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4 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARYdevelopment areas such as pre-reading literacy and early numeracy. Research has shown theseinteractions and experiences are one of the most significant factors explaining the effects of careand early education on children’s learning and development. England understands the importanceof high-quality ECEC and of pedagogy, and is making efforts to enhance quality in early yearsprovision. This has included making improvements to the curriculum of the Early YearsFoundation Stage curriculum (EYFS) and increasing the level of highly qualified staff in EarlyYears settings.What are the different pedagogical theories and practices?Different theories underpin or contribute to countries’ pedagogical principles. Policies andguidance are usually based on a combination of ideas of well-known theorists, even if the linksare not explicitly made. In an international survey on pedagogy 1 , the theories of Piaget andVygotsky, for example, are frequently mentioned as having influenced curriculum and pedagogyin England, Germany, France and New Zealand. In England, for instance, the pedagogicalpractice of scaffolding 2 is partly derived from the work of these theorists (although other theorieshave also influenced pedagogy in England). The Montessori approach has influenced pedagogy inGermany and Japan, and the following theories or theorists have been of influence elsewhere:Developmentally Appropriate Practice or DAP (Japan), Reggio Emilia (Japan), Bronfenbrenner(New Zealand), Rogoff (New Zealand), Bruner (France), Freire (Germany), Robinson (Germany)and Zimmer (Germany), as well as Humboldt (Germany) and Fröbel (Germany). The extent towhich these theoretically specified approaches are knowingly practised and abided by in differentECEC settings is unclear from our research with governments. Indeed, settings in a given countrycan employ a combination of pedagogical practices if they do not subscribe to an exclusiveapproach.Despite this diversity in theories and practice, some pedagogical approaches can be thought ofas typical in certain OECD countries. For example, a child-centred approach is implemented inEngland, Denmark, as well as in Germany, and the constructivist/interactive approach is practisedin England, France and Germany. There are also less common approaches, such as the “theory ofthree activities” used in Japan, which specifies three layers of activities that focus on acombination of children’s free play, guided play and teacher-instructed play.What policies or guidance influence pedagogy in different countries?Pedagogy is influenced by a number of factors, such as a country’s ECEC system ororganisation, and links to primary school education. In addition, the country’s regulatoryminimum standards and the curriculum framework (such as the Early Years Foundation Stage inEngland) influence pedagogical practices. Furthermore, factors such as staff knowledge, initialeducation qualifications and content, training and their competences and skills influence staffpedagogy, as does the monitoring of quality, and process quality in particular.Given different cultural and historical contexts, guidance on pedagogical approaches andpractices naturally differs between countries. However, some similarities can be found: policiesand/or curricular guidance often advocate (structured) play-based learning and a mixed approachof child-centred and staff-initiating practices (Denmark and Germany being the exceptions, with astrong emphasis on child-initiated practices). New Zealand is the only country to emphasisecultural and linguistic heritage in pedagogical approaches.England’s Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) is the curricular document for teachingduring children’s early education and care. This curriculum does not include any explicit guidancefor staff on pedagogical practice and does not prescribe a pedagogical approach, but sets out someparameters that frame pedagogy. For instance, the EYFS recognises the importance of play and abalance of adult-led and child-initiated activities. It promotes balance between the development ofacademic and literacy skills, socio-emotional development, and creative and physicalEARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE PEDAGOGY REVIEW: ENGLAND © OECD 2015