterWater occurring below the ground surface.Groundwater management unitA hydraulically connected groundwater system that is defined andrecognised by state and territory agencies. This definition allowsfor management of the groundwater resource at an appropriatescale at which resource issues and intensity of use can beincorporated into local groundwater management practices.HydrologyThe scientific study of water both on and below the surface,including the geographical distributin of such water.Internal water footprintThis is made up of the individual’s direct water consumption, plusall of the water that is used in domestic activities.Megalitre (ML)1000 000 litresMean annual flowThe average annual streamflow passing a specified point ona stream.Mean annual runoffThe streamflow generated as a result of direct precipitation on thearea of interest.PotableWater suitable for drinking.PressureIn confined aquifers (those under a confining layer) thegroundwater is stored under pressure. When it is intercepted (e.g.by a bore) the groundwater rises under pressure to a level abovethe top of the aquifer.RechargeRainfall that moves through the soil, beyond the roots of plants,to replenish the aquifer.Recycled waterWater derived from sewerage systems, or industry processes, thatis treated to a standard that is appropriate for its intended use.Riparian zoneVegetated corridor along streams and rivers.SalinityThe total amount of water-soluble salts present in a soil horizon.Semi-arid zoneLands where rainfall is too low and unreliable for crops to begrown with certainty.154 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

PART FIVEglossarygSewageUrine, faeces and other wastes disposed of in toilets into asewerage system.SewerageA physical arrangement of pipes and plant for the collection,removal, treatment and disposal of liquid waste.SiltationDeposition of sediments from water in channels, reservoirs andharbours.Surface runoffThe proportion of rainfall that is not immediately absorbed by thesoil and thus flows across the surface.Surface-water management areaAreas defined by the state and territory water-managementagencies for the purposes of reporting on surface-water resources.The boundaries of the reporting units commonly coincide withthe Australian Water Resources Council river basins. In a numberof cases the reporting units represent subdivisions of these riverbasins.Third pipe systems/dual reticulationSystems used to supply recycled water for uses such as gardenwatering and toilet flushing.TranspirationThe process by which water absorbed by plants, usually throughthe roots, is evaporated into the atmosphere from the plantsurface, principally from the leaves.TurbidityIn relation to water, a measure of the concentration of particulateparticles.Water cycleThe cyclic sequence of events by which water moves from theland and sea to the atmosphere, then back to the Earth’s surfaceas precipitation, returning to the atmosphere or oceans asevapotranspiration, runoff or groundwater flow.Water footprintA person’s water footprint is all of the water that the personrequires to live and carry out activities in an average year. Thewater footprint has an internal and an external component.Water IntensityWater intensity refers to the water consumed per square metreof space.Water tableThe water table is the upper surface of groundwater. The soilprofile is fully saturated below the water table and unsaturatedabove it.Water useThis refers to the water that is not directly consumed. It is thewater required to grow our food and produce manufacturedgoods. This water is embodied in the food and goods that wepurchase.This glossary has been sourced fromthe following:• National Land and Water Resources Audit, Australianwater resources assessment 2000, NLWRA, Canberra, 2001.• Victorian Government White Paper, Securing our waterfuture together, 2004.D Smith, • Water in Australia, Oxford University Press,Australia, 1998.Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 155

acknowledgementsOur group of six comprised a farmer, personal assistant, community health nurse, artist/yogainstructor, retired retailer and social worker. We want to thank you for providing us with theopportunity to be involved in such a worthwhile project. At times we found that it challengedour beliefs, and at other times we found it heavy going, but it was never boring and wehave learnt so much about the numerous issues that surround the care, maintenance anddistribution of water and our dependence on it.Shepparton Watermark Australia groupThis document, Our Water Mark, has been a long time coming!It has grown out of the Watermark Australia Project that hasbeen running for the past five years.There are many people we wish to acknowledge.Independent fundingFunding from members of the broader community enabled usto be independent and unconstrained by government grant orcorporate sponsorship.We would not have been able to start the project without twoearly grants and the support of Charles Lane and Helen Morrisfrom The Myer Foundation. For making it possible for theproject to evolve into a large-scale operation, we must thankour private donors who gave generous financial donations. Thefact that most of these are women is testimony to women’sunderstanding of the urgent need for community engagementon the water issue.Our first donor was Helen Handbury, who died on the sameday we were conducting a Watermark Australia informationmeeting in her home town. We also thank Jane Abercrombie,Jo Baevski, Bindy Gross, Geoff Handbury AO, Hilary Irwin andDame Elisabeth Murdoch AC, DBE. Two of our major donorsprefer to remain private. We are as indebted to them as we areto the others.Organisational supportSix years ago some people thought it odd for a women’sorganisation to be ‘doing’ a water project, and said as much.The board of directors of the Victorian Women’s Trust andits convenor, backed the idea from the very beginningand lent great support to the project as it unfolded andmade significant demands on the organisation: Dur-e Dara(convenor), Diana Batzias, Nicky Friedman, Dr Melanie Heenan,Alana Johnston, Debra Knight, Professor Marilyn Lake, MelbaMarginson, Leanne Miller, Teresa Tjia.The staff at the Victorian Women’s Trust have consistentlybeen supportive and helpful throughout the life of the project.Particular thanks are due to Sarah Capper, Lieu Le and WilfredoZelada.Individual championsWe enlisted many women and men to act as champions forthe project, spreading the word and supporting us in practicalways. They were Rosanna Baini, Tracy Bartram, John Butler,Dur-e Dara, Christine Forster, Lynne Haultain, Kate Herd, NazraIbrahim, Natalie Jamieson, Alana Johnson, Harvey Jones,Professor Sam Lake, Glenn Manton, Kavisha Mazzella, LeanneMiller, Emeritus Professor Nancy Millis, Dr Greg Moore, FrankRyan, Teresa Tjia, Jean Tom, Graeme Wise and Arron Wood.Group Convenor leadershipThe process of people coming together at the local level toengage in discussions about water would not have beenpossible without the interest and commitment of severalhundred group convenors. We thank them for their leadership,for taking initiative, for ensuring that group reports came backto the Watermark team and for enabling others to participatein this unique community process.Special thanks to the following Watermark convenors andgroup participants for all their efforts in providing detailedfeedback on the draft document:Rachel Bathgate, Terry Brain, Harvey Champness, CatherineCockayne, Joan Datsun, Jim Dolkas, Anita Hannaford, AnneLongmire, Cathy McCallum, Colleen McCombe, Jenni Mitchell,Andrew Mountford, Glenice Paulsen, Lisa Rasmussen, RachelSheppard, Anne Stelling, Anne Thorogood, Peter Vine, Chrisand Jan Watson.156 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

acknowledgementsGroup participant involvementAs the list of postcodes shows, we were lucky to have groupsspring up all over Victoria and in other states, too. We thankthe several thousand women and men who participated inthese groups and gave of their wisdom and experience.Initial project reference groupWayne ChamleyJudy CoullMary Crooks (chair)Dur-e DaraAlana JohnsonPat MilthorpeJenni MitchellLeanne PleashRose ReadLyn WilksInitial project refereeProfessor Peter CullenPartner supportA number of organisations provided us with practical support– mostly in the form of publicising the Watermark AustraliaProject through their organisations and community networks.They are as follows: the Adidem Group (The Body Shop andAccessorize); the Victorian Department of Sustainability andEnvironment; the Victorian Local Governance Association;the Cities of Darebin, Whitehorse and Yarra, City West Water,Coliban Water; Melbourne Water; South East Water; WesternWater; Yarra Valley Water; the National Museum of Victoria;The Commission for Mission; the National Australia Bank;Green Canary; Futureye and Plan Book Travel.Special thanks go to Sylvia Admans and the Foundation forRural and Regional Renewal. (FRRR)Volunteer and student supportWe were lucky to have several talented and committed peoplevolunteer their time with the project. Thanks to Glen Evans,Colleen McCombe, Susannah Raffe, Nurul Widyaningrum,Hilary Irwin, Susan Relf, Erik Zager and Sandy Forster.Graphic designThe writing and production of this document has occurred in afrenetic period in which we wanted to incorporate design andformatting ideas simultaneously. We are indebted to JacquieMoon for her creativity and diligence.EditingThe document was edited by Francesca Coles with assistancefrom Victoria Harrison.Serious comic touchFrom the outset we have had the pleasure of including SheilaHollingsworth’s cartoons, especially commissioned by the teamand always delivered voluntarily as part of her passion andinterest in the topic and the project.Web design and maintenanceFor building a personalised website and database we thankConsonant Pty Ltd, Leanne Pleash and Adam Dennis. We thankKim Olsen from Kaos Inc for maintaining the website duringthe final stages of the project.Project LaunchesJo BaevskiTracey BartramDur-e DaraDr Graham HarrisKate HerdLynne HultainGlen MantonPatrice NewellFrank RyanScientific and technical supportSeveral people with an enormous combined scientificexperience and wisdom allowed us to call on their intellectualresources at will. They all generously made the time to speakwith us, meet with us and respond to written requests for helpin processing complex issues and materials: Thanks to:Professor Sam LakeProfessor John LangfordEmeritus Professor Nancy MillisProfessor John WilliamsOut of our great respect for their professional capacities westress that any perceived deficiencies in the text are ours alone!Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 157

acknowledgementsExtraneous supportCicely and John FentonGenevieve BarlowIrving Saulwick and AssociatesFreehills Commercial Legal ServicesEarly project staffLyn WilksLeanne PleashJenni MitchellAmanda PackerProject administration and research supportLiz McAloonZoe LangWayne ChamleyWilfredo ZeladaNatasha RammWriting supportLiz McAloonNatasha RammPrincipal writersMary CrooksDr Wayne ChamleyProject directionMary CrooksA Billabong Watermarkgroup meeting158 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

APPENDIX ONEa closing ref lectionfrom a Watermark Australia group‘Food,’ laughs Watermarker Caroline Lovel, ‘that’s whatI’ve enjoyed most. The food we get at our meetings.’A light joke – but there is a good reason for the finesuppers that Cathy McCallum prepares when theWatermark group she established meets at her home inBaringhup, west of the central Victorian town of Maldon.‘We always have wine for the meetings and I make sureit’s from a dryland (non-irrigated) vineyard, which is atalking point in itself, and I always serve supper halfwaythrough. That clears the air if there’s any tension. It’samazing the change in attitude that can occur in half anhour over supper.’The Baringhup-Maldon Billabong Watermark Australiagroup has been meeting since April 2005. Cathy, a retiredhome economics teacher and former restaurateur, decidedto start a group after hearing Mary Crooks’ Watermarklaunch address on International Women’s Day.‘When I retired I made a personal commitment to devotemy spare time to the environment and this fitted thebill perfectly.’ Surrounded by parched hills and with thebare bones of one of northern Victoria’s most importantwater-supply and irrigation storages – Cairn CurranReservoir – just a coo-ee from their back door and onlytank water to rely on, Cathy and her husband Bill werewell aware of water’s importance.Nearby, their beloved Loddon River below Cairn Curranhas all but stopped flowing and Maldon, which issupplied by reservoirs on the Coliban River, is undersevere water restrictions. But back in 2005 waterissues were yet to make front-page news. Nevertheless,teachers, a field biologist, a CSIRO minerals researcher,a trainee nurse, an economics and arts student, a formerpublisher, and an actor and singer rallied to Cathy’s call.The Billabong group, its members ranging in age from 20to 68 years, set a mission to work towards a future withclean water for everyone.Like other groups, they received Watermark discussionnotes and followed procedures suggested by Watermarkheadquarters but they also took other steps.Last July, on a record cold day during Maldon’s winterfestival, they established a Watermark street stall.Prescriptive brochures played second fiddle to a far moreengaging pastime – blind water tastings. Four jugs, oneeach filled with Maldon town water, Melbourne tapwater, tank water and bottled water, were offered topassers-by who were invited to rate the water for clarity,flavour and odour. People were intrigued. Maldon tapwater was voted tops. Everyone who took part got aprize.Another stall on another day encouraged passers-by to’fess up to their water sins. They were officially declaredforgiven and rewarded with shower clocks.A quick quiz asked people to work out how muchwater they ate in their meals. Competitions asking kidsto create water-saving inventions were held at localschools.‘We always make our activities fun,’ says Cathy. ‘Makingjudgements is strictly off limits. If you judge people [formisusing water] you would be in a total state of fury.Education is the best way of changing people’s attitudesand behaviours.’The group developed a briefing paper for the local MtAlexander Shire council president and chief executiveofficer ahead of their talks with water authorities,pointing out its concerns. Sprinklers were being usedwhen they shouldn’t; water authority employeesappeared to place a low priority on best practice watermanagement resulting in profligate use; was it realisticto expect that water savings on the Loddon River wouldbe adequate to supplement Ballarat’s supply (as proposedby the Victorian Government); good practices by farmersneeded to be rewarded.The group made its case clear. It developed a list ofwater-saving activities.During their meetings members swap tips for savingwater. Some have set up household systems for reusinggreywater. Others shower less frequently. One memberwashes using three colour-coded flannels: one each forVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 159

a closing ref lectionfrom a Watermark Australia groupface, underarms and private parts. Cathy showers everythird day and is developing a visitors’ guide to water usefor her home.So, are the members of the Billabong group just a bunchof already-converted water scrooges? Yes, says TerryBrain, a retired teacher turned field biologist, but nowhe has learnt a lot more. ‘The main thing I hadn’t knownabout before was the massive amount of water flowingoff northern Australia. Also I’d never thought of a bottleof wine costing 360 L of water before or a slab of steak4660 L of water. It made me realise that we are verycareful to take short showers but then we knock off acouple of bottles of wine when friends come over. It alsomade me realise how much water we export when weexport food.’Caroline Lovel, a part-time primary teacher, landownerand manager and mother of three, said that thoughinitially hesitant to join the group, she also learnt a lot.‘The [volume of] water used in food production,for example, is incredible. I would really like to seepoliticians introducing major water-saving and recyclinginitiatives.’Passers-by complete a blind water tasting at the street stall run by theBaringhup-Maldon Billabong Watermark group. (Group founder CathyMcCallum is in the background filling out a form.)160 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

APPENDIX TWOpostcodesWatermark Australia Groups by postcode as of May 2006ACTCanberra 2600Giralang 2617Savernake 2646NSWBellevue Hill 2023Byabarra 2446East Gardens 2036Eschol Park 2558Gosford 2250Huskisson 2540Katoomba 2780Katoomba 2780Kenthurst 2156Newcastle 2300Newcastle 2300Orange 2800The Entrance North 2261Wahroonga 2076Woollahra 2025QLDCampbells Creek 4625Kallangur 4503Kenmore 4069Maleny 4552Maleny 4552Tarragindi 4121Tiaro 4650SABerri 5343Loxton 5333TASSandy Bay 7005VICAbbotsford 3067Abbotsford 3067Abbotsford 3067Abbotsford 3067Alphington 3078Alphington 3078Altona 3018Altona Meadows 3028Ashwood 3147Ballarat 3350Ballarat 3350Ballarat 3350Balwyn North 3104Baringhup 3463Beechworth 3747Bena 3946Benalla 3672Benalla 3672Bendigo 3500Bendigo 3500Bendigo 3500Bendigo 3500Bentleigh East 3204Berwick 3806Birregurra 3242Bowmans Forest 3735Box Hill North 3129Box Hill North 3129Box Hill South 3128Bright 3741Brighton 3186Brighton 3186Brunswick 3056Brunswick 3056Brunswick East 3056Bundoora 3083Burnley 3121Burwood 3125Camberwell 3124Canterbury 3126Carlton 3053Carnegie 3163Carnegie 3163Castlemaine 3450Castlemaine 3450Castlemaine 3450Castlemaine 3450Chadstone 3148Cheltenham 3192Cheltenham 3192Churchill 3842Clifton Hill 3068Colbinabbin 3559Dandenong 3175Eaglehawk 3556Eaglehawk 3556Eaglemont 3084East Doncaster 3109East Melbourne 3101Elsternwick 3186Eltham 3095Essendon 3040Fairfield 3078Fitzroy 3065Fitzroy North 3068Fitzroy North 3068Flemington 3031Foster 3960Frankston 3199French Island 3921Glen Iris 3146Greensborough 3088Greensborough 3088Hampton 3188Hawthorn 3122Hawthorn 3122Heathcote 3523Heidelberg 3084Hepburn Springs 3461Highlands 3660Highlands 3660Highton 3216Horsham 3400Hurstbridge 3099Inverloch 3996Ivanhoe 3079Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 161

APPENDIX TWOpostcodesWatermark Australia groups by postcode as of May 2006Ivanhoe 3079Ivanhoe 3079Ivanhoe 3079Jackass Flat 3556Jeparit 3423Kaniva 3419Kew 3101Kew 3101Kew 3101Kirkstall 3283Kyabram 3620Kyabram 3620Kyneton 3444Langwarrin 3910Lismore 3324Little River 3211Lysterfield 3156Maldon 3463Malvern 3144Maryborough 3465McCrae 3938Melbourne 3000Melbourne 3000Melbourne 3000Melbourne 3000Melbourne 3000Melbourne 3000Melbourne 3000Melbourne 3000Melbourne 3000Melton 3337Metung 3904Middle Park 3206Mirboo North 3897Mont Albert North 3129Mooroopna 3629Mt Evelyn 3796Mt Martha 3934Mt Waverley 3149Neerim South 3831Newham 3442Nicholson 3882Niddrie 3042North Melbourne 3051Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Northcote 3070Officer 3809Pakenham 3810Parkville 3053Patchewollock 3491Point Cook 3030Prahran 3181Red Hill South 3937Riddells Creek 3431Ringwood 3134Rosebud South 3939Sale 3850Seaford 3198Simpson 3226South Melbourne 3205Springvale 3171St Kilda 3182St Kilda 3182Steels Creek 3775Sunshine 3020Surrey Hills 3127Surrey Hills 3127Tallangatta 3700Tawonga 3697Thornbury 3071Thornbury 3071Thornbury 3071Timboon 3268Towong via Corryong 3707Trentham 3458Upper Beaconsfield 3808Venus Bay 3956Wangaratta 3677Wantirna 3152Warrandyte 3113Warrandyte 3113Warrnambool 3280Werribee 3030Werribee 3030Werribee 3030Williamstown 3016Wooragee 3747Woori Yallock 3139Wycheproof 3527Yarraville 3013Yarra Junction 3797Yea 3717Yea 3717WACalista 6167Joondalup 6027Mount Lawley 6050162 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark

your notesVictorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark 163

your notes164 Victorian Women’s Trust - Our Water Mark