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428 Rovai, Ponton, Wighting, and Bakerpersonal events. Additional research is needed to confirm the role of e-learningpedagogy, computer-mediated communication, and course design in nurturingintrinsic motivation. Moreover, learning outcomes that includereduced attrition, deeper information processing, and increased levels of studentsuccess, task value, and better well-being tend to covary with intrinsicmotivation (Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997). Consequently research is alsoneeded to determine if better educational outcomes accompany the strongerintrinsic motivation noted in online courses. However, a considerable body ofresearch in the form of comparison studies suggests no significant differencebetween a variety of distance education and traditional course educationaloutcomes (Russell, 1999). Nonetheless, several studies found differences incompletion or student satisfaction, although various measures of achievementwere often the same, or nearly the same, between the two types of coursescompared. Perhaps the reason for the lack of research evidence regardingsuperior educational outcomes in online learning rests with other learningrelated variables, such as sense of community, which may be weaker in e-learning environments thereby offsetting the value of increased studentintrinsic motivation. Clearly additional research is required.It is possible is that the 12 e-learning courses sampled in the present studyare examples of high quality courses. Bernard et al. (2004) reported largevariability in the quality of distance education programs. In particular, theynoted that “a substantial number of [distance education programs] providebetter achievement results, are viewed more positively, and have higherretention rates than their classroom counterparts. On the other hand, a substantialnumber of [distance education programs] are far worse than classroominstruction in regard to all three measures” (p. 406). Perhaps if othercourses were sampled the outcomes would be different. Consequentlyresearch to confirm and extend the findings of the present study is needed.Graduate students reported stronger intrinsic motivation than undergraduatestudents. Consequently, they were more likely to pursue educationalprograms for the pleasure and the satisfaction that one experiences whilelearning, exploring, or trying to understand something new (Vallerand &Fortier, 1998). Graduate students, having experienced undergraduate education,may be more likely to pursue advanced degrees for the inherent satisfactionor challenge rather than for the perceived need for an advanceddegree. Undergraduate students, on the other hand, are more likely to bemotivated by external factors, such as the perceived need for a college educationbased on pressures from family and the job market.This study suggests several implications for practice, provided futureresearch supports the present findings. Due to higher levels of intrinsic motivationpresent in e-learners versus traditional learners, course designers shouldvary the construction of these two types of courses to better match the motivationalneeds of the students. E-learning courses should incorporate methods
Student Motivation in Traditional Classroom and E-Learning Courses 429better suited to the self-regulated learner such as allowing the student a greaterrole in determining learning objectives, defining learning activities and timelines,and reflecting on how well self-selected objectives have been met. Fortraditional learners with less intrinsic motivation, course designs may also bemore traditional with the educator providing greater external control. Whilecertainly these suggestions for practice exist on a continuum (i.e., not all e-learners have greater intrinsic motivation than traditional learners), the presentresults suggest that instructional methods more suited for self-directed learnersrepresent a better approach in facilitating successful e-learning.ReferencesAshby, C. M. (2002). Distance education: Growth in distance education programs and implicationsfor federal education policy (GAO Report GAO-02-1125T). Washington, DC: United StatesGeneral Accounting Office.Atkinson, J. W. (1982). Old and new conceptions of how expected consequences influenceactions. In N. T. Feather (Ed.), Expectations and actions: Expectancy-value models in psychology(pp. 17-52). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. PsychologicalReview, 84(2), 191-215.Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.Benware, C., & Deci, E. L. (1984). Quality of learning with an active versus passive motivationalset. American Educational Research Journal, 21(4), 755–765.Bernard, R., M., Abrami, P. C., Lou, Y., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Wozney, L., et al., (2004). Howdoes distance education compare with classroom instruction? A meta-analysis of the empiricalliterature. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 379-439.Bures, E. M., Abrami, P. C., & Amundsen, C. (2000). Student motivation to learn via computerconferencing. Research in Higher Education, 41(5), 593-621.Carnevale, D. (2005, June 28). Online courses continue to grow drastically, enrolling nearly 1million, report says. Academe Today: The Chronicle of Higher Education’s Daily Report for Subscribers.Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://chronicle.com/daily/2005/06/2005062802t.htmCoussement, S. (1995). Educational telecommunication: Does it work? An attitude study. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED391465)Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review.Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 171-200.Darkenwald, G. G., & Valentine, T. (1985). Factor structure of deterrents to public participation inadult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 35(4), 177-193.Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum Press.Deci, E. L., Nezlek, J., & Sheinman, L. (1981). Characteristics of the rewarder and intrinsicmotivation of the rewardee. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 1–10.Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior.New York: Plenum Press.Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. In E. T.Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Motivational science: Social and personality perspectives. Keyreading in social psychology (pp. 128-145). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis.
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