Environmental And Institutional Sustainability Of Regimanuel ... - KTH

TRITA-INFRA EX 03-021
ISSN 1651-0194
ISRN KTH/INFRA/EX--03--21
INFRASTRUCTURE DEPARTMENT MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS
ENVIRONMENTAL AND INSTITUTIONAL
SUSTAINABILITY OF REGIMANUEL GRAY’S EAST
AIRPORT ESTATE, ACCRA, GHANA
KARRUTHERS BEGYINA BOISON
Stockholm, December 2002
In the subject of Built Environment Analysis, Division of Urban Studies
within the Master Programme Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure
Royal Institute of Technology

TRITA-INFRA EX 03-021
ISSN 1651-0194
ISRN KTH/INFRA/EX--03--21
INFRASTRUCTURE DEPARTMENT MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS
ENVIRONMENTAL AND INSTITUTIONAL
SUSTAINABILITY OF REGIMANUEL GRAY’S EAST
AIRPORT ESTATE, ACCRA, GHANA
KARRUTHERS BEGYINA BOISON
Supervisor: Dr. Örjan Svane
Stockholm, December 2002
In the subject of Built Environment Analysis, Division of Urban Studies
within the Master Programme Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure
Royal Institute of Technology

FOREWORD
This section is meant to provide information on my background, since it no doubt has
influenced my approach in this thesis.
I had my undergraduate degree in B.Sc Building (also called Building Technology) from the
University of Jos in Nigeria. As partial requirement for the B.Sc programme, I underwent
industrial training at the Architectural and Engineering Services Limited (AESL) in Accra,
Ghana. AESL is a consultant to the Government of Ghana on construction projects. After
completion of my B.Sc degree in Nigeria, I worked for six months with an engineering
consulting company, which specializes in water resources. Upon returning to Ghana in 1998, I
worked as an Instructor at Accra Polytechnic in a lecturing and students’ supervision capacity.
I had various contacts with construction professionals and issues in both Ghana and Nigeria.
This thesis is the final part of the Master of Science programme in Environmental
Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure (EESI) at the Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm, Sweden. I chose to do the thesis in Built Environment Analysis as it combines
my previous training and interest in construction (the built environment) with my new
training at KTH, which deals with environmental and sustainability issues.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
“No man is an island unto himself”
The above statement is true for this thesis. Several people and institutions deserve to be
mentioned for their role in making this thesis and the entire Masters programme possible.
First of all, my gratitude goes to the Almighty God for His help and sustenance.
I wish to thank my family members for their encouragement: Mum, Chris, Ray, Ben. Dad,
you were not there, but you are also acknowledged.
I thank the Swedish Institute (SI) for granting me a Guest Scholarship for the entire Masters
programme, without which my participation in the Masters programme would not have been
possible. Tack så mycket till Karin, Camilla, Aleksandra och Per.
Many thanks go to my supervisor, Dr. Örjan Svane, Senior Researcher in the Built
Environment Analysis Unit, for his guidance and help. Your help and patience anytime I
called on you for explanations and guidance is greatly appreciated.
Several people made my stay in Sweden an enjoyable one. I appreciate all fellow students in
the EESI programme and I wish to thank my “sustainable” friends who helped in many
ways:-Carina (thanks for helping greatly with the typesetting), Belindo, Itayi, Abdi, Jing &
Ying, Rony, Chikira etc. etc. The help of members of staff are also appreciated: Assoc. Prof.
Jan-Erik Gustafsson (Director of Studies), Patricia, and Kicki. Doktorand John Koku of the
Land and Water Resources Engineering Department was a big brother to me during the
programme. Akpe. Thanks also go to Mr. and Mrs. Eric Boakye and family for their support
and help. So also Prof. and Mrs. Brian Edgar of Linkoping University.
Thanks go to those who were of assistance during my field work, especially officials of
Regimanuel Gray Head Office and Management Company and EPA. The MD of Parakuo
Estates is acknowledged for giving valuable insights. I am grateful for the accommodation
and encouragement provided by Dr. & Mrs. Quarcoo during my fieldwork in Accra.
Personal and family friends deserve mention: Prof. and Engr. Umolu, Mr. & Mrs. Allotey, Dr.
& Mrs. Ladeji, Mr. Odoom.
To all those, too numerous to name, who were not specifically mentioned, I say thanks.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.................................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................ V
LIST OF FIGURES & TABLES ........................................................................................ VII
LIST OF ACRONYMS.......................................................................................................VIII
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................IX
CHAPTER ONE....................................................................................................................... 1
1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................... 2
1.3 Aims and Objectives .................................................................................................. 2
1.3.1 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Scope and Limitations................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER TWO...................................................................................................................... 4
2 LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Sustainable Development........................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Dimensions/Aspects of Sustainable Development.................................................. 5
2.1.2 What is to be sustained?......................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Sustainability in Practice ....................................................................................... 7
2.2 Environmental Sustainability ..................................................................................... 8
2.3 Life Cycle Analysis/Assessment (LCA) .................................................................. 10
2.4 “System” Concept .................................................................................................... 13
2.5 Cities and Sustainable Development........................................................................ 13
2.6 Housing and Environmental Issues in Developing Countries.................................. 15
2.6.1 Environmental Impact of Cities............................................................................ 16
2.7 Small Neighbourhood Concept ................................................................................ 20
2.8 Urban Environmental Problems: The Brown and Green Agendas .......................... 20
2.9 Environmental Legislation in Ghana........................................................................ 21
2.9.1 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Vision Statement ................................ 21
2.9.2 EPA Mission Statement ........................................................................................ 21
2.9.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in Ghana............................................. 22
2.9.4 Legislative Instrument .......................................................................................... 25
2.10 Housing Situation in Ghana ..................................................................................... 26
2.11 Ghana Real Estate Developers Association (GREDA)............................................ 32
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 36
3 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................... 36
3.1 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 36
3.2 Selection of Case for Case Study ............................................................................. 37
3.3 Problems Encountered.............................................................................................. 37
3.4 Approaches Used in analysis/discussion.................................................................. 39
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CHAPTER FOUR.................................................................................................................. 40
4 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS I: GENERAL INFORMATION
ON EAST AIRPORT HOUSING ESTATE ............................................................................ 40
4.1 Brief Overview of Regimanuel Gray Limited.......................................................... 40
4.2 Overview of East Airport Housing Estate................................................................ 41
4.3 Environmental Considerations in East Airport Housing Estate............................... 46
4.4 East Airport Estate Homeowners’ Association........................................................ 46
4.4.1 Membership.......................................................................................................... 47
4.4.2 Voting Rights........................................................................................................ 48
4.4.3 Council and Standing Committees ....................................................................... 49
4.4.4 Funding ................................................................................................................ 49
4.5 Estate Management Company.................................................................................. 50
CHAPTER FIVE....................................................................................................................52
5 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS II: ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS AND INSTITUTIONAL SUSTAINABILITY...................................................... 52
5.1 Construction Phase................................................................................................... 52
5.1.1 Inflows .................................................................................................................. 52
5.1.2 Outflows ............................................................................................................... 53
5.2 Occupational (Operational) Phase............................................................................ 53
5.2.1 Inflows .................................................................................................................. 53
5.2.2 Outflows ............................................................................................................... 59
5.2.3 Transport.............................................................................................................. 64
5.2.4 Landscaping ......................................................................................................... 64
5.3 Decommissioning Phase .......................................................................................... 65
5.4 Institutional Sustainability of RGEA Homeowners’ Association............................ 66
CHAPTER SIX....................................................................................................................... 70
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................... 70
6.1 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 70
6.1.1 Division of Responsibilities.................................................................................. 70
6.1.2 Environmental Sustainability ............................................................................... 70
6.1.3 Institutional Sustainability ................................................................................... 71
6.1.3 Contribution of Study 71
6.2 Recommendations .................................................................................................... 72
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................... 74
APPENDIX 1: CHECKLIST FOR FIELDWORK.......................................................................... 78
APPENDIX 2: STANDARD FEATURES OF HOUSES AT EAST AIRPORT ESTATE........... 80
APPENDIX 3: ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS IN EAST AIRPORT ESTATE ............. 81
APPENDIX 4: INFORMATION ON NEW CLUB HOUSE........................................................... 83
APPENDIX 5: AN ODE TO RGEA BY STAR HAMMOND......................................................... 84
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LIST OF FIGURES & TABLES
Fig. 1: The prism of sustainability 6
Fig. 2: The Industrial System ................................................................................................... 11
Fig. 3: Stages of an LCA.......................................................................................................... 11
Fig. 4: Daily Input and Output for a city of 100,000 people.................................................... 16
Fig. 5: Environmental impact of a small neighbourhood......................................................... 18
Fig. 6: Environmental Impact of a city .................................................................................... 19
Fig. 7: EIA procedure in Ghana ............................................................................................... 24
Fig. 8a & b: Pictures of an informal settlement in a part of Accra called “Sodom and
Gomorrah”........................................................................................................................ 26
Fig. 9a & b Pictures of the other side of “Sodom and Gomorrah”: a “garden of Eden?”........ 27
Fig. 10: Map of Ghana, showing Accra, and neighbouring countries ..................................... 28
Fig. 11: Map of Accra Source:http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/images/accra_map.jpg
............................ 29
Fig. 12: Types of Dwelling in Ghana (based on 2000 Population and Housing Census Data)30
Fig. 13: Regimanuel Gray’s project sites in Accra .................................................................. 41
Fig. 14: House Type: RG-3 (Price: US $96,900)..................................................................... 43
Fig. 15: House Type: RG-4 (Detached Expandable House, Price: US $116,800)................... 44
Fig. 16: House Type RG-12: 2 STOREY – 4 BEDROOM HOUSE WITH GARAGE AND
QUARTERS. Price: US$ 273,950 ................................................................................... 45
Fig. 17: Schematic diagram of sewerage system for a housing unit ....................................... 62
Fig. 18: Theoretical options for treating faecal sludge............................................................. 72
Table 1: Conceptions of Environmental Sustainability.............................................................. 9
Table 2: Difference between the Brown and Green Agendas.................................................. 20
Table 3: Urban Agglomerations: Population Size and Growth Rate for Accra, Ghana........... 27
Table 4: Approximate quantities of materials planned to be used for 514 houses at East
Airport Estate ................................................................................................................... 52
Table 5: Water Tariffs in Ghana .............................................................................................. 55
Table 6: Water Production at the Weija and Kpong Treatment Plants .................................... 56
Table 7: Electricity Tariffs in Ghana as at Sept. 1998 ............................................................. 57
Table 8: Water Quality of Kpeshie Stream at start of East Airport Estate Project .................. 61
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
EPA Environmental Protection Agency (of Ghana)
RG Regimanuel Gray Limited
RGEA Regimanuel Gray East Airport Estate
RGEMC Regimanuel Gray Estate Management Company
GWC Ghana Water Company Limited
ECG Electricity Company of Ghana
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ABSTRACT
This thesis is concerned with the environmental and institutional aspects of sustainable
development of a selected real estate housing project in Accra, Ghana. The selected estate is
Regimanuel Gray’s East Airport Residential Estate, which is regarded by many people as the
best modern estate in Accra, in terms of aesthetics, management and prestige. The East
Airport Estate was commissioned in December 1998 and this marked the start of residency. It
is a gated community which is planned for 600 luxurious style buildings, but which currently
has 195 houses with an occupancy rate of 70%.
The government of Ghana has shifted from a direct provider of houses to a facilitator. As a
result, several estate companies have been established, with many belonging to the Ghana
Real Estate Developers Association (GREDA). One of such companies is Regimanuel Gray
Ltd, which currently has six estate projects in Ghana, including the East Airport Residential
Estate.
A checklist was prepared from literature and used as a guide for collection of information.
During the fieldwork, interviews with officials and perusal of official documents formed the
main methodology, although interviews with ordinary members of the estate was not carried
out. Using a qualitative Life Cycle approach based on available information, the inflows of
resources and outflows of wastes for the estate were discussed.
An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for the estate was done in 1996 by a consultancy
group on behalf of Regimanuel Gray. With regards to environmental sustainability, it was
argued that the long delay in acquiring water meters might be resulting in high water usage. It
was discussed that a centralised sewage treatment plant should be explored to replace the
current septic tanks due to risks of groundwater contamination and downstream impacts
associated with eventual sewage disposal.
The estate has a formal institution (The Homeowners’ Association), which serves as the
channel for co-operation between residents. There is an Estate Management Company, which
is responsible for the maintenance and management of the estate, in association with the
Council of the Homeowners’ Association. Though the Association after it’s one year in
operation, got an excess of income over expenditure, it has not enjoyed the full support of
resident households as evident from low attendance at meetings and non-payment of service
fees.
Recommendations were made at the end, one being that further studies be carried out at
regular time intervals to study the trend of resource and waste flows and outflows for full
occupancy of the estate. Ways of getting the support of households in the activities of the
Homeowners’ Association should also be explored.
Keywords: Environmental sustainability, institutional sustainability, life cycle
approach, real estate, East Airport Estate, Accra.
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1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
The importance of housing cannot be over-emphasized. In fact, Habitat (2001a) states that
the housing is now universally recognized as a human right and that efforts to implement this
right must be strengthened and accelerated. As Goodchild (1997) puts it, habitat is of obvious
importance and it is central to the comfort and convenience of residents.
During the last decades, the share of world’s population living in urban areas has increased
from 5% in 1900 to nearly 50% today; it is estimated that in the middle of the 21 st Century
nearly two-thirds of the world population will be living in cities and towns with 90% of this
increase occurring in developing countries (USAID, 2001). Kofi Annan, the United Nations
Secretary General, in Habitat (2001a) gives an indication of the dimension of the issue of
urbanization thus:
“The world has entered the urban millennium. Nearly half of the world’s people are
now city dwellers, and the rapid increase in urban population is expected to continue,
mainly in developing countries. This historic transition is being further propelled by
the powerful forces of globalization…”.
Ghana is no exception to such urbanization and in recent years, there has been an influx of
people to the urban areas, as people in rural areas flock to the main cities in search of
employment opportunities and the chance for a better life.
The urbanization trend as well as population growth has put severe pressure on the existing
stock of infrastructure, such as housing, water and electricity, sanitation and waste disposal
services. Housing has been one of the areas severely hit and the government alone has not
been able to provide enough of it to meet increasing demand.
A housing study conducted between Ghana Real Estates Developers Association (GREDA)
and the Government of Ghana in 1999 revealed that the annual housing requirement in Ghana
is estimated between 110,000 and 140,000 units per annum whereas production is only about
30,000 units per annum (Business Watch, 2002 and Tradepartners UK, 2002).
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The role of the Government of Ghana has changed (perhaps due in part to the Habitat I
conference) from a direct provider of houses (through the State Housing Corporation [SHC])
to a facilitator (enabler) of housing delivery, permitting the private sector, notably, real estate
developers, to play a more active role. This led to the formation of the Ghana Real Estate
Developers Association (GREDA) in 1989, as a networking agency for real estate developers
and architects. GREDA during its 11 years of existence (up to 2000), has built close to
12,000 residential units in different parts of the country (Business Watch, 2002 and GREDA
News, 1999). These residential units are usually in groups of small neighbourhoods (housing
projects).
Human settlement processes impact on, and are influenced by the natural cycles of
ecosystems; cities are dependent on the availability of natural resources and the exportation of
waste products in order to sustain their populations.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In the view of the writer of this thesis, although the participation of the private sector through
real estate developers in Ghana in housing provision is laudable (and should be further
encouraged/enhanced), in view of the current global emphasis on sustainable development
and environmental sustainability, the pertinent issue is the question: How environmentally
sustainable are these estate houses? What (if any) environmental considerations are made in
the planning, design, construction and operation of real estate housing projects? To what
extent is there informal or institutionalised co-operation between resident households in the
estate houses?
In order to carry out the investigation, one representative high class real estate project, rich in
information, was eventually selected for analysis. It represents the one of the highest quality
that can be found in real estate housing projects in Ghana.
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of the thesis is to find answers to the above main questions. The thesis is limited to
one selected already-occupied estate project in the city of Accra, Ghana.
1.3.1 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives include:
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1. Literature review to get better insight into the issue,
2. Fieldwork in Accra, Ghana, to evaluate (either quantitatively or qualitatively) the
environmental and institutional sustainability of the real estate housing project,.
3. Analysis and discussion of results from the fieldwork, and appropriate
conclusions.
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
This thesis is concerned with the environmental and institutional sustainability of real estate
housing projects in Ghana, with specific reference to Regimanuel Gray’s East Airport Estate.
The study is limited to the information available to the researcher by way of books and
documents, visual observations and interviews with the estate staff. It is important to note that
though the researcher visited more than one estate project, this thesis is specifically on the
East Airport Estate and that conditions in other estates not visited, may be similar or different
from those of the selected estate.
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CHAPTER TWO
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, a review of relevant literature is given, which formed the theoretical
background or framework for the thesis.
2.1 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
A search in any library or on the internet will reveal that there are many definitions of
sustainable development. However, despite such myriad of interpretations of sustainable
development, two main definitions are frequently encountered: those of IUCN (International
Union for the Conservation of Nature) and that of the Brundtland Report.
According to Moffatt (1996), the term “sustainable development” became fashionable in the
1980s in both the World Conservation Strategy and the book entitled “Our Common Future”,
otherwise known as the Brundtland Report, published in 1987. These two publications have
led to detailed discussions over the implications of sustainable development for academic
enquiry, policy-making and action. Moffatt et al.(2001) comment that the Brundtland Report
(otherwise known as the World Commission on Environment and Development, WCED
Report), introduced sustainable development as a key concept that different groups could use
to discuss the intimate relationships between economic activity and ecology and that this
international concern with sustainable development found expression at the 1992 UN Earth
Summit agreements signed at Rio de Janeiro. It is to be noted that in 2002, the UN organized
a Global Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa.
In the original text of the Brundtland Report, sustainable development was given several
definitions, including the following:-
“Sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the
opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life …sustainable development requires the
promotion of values that encourage consumption standards that are within the bounds of the
ecologically possible and to which all can reasonably aspire … at minimum, sustainable
development must not endanger the natural systems that support life on Earth: the
atmosphere, the waters, the soils, and the living beings.” (Moffatt, 1996):
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However, the most commonly quoted Brundtland Report definition of sustainable
development is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (Edwards-Jones et al, 2000).
Another commonly used definition of sustainable development and one which has been
adopted by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is that type of
development “which improves the quality of life, within the carrying capacity of the earth’s
life support system.” (Moffatt, 1996).
In this thesis, sustainable development is defined according to the IUCN definition as “that
type of development which improves the quality of life, within the carrying capacity of the
earth’s life support system.”
2.1.1 Dimensions/Aspects of Sustainable Development
From the broad theme of sustainable development, the following main sub-themes are
commonly adopted: economic, social and environmental/ecological However, Valentin and
Spangenberg (1999) of the Wuppertal Institute, Germany, have developed a model of
sustainability which consists of four dimensions: the social, economic, environmental and
institutional. They have thus added a fourth dimension: institutional, to the themes of
sustainable development.
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Fig. 1: The prism of sustainability
Source: Based on Valentin and Spangenberg (1999)
This thesis is mainly concerned with the environmental and institutional dimensions of
sustainability. Valentin and Spangenberg (1999) note that the institutional imperative calls for
strengthening people’s participation in political governance and the mechanisms of decisionmaking
have to change towards more integration of people’s wishes and activities.
2.1.2 What is to be sustained?
A closer look at the various definitions of sustainable development, especially that of the
Brudtland Report, makes one to wonder “what is to be sustained?” The main reason being
that the definitions are general in scope to fit the concerns of most groups, but at the same
time, not specific enough.
The debate with sustainable development is still on-going and the following quotation gives
an insight into the issue:
”As a social goal … sustainability is fraught with unresolved questions. Sustainable for how
long: a generation, one century, a millennium, ten millennia? Sustainable at what level of
human appropriation: individual households, local villages, major cities, entire nations,
global economies? Sustainable for whom: all humans alive now, all humans that will ever
live, all living beings living at this time, all living beings that will ever live? Sustainable
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under what conditions: for contemporary transnational capitalism, for low-impact Neolithic
hunters and gatherers, for some space-faring global empire? Sustainable development of
what: personal income, social complexity, gross national product, material frugality,
individual consumption, ecological biodiversity?” (Dobson, 1998).
From the numerous definitions of the term “sustainable development”, some researchers
believe that economic growth is sustainable whilst others believe that although this is not the
case, sustainable development is possible. In the same vein, Lawrence (2000) writes that
during the last decade sustainable development and sustainability have been widely used but
their definition is elusive: some people interpret these terms to mean that economic growth,
qualified by some ecological principles, can continue whilst others maintain that a radical
redirection of economic processes is necessary at local, national and international levels.
The above discourse gives the indication that we must be specific when talking of sustainable
development. Hill (2001) cautions that a genuine definition of sustainability must necessarily
spell out restrictions on our behaviour and must provide guidelines for appropriate goals. It
will certainly be helpful that every researcher or group dealing with sustainable development,
should endeavour to define or at least give an indication of what sustainable development
means to them. Moreover, several organizations such as the International Institute for
Sustainable Development, have developed indicators of sustainable development for various
sectors of human activities to help in identifying and measuring progress towards sustainable
development. This helps to operationalise the principles of sustainable development.
2.1.3 Sustainability in Practice
In the preceding section, it was argued that sustainable development must be specific in order
to make it beneficial. This section, continues with the discourse, by discussing how
sustainability can be used in practice.
Bell and Morse (2000) caution that sustainability must be made operational in each specific
context (e.g. forestry, agriculture), at scales relevant for its achievement, and appropriate
methods must be designed for its long-term measurement. In furtherance of this, the
International Institute for Sustainable Development sought and received support from the
Rockefeller Foundation to bring together an international group of measurement practitioners
and researchers to review progress to date and to synthesize insights from practical ongoing
7

efforts. The meeting was held in November, 1996 at Bellagio, Italy. The results of the
meeting are referred to as the Bellagio Principles for gauging progress towards sustainable
development (Bell and Morse, 2000):
1. What is meant by sustainable development should be clearly defined,
2. Sustainability should be viewed in a holistic sense, including economic, social and
ecological components,
3. Notions of equity should be included in any perspective of sustainable development. This
includes access to resources as well as human rights and other “non-market” activities
that contribute to human and social well being,
4. The time horizon should span “both human and ecosystem time scales”, and the spatial
scale should include “not only local but also long-distance impacts on people and
ecosystems”,
5. Progress towards sustainable development should be based on the measurement of “a
limited number” of indicators based on “standardized measurement”,
6. Methods and data employed for assessment of progress should be open and accessible to
all,
7. Progress should be effectively communicated to all,
8. Broad participation is required,
9. Allowance should be made for repeated measurement in order to determine trends and
incorporate the results of experience,
10. Institutions capacity in order to monitor progress towards sustainable development needs
to assured. …”
The above principles serve as an important framework for dealing with sustainable
development, in whatever sphere, be it academic/research or practical applications. For
example in this thesis, sustainable development is viewed in a holistic sense in that though the
primary focus is on environmental sustainability, the interactions between environmental
sustainability and institutional sustainability are evident from the discussions.
2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
One of the main concerns of sustainable development is environmental sustainability. It can
be argued that the main concern with sustainable development is that of environmental
sustainability, i.e. human society cannot carry on with its activities in a “business-as-usual”
way, otherwise, we will be depriving future generations of meeting their own needs (see
Brundtland Report’s definition of sustainable development in section 2.1). We cannot
therefore talk of sustainable development without talking of environmental sustainability,
although different persons in different situations might have differing priorities.
Bayliss and Walker (1996) are of the view that the present debate on environmental
sustainability shows a common, shared assumption that things cannot go on as they are,
although how change should be achieved is less agreed. Dobson (1998) surveyed a large
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amount of literature relating to environmental sustainability and sustainable development and
has developed a framework which he calls “conceptions of environmental sustainability” as
shown in Table 1 below. In the table, “objects of concern” numbers: 1 = present generation
human needs; 2 = future generation human needs; 3 = present generation human wants; 4 =
future generation human wants; 5 = present generation non-human needs; 6 = future
generation non-human needs. Numbers in parentheses are “box” numbers, used in Dobson’s
discussion.
Table 1: Conceptions of Environmental Sustainability
What to sustain? (1)
Critical natural capital
Why? (4)
Human welfare
A B C
How? (7)
Renewing/substituting/protecting
Objects of concern (10)
Primary
1, 2, 3, 4
Secondary
5, 6
Substitutability (13)
between human-made Not always possible between
and natural capital human-made capital and critical
natural capital
Source: Dobson (1998).
(2)
Irreversible nature
(5)
Human welfare and
duties to nature
(8)
Substituting/protecting
(11)
(1, 5) (2, 6)
3, 4
(14)
Not always possible
between human-made
capital and irreversible
nature
(3)
Natural wealth
(6)
Duties to nature
(9)
Protecting
(12)
(5, 1) (6, 2)
3, 4
(15)
Eschews the
substitutability debate
In the table, the questions to which all theories of environmental sustainability should have an
answer are given down the left-hand side, and there are five of these questions. Each of these
questions has (in the literature) three more or less determinate and self-contained sets of
answers and it is these groups of answers that give rise to the three conceptions of
environmental sustainability, lettered A to C. Concept A is concerned with sustaining a
particular aspect or feature of natural capital. This produces the term “critical natural capital”,
critical primarily because it is critical to the production and reproduction of human life and
this points us in the direction of natural capital whose presence and integrity is preconditional
for survival.
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Concept B introduces the notion of “irreversibility” in the focus on natural capital. According
to Dobson (1998), Concept B is “Janus-faced”: on the one hand, it looks back towards
Concept A and the privileging of human welfare over obligations to nature. On the other, it
anticipates the themes of Concept C by calling compensation into question through the
introduction of the notion of intrinsic value.
Concept C might be characterized as the point at which economists leave the sustainability
debate, to be replaced by philosophers. Within this concept, there are notions of weak
sustainability (there being substitutes for natural and man-made capital) and strong
sustainability (there being complements rather than substitutes).
Hill (2001) states that environmental sustainability implies the following:-
1. Meeting the basic needs of all peoples, and giving this priority over meeting the “greeds”
of a few
2. Keeping population densities, if possible, below the carrying capacity of the region
3. Adjusting consumption patterns and the design and management of systems to permit the
renewal of renewable resources
4. Conserving, recycling, and establishing priorities for the use of nonrenewable resources
5. Keeping environmental impact below the level required to allow the systems affected to
recover and continue to evolve.
According to Dobson’s (1998) concepts, Hill fits into Concept A as his concerns fall within
what Dobson refers to as “critical natural capital”.
In Ghana as a whole, there is currently very little recycling of waste going on at the official
government dumpsites. A company has started with the recycling of plastic shopping bags,
and there are plans to set up more recycling plants, but it remains to be seen how effective
they will be.
2.3 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS/ASSESSMENT (LCA)
There are various instruments or tools that aid in discussing environmental sustainability of
activities, and among these is life cycle analysis or assessment (LCA).
Kirkpatrick (1996) gives the definition of LCA as “an objective process to evaluate the
environmental burdens associated with a product, process or activity by identifying and
quantifying energy and materials used and wastes released to the environment and to evaluate
10

and implement opportunities to effect environmental improvements.” As Curan (1996)
explains, an environmental LCA evaluates the environmental effects associated with any
given activity from the initial gathering of raw materials from nature (petroleum, crops, ores,
etc.) to the point at which all materials are returned to nature (as indicated in Figure 1 below).
Fig. 2: The Industrial System
Source: Curan (1996)
Fig. 3: Stages of an LCA
Source: Kirkpatrick (1996)
11

The evaluation includes all important sidestream releases and inflows of for example energy,
to the air, water, and soil. In short, LCA is an attempt to comprehensively describe and
calculate all these activities and the resulting environmental releases and impacts.
Defining boundaries is part of the first step in the LCA.It is to be noted that, as shown in Fig.
2 and 3, these activities take place in a system; a system being a collection of operations that
together perform some defined function and any industrial system can be represented by a
system boundary that encloses all the operations of interest. The region surrounding this
boundary is known as the system environment and the inputs to the system are all raw
materials taken from nature and the outputs are waste materials released back into nature.
Another term used to describe life-cycle analysis/assessment is “cradle-to-grave” or “cradleto-gate”
approach; the latter term means from the acquisition of raw materials to the
manufacture of a usable product.
Boguski et al (1996) note that LCA is a tool that can be used to evaluate the environmental
effects of a product, process or activity and that the LCA methodology has four components:
goal definition and scooping, life-cycle inventory (LCI), impact assessment, and improvement
assessment.
Allen (1996) indicates that LCA has been used in a variety of applications in both the public
and private sectors, with many of such assessments being well publicized such as the
comparisons between cloth and disposable diapers, comparisons between plastic and paper
cups. Allen (1996) goes on to state that these studies have done much to raise awareness
about LCA as an analytical tool.
LCA serves as a useful tool in this thesis as it helps to consider the life-cycle of resources in
perspective. The concept is used in the qualitative analysis based on life cycle thinking.
However, no calculations are made, neither on flows nor on their environmental effects.
12

2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS CONCEPT
In the previous section, the concept of a “system” was introduced. It is an important concept
which helps greatly in discussions of sustainable development and environmental
sustainability.
Around the late 1960s and early 1970s, a set of studies appeared which challenged one issue
of fundamental importance within prevailing neoclassical economic theory: namely, that the
entire economic system was itself embedded within the wider environmental system
(Edwards-Jones et al, 2000). (See Fig. 2).
One of the main proponents of the system view as applied to environmental issues is Kenneth
Boulding who introduced the concept of the “spaceman economy”: on board a spaceship, the
spaceman has only a limited stock of inputs and only a limited capacity to carry wastes. The
spaceship in this case is the earth with all its resources. Edwards-Jones et al (2000) explain
that the spaceship is essentially a closed system, and if it is going to continue operating, it has
to be run on a circular production and consumption system that recycles waste outputs and
conserves inputs within limits that enable life on board to be sustained. Clearly, it suggests
that the environmental impacts of economic activities must be kept within some limits that
enable a tolerable life on the spaceship to be maintained.
The concept of a system is one of the theoretical tools used in this thesis. All the activities
taking place in the selected estate must be viewed against the capacity of the environment at
the local, national and even global scale. When we think of the estate in such a way, then it
becomes possible to argue for a change in some aspects not only for the sake of the local
environment, but also for the national and global environment. It can therefore be argued that
the activities of estate residents are relevant for the sustainability of the larger context
environmental sustainability, i.e. of Accra and also of Ghana.
2.5 CITIES AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
In accordance with the views expressed in the preceding sections and order to make
sustainable development relevant for every sector, there is the need to operationalise its
principles for that sector. In the field of housing and human settlements therefore, several
authors have researched on and written about the sustainable development of human
13

settlements, with reference to developing countries. In this section, an overview is given of
the literature encountered which deal with the issue.
Habitat (1990) make the point that globally, although there is a large, diverse and rapidly
growing body of literature about sustainable development, only a tiny proportion of this
literature considers sustainable cities books. A possible reason for this is that many of those
who write on environmental issues have long regarded cities with disdain even if they live in
cities because many consider cities as a key part of the problem.
Lombardi and Brandon (1997) indicate that there is a growing realization that the world’s
cities are the major consumers of natural resources and the major producers of pollution and
waste, and in terms of planning policy, this involves a change of emphasis and change in the
criteria by which development is judged towards environmental protection and sustainability.
Matthews (1996) notes that it is frequently argued that the more “sustainable” the city in
environmental terms, the better the chance of long-term economic viability, not only for cities
but for the global system. He further notes that it is now widely recognized, at least amongst
environmental practitioners and activists, that sustainability will have profound implications
for social and political life, and that these implications may constitute an important reason for
the relatively slow progress toward substantial change in the major objectives laid down for
urban plans.
Perlman (1998) notes that “there can be no global ecological sustainability without urban
ecological sustainability and that concentrating on the human population in cities is an
environmental necessity”. She argues further that:
“Circular rather than linear systems are needed: as cities concentrate pollution and
environmental degradation, transforming the urban metabolism through circular
rather than linear systems is the key to reversing our global environment
deterioration. We need to re-use our water and waste streams, and utilize what is now
discarded as productive resource” (Perlman, 1998).
The writer of this thesis agrees with Perlman that there can be no global ecological
sustainability without urban ecological sustainability. This is in view of the fact that
urbanization is a part of modern day life and dealing with cities is an inevitable part of the
discussion of environmental sustainability.
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2.6 HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Bartone et al (1994) point out that rapid urbanization in the developing world is threatening
health, the environment and urban productivity and hence protecting the urban environment is
fast becoming a necessity rather than a luxury. They note further that cities are the
powerhouse of economic growth, with 80% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth in
developing countries expected from cities in the 1990s, but the environmental implications of
such growth need to be assessed and managed better.
Peil (1994) points out that most of the people living in African cities are poor and urban
conditions and amenities reflect their own and their country’s poverty, and that environmental
problems which might affect only the poor in other parts of the world are part of the daily
lives of most West African urban residents.
In Ghana, by a 1992 estimate, 31.4% of the population lives below the poverty line of one
US$ per day (World Factbook, 2002). Such a large percentage living below the poverty line,
does not augur well for the sustainable development of the country, and the effect on the
environment is tremendous in terms of use of resources (e.g. firewood for cooking) and sinks
(for waste disposal).
Hardoy and Satterthwaite (1997) state that the last four decades have brought remarkably little
progress in improving housing and living conditions in most urban centers of Africa, Asia and
Latin America. According to them, when judged against their official responsibilities in
urban areas, Third World governments have failed in at least four of their most fundamental
tasks:-
(1) to provide the legislative and regulatory system to protect citizens from exploitation by
landlords and employers,
(2) to ensure that all citizens can find adequate accommodation and access to basic services,
(3) to protect the urban environment from contamination by life-threatening and healththreatening
pathogens and pollutants, and
(4) to allocate the costs of implementing these tasks among those who benefit from urban
locations, urban labour-forces and government-provided infrastructure and services.
The above are relevant for Accra, where despite some effort on the part of government, traces
of the above-mentioned concerns are found. The pictures of “Sodom and Gomorrah” in
15

Chapter Two, give an indication that there is still work to be done in order to ensure that all
citizens find adequate accommodation.
2.6.1 Environmental Impact of Cities
“Increasingly in Third World cities the invisible hand of the market deals out environmental safety
along with comfort and prestige, environmental hazard along with discomfort and disregard.”(Main,
1994).
Human activities (or the wastes/pollutants they generate) can cause one of three kinds of
environmental impacts, according to Hardoy and Satterthwaite (2001):
1. Depletion of the natural resource (i.e. a reduction in the quality and/or quantity of
the resource available for use).
2. Disruption of the ecological processes and/or damage to natural resources, for
instance through acid rain or through biodegradable liquid wastes dumped into
water bodies which exceed their capacity to break it down.
3. The loss of some types of resource altogether, for instance a loss of species and a
consequent reduction in biodiversity.
Cities affect local, regional and economy-wide environments. At the local level, the city
environment is directly affected by pollution, congestion and destruction of natural habitats
(Jowsey and Kellet, 1996). The figure below gives an indication of the input and output for a
city of 100,000 people.
Daily Input Daily Output
200 tonnes food
City of
275 tonnes garbage
1000 tonnes fuel
62000 tonnes water
--- ˘ 100,000
people
----- ˘ 110 tonnes human waste
Fig. 4: Daily Input and Output for a city of 100,000 people
Source: Jowsey and Kellet (1996).
The figure above shows that a city absorbs energy and raw materials and discharges wastes.
This theme is further indicated by Svane (1999) who gives an apt diagram showing how a
small neighbourhood uses resources and produces waste which are returned back to nature
(Fig. 5).
16

Mitlin and Satterthwaite (1996) are of the view that it is not cities that are responsible for
most resource use, waste, pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, but particular industries
and commercial and industrial enterprises (or corporations) and middle and upper income
groups with high consumption lifestyles. They note further that in the North and in the
wealthier cities or regions of the South, it is the middle or upper income household with two
or three cars living in rural areas, small towns or low density outer suburbs of cities that has
the highest consumption of resources – generally much more so than those with similar
incomes living within cities.
McGranahan, Songsore and Kjellèn (1996) draw attention to the fact that a more affluent
urban lifestyle employs more resources and creates more waste, but the rich devote part of
their wealth to measures which protect themselves from environmental hazards. In their view,
generally, the poor create environmental problems for themselves and their neighbours, while
the affluent create problems for an expanding public. This can be true given the fact that there
are “downstream” consequences experienced outside the city from the production and
consumption activity – solid wastes for disposal, pollutants in the local rivers, air
contaminants blown to other locations, to name a few. A city’s impact is therefore not limited
to the immediate environs. Therefore, it is important that a life cycle approach is used in
analyzing environmental effects of a human settlement, so as to identify the “upstream” and
“downstream” impacts.
On the other hand, Peil (1994) is of the view that there appears to be less environmental
differentiation between low-and high-income neighbourhoods in West Africa than in South
American or European cities. She explains that the level of service provision may be better
on high-income estates, but in so far as these are relatively new, the roads may be unmade, the
water and electricity supplies irregular, rubbish collection sporadic and other services
inadequate. This situation is found in several estates being built at peri-urban areas of Accra,
but with time, these problems are addressed.
17

Fig. 5: Environmental impact of a small neighbourhood
Source: Svane (1999)
An illustration of the environmental impact of cities, which sums up the above discussion is
shown in figure 6.
18

Fig. 6: Environmental Impact of a city
Source: Jowsey and Kellet (1996)
Furthermore, Habitat (1989) present an apt description of the environmental impact of cities:
“As the major centres of production and consumption, cities demand a very high input of
resources – water, fossil fuels, land and all the goods and materials that their populations and
enterprises require. The more populous and spread out the city and the richer its inhabitants,
the larger its demand on resources is likely to be and the larger the area from which these are
drawn. Cities are also major centres for resource degradation. Water needed for industrial
processes, for supplying residential and commercial buildings, for transporting sewage (and
other uses) is returned to rivers, lakes or the sea at a far lower quality than that originally
supplied. The solid wastes from city households and businesses which are collected are
usually dumped in land sites around the city while much of the uncollected solid waste finds
its way into water bodies, adding to the pollution. These can be termed regional impacts.”
We can look at cities as presenting great opportunities for making progress towards
sustainable development. By concentrating production and consumption, cities also make
possible a greater range and possibility for the efficient use of non-renewable resources –
through the reclamation of materials from waste streams and its reuse or recycling – and for
the specialist enterprises that ensure this can happen safely (Mitlin and Satterthwaite, 1996).
With many people and facilities located in cities, progress towards sustainable development
can be effected and monitored more effectively by both government and non-governmental
organizations.
19

2.7 SMALL NEIGHBOURHOOD CONCEPT
The unit of analysis in this thesis is the small neighbourhood which as noted by Svane (1999)
consists of 50-200 households, and includes the piece of land, its buildings, residents and
local staff. In this thesis, Svane’s (1999) other definition of a neighbourhood is used: i.e. a
piece of real estate owned and managed by a person or a company. Real estate is defined by
the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language as: “land, including all the natural
resources and permanent buildings on it.” 1 The small neighbourhood concept has been used
by other researchers, namely Nilsson (2001) and Facoetti (2002).
2.8 URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS: THE BROWN AND GREEN
AGENDAS
Bartone et al (1996) are of the view that the critical and most immediate problems facing
developing country cities are the health impacts of urban pollution that derive from
inadequate water, sanitation, drainage and solid waste services, poor urban and industrial
waste management and air pollution, especially from particulates. They refer collectively to
these problems as the “brown agenda” and that this set of problems is closely linked to the
poverty-environment nexus. They posit that the urban poor are affected disproportionately by
brown environmental problems and their plight exacerbates urban environmental crises.
In contrast to the Brown Agenda, there is also the Green Agenda, which as CIB and UNEP-
IETC (2002) note, focuses on the problems of affluence and over-consumption, and which is
more pressing in affluent countries. The difference between the two agendas is shown in the
table below.
Table 2: Difference between the Brown and Green Agendas
Brown Agenda Green Agenda
Key concern Human well-being Ecosystemic well-being
Timeframe Immediate Delayed
Scale Local Local to global
Concerned about Low-income groups Future generations
View of Nature Manipulate and use Protect and work with
Environmental services Provide more Use less
Source: CIB and UNEP-IETC (2002).
1 www.dictionary.com
20

For Accra as a whole, the brown agenda becomes relevant, but when it comes to the middleclass
and high-class neighbourhoods, the green agenda becomes more relevant at the local
level. The reason being that, the more affluent neighbourhoods are well maintained, with
good sanitary conditions, as the residents can afford to pay for the environment to be kept so.
It is possible to conclude that for this thesis and for the East Airport Estate, the Green Agenda
is of a more direct relevance.
2.9 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION IN GHANA
Ghana is one of the fore-runners in environmental legislation in Africa and it is certainly
commendable that as far back as 1974, the Environmental Protection Council (EPC) was
established by the Environmental Protection Council Decree, 1974, and was subsequently
amended by the EPC (Amendment) Decree, 1976. The EPC had mainly been advising
Government on matters relating to the environment. However, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) Act, 1994 [Act 490], transformed the EPC into an Agency having, inter alia,
regulatory and enforcement role(s) (EPA, 1996 and Government of Ghana, 1994).
2.9.1 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Vision Statement
Ghana’s Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) seeks to become an Agency dedicated to
continuously improving and conserving the country’s environment, in particular. The EPA
envisions a country in which all sections of the community value the environment and strive
to attain sustainable balance between economic growth and sound environmental stewardship
guided by the preventive approach (EPA, 1996).
2.9.2 EPA Mission Statement
The Mission of the EPA of Ghana is to co-manage, protect and enhance the country’s
environment, in particular, as well as seek common solutions to global environmental
problems.
Transforming the EPA objectives into reality, has been problematic. For instance, monitoring
of developers and industries has not been quite effective. At the moment, the EPA is trying to
expand its’ activities to the various regions by setting up regional offices. This is being done
in spite of budgetary/financial constraints as it is not easy to get the requested amounts of
21

financial resources due to Ghana’s currently “Highly Indebted Poor Country-HIPC” status.
For example, the EPA does not have the requisite number of vehicles for official duties.
2.9.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in Ghana
In this section, EIA is reviewed. It is necessary to do such a write-up because an EIA was
carried out for the estate being studied i.e. the East Airport Estate
One of the products of the growth of interest in environmental issues – in sustainability and
the better management of development in harmony with the environment - is that of
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Glasson et al (1994) define EIA as a systematic
process that examines the environmental consequences of development actions, in advance.
They also indicate that the emphasis of EIA, as compared with many other mechanisms for
environmental protection, is on prevention.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a statutory requirement in several countries. It is
statutory in Ghana and for the East Airport Estate, an EIA was done. The purpose of an EIA
is to help in the planning process, by identifying, and in some cases, evaluating the full range
of environmental (and social) impacts, which arise from a project.
In recognition of the potential of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) Act 490 of Ghana, mandates the Agency to ensure compliance of
all investments and undertakings with any laid down environmental impact assessment
procedures in the planning and execution of development projects, including compliance in
respect of existing projects (EPA, 1995).
In Ghana, the purposes of EIA are as follows (as given by the EPA (1995) :-
i. to support the goals of environmental management and sustainable
development
ii. to integrate environmental management and economic decisions at the
earliest stages of planning an undertaking, programme or investment,
iii. to predict he consequences of a proposed undertaking from the
environmental, social, economic and cultural perspectives and to develop
plans to mitigate any adverse impacts,
iv. to provide avenues for the involvement of the public, proponents, private
and government agencies in the assessment and review of proposed
undertakings.
22

The EIA in Ghana, is used as a tool to ensure that projects, for example estate houses, filling
stations, chemical industries, etc., have reduced impacts on the environment. Any project that
is deemed to have very high negative environmental impacts that cannot be mitigated, has its
application for an environmental permit refused. Stone and sand winners who supply sand and
stone to building sites, have to state during the EIA process, how they will mitigate the effects
of their activities.
The basic structure of an EIA follows a set of stages, leading from project definition, through
scooping of the study and baseline assessment of environmental conditions, to estimation and
assessment of impacts and finally, identification of mitigating activities and a monitoring
programme. This is evident in the EIA procedure in Ghana, which is shown in Fig.7, as it
follows the basic structure indicated above.
23

Fig. 7: EIA procedure in Ghana
Source: EPA (1995)
24

Edwards-Jones et al (2000) point out that despite the fact that the EIA process is being widely
used around the globe, there are problems inherent in it since it assumes that all parties act in
good faith. In the case of Ghana, one of the main problems is that of the monitoring of
development projects by the EPA. Currently, emphasis is put on monitoring the activities of
manufacturing (especially chemical industries) and waste treatment projects, whereas projects
perceived as “low impact” projects are generally not well monitored.
2.9.4 Legislative Instrument
In 1999, a Legislative Instrument (L.I. 1652) was passed, titled “Environmental Assessment
Regulations, 1999.
The EPA in its 1999 Annual Report in the “Environmental Assessment Administration in
Ghana” section wrote that:
“The enactment of the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations (LI 1652) in 1999
marked a milestone as far as EIA administration in Ghana is concerned. This has sharply
increased the number of applications the Agency processed in1999.” (EPA, 1999).
The number of applications continued to rise as recorded in the 2000 Annual Report (EPA,
2000).
However, one point of concern in the LI 1652 is that the fines for non-compliance are too
small to serve as a deterrent to recalcitrant and erring companies. Under the section
“Offences and Penalty”, the penalties given are as follows:-
“Fine not exceeding 2 million cedis 2 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to
both and in the case of a continuing offence to a further fine not exceeding 200,000 cedis for
each day the offence is continued” (Government of Ghana, 1999)
In the view of this researcher, it might be generally cheaper to pay the fine than to comply,
and if the EPA is not able to monitor and audit companies effectively, this will compound the
problem. Indeed, as someone remarked during the fieldwork, there has not been in the news,
any mention of developers being charged to court for non-compliance. However, this might
be because it is only about 2 years ago that the EIA has been seriously required.
2
About 244 US Dollars or 2246 Swedish Kronor at current exchange rates (see
http://www.xe.com/ucc/)
25

In the view of some estate developers that this writer spoke with, the EPA standards are
western and to some extent, inappropriate as standards for the Ghanaian situation. For
instance, during one of the interviews conducted, a senior estate staff was of the opinion that
it is incorrect to require estate developers to submit Annual Environmental Reports, when
basically, estate developers build, sell off their estate houses and move to new sites. For such
requirements, it might be needful for the EPA to have discussions with the estate developers
(in the framework of the Ghana Real Estate Developers Association) to find lasting solutions
for the requirements.
2.10 HOUSING SITUATION IN GHANA
Ghana (especially its capital, Accra), like other developing countries, faces a housing
shortage, which is worsened by the rural-urban migration. The government alone is unable to
be a direct provider of housing. From 1987, the government shifted the housing sector’s
focus from direct involvement in the provision of housing to facilitating access by the private
sector to various resources required for housing development.
Accra is a city of contrasts, with wealth and poverty existing side by side. For example, the
following pictures depict such a contrast in an area of Accra called “Sodom and Gomorrah”.
Fig. 8a & b: Pictures of an informal settlement in a part of Accra called “Sodom and
Gomorrah”.
There is a sharp contrast between the above pictures and those below and those of the East
Airport Estate.
Source: http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/photo.day.php?ID=28072
26

Fig. 9a & b Pictures of the other side of “Sodom and Gomorrah”: a “garden of Eden?”
Source:- ttp://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/photo.day.php?ID=28375
Accra is representative of the smaller cities, which characterize sub-Saharan Africa, which are
faced with problems of increasing metropolitan population and over-pressured infrastructure
and public services. Accra, which contains about 25% of all people living in towns or urban
areas of Ghana, has a population of about 1.8 million and it is growing at an estimated rate of
2.3% annually (Habitat, 2001b). However, the growth rate calculated by Habitat (2001a) as
shown in Table 3 below, is much higher: it is given as 3.6% for 2005-2015. Although in the
same projections, Accra’s share in the country’s urban population decreases from 25.5% in
2000 to 23.9% in 2015.
Table 3: Urban Agglomerations: Population Size and Growth Rate for Accra, Ghana.
Estimates & Projections (thousands) Annual Growth Rate (%) Share in country’s
urban population (%)
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1985- 1995- 2005- 1985 2000 2015
1995 2005 2015
1180 1385 1649 1976 2383 2873 3410 3.4 3.7 3.6 28.3 25.5 23.9
Source: Habitat (2001a)
Accra has experienced rapid urbanization since the early 1980s, as the formerly stagnant
economy recovered somewhat after the implementation of the Economic Recovery
Programme (Yankson and Gough, 1999).
27

Fig. 10: Map of Ghana, showing Accra, and neighbouring countries
The map of Accra is shown on the next page. Regimanuel Gray’s East Airport Estate is
outside the map, i.e. to the east of the Kotoka International Airport.
28

Fig. 11: Map of Accra Source:-http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/images/accra_map.jpg
29

The African Union of Housing Finance (2002) has estimated that given the combined effect
of the level of housing deficit from previous years and the rate of population growth, Ghana
needs 1.2 million new housing units by the year 2005. In other words, to achieve this target,
some 133,000 new housing units must be delivered annually, however, only 25,000 units are
produced annually, leaving an unsatisfied annual demand of 108,000 units. These estimates
are similar to those of GREDA in Section 1.1. The result of such unmet demand is overcrowding
in existing residential accommodation, which affects health and sanitation
standards. Another result is informal settlements that are found in parts of the city of Accra.
Some people especially new migrants, live in poor conditions in informal settlements in innercity
or fringe parts of the city, see the picture of such an area in Chapter Two.
The 2000 Population and Housing Census of Ghana reveals that rooms in “compound houses”
are the predominant type of dwelling for households in Ghana, accounting for 44.5% of
dwelling units.
Fig. 12: Types of Dwelling in Ghana (based on 2000 Population and Housing Census Data)
Source: Ghana Statistical Service (2002)
Compound houses are bungalows with several individual rooms (usually 5-10), which are
rented by different families. The various households share facilities such as bathrooms,
kitchens and toilets. There is generally a lack of privacy in such houses. Living in compound
houses in Ghana is more of a necessity than a choice. Conditions in the compound houses can
be unsanitary and are thus in sharp contrast to the individual houses in the estates.
30

One of the other estate developers interviewed, indicated that there is a need for affordable
housing and this can be done to make good use of money in circulation which are not
deposited in banks, since people in the informal sector such as market women have access to
sizeable amounts of cash.
In a newspaper article, the Registrar of the Architect Registration Council, Prof. Ralph Mills-
Tettey, was quoted as saying that the government should provide infrastructure such as water,
electricity, roads and telephone facilities at areas that are earmarked for development, as this
will bring down the high cost of putting up houses in the country. In the same article
(Depatem, 2002), Mrs. Stephanie Ansah, the managing Director of Home Finance Company,
expressed concern about the process of registering land which she described as very
“cumbersome and unattractive to investors”, saying the process which is very slow and
inefficient, does not also meet the growing requirements of the current demand for
accommodation, adding that “no bank will finance a project that will take five years to
register.”
In 2000, the Government of Ghana through the Ghana Statistical Service carried out a
nationwide “Population and Housing Census” (PHC). In the census, the UN’s recommended
definition of a house as “structurally separate and independent place of abode such that a
person or group of persons can isolate themselves from the hazards of climate such as storms
and the sun” was employed. Therefore, any type of shelter, such as a hut or a group of huts
enclosed as a compound, kiosks, containers, tents, were considered as houses.
According to the census results, the stock of “houses” in Ghana, as captured from the
household count, is 2,181,975; two-thirds (65.9%) of which are in rural areas. Further
revelations from the census are as follows (Ghana Statistical Service, 2002):-
- while the rural stock increased by 53.1% from 1984, the urban stock
increased by 159.4% within the same period
- the stock of houses represents an increase of 77.5% over the recorded
stock in 1984, much more than the increase in population (53.8%), over
the same period.
- the result of these increases is that the average number of persons per
house reduced from 10.0 in 1984 to 8.7 in 2000, while the average
31

number of households per house also reduced from 2.0 to 1.7 over the
same period
- over the same period, the number of households increased by 50.8%;
thus average household size increased only slightly from the 1984
figure of 5.0 to 5.1 in 2000, a reflection of the slack in the pace of
household formation.
The apparent increase in the stock of houses over the increase in population as evident from
the census results, is most likely due to the definition adopted for “houses”. Looking at the
above figures, might give the impression that there is generally no problem with housing in
Ghana, but on the contrary, there is a housing problem in Ghana, as will be evident from the
other sections of this thesis.
2.11 GHANA REAL ESTATE DEVELOPERS ASSOCIATION (GREDA)
GREDA is an association for real estate developers in Ghana. It serves as the official
“mouthpiece” of estate developers in discussions with government and the financial
institutions.
GREDA was formally inaugurated on 28 th October, 1988 with 34 members, after a series of
meetings between the Ministry of Works and Housing and invited Estate Developers. As of
19994, membership stood at 450 across the country. As of the time of the fieldwork in July,
2002, there were 514 members on record.
GREDA is registered under the laws of Ghana (Act 179 of the Companies Code of 1963) as a
Private Company limited by guarantee.
The objects for which the Association was formed are (GREDA, 1999):
i. To provide a central organization for real estate developers
ii. To provide a united front in making recommendations to the government on ways of
promoting real estate development and in seeking solutions to the practical problems in
the property market
iii. To promote the development of residential estate, to increase the stock of housing units
thereby ensuring adequate provision of affordable housing for all classes of the
population
32

iv. To pool resources together towards greater economies of scale in real estate development
and also ensure that products of members conform to national building standards and
planning laws.
v. In the spirit of the search for appropriate technology, the Association shall promote the
use of local inputs and finance research into the suitability of local building materials in
the country
vi. To liaise with financial institutions in developing an effective mortgage house ownership
scheme for prospective owners and also impress on the institutions the need for long-term
financing in real estate development
vii. To establish links with real estate institutions and allied bodies at home and abroad with
the aim of promoting the development of the industry.
Although the provision of affordable housing for all classes of the population is one of the
objectives of GREDA, most of the estate houses, by the time they are ready for occupation,
are out of the reach of the average Ghanaian. This is evident in the estate developers seeking
buyers from outside Ghana to purchase the houses. However, the estate developers also argue
that the high cost of land acquisition, coupled with expensive infrastructure, which they have
to provide instead of the municipal authorities, as well as high interests on bank loans, in the
end make the houses expensive. It will be helpful to have GREDA members putting up blocks
of flats, which will reduce the cost of purchase, but then they will have to be assured that
there is a ready market for such flats. On the other hand, the Social Security and National
Insurance Trust (SSNIT) of Ghana, has put up several blocks of flats in several parts of the
country and from personal experience of the writer, they have been hugely popular with
Ghanaian workers.
However, it is the opinion of this writer that with adequate government intervention and with
the help of the Building and Road Research Institute of Ghana (BRRI), it will be possible to
have estates for other classes of the population and not only the upper class citizens, thereby
increasing the social mix.
According to officials at the GREDA office during the interview with them, the main
problems expressed by GREDA members are:-
- Land (interest on loan, and increasing cost of land)
- Money (to construct and to buy materials)
33

- Market (since houses plus the infrastructure is expensive, getting
market for the houses is a problem, and estate developers have to resort
to Ghanaians living abroad who are able to afford the houses or piece
of land).
The problem with land acquisition stems from the fact that most land is owned not by the
state but by traditional leaders and clans. In Ghana, the 1992 Constitution recognises that
stools, families and clans in the country own 78% of all lands. In addition, 20% of the land is
vested in the state, for which compensation has been paid, with the remaining two percent,
being vested in the President on behalf of the stools, clans and families. In recent times,
different elders of the same clan have been known to claim ownership of the same piece of
land, and when an estate developer purchases it from one group, the other group claims
ownership and takes the case to court. From this follows the court cases, which are costly and
time-consuming. In several cases, opposing groups go to the extent of vandalizing the
construction work and in some cases, inflicting injuries on workers on estate construction
sites, while the case is being tried in court. To make the problem worse, land is increasingly
becoming more expensive, as it gets more scarce in and around built up areas.
To solve the land problem, the government on behalf of GREDA has acquired land at Kasoa,
near Accra for estate development and in addition, the government has acquired a loan for
estate developers. The problem with these two offers currently is that since there are over 500
GREDA members, the formula to allocate the land and loan are a problem. Some, like the
MD of Parakuo Estates have given a suggestion that 10-12 main/leading GREDA members be
made to get the loan, with the agreement that they will use other smaller GREDA members as
sub-contractors, and with an external company to check standards and quality of materials,
etc. However, the smaller GREDA members seem to disagree with this suggestion and there
appears to be currently a stalemate as to how to solve the situation. However, more lands need
to be acquired by government for the sustainable development of real estates in Ghana, as the
Kasoa land alone is insufficient to meet the needs of estate developers., and even more so for
the total construction needed.
To solve the land problem, an appeal court judge, Mrs. Justice Georgina Wood (Daily
Graphic, 2002) has called for the re-establishment of land courts in the country to help
dispose of the numerous land cases pending before the courts. Land courts in this context are
34

courts specifically dedicated for land disputes. She indicated that from 1998 to June, 2002,
the total number of land cases before the courts stood at 2,341 out of which only 73 have been
disposed of. This gives an indication of the scale of the problem.
The second problem of GREDA members is that of money. Construction works are
expensive endeavours and estate developers need to secure loans from banks and financial
institutions. The interest paid on the loans is rather high. Coupled with high inflation which
quickly reduces the cost of long-term loans, paying back the principal borrowed amount plus
the interest becomes a big headache for estate developers, unless of course, they are able to
quickly finish their houses and sell them at reasonable profit. Estate developers also resort to
purchasing some construction materials on credit from manufacturers and suppliers.
It is no wonder then that the houses are quite expensive for the average Ghanaian and the
estate developers resort to having housing shows and exhibitions outside Ghana to get
Ghanaians living outside who have higher purchasing power to buy the houses. This also
creates problems afterwards. In several instances, Ghanaians living outside purchase the
houses and occupy them during their annual vacations in Ghana. As such, they are not able to
participate fully in the activities of the residents’ association. This issue is further discussed in
Section 4.5.
The problems being encountered by the estate developers are immense and in order for them
to fully help in solving Ghana’s housing predicament, there is the need to find lasting
solutions to the problems. In order to do so, all stakeholders (government, GREDA, potential
buyers and the general public) must be involved. The good thing is that the estate developers
have the umbrella organization of GREDA, and this makes it easier for them to air their
grievances.
35

3.1 METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER THREE
3 METHODOLOGY
Case study methodology was used for this research. A case (Regimanuel Gray’s East Airport
Housing Estate) was chosen and analysed. Case studies are frequently used in professions and
fields of practical activities such as architecture, planning and environmental engineering. A
case is a phenomenon of some kind, which emerges in a limited context and determined in
social, spatial or temporal terms (Johansson, 2001). In this thesis, the case is spatially
determined since it is a specific housing area. The East Airport Estate was selected for its
uniqueness as an “information-rich” estate.
3.2 DATA COLLECTION
Data triangulation was used to increase the reliability and validity of information collected.
Data triangulation refers to using several sources to collect information/data about the same
phenomenon (Johansson, 2001). The different methods used are:i.Key
person interviews
- Interviews with the Regimanuel Gray’s head office and Management
Company staff.
- Interviews with officers (in the Built Environment Department and
Environmental Assessment and Audit Department) at the
-
Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Head Office in Accra
Interviews with officials of the Ghana Real Estate Developers’
Association (GREDA) Head Office in Accra.
- Interviews with officials of two other estates: Parakuo Estates and
Manet Courts.
(i) Archival records/documentation
- Environmental Impact Assessment for the East Airport Project
- Various reports and documents at the EPA’s Head Office.
- 2000 Population and Housing Census results from the Ghana Statistical
Service.
36

The researcher also used indirect information about the East Airport Homeowner’s
Association. This was in the form of the published record of the 1 st Annual
Meeting and Financial Statements for 2001.
Published books and articles as well as information from the internet formed the
basis of the discussion in the literature review section of the thesis.
(ii) Direct observations of the housing estate, as well as for two others:
Parakuo Estates and Manet Courts.
To guide the collection of data during the fieldwork, a checklist (see Appendix 1) was
developed based on the literature review. The checklist lists issues and information regarding
inflows, outflows and institutional co-operation in the estate.
The period of the fieldwork in Ghana was July to mid-August, 2002.
3.3 SELECTION OF CASE STUDY
Four initial estate case studies were selected prior to the fieldwork: Parakuo Estates, Manet
Courts, Hydraform and Regimanuel Gray’s East Airport Estate. During the fieldwork
however, only one, Regimanuel Gray’s East Airport Estate Project, was selected for further
study for the following reasons.
- It was the only estate encountered which had sufficient documented
information that could be used for the thesis.
- Due to time and financial constraints, it was not possible to get other
sources of information by way of field measurements, etc.
The selected case serves as a good example of the highest standard that can be obtained in the
housing estate industry in Ghana. This can therefore be contrasted with the other (mostly
middle-class) estates in future studies.
3.4 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
Access to adequate information in Ghana, as in other developing countries, proved to be a big
hurdle. Either the required information was not documented, or getting official access by way
37

of permissions from top officials proved to be rather bureaucratic and time consuming.
Though this was evident from virtually every group encountered, I am grateful for the
information that the following were willing to share: staff of Regimanual Gray Headoffice
and Estate Management Agency, Managing Director of Parakuo Estates and officials of
Ghana’s EPA Head Office. This is not to say that I did not encounter problems with the
above. For instance, it was not possible to get technical details and specifications for the East
Airport Estate’s septic tanks. At the EPA Head Office, it was difficult to get several pieces of
information that would have been quite helpful. One of such information sought was the
conditions attached to the Environmental Permit issued for the East Airport Estate. It was
impossible to make a comparative study with other estates for several reasons. For instance,
contact was made with Manet Company, and a study visit and interview was subsequently
made with the Project Manager at their Manet Courts Estate. It came to light that they had a
central sewer system, but when details were sought about that and other details, the researcher
was informed that some managerial problems in the company had resulted in the location of
the requested information not being known.
The researcher also visited the Ghana Statistical Service Headquarters in Accra to get
information about real estate housing projects in Ghana, but such information was not
available. The situation was no better at the service providers. The Ghana Water Company
Head Office in Accra was contacted for information on water supply and consumption of real
estate housing projects in Accra, but the researcher was informed that the company was yet to
put in place zonal meters for such purposes.
Time and financial constraints meant that the duration and extent of the fieldwork could not
be increased. For instance, it would have been highly desirable to do an ‘attachment’ with the
estate company and see it’s day to day management of the environment in practice, as well as
to carry out field measurements of the air, water and land qualities (perhaps with help from a
research institution in Ghana), and to interview some officials and ordinary members of the
homeowners’ association.
Generally, many of those contacted were willing to comment on general issues, but when it
came to specifics, there were hesitations. Either the information was “confidential”, or it was
“company policy not to release such information” or “permission has to be sought from the
38

overall boss”. The writer is sure that those familiar with research work in developing
countries will recognise these constraints.
However, despite these odds and problems encountered, the researcher has managed to get the
information contained in this thesis. It will be interesting to compare the issues raised in this
thesis with the results from further studies.
3.5 APPROACHES USED IN ANALYSIS/DISCUSSION
In this thesis, a life cycle approach (LCA) (see Section 2.3) is used to analyse and discuss the
environmental sustainability of the East Airport Housing Estate as follows:
i) Construction Phase
ii) Occupancy/Operational Phase
iii) Decommissioning Phase
As stated in Section 2.3, LCA serves as a useful tool in this thesis as it helps to consider the
life-cycle of resources and the environment in perspective, helping to identify the upstream
and downstream stakeholders. In this way, the LCA concept as used is a simplification of the
conventional one, as it is more of qualitative (descriptive) than quantitative.
Furthermore, a systems thinking with stakeholder perspective is the main focus of the
discussion on the environmental sustainability of the estate. In essence, one is interested in
“whose are the flows” and “who are the stakeholders”?
Balanced discussion of pros and cons rather than strict values/scores (such as Low, Medium,
High) will be used in the discussion for the environmental impacts related to the Inflows and
Outflows.
For the institutional sustainability, the RGEA Homeowners’ Association is discussed,
highlighting its creation, achievements, problems and possible solutions.
For this thesis, the small neighbourhood unit in the form of a housing estate was selected
because in the planning, EIA process and managerial process, the estate is administered as
one unit.
39

CHAPTER FOUR
4 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS I: GENERAL
INFORMATION ON EAST AIRPORT HOUSING ESTATE
4.1 BRIEF OVERVIEW OF REGIMANUEL GRAY LIMITED
Regimanuel Gray Limited are Real Estate Developers, currently operating in the southern part
of Ghana. The company was incorporated in 1991 in order to pursue real estate development
and general construction projects in Ghana.
Regimanuel Gray Ltd is a joint venture between (i) Regimanuel Ltd., a GREDA (Ghana Real
Estate Developers Association) member, a Ghana company with substantial interest in the
construction, mining and hospitality in Ghana and, (ii) Gray Construction of Houston, Texas,
a US firm with substantial interests in the construction industry in the United States.
The company prides itself in “having well-known hallmarks of the timely construction and
delivery of high quality reasonably priced housing units at prime locations which are
adequately provided with social amenities and well developed infrastructure” as noted in its
Sales Brochure.
To date it has more than 2000 houses in six project sites (one of which is the East Airport site)
bearing these hallmarks and has been the recipient of the 1998 Home Finance Company Gold
Award for Best Estate Developer, the Ghana Millennium Excellence Award and the 13th
International Construction Award of Trade Leaders Club, Paris. It is also a member of Ghana
Club 100 - a selection of the top 100 Companies in Ghana.
The company has a website 3 which contains on-line application forms, making its products
more accessible to the targeted potential purchasers.
The company has other estate projects mainly in Accra, which are less luxurious. At the
Kwabenya Estate 4 for instance, the house prices start from US$26,500.
3 http://www.regimanuelgray.com/main.asp
4 see http://www.regimanuelgray.com/locations/default.asp?id=7
40

Fig. 13: Regimanuel Gray’s project sites in Accra
Note: KIA is the Kotoka International Airport, Ghana’s main airport.
Source: Regimanuel Gray (2002)
4.2 OVERVIEW OF EAST AIRPORT HOUSING ESTATE
In relation to other housing estates, the East Airport one is in many people’s view, the most
prestigious and best managed modern estate not only in Accra, but in the whole of Ghana.
The East Airport housing estate is one of Regimanuel Gray’s main project sites. The
management of the company purchased two hundred and fifty acres of land at East Airport,
Accra from the Nungua stool. The land is a leasehold of 60 years, renewable for 25 years,
giving a total of 85 years and the estate management company, Regimanuel Gray Estate
Management Company is planned to be in place for this whole period of time.The project site
is located at about 10km from the Kotoka International Airport (KIA). Sound measurements
carried out during the EIA process indicated that noise from the airport is within acceptable
limits. The project site is basically grassland, with two tributaries of the Kpeshie lagoon
serving as the main drainage source.
Land use in the project neighbourhood is mainly that of industrial and residential. The project
site is a part of the area zoned for residential purpose. A master plan for the area was
41

prepared by the estate developer in consultation with the Department of Town and Country
Planning. The project was divided into four (4) phases, at the inception of the project:
The estate is meant to accommodate over four thousand people for the 514 houses when
completed. Using the number of housing units to be built, the estate is now in Phase 2,
moving to Phase 3.
The estate is now planned for 600 houses 5 .
The East Airport housing estate is a modern estate by any standard with the following
features:
x Various styles of executive and luxury houses (see Section 4.2)
x Telecommunication facilities
x Road network
x Drainage/Storm water system
x Underground electric power distribution/street light
x Pipe-borne water network
x Sewage network
December 1998 marked the start of residency, after the commissioning of the 1 st Phase of the
project. As of the moment, there are two sections: Golden Bells (with 140 houses) and Silver
Gate (Gate 1 has 55 houses and Gate 2 is on-going). Occupancy rates for the estate are
calculated every six months and the rate as of April 2002, was 70% out of the 195 houses.
The houses range in value from US $96,990 to US$ 273,950. The company quotes the prices
in US dollars, but indicates that this is for indexing purposes and payments can be made in the
Ghanaian cedi equivalents. The house plots range in size from 170 m 2 to 511 m 2 . Purchasers
can order variations i.e. changes to the company’s advertised house designs and this will then
be built accordingly. Mortgage facilities are available to applicants through the Home
Finance Company (HFC), which was established as part of the government’s efforts to help in
the provision of housing in Ghana. For East Airport applicants, in addition to meeting HFC’s
requirement, they have to make a deposit of 20% of the cost of the house.
5 http://www.regimanuelgray.com/locations/default.asp?id=1
42

Some house types and plans are shown below.
Source:- http://www.regimanuelgray.com/locations/default.asp?id=1
Copyright: Regimanuel Gray Limited, 2002
Fig. 14: House Type: RG-3 (Price: US $96,900)
CONFIGURATION
GROSS
AREA
Three Bedroom 170 m 2
PLOT AREA
80’x100’
(30.5m x 24.5m)
x Three Bedroom House located on a full sized plot with space for the addition of
an optional Garage and Domestic Quarters.
x The spacious Living / Dining Room opens onto the front terrace.
x A separate Multi Purpose Area caters for family living
x The large Kitchen includes a provision store and provides access to the back yard
service area
x Full sized Bedrooms are well ventilated and have provisions for built-in
wardrobes.
x The Master Bedroom has its own private ensuite bath
43

Fig. 15: House Type: RG-4 (Detached Expandable House, Price: US $116,800)
DETACHED EXPANDABLE GROSS AREA PLOT AREA
Three Bedroom 173m 2
Three Bedroom + Garage 197m 2
Three Bedroom + Garage + Bedsitter 220m 2
Four Bedroom 193m 2
Four Bedroom + Garage 217m 2
Four Bedroom + Garage + Bedsitter 240m 2
80'x100'
(30.5m x 24.5)
x Expandable from Three Bedroom / Two Bath to Four Bedroom / Two Bath House
with Garage and Bedsitter.
x Full fenced with plot including pedestrian and driveway gates
x Optional Two Bedroom Quarters may be added to the backyard service area
x Provision for built-in wardrobes
x Master bedroom has ensuite bathroom with full sized Bathtub
x Oversized Garage extension provides space for additional storage
x Bedsitter extension is self contained with separate bath and kitchen facilities
44

Fig. 16: House Type RG-12: 2 STOREY – 4 BEDROOM HOUSE WITH GARAGE
AND QUARTERS. Price: US$ 273,950
x Two storey, Four Bedroom, Three Bath House
x Upstairs Family Room allows for additional privacy.
x Downstairs Bedroom can serve as a Guest Room or may be converted into a study.
x Domestic Quarters access the kitchen area through a service courtyard.
x Fully fenced plot with ample Gardening and Landscaping areas.
CONFIGURATION GROSS AREA PLOT AREA
Ground Floor 235m 2
First Floor 186m 2
House Total 421m 2
Garage/Quarters 90m 2
Grand Total 511m 2
80'x100'
(30.5m x 30.5m)
45

4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EAST AIRPORT HOUSING
ESTATE
As mentioned earlier on, in 1994, the Government of Ghana passed the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) Act (Act 490) which established the Environmental Protection
Agency. It is commendable that in 1996, Regimanuel Gray Limited, in line with the EPA Act
and being a “policy of the company to maintain an undisputable and high integrity in the
housing industry” (as quoted in the Environmental Impact Statement), requested an
Environmental Consultancy Group, Messrs Lambda Consult to prepare an Environmental
Impact Assessment for the project in order to obtain an environmental permit to develop.
Prior to this, a scooping study on the project was conducted by the consultant’s team and
submitted to the EPA for its comments and approval. The EPA gave additional areas to be
covered including: noise level measurements and facilities for telecommunication. The
Environmental Impact Assessment was subsequently submitted to the EPA, which reviewed it
and gave the necessary Environmental Permit.
This voluntary compliance by Regimanuel Gray is highly commendable because several other
estates started around the same time, are yet to undergo the EIA process.
4.4 EAST AIRPORT ESTATE HOMEOWNERS’ ASSOCIATION
New residents in peri-urban areas of Accra, often form their own action groups called
“residents’ associations”. Most of these associations have been formed within the last decade,
many of them since the early 1990s as new homeowners realised that they had common
problems that they could only solve through their collective efforts (Yankson and Gough,
1999). The East Airport Estate is no exception as it has its own residents association.
Regimanuel Gray initiated and supervised the formation of the residents association. In
September 2000, it was decided to form the Regimanuel Gray East Airport (RGEA)
Homeowners’ Association and it was subsequently incorporated in June 2001, at the instance
of RGEA Management Company and Regimanuel Gray Ltd. The Homeowners’ Association
is registered under the Companies Code of 1963, as a public company limited by guarantee. It
is now in its formative stages with the setting up of committees. The general idea behind the
formation of the association by the Regimanuel Gray, was to get the homeowners to fully
participate in the activities of the Estate at the grass roots level to ensure the successful
management of the estate. According to the chairman of the Council of the homeowners’
46

association, they made history, for as far and indeed he is aware, it was the first time that an
association of community or estate residents in Ghana had formalised their existence by
adopting an institutional framework known to the law. The other estates visited, Parakuo and
Manet, both had residents association, but they had not officially registered their existence
with reference to the Companies Code of 1963. The Chairman of the East Airport
Homeowner’s Association noted that by that singular decision, the homeowners sought to
take into their own hands their collective destiny as inhabitants of the estate. When the
Association was formed, eleven (11) of the homeowners were selected to serve as the
founding Council Members. An undertaking to the effect that purchasing a property or
house/occupying a house entitles one to an automatic membership of the residents association
was signed. Decisions made by the RGEA Residents Association are binding on all residents
without exception. The activities and functions of the Association are governed by a
constitution.
The objectives for the formation of the Homeowners’ Association are:
1. To ensure Peace and Security;
2. To ensure Neatness and Cleanliness;
3. To provide for the highest Standard of maintenance;
4. To enhance Values of Properties;
5. To develop Harmony amongst Homeowners/Residents; and
6. To promote the provision of further Facilities and Services.
The Homeowners’ Association works in conjunction with the Estate Management company to
realise the objectives of the association. The Manager of the Estate Management company as
well as the co-founder of Regimanuel Ltd, are both members of the Council of the
Homeowners’ Association. Below, the field of influence of the Association and its relation to
the management company are described more in detail.
4.4.1 Membership
Just as in other newly developing areas of Accra, the residents of the East Airport estate are
the upper- and middle-income brackets, who place a high priority on living in a well-serviced,
clean environment (Yankson and Gough, 1999). The conditions to be met before mortgage
47

can be granted by the Home Finance Company are such that it is only those who are able to
qualify.
Ownership of a property in the Estate is the sole qualification for membership and, in the first
instance, any person(s) or entity who purchases a house(s) in the Regimanuel Gray East
Airport Residential Estate automatically becomes a Member of the Association. Membership
of the Homeowners’ Association and the Estate Management company is compulsory.
Furthermore, there are conditions attached to such membership (as indicated in the Annual
General Meeting document):x
Membership may not be sold or transferred other than in conjunction with the
sale or transfer of the title interest in the property. Membership automatically
terminates upon the sale, transfer or other disposition by a Member of its
ownership of a property in the Estate, at which time the new owner
automatically becomes a Member of the Association.
x All members of the Association are required to pay a monthly service fee for
the maintenance of the common elements (for general infrastructure such as
roads, drainage, street lights, and common green areas, etc.). Payments are to
be made quarterly in advance.
4.4.2 Voting Rights
The association also has rules governing the voting rights of members. All Members of the
Association are entitled to vote on matters before the Association regarding changes in byelaws
and regulations of the Association, development and repair of common elements and
other matters of common interest in accordance with the provisions in the Companies Code of
1963, under which the Association was registered. In spite of this, only members “in good
standing” shall be eligible to vote.
A corporate body, which is a Member of the Association, may attend and vote at any general
meeting by a representative appointed in accordance with Section 165 of the Companies
Code. Tenants who have rented premises from Members may be nominated proxies of the
Members whom they represent and shall, on notice to the Council, exercise voting rights in
their stead (RGEA Homeowners Asociation, 2001).
48

4.4.3 Council and Standing Committees
The Homeowners’ Association has a Council which currently comprises of eleven (11)
members. The offices of the Association are: Chairman, Treasurer, Executive Director and
Executive Secretary. The rest are Members of the Council. Members of the Council’s tenure
is for two years, and they are eligible to be re-elected for another term.
There are four Standing Committees within the Council, namely: Finance, Security,
Maintenance and Welfare Committees. The rules of the Association make provision that “ad
hoc” committees may be set up when necessary and the Council may have co-opted Members
to assist the various committees when required. The Standing Committees have drawn up
their Terms of Reference by which they operate. The Maintenance Committee is the one that
deals directly with environmental issues (see Appendix 3). This is by way of the rules and
regulations set forth in the “Declaration of Covenants for Homeowners/Occupiers” which is a
legal document which every homeowner signs at the purchase of a house. This document
serves as the main legal agreement between the purchaser and the estate company
(Regimanuel Gray).
4.4.4 Funding
The main source of funds for the Association is from the service fees paid by Members. The
Association expects to accumulate enough funds for investments, which may be used for the
future reinstatement of common elements over the period of their useful life. Despite
defaulting by members in payments as discussed in the next chapter, from the audited
accounts of the Association, it made an amount of 53,150,977 cedis 6 as excess of income over
expenditure transferred to its Accumulated Fund Account.
In addition to the regular Service Charge, the Council may levy a special assessment
applicable to that year only for the purpose of “defraying in whole or in part, the cost of any
major unexpected repair, replacement, or provision of any other facility in the common areas
of the Estate”. Nonetheless, such assessment/fee will have to be approved by a majority of
the total votes of the Association present in person or by written proxy at a membership
meeting called for that purpose. The special assessment will be allocated equally against all
plots in the Estate.
6 About 58593 SEK
49

4.5 ESTATE MANAGEMENT COMPANY
Regimanueal Gray formed a company, RGEMC (Regimanuel Gray Estate Management
Company) to manage the affairs of the East Airport estate. Prospective home owners
purchase the houses from Regimanuel Gray, and then sign further agreements with RGEMC.
RGEMC aims to ensure a high standard of maintenance in the East Airport Estate. The
Management wishes to create the highest quality and character, for the benefit and
convenience of the residents. This, as well as the construction and management of local
infrastructure, is thus not in the hands of the local authorities of Accra.
RGEMC handles the maintenance of services (utilities) of the estate. In addition, it handles
the management and maintenance of common areas (e.g. cleaning of streets and pavements)
as well as the landscaping of common areas. Maintenance of street lights are also handled by
the company. The company sees to the changing of bulbs for the street lights when they are
not functional.
RGEMC takes over the responsibility of managing the estate from the parent company,
Regimanuel Gray after the purchase of the houses. RGEMC takes care of the houses during
the defects liability period. This is the period of 1 year in which defects are taken care of by
the company if the defects are due to problems with materials or construction. Residents pay
service charge for common areas/facilities and a waste disposal fee to RGEMC which then
pays it to the waste management company. Residents only pay for the waste disposal fees
when they start using the service. RGEMC is responsible for providing security for the estates
by engaging the services of security guards. The estate is a “gated community” having a
fence-wall surrounding it, and security guards man the main gates.
RGEMC oversees the orderly development of estates as detailed in the “Declaration of
Covenants for Homeowners/Occupiers”. RGEMC also sees to the enforcement of the rules
and regulations set out in the above agreement. The declaration makes it clear that the estate
is strictly residential and no kiosks, sheds or other informal structures will be permitted. The
company handles applications for extension of houses, although in all cases, they require that
the building line be maintained. The company realises that no matter how high class or posh
a neighbourhood is, there is the likelihood of informal structures springing up. The
company’s policy is therefore to enforce the regulations in the declaration of covenants.
50

The following services are provided:-
x RGEMC has a Rental Agency Section, which may be used by Homeowners who wish
to put their houses up for rent. In such cases, people have bought the houses but for
one reason or the other, they wish to rent them out.
x RGEMC also provides property management services.
x RGEMC also manages holiday homes for owners living abroad.
The availability of these services indicates that a number of residents are not the original
owners of the houses. It is no wonder then that they do not participate effectively in the
activities of the Homeowners’ Association, as will be seen in the following chapter.
51

CHAPTER FIVE
5 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS II: ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS AND INSTITUTIONAL SUSTAINABILITY
5.1 CONSTRUCTION PHASE
5.1.1 Inflows
The estate is already in operation and hence it was not possible to ascertain full data of the
inflows and outflows during the construction phase. Below, the findings that were possible to
obtain are outlined.
Undoubtedly, large amounts of raw materials (notably sand, stones and timber) can cause
environmental degradation due to extraction, especially if remedial activities are not carried
out. Table 4 shows approximate quantities of materials to be used for the whole project (514
houses):
Table 4:
Airport Estate
Approximate quantities of materials planned to be used for 514 houses at East
MATERIAL SOURCE QUANTITY
Cement Ghacem (Ghana Cement Co.) 200,000 bags
Sandcrete blocks Nergy Co. Ltd 2,000,000 pieces
Iron rods Tema Steel Works 1,5000 tonnes
Sand Approved local pits (contractors) 16,000 m 3
Stones Approved local pits (contractors) 34,000 m 3
Source: EIA document (Regimanuel Gray, 1996)
Of the above materials, sand and stones from personal professional experience are the ones
with effects on the environment that is regularly talked about. Quarrying of stones and sand
leave big pits in the natural environment, which if not covered up, fill up with water becoming
a haven for mosquitoes and a danger for unwary people. Although no estimate was available
for timber (wood), it is a resource that is used quite heavily in the construction industry in
Ghana. This has led to the depletion of many forests in Ghana, and there are currently laws
governing how timber forests/resource should be exploited.
52

Regimanuel Gray mitigated the environmental impacts by giving contracts to accredited and
licensed suppliers and sand-winners from quarries/sites that have the necessary environmental
permits. Hence, they showed a good concern for the environment; a good example of
corporate social responsibility. It is likely that this cost more as the suppliers engaged would
have higher prices as they have to incorporate the cost of obtaining the licenses into their
operations.
During the construction phase, an estimated amount of 4,000 gallons (15141.6 litres) of
potable water per day was required. However, the directorate of the Ghana Water and
Sewerage Corporation (now Ghana Water Company) was contacted and they accepted to
supply the required amount of water without disrupting supplies to other parts of Accra.
5.1.2 Outflows
The types of outflows that can be generated during this phase include gaseous, particulate
(dust) and solid. Leftovers of construction materials, small to medium levels of spillages of
paints, chemicals are also possible. There was no indication of major spillages or chemical
accidents.
Disposal of construction materials is generally not a problem as several uses are found for
them. Wood pieces are used as a source of fuel for cooking while plastic and metal paint
containers are cleaned and used for storing household goods.
Those that are dumped at city waste sites, are picked through by informal waste sorters for
useful products who sell them to wholesalers who in turn sell them to retailers.
5.2 OCCUPATIONAL (OPERATIONAL) PHASE
5.2.1 Inflows
5.2.1.1 Water
Based on Ghana’s 1984 demographic study, the average household size of the estate was
estimated by the estate developer to be 8 persons per household. When all (514) houses are
occupied, water consumption per house is estimated to be 75 litres/cd; 80% of this is the
estimated waste water production (i.e. 60 litres/cd). This amount is based on figures from the
Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation (now Ghana Water Company). For the same number
53

of households, during full occupancy, that is when all the houses have been occupied, 60,000
gallons/day (227124.7 litres/day) is the estimated water supply requirement.
Since middle income estimates were used, it is quite probable that actual water consumption
will be in the high income level. The actual water consumption level will be evident when
every house has a water meter installed, which might happen in the next few years. In
addition, it will be beneficial to have zonal meters installed for all estate projects, including
the East Airport Estate, to monitor actual water consumption amounts. This will enable both
the residents and the Ghana Water company to evaluate water usage and propose ways of
effective strategies.
Owing to the unreliability of water supply in Accra, the practice of water storage is
widespread even among households who have indoor piping (Benneh et al, 1993). This is true
of the East Airport Estate where the houses are provided with roof top water reservoirs of 500
gallons (1892.7 litres) capacity. This in effect means that even when there is no water supply
from the water company, households can make use of the stored water for some days. The
time that the stored water will be used, will depend on the lifestyle or water use habits as well
as number of the residents in each house.
Individual home owners are responsible for acquiring water meters from the water company,
but there is usually a long time in waiting for the installation of meters, and therefore the
Water Company of Ghana charges flat rates for the houses. In other words, water is already
connected right from the construction period, but homeowners apply for meter connections
when they purchase the house. In effect, the homeowners enter into agreement with the water
company for the supply of water.
A Club House (see Appendix 3) with a swimming pool and public toilets, is under
construction and when completed, it will increase water usage of the estate.
Available data on water tariffs as at 1999 below indicates the rates for various categories of
service.
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Table 5: Water Tariffs in Ghana
Category of Service Monthly Consumption Approved Rates in
(1,000 Litres) Cedis Per 1,000 Litres
a) Metered Domestic 0 – 10
500
10 – 40
1300
40 and above
1820
Commercial / Industrial 0 – 40
1820
40 and above
2230
Public Institutions 1560
Government Departments 1560
b) Unmetered Premises – Flat rate
per house per month
6500
c) Boreholes, wells, hand pumps
– Flat rate per house per month
1500
d) Premises without connection
(Public stand pipes) per 1,000
litres
400
e) Sewer surcharge on house with
sewer connection
f) Reconnection fee:
35%
(i) Domestic
10000
(ii) Commercial/ Industry
40000
g. Meter rent per month
(Meter size)
½”
2000
¾"
2500
1”
3500
1¼"
4000
1½"
6000
2”
10000
3” – 4”
20000
Above 4”
30000
Source: PURC (Public Utilities Regulatory Commission) (2000)
The flat rates though a good temporary measure, might not be a good long-term measure
because households may tend to use much more water than what they would have done if they
had water meters. When viewed with the perspective of social equity/justice, it can be argued
that middle-income and high income groups may be over-using water when poor sections of
the city are in dire need of it. On the other hand, it can be seen from the table that flat rates
for unmetered premises are actually much higher than for metered premises and hence, as
long as they are used, the Water Company is better off. This may explain in part, the long
delay encountered by homeowners in getting water meters from the Water Company. The
Water Company of Ghana needs the necessary financial and perhaps managerial assistance to
55

put in place measures to ensure that when applications are made for water meters, users do
not have to wait a long time to receive them. This will make the usage of flat rates
unnecessary.
With this practice of flat rates, it is no wonder that as at December 2000, 50% of treated water
was unaccounted for (TradePartners UK, 2002). The water unaccounted for is also due to
illegal connections, leaking pipes as well as poor billing. It has been estimated that current
urban water supply in Ghana, meets only 60% of demand (TradePartners UK, 2002). This is
collaborated by Benneh et al (1993) who write that as at 1992, the estimated water demand
for Accra and Tema (excluding the fast-growing Ga District) was 76 million gallons per day
(MGD) as against the actual estimated production of 60 MGD (see table below).
Table 6: Water Production at the Weija and Kpong Treatment Plants
Treatment Plant
A. Weija
Installed Capacity (MGD) Actual Production (MGD)
New Works 15.00 15.00
Bamag 4.00 3.00
Candy 8.00 0.00
Weija Sub-total
B. Kpong
27.00 18.00
New Works 40.00 35.6
Old Works 10.5 6.75
Kpong Sub-total 50.5 42.35
Grand Total 77.5 60.35
In 2001, the Water Resources Commission which was established by government to pave way
for private sector involvement in the water sector, warned that Ghana could face a shortage of
potable water if current negative practices such as unacceptable land use and fishing are
allowed to continue.
Untreated water to the treatment plants is not a scarce commodity, as water in the Densu
River is available for treatment. The problem lies in the capacity and efficiency of the
56

available treatment plants and the distribution network for treated water. In essence, untreated
water is not scarce but treated water (pipe-borne water) is scarce.
5.2.1.2 Electricity
The main source of energy for the estate is electricity. Gas bought in metal cylinders is used
by some of the residents for cooking purposes.
Just like for water, residents are responsible for acquiring electricity meters from the
Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG).
To give an indication of the tariffs for electricity in Ghana, the following available
information is provided. As at 1998, electricity tariffs for residential and commercial
consumers was 3US cents/kWh.
Table 7: Electricity Tariffs in Ghana as at Sept. 1998
Tariff Category
Residential
(Sept. 1998 billing cycle)
0 - 50 (Block Charge) (C/mth)
4,000.00
51 - 150 (C/kWh)
120.00
151 - 300 (C/kWh)
150.00
301 - 600 (C/kWh)
220.00
601+ (C/kWh)
350.00
Non-Residential
0 - 600 (C/kWh)
600+
Service Charge (C/mth)
Note: C/mth=Cedi per month, C/kWh=Cedis per kilowatt hour.
Source: PURC (2000)
220.00
320.00
5,000.00
In the East Airport Estate, provision is made in the houses for electrical ceiling fans and aircondition
units. Hot water systems including water heaters are also provided. As no
interviews were held with ordinary household members of the Estate, it is not possible to give
the average electricity usage per household per month.
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A technical employee at Regimanuel Gray’s head office alleged that the use of aluminium
sliding doors and windows helps to increase utilization of natural lighting and hence reduce
electricity consumption. This may be partially true, but the orientation of houses (i.e. the
direction they face), materials and colour of the exterior façade including the roof, can all
combine to influence energy usage in the houses. If the combination of the above factors
results in the houses getting warm quickly and loosing heat slowly, usage of electricity in airconditioners
and fans will increase. This from personal experience, is a regular occurrence
especially in the afternoons, as Accra’s average daily temperature is 30 0 C (86F).
Power generation in Ghana is provided mainly by the Volta River Authority (VRA), a
parastatal company that runs the existing hydroelectric and thermal plants comprising
(TradePartners UK, 2002):-
1. The Akosombo Hydroelectric Plant (912 MW nominal)
2. Kpong Hydroelectric Plant (160 MW)
3. Takoradi Thermal Plant – known as Takoradi 1 (330 MW)
4. Tema Diesel Station Plant (30 MW).
The government is in the process of finalizing arrangements for the construction of a new
hydroelectric dam at Bui on the Black Volta River with an output of 300MW. The production
of hydroelectricity brings about some negative impacts, such as resettling of people in the
dam catchment areas. In fact, the Volta Lake, created as a result of the Akosombo
hydroelectric plant, is the largest man-made lake in the world 7 . In recent years, especially in
the late 1990s, Ghana experienced severe electricity shortages as the water in the Volta Lake
was too low for electricity generation, and consumers had to cope with just a few hours of
electricity everyday. The threat of inadequate rainfall for electricity generation is still a fear
that Ghana has to deal with. The government’s diversification of electricity generation
through the thermal and diesel plants are to safeguard against such a situation. However,
these sources of electricity also have impacts on the environment. For instance, green house
gases as a result of diesel burning contribute to global warming.
7 See http://www.biriwabeach.com.gh/eng/thevolta.htm
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During the period of the fieldwork, the Public Utilities Regulatory Committee (PURC)
announced increases in tariffs for both electricity and water as follows. The rates are
increases over August 2002 rates:-
With effect from 1 st August, 2002: Electricity increase in tariff: 60%
Water: 40%
With effect from March 2003: Electricity: 72%
Water: 50%
These increases are to enable the utility companies get realistic rates for their products, and
hence, improve the facilities and efficiency of their operations.
The Energy Foundation of Ghana 8 has been educating people via the electronic and print
media on ways of conserving energy. Energy saving lamps are being advocated and
encouraged. Furthermore, the Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG) has started installing
pre-paid meters in some housing estates in Ghana, including Regimanuel Gray’s estate at
Tema 9 . ECG is in the process of introducing pre-paid meters for houses in Ghana. Whether
this will be an option that residents of the East Airport will opt for, will be evident in a few
years time. It is difficult to predict whether they will opt for the pre-paid meters or continue
with the conventional ones, since they have the ability to pay for electricity usage. The
prepaid meters are meant to let consumers have control over the use of power in their homes
and to become conscious of the use of the electric gadgets.
It is envisaged that these measures will sensitize RGEA residents (though they are in the high
income class) to reduce the consumption/usage of both water and electricity.
5.2.2 Outflows
5.2.2.1 Household Solid Waste (Garbage):
There is no waste separation (segregation as the EPA refers to it) either in the estate or
generally in Ghana yet, although it is being advocated by the EPA. It is the researcher’s
expectation that it is most likely that this estate will be one of the first “experimental” sites for
waste separation in Ghana, because of its educated residents and the steps it has take so far to
make it a well-managed estate. As noted in Boison and Weingaertner (2002), work is in
8 http://www.ase.org/ghanaef/index.html
9 http://www.africaonline.com/site/Articles/1,3,41981.jsp
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progress for a new landfill site at Kwabenya in Accra. When completed, this new facility will
handle most of Accra’s waste and it has facilities for recycling of waste.
Refuse production of 5 litres/cd for developing countries was used for calculations on how
much garbage the estate will produce. The waste is collected by a private waste management
company (Gee Waste Ltd), which deposits the waste at Accra Metropolitan Assembly
designated waste dumps. Picking of garbage is done once a week, usually on Mondays.
Residents pay to the Estate Management company who in turn, pay all monies collected to
Gee Waste without making any profit. Collection of the waste is by individual containers,
and residents are not allowed to dump waste on the ground or tie them in polythene bags.
Strict instructions have been given to the waste company not to collect poorly deposited
wastes. So far, this arrangement seems to be functioning quite well.
Wastes such as those from the Estate when dumped at landfill sites, are picked through by
informal waste workers, who salvage any useful material for their own use or for resale. The
problem with such dumps are the health hazards from decaying wastes. Wastes used to be
dumped at the Mallam landfill site, which is now no longer in use due to health hazards
experienced: flies, leachate and stench.
5.2.2.2 Liquid Waste:
Sullage generation of 400,000 gallons/day (151416.5 litres/day) during full occupancy was
estimated at the start of the project for the 514 houses. “Sullage” or grey matter is the liquid
water discharged from domestic premises and consists of effluents from kitchens, bathrooms
and laundries (Benneh et al, 1993). Sullage is normally discharged into street drains or soakaways.
For the East Airport Estate, the sullage eventually end up in the nearby Kpeshie
Lagoon, through the underground sewer network. The site is transversed by 2 streams which
are tributaries of the Kpeshie Lagoon.
During the EIA process, measurements were carried out before start of project at Kpeshie
stream to obtain baseline information which was used to assess the effect of sullage on the
water body. This is commendable on the part of the company because the information can
later be used to check the level of possible contamination due to sullage.
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Table 8: Water Quality of Kpeshie Stream at start of East Airport Estate Project
Location Discharge
(m 3 DOD (5) Suspended pH Temp
/s) mg/l Solid (mg/l)
( o DO PO
C) (mg/l) (mg/l)
1 - 30 74 7.8 29.8 5 0.08
2 - 76 82 8 29.4 4 0.06
Source: EIA document: Regimanuel Gray (1996)
5.2.2.3 Sewage:
There is no central sewage system for the estate. The reason given by company officials is
that central systems are too expensive, but according to another estate developer, up to 2% in
construction cost savings can be made with a centralised system. One of the other estates
visited, Manet Courts, which was started later than the East Airport estate, has a central
system with a stabilisation pond, but technical specifications for it could not be obtained.
The system being used for sewage at the East Airport Estate is that of individual septic tanks.
The septic tanks are constructed for each house and have a capacity of 5m 3 capacity (see Fig.
6 for typical design). Liquid and solid wastes from the toilet and kitchen pass through PVC
pipes into the first chamber of the manhole. The solids sink to the bottom and form a thick
sludge while the liquid part of the waste floats on top of the sludge. When the first chamber is
filled, the waste then overflows into the second chamber. Some of the septic tanks have an
overflow pipe into what is called a “soakaway” where the liquid part of the waste either
percolates into the surrounding soil or gets channelled through PVC pipes into the
underground stormwater drains which get discharged into the neighbouring lagoon. The
sludge (semi-solid) waste which forms at the bottom part of the septic tanks, are emptied
periodically when both chambers get filled with the sludge.
The problem with these septic tanks is that though they are usually built of good quality
sandcrete blocks with cement mortar bonding and plaster, they are still not 100%
impermeable and it is possible for the liquid part of the waste to percolate into the
surrounding soil. From field measurements carried out during the EIA process, the water
table in the estate site is quite far down: no ground water was encountered in trial pits of
between 1.4m and 2.3m. The project area is underlain by gneiss schists which occurs at
shallow depths. However, it might become contaminated from these septic tanks. According
to the estate officials, the septic tanks are constructed so as to last up to 15-20 years, without
emptying, depending on usage. During the interview, it came out that already about 1% of
the homeowners have carried out emptying of the septic tanks, with the concerned
61

WC
homeowners organizing for the emptying themselves. Private companies in Accra provide the
emptying service. The contents of the septic tanks are emptied into special trucks, which
transport them to sewage treatment plants.
Furthermore, out of 24 Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) in Accra, the EPA has evaluated 14
to be malfunctioning, as of 2001. Indeed the EPA writes that these conditions create possible
outbreak of epidemics and one of the STPs, even uses its untreated effluent wastewater for
irrigation. This is a health hazard as it can lead to contaminated vegetables and other crops
which could end up on any person’s dinner table, including even the high class homes. As one
estate developer put it, “where the trucks dump the contents of such septic tanks is highly
suspicious”, with so many of the STPs being malfunctional.
Gauze
Venting Pipe
Kitchen
Manhole
Venting Pipe
Septic Tank
Gauze
Fig. 17: Schematic diagram of sewerage system for a housing unit
To Soakaway
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From the way sewage and sullage are managed, can we therefore say that the residents and the
estate developer of the estate are guilty of the “NIMBY” (Not In My BackYard) syndrome, by
way of exporting of environmental problems, because of their ability to pay for such
exportation? It is difficult to judge without more detailed information. However, it would
certainly have been desirable from the environmental point of view that such a high class
neigbourhood treats its own waste instead of sending or “exporting” it elsewhere for
treatment. This would have relieved the pressure on existing facilities allowing the
government to concentrate on using it for lower income groups.
It is interesting to note that during the interview with Regimanuel Gray Head Office staff, it
was mentioned that one of the residents had come up with a proposal for a centralised system
to produce biogas from the waste, but there was not enough support from other homeowners
and the idea was shelved, at least for the time being. Though the proposed leap to an “ecovillage”
type of estate might be too much for many of the homeowners, the good thing is that
at least some of the residents are also getting the notion that the individual septic tank
approach is not sustainable and have come up with solutions.
5.2.2.4 Air:
EPA recommended maximum permissible Suspended Particulate matter for residential areas
in Ghana is 260 P g/m 3 . "Particulate matter" air pollution refers to microscopic airborne
particles that can travel into the lungs and cause a variety of respiratory problems. These
particulates are 10 microns or less in size (about half the width of a human hair) and are found
both outdoors and in homes and work places. Any form of combustion will create small
particulates, although the most harmful particulates are generated by combustion of organic
materials (British Columbia Ministry of Health, 2000).
Residents are not allowed to burn rubbish or make open fires in their compounds, and
consequently, it is most likely that the EPA limit will not be exceeded except in some
unforeseen circumstances, such as a fire outbreak. Potential particulate pollution appears to be
negligible (see section below).
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5.2.3 Transport
The East Airport Estate is a car-dependent estate. The reason for this judgement as shown in
the map of Accra (in Chapter Two) is that the estate is located in a part of Accra that in order
to get to the Central Business District, car transportation is necessary. It is about 6 km from
the Tetteh Quarshie Circle (see Accra Map), which is the nearest main intersection to the
estate. Personal interviews with household members was not done, and so it not possible to
give an indication of the average car ownership per household. However, what is known is
that only a small car park is provided at the entrance of the estate, mostly for visitors and most
of the houses have either a garage or car porch. From personal observation and informal
discussions held, most homeowners have at least one car and being a high-class
neighbourhood, the cars are generally of the newer, better maintained variety. Hence, gas
emissions from cars used in the estate are less polluting than older cars in other parts of the
city. However, the rebound effect, that is better engines might promote higher car usage,
contribute to air pollution from car users.
The construction of the Club House will no doubt reduce the number of car trips for several
households since some services (sports and entertainment facilities) that were previously
available only outside the estate will be obtained within it.
5.2.4 Landscaping
Landscaping of open/common areas notably the streets has been carried out. Trees have also
been planted at the edges of streets to form boulevards. This is a good mitigation measure
since at the start of the project, the land was cleared of vegetation for construction activities to
take place. By planting new trees, the Estate company has tried to restore the natural
environment at the site. Furthermore, homeowners are not allowed to cut branches of these
“public” trees. If they have a complaint of a tree encroaching into their house, the complaint
is made to the Estate Management company which sees to addressing of the grievance.
However, homeowners are free to landscape their own residences according to their style and
taste, but this has to be done within four months of getting ownership of the houses. The
landscaping and tree-planting activities require regular watering and the use of fertilizers
especially at the initial stages. Maintenance of the general landscaped areas is done by a
professional company. Homeowners are advised by the RGEMC to fumigate their premises
once every quarter whereas that of the entire estate is done half-yearly.
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5.3 DECOMMISSIONING PHASE
The discussion of the environmental sustainability of the estate will not be complete without a
discussion of the decommissioning phase, especially when viewed in an LCA perspective.
Though the leasehold on the estate’s land is for 85 years, many of the houses will be in
operation for a longer period. This assertion is based on the fact that in Accra, there are
buildings especially forts which are more than 100 years old. With the better construction
materials and techniques currently in use, it can be argued that present houses will last longer,
if coupled with good maintenance and modifications. At the end of the 85 years, what is
likely to happen is that the homeowners will negotiate for a renewal of the leasehold for a
period of time to be agreed upon with the traditional land owners.
From the standard features of the estate houses (See Appendix 2), most of the components of
the houses will not be a great problem to dispose. Uses will be found for most of the
components, especially by poorer sections of Accra’s population. Even the concrete and
sandcrete blocks can be broken and used as paving for roadworks. The items that may pose a
difficulty in disposal are the chemicals in electrical transformers.
Regimanuel Gray put in a programme of decommissioning as follows:
1. “As built”, drainage layout for the estate prepared and given to the various
organisations who will be taking care of maintenance of various utility services:
- Ghana Water Company for water supply
- Electricity Company of Ghana for power supply
- Department of Urban Roads for road network
- Accra Metropolitan Assembly and the Department of Town and
Country Planning for land use
- Ghana National Fire Service.
By submitting the above documents to the relevant authorities, in cases of emergency or at the
end of the useful life of the estate houses, the utility companies can help in removing the
dangerous components. It is hoped that the authorities will keep the documents safe so as to
be useful when needed.
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For the short-term, the Regimanuel Gray also has the following plan for its site offices:-
- Temporary site offices and stores will be demolished and all debris carted away to
land fill.
- Area occupied by site offices will be rehabilitated by revegetation.
- Equipment and machinery still usable will be moved to a new project site or sent to a
parking yard. Non-usable ones will be sold as scrap.
5.4 INSTITUTIONAL SUSTAINABILITY OF RGEA HOMEOWNERS’
ASSOCIATION
In Chapter Two, it is stated that sustainable development must have ecological, economic and
social aspects in order to be effective. In this section, the institutional sustainability of the
East Airport Estate is analysed and discussed, mainly the institutional or organisatory aspect.
The concept of institutional sustainability is used here to describe the long-term existence and
survival of the work of the Homeowners’ Association, with regard to the environment.
Though the Homeowners Association, provides the institutionalised channel for the
(environmental) management of the estate, its long-term sustainability is precarious, because
it has not received the full support of the residents. This is evident in the comment made by
the Council of the Homeowners’ Association that:
“One observation that Council has made is that patronage or support by
Homeowners for the Association’s decisions, programmes and activities has been
less than optimum or desirable.” (RGEA Homeowners Association, 2001).
This is evident from:-
1. The relatively low level of attendance by Homeowners of Association Meetings
despite considerable publicity by Management. To cope with the situation, the
Council of the Association is recommending the passing of a proposed special
resolution to reduce the quorum for general meetings from 15% to 5%. This is
quite a drastic change and if the resolution is agreed on and passed, it is likely to
create problems in future, as the researcher sees it, because a small core group of
regular members at meetings will be able to impose their wishes on all the
residents.
2. The relatively high percentage of homeowners who do not pay the service fees (for
general maintenance) approved by the Association. Service fee payments received
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as at 31 st December, 2001, amounted to 226,567,000.00 Ghanaian cedis,
representing 64% of expected collection. (Arrears or non-payment amount to
124,849,000.00 cedis representing 36% of expected collection). A disturbing fact
is that out of this amount, 65% represents homeowners who had never made
payments. In effect, such homeowners are “free riders”.
3. Apart from the service fees, there is also a user fee, which is in respect of garbage
collection, that the Association pays directly to the waste management company.
User fee payments received as at 31 st December, 2001, amounted to 49,900,000.00
cedis representing 92% of expected collection; (thus arrears amount to
4,240,000.00 representing 8% of expected collection.)
This is in spite of the fact that some residents like Star Hammond (see his “Ode” in Appendix
5) appear to be greatly pleased with the estate as a whole.
It is likely that part of the reason for the low patronage of residents in the activities of the East
Airport estate is due to the fact that the real owners of the houses are either busy traveling
executives or Ghanaians resident abroad. Even when these absentee owners allow family
members to stay in their purchased houses, it is reasonable to argue that in several instances,
such “surrogate” residents will not have the same interest in the well-being of the houses as
the original owners. But at the same time, they should at least pay for services provided.
Perhaps a simple change of name from Homeowners’ Association to Residents Association
can be an encouragement for such residents to have a feeling for the need to participate more
in the activities of the Association.
Interestingly, as noted in section 4.4.4, despite these non-payments, the Association within its
first year of existence managed to have an excess of income over expenditure, meaning that it
had a surplus. It is reasonable to argue therefore that in coming years, when hopefully more
homeowners will be paying the charges/fees, the economic sustainability of the estate would
improve. The “profits” made by the Association are being put into an Accumulated Fund
Account, and this fund can be used to finance projects. By so doing, eventually, the
homeowners would through these contributions when applied to projects within the estate, be
contributing economically to the upkeep of the estate. By so doing, the responsibility of
maintenance is being shared between the estate management company and the residents.
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The Council is addressing the issue of non-payment of fees by the following:-
1. Enforcement of penalty for late payment: If a service fee is not paid by the end of
the billing period, i.e at the end of the quarter, a delinquency (or late fee) will be
charged to defray the costs of expenses of processing and attempting to collect the
arrears.
2. The Management will attach a list of all the defaulters to the quarterly Payment
Notices distributed and to publish such names in subsequent Annual Reports.
Although this may appear to be high-handed measures, it is clearly indicated in the estate
Regulations (which were agreed on and distributed to all homeowners) that no member of the
Association shall escape liability for any service fees or assessments payable for any reason.
It is not a question of the homeowners not being able to afford the fees, because if they could
afford to purchase the houses, they can certainly afford to pay the fees, which are used to
ensure a good residential environment.
It is hard to say after such a short time in existence whether the Council of the Association is
stable, but a promising sign is that it takes actions when the need arises. However, this will
depend very greatly on the co-operation that the Homeowners will give the Council. It may
even become necessary to make attendance either by homeowners or their proxies at meetings
somewhat compulsory. New regulations may be introduced to penalize households that do
not pay the service and user fees. To make it fair, the views and grievances of homeowners
should be sought as to the reasons for the low support given the Association. Could it be that
each homeowner is assuming that the others as well as the Estate Management company, are
able to manage the affairs of the estate and hence, there is no need to participate?
In addition, the experience of the Managing Director of another estate, indicates that the
following are problems commonly encountered in estate housing areas:-
- Diverting sewers to roads: Rice and oil form a high part of the diet of
Ghanaians and when residues of such food items are washed down the
kitchen drains, it brings about blockage of the drains. When this happens
too regularly, residents are tempted to divert kitchen sewers into roadside
gutters instead of taking other remedial measures.
- Garbage collection: Some residents tend to avoid paying garbage collection
fees, although this can be as low as the Ghanaian cedi equivalent of 1 US
dollar per month in less affluent estates.
68

- Zoning problems: After purchase of estate houses, several owners carry out
renovations and additions. This is already happening at the East Airport
Estate, where some homeowners have applied for permission to carry out
extensions or modifications to their houses.
- Toilet facilities for domestic servants:- There is the need to provide toilet
facilities for domestic workers who otherwise are tempted to make use of
nearby bushes. In this regard, most executive houses in the East Airport
Estate also have “boys’ quarters” where domestic servants are housed.
These boys quarters have bedrooms, bathing and toilet facilities.
These are issues that the Homeowners Association has to grapple with in future. As has been
seen, there is already problem with the payment of service and user fees. The participation of
a majority of a group in the decisions and plans of that group is key to the survival of that
group. Finding ways and means of involving majority of the homeowners/residents in the
activities of the Homeowners Association is an important step for the social sustainability of
the East Airport Estate.
69

CHAPTER SIX
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CONCLUSIONS
From the foregoing chapters, it is possible to make conclusions about the environmental and
institutional sustainability of the East Airport Estate.
6.1.1 Division of Responsibilities
The discussions so far show that the following stakeholders are involved in the affairs of the
estate: estate developer, estate management company, homeowners’ association and the utility
companies. The estate developer, Regimanuel Gray Ltd., is responsible for the preconstruction
and construction phase of the estate, whereas the estate management company
takes over responsibility thereafter when the houses are sold and residents move in.
Regimanuel Gray is thus responsible for the inflows and outflows during the construction
phase. For the estate management company, they are responsible for the shared infrastructure
such as the streets, drains, street-lights and open landscaped spaces. However, the
homeowners are responsible for the inflows and outflows as far as water and electricity are
concerned, since they purchase the services directly from the utility companies. The utility
companies have the responsibility of getting their services to the consumers (homeowners)
and are hence responsible for the “upstream” flows associated with the production of the
utilities.
6.1.2 Environmental Sustainability
It has been shown that there were some environmental considerations for the considerations
for the East Airport Estate. Further specific data for the entire estate and individual
households are needed before a specific judgement can be made on how environmentally
sustainable the estate is. However, the information obtained for this thesis has shown that
there is a concern for the downstream flows associated with sewage and sullage, which need
to be improved to increase their sustainability. The long wait by residents for water meters to
be supplied by the water provider is another area of concern which has been argued could be
resulting in high water usage. The use of air-conditioners and water heaters is also likely
resulting in high electricity usage. The possible installation of pre-paid electricity meters
would help to reduce electricity usage as households become more aware of the cost
implications. The flow of household solid waste (garbage) is well managed, although the
70

exact flow amount is not known by the researcher. Continued compliance with existing and
future EPA standards and regulations will also contribute to the estates environmental
sustainability.
The residents can afford to pay for improvements to increase the environmental sustainability,
since they are not poor. The extra money generated by the Homeowners’ Association can be
used to partially pay for such improvements. This is not so for the urban poor in other parts
of Accra, who cannot afford such improvements.
6.1.3 Institutional Sustainability
From the preceding chapters, it has been shown that there is a formal and institutionalised cooperation
between resident households in the selected estate. However, there has been a
problem with the level of support given to it by resident households. Due to the reaction of
the Council of the Homeowners’ Association and the fact that the Association was able to
have an excess of income over expenditure, it is possible to conclude that it has a very good
chance of continued existence and sustainability. This is especially true if ways and means
are found to get residents to participate more in the activities of the Association.
6.1.4 Contributions of Study
This thesis has illustrated how the various aspects of the prism of sustainability (see Fig. 1,
Section 2.1.1) interact in a housing estate. While the need to limit throughput will be more
evident in the coming years for the estate as occupancy rate increases, the need to strengthen
participation by homeowners/occupiers while at the same time using it to improve social
cohesion in the estate are already evident.
Though a housing estate operates as an environmental system, this study has shown that its
effects (outflows) have impacts on the wider system at the city level. The analysis of inflows
and outflows has given an indication of the environmental impact of a high class
neighbourhood in a developing country.
The estate analysis has shown how economic means (affluence) can be used for improved
environmental standards, thus confirming the observation by McGranahan, Songsore and
Kjellèn (1996) (section 2.6.1) that the rich devote part of their wealth to measures which
71

protect themselves from environmental hazards. Services (such as roads, drainage, etc.) that
are normally provided by municipal authorities have been privately provided for the estate,
which are eventually paid for by the residents.
This case study has shown how estate developers and house owners/occupiers can be
involved in the management and affairs of a housing area. It is worth noting that based on
this study, it can be seen that it is possible to use a case study methodology and a life-cycle
approach for an analysis of the environmental impacts of a housing estate in a small
neighbourhood.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The compliance with the EIA requirements and exemplary role of institutionalising the
Homeowners’ Association, have created a very good image of the RGEA estate which can be
capitalized upon by the EPA to introduce new programmes such as waste separation
techniques. In particular and for the long-term, solutions for a central sewage treatment plant
should be explored, with the help of the EPA. The possible options for treating faecal sludge
are given below:-
Fig. 18: Theoretical options for treating faecal sludge
Source: Strauss et al (1997)
72

The installation of pre-paid electricity meters by the Ghana Electricity Company will help to
reduce electricity consumption.
Ways of getting the co-operation of members of the association should also be sought by
discussions between households, the Estate Management company and Council of the
Homeowners’ Association.
Since the estate is a relatively new one in terms of occupancy, it is recommended that further
studies at regular time intervals (for example every 5 years) be conducted to ascertain flow
trends in the estate.
73

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INFLOWS
APPENDIX 1: CHECKLIST FOR FIELDWORK
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS: WOOD
Scarcity of wood (basis for its selection for analysis).
Usage for construction:
Source: Values to be obtained from real estate company’s building team & drawings and
specifications
Harmful built-in materials and substances (may be more harmful during repair and demolition
stages).
Disposal of construction materials during construction
Source: Values to be obtained from Building team & drawings and specifications
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Usage/Bills
Source: Values to be obtained from electricity provider (Electricity Company of Ghana Ltd.)
Design of houses to reduce Air-condition dependency for cooling:
Source: Design team of real estate company
WATER
Usage/Bills
Source: Values to be obtained from water provider (Ghana Water Company Ltd.)
Source of water supply (how sustainable?):
Source of info: Water provider (Ghana Water Co. Ltd)
FOOD (VEGETABLES)
Presence of vegetable gardens:
Source: Visual inspection and interviews with members of residents association
Type of additives (fertilizers) used:
Source: Interviews with members of residents association
Other daily goods (detergents, solvents, etc.)
OUTFLOWS
CONSTRUCTION WASTE:
Type of waste: any harmful substances (paints)
Type of Disposal
Source of info: construction team of real estate co.
SOLID WASTE (GARBAGE):
Type of waste generated: any harmful substances (batteries, solvents/detergents)
Type of Disposal:
Amount generated (per day, month, year):
78

Source: Values to be obtained from garbage collectors
LIQUID WASTE (SEWAGE)
Disposal/Treatment:
Type:
Amounts Generated:
Eutrophication caused by inadequately treated waste?
Source: Info and values to be obtained from service provider
AIR POLLUTION (GAS EMISSIONS: VEHICLES)
Design to reduce car-dependency (easy access to employment, shops & services):
Lawn-mowers?
Local burning of waste?
CFCs in fridges, air-conditioners (if not, why it’s hard to investigate)
Source: Visual inspection, site lay-out drawings.
OTHERS
SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY:
Design to increase social contact, integration:
Adaptability of Designs (Expandability):
Source: Design Team of real estate company + residents
Residents Association:
Task? Field of Responsibility?
Source: Members of residents association & real estate company
LEVEL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS/CONSCIOUSNESS:
In Real Estate Company (Management, Design & Building Team, Maintenance Staff)
Among Residents:
Source: Interviews with staff and residents
79

APPENDIX 2: STANDARD FEATURES OF HOUSES AT EAST
AIRPORT ESTATE
80

APPENDIX 3: ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS IN EAST
AIRPORT ESTATE
81

APPENDIX 4: INFORMATION ON NEW CLUB HOUSE
83

APPENDIX 5: AN ODE TO RGEA BY STAR HAMMOND
84

In recent years, the government of Ghana has shifted from a direct provider of
houses to a facilitator. As a result, several estate companies have been established.
This thesis is concerned with the environmental and institutional sustainability
aspects of the Regimanuel Gray East Airport Residential Estate. This estate is
regarded by many as the most modern estate in Accra, in terms of aesthetics,
management and prestige. It is a gated community which is planned for 600
luxurious residences, but which currently has 195 houses with an occupancy rate
of 70%.
Using a qualitative Life Cycle Approach and based on information from interviews
and official documents, the inflows of resources and outflows of wastes for the
East Airport Estate were assessed. With regards to environmental sustainability,
main environmental aspects of the construction phase as well as the management
and usage phases were discussed. The role of institutions such as the Homeowners’
Association and the Estate Management Company - which are responsible for
maintenance and management of the East Airport Estate - is also analysed and
discussed. The thesis also discusses the general housing situation in Ghana
including the role of the Ghana Real Estate Developers’ Association (GREDA).
The thesis ends with recommendations that could improve the environmental and
institutional sustainability aspects of the East Airport Residential Estate.
For more information about other publications from the
Infrastructure Department:
www.infra.kth.se/forsk/index.htm