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80 – CHAPTER 8: POLICIES INFLUENCING PEDAGOGICAL APPROACH AND PRACTICEJapanThe Course of Study for Kindergarten and the Course of Study for Elementary Schools areboth based on the Basic Act on Education, and designed systematically and with continuity. It hasbeen argued that the Course of Study for Kindergarten should include and improve awareness ofthe transition to elementary school (Anders, 2015). It stipulates that consideration be given to thefact that kindergarten education helps to develop a foundation for life and learning in and afterelementary school. Furthermore, it states that consideration should be given to developingpositive co-operation with elementary schools. This would include exchanges between day-carecentre children and elementary school children and between teachers. It would also entail sharinginformation and promoting mutual understanding in preparation for elementary school, as well asdeveloping effective childcare techniques, all based on the continuity of daily lives anddevelopment of children. This suggests that Japan is creating more alignment between ECEC andformal settings.New ZealandNew Zealand's ECEC and formal primary education schools are independent settings but arealigned in terms of key competences and development strands as set out in the curricula. The keycompetences described in Te Whāriki refer to how these link to competences expected in primaryschool. However, the ECEC curriculum is a stand-alone document that is not integrated withprimary education, although the Te Whāriki curriculum explicitly strives to “provide a smoothtransition to school” (New Zealand Ministry of Education 1996, pp. 26).Curriculum, frameworks and learning standardsThe curriculum, curriculum framework or learning standards a country or jurisdiction has inplace sets out what children are expected to learn in ECEC and which developmental areas staffare expected to contribute to. These documents can set out the objectives and views of ECEC, thelearning subjects/areas for ECEC (divided into age or development groups, or not), and alsoinclude recommended or examples of pedagogical approaches or practices to provide guidance forstaff. Guidance can also be provided in separate documents. Most OECD jurisdictions have atleast one curriculum in place for ECEC settings (see Figure 8.1). In just less than half of thesecountries, all ECEC settings (public or private) are legally obliged to use the principal curriculumor curricula (OECD, 2014a; 2014b). For most of the remaining countries, the principal curriculumapplies in all public ECEC settings, as well as private settings receiving public funding. OnlyChile, Finland, Mexico, and the Slovak Republic declare they will not legally impose thecurriculum in any setting.A number of aspects regarding curricula influences pedagogy. First, how descriptive acurriculum is can influence pedagogy. The principal curriculum in almost all OECD membercountries can be adapted to cater to the needs of the settings or children. Nordic curricula providelittle detail, and implementation mostly relies on staff knowledge and skills, leaving considerableleeway for interpretation and choice of pedagogy. In other countries, such as Luxembourg,curricula are very prescriptive, leaving little flexibility to staff on how to implement thecurriculum. In England, the EYFS was found to be too prescriptive and has been adapted to leavemore room for interpretation and implementation for staff. As far as flexibility for staff isconcerned, England’s curriculum falls at the midpoint. While learning areas are prescribed,practitioners now have much more room for discretion. However, while England’s curriculum ismore detailed than that of Denmark and other Nordic curricula, and is comparable to theframework in New Zealand, it is far less prescriptive than the French curriculum framework.Second, whether curricula are integrated and/or aligned for different age groups influencespedagogy. Where separate curricula exist for different age groups in ECEC (Japan), differentEARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE PEDAGOGY REVIEW: ENGLAND © OECD 2015